Open Door Policy

Kajian Hubungan Internasional dewasa ini masih berkutat pada kasus pengungsi dan Imigrasi. Sejak tahun 2015, Jerman merupakan aktor utama yang memiliki peran penting dalam merespon isu imigrasi di kawasan Uni Eropa yang juga memiliki sejarah yang cukup panjang terkait dengan rezim perlindungan pengungsi. Respon pemerintah jerman ini tentu tidak terlepas dari tradisi maupun norma-norma yang berkembang sebagai sistem politik dan hukum di negara Jerman yang kemudian menjadi jati diri pembentukan kebijakan di kancah internasional. Jerman menggunakan  kebijakan Open Door Policy untuk merespon proses imigrasi yang masuk didalamnya. Menjadi negara yang sangat terbuka terkait dengan isu imigrasi tentu terdapat kepentingan domestik yang diusung yakni sebagai faktor kepentingan ekonomi dalam mengisi ketenagakerjaan di dalamnya. Dalam kaitannya dengan peringkat analisis politik domestik, penulis berupaya menganalisis kebijakan luar negeri Jerman dalam merespon isu imigrasi. Berfokus untuk mengkaji setting agenda pengaruh kondisi politik domestik Jerman. Variabel politik domestik merupakan variabel penting dalam pembentukan kebijakan suatu negara yakni bentuk dinamika institusi politik negara dan faktor perekonomian yang menjadi fokus kajian penulis
International Relations Studies today are still concerned with refugee and immigration cases. Since 2015, Germany has been a major actor who has played an important role in responding to the issue of immigration in the European Union, which also has a long history of relation to the refugee protection regime. The response of the German government is of course inseparable from the traditions and norms that have developed as a political and legal system in Germany which has later become the identity of policy formation in the international arena. Germany uses the Open Door Policy to respond to the immigration process that enters it. As a country that is concerned about the issue of immigration make domestic interests are carried, namely as a factor of economic interest in filling employment in it. In relation to the ranking of domestic political analysis, the author attempts to analyze Germany's foreign policy in responding to the issue of immigration. Focuses on examining the setting of the agenda for the influence of German domestic political conditions. Domestic political variables are important variables in the formation of a state policy, namely the dynamics of state political institutions and economic factors which are the focus of the author's discussion.
Keywords: Imigrasi, Jerman, Level of Analysis, Politik Domestik, Open Door Policy.

Bu çalışma, ABD’nin büyük stratejisinin berrak bir kavrayışı için indirgemeci ve aktör merkezli yaklaşımların ötesine geçip onun küresel kapitalizmin doğası ve işleyişi bağlamında ele alınması gerektiği varsayımdan hareket etmektedir. Bu amaçla devletlerin, toplumsal güçlerin ve piyasaların karşılıklı kuruluşuna odaklanan eleştirel ekonomi politik çerçevesinden ABD dış politikasının toplumsal kaynakları irdelenecektir. Büyük strateji çevrelerinin yapanlığı/failliği (agency) yapısal bağlamlarına yerleştirilerek çözümlenecektir. Söz konusu yapısal şartların ise aktörlerin kendi toplumsal konumlarının yanı sıra küresel bağlam ve ABD’nin içindeki hegemonik konumundan oluştuğu varsayımından hareketle ABD büyük stratejisinin seyrinin, belirli tarihsel ve yapısal bağlamlarda eyleyen aktörlerin ve faktörlerin bir bileşkesi biçiminde anlaşılması gerektiği savunulacaktır.

Recent national budget shortfalls in the United States have caused many
states to evaluate various ways to cut their budgets—including cutting
education expenditures—while community college enrollments have continued
to explode. The combination of these 2 factors threatens the traditional
open door policy of public community colleges

Since the implementation of the Open Door policy and economic reform in 1978, FDI has grown expeditiously and vertiginously in China. In 2002, China transcended the United State to become the world’s largest FDI destination. Many Chinese towns and cities, particularly those located along the coast like Shenzhen, have grown into hot spots for FDI (Wang and Meng, 181). China continues to maintain its high spot on the list of FDI recipients (China Daily, 2012). Such a rapid economic transformation miracle is owing to the government’s special Open Door policies. This paper concludes that as a result of gradually implemented liberal economic reforms and opening up policies, China was able to gain the ability to attract FDI, which has functioned as the major impetus of regional, entrepreneurial, technological development, and, most significantly, made great contributions to economic growth in China.

Özet ABD'nin Almanya sorununa ilişkin politikası, Alman sanayisinin yok edilmesini öngören Morgenthau Planı'ndan, onu Avrupa'nın yeniden inşasının çekirdeği olarak öngören Schuman Planı yönünde radikal bir değişim göstermiştir. Almanya'nın sanayisizleştirilmesi düşüncenin savunucusu Başkan Roosevelt'in ani ölümü esas alındığında ilk bakışta, Amerikan Hükümetinde meydana gelen lider değişikliğin politika değişikliğini belirlediği düşünülebilecektir. Öte yandan görece kısa sürede ortaya çıkan bu radikal politika değişikliği sadece lider değişikliği ile açıklanamayacak bir derinlikte siyasal kaymayı işaret etmektedir. Makale, uluslararası olguların nedenlerinin hükümetlerin davranışlarına indirgenmeden açıklanması gerektiği varsayımından hareketle, Almanya Sorunu ile ilgili yaşanan politika değişikliğinin yapısal nedenlerini ortaya koymayı hedeflemektedir. Makalede iki kutupluluğun bir sonucu olarak ABD ve Sovyetler'in yeni karşılıklı konumlanması ve daha da önemlisi bu konumlanmanın etkisi altında Batı Avrupa'da hegemonik bir liberal düzen inşa süreci yapısal belirleyenler olarak incelenecektir.

Abstract
US policy regarding the German question, witnessed a radical change from the Morganthau Plan that envisaged the destruction of German heavy industry into the Schuman Plan that made the latter the core of European reconstruction. If we focus on the sudden death of the president Roosevelt, it appears that the change in US leadership has defined the change in US policy. Yet this radical change in policy
indicates a political shift characterized by a depth that cannot be explained only by a change in leadership. This article, based on the assumption that international affairs must be explained without reducing them to the behaviors of governments, aims to reveal the structural causes behind the US policy change towards the German problem. The emerging mutual positioning of US and Soviet power as a
result of bipolarity and more importantly the construction of a liberal hegemonic order in Western Europe under the influence of this positioning are argued to have defined the structural conditions.

Introduction: The 21st century was started with the dawn of a new economic puzzle of China’s fast economic growth. It has surprised the economists. The Chinese constant upward growth has shifted economic paradigm and the axis of growth appear to have been shifted from the western hemisphere to the eastern hemisphere. Some economists term it a 21st century miracle. The author has determined to test this miracle through empirical framework.

Research Question: Main research question of this study to explore the answer of the question why China is recording consistent rapid economic growth? Is this growth in the same way as other developed countries experienced in the past or is it a new phenomenon-a shift in global economic paradigm.

Objectives: The objective of this empirical analysis is to investigate into the causes of fast economic growth of China in the context whether this growth pattern is a normal phenomenon or an indicator of shifting global economic paradigm.

Methodology: Our study is spread over a period starting from 1980 to 2011 because of the introduction of economic reforms and massive economic growth. We have collected data from different sources such as China Bureau of National Statistics, IMF, World Bank and relevant research Journals and books. The selected variables for this research paper are: labour productivity, investment, exports, Research and Development expenses, capital stock, open door policy, real exchange rate and USGDP. We used ordinary least square (OLS) model to measure change in the selected variables. Five tests were used to test the stability of the model.

Findings: The Econometric results show that international trade and investment in capital stock and R&D expenses by Chinese Government are the major determinants, which are responsible for enhancing labour productivity and output in the long-run, Similarly, real exchange rate appears as an important determinant to explain change in output in the long-run.

INTRODUCTION

Though migration has been a significant part of human history, since 1945 and especially after mid-1980s the importance and volume of international migration has been increasing which seems to be permanent (Castles & Miller, 1998: 4). This increase, which became more evident especially with the end of the cold war, is now trending towards the west due to reasons such as armed conflicts, terrorist activities, drought, hunger, economic inequality, and/or human rights violations. When we look at the figures worldwide, the number of immigrants worldwide reached to 272 million  and it corresponds to 3,5% of the world population (IOM, 2020: 19). Despite the fact that refugees and internally displaced people (IDPs) consist only a small proportion of this number, they are often the most in need of help and support (IOM, 2020: 19) which might turn their situation into a crisis any time both in internal and international political agenda. This is exactly how the refugee crisis caused by the Syrian conflict manifested itself.

As intense demonstrations and protests against to the regime in Syria with the influence of Arab Spring has shown itself in the form of civil war since March 2011, there have been serious human movements towards out of Syria. Evidently the first target of this humanitarian mobility was the neighboring countries such as Lebanon, Jordan and Turkey. In a very short time, these countries started to serve both as target and transit countries for those who look for better living conditions. Until 2015, while these countries and particularly Turkey were shouldering the greatest part of the refugee burden, the European Union chose not to be directly involved in the refugee issue, except for a few small-scale and low-budget project-based initiatives and aid programs.

But after the summer of 2015, when refugee crisis has become the focus of attention of the world press after the mass death resulting from boat accidents in the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas, there has been a drastic change in the approach of the European Union to the issue. Indeed, this change goes back to 2014, when immigrants started to push the borders of Europe by using Turkey and other first countries as transit countries. The year 2015, when the situation reached undeniable dimensions and turned into a humanitarian crisis, represents an important turning point in the relations between Turkey, who had invited the European Union to share the refugee burden since 2011 but did not get the answer she sought for, and the EU, which prefers to solve the issue by pushing it beyond its borders.

It is worldwide known and accepted that countries try to develop policies to manage migration towards them by several policies like limiting migration, border security and integration (Erdoğan, 2020: 96). Yet, not accepting the refugees to the European soil, which they accept as uniform, and pushing the refugees back to countries which are made buffer zones by making agreements and trying to get rid of international obligations and responsibilities is a new picture that emerges with the Syrian refugee crisis. In this chapter, Turkey’s and the EU’s approach towards refugee crisis will be compared with regards to humanitarian and security-oriented perspectives. On the way to the refugee crisis, Turkey's open-door policy started in 2011 and ended de facto in 2016 (Karakoç Dora, 2020a: 503), as well as the European Union's push-back strategy, which tries to push the issue out of its own lands and manage the process through buffer countries, will be discussed. Throughout these discussions, the relations between two parties, Turkey and the EU, which constitute the subject of “our research, will be evaluated and it will be emphasized where the refugee crisis may evolve in the future and where it might further lead relations.

The historical frame of the Open Door Empire has not remained static. It has undergone a great deal of revision and criticism. Changes within the global economy and the historical profession itself have redefined the Open Door's imperial scale and scope over the course of its long and rich historiographical journey. The Open Door Empire went through its most sizeable theoretical transformation between its unveiling in the 1930s and its adoption by radical New Left scholars beginning in the 1950s. Charles Beard, the most influential of Progressive scholars, was the first to popularize a working theory of the Open Door Empire as an analytical concept. The Wisconsin School's radical reworking of Beard's Open Door thesis, begun with the publication of W. A. Williams's The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (1959), has since established itself as the new economic orthodoxy in its uncovering of America's formal and informal Open Door Empire.

Introduction: The 21 st century was started with the dawn of a new economic puzzle of China's fast economic growth. It has surprised the economists. The Chinese constant upward growth has shifted economic paradigm and the axis of growth appear to have been shifted from the western hemisphere to the eastern hemisphere. Some economists term it a 21 st century miracle. The author has determined to test this miracle through empirical framework. Research Question: Main research question of this study to explore the answer of the question why China is recording consistent rapid economic growth? Is this growth in the same way as other developed countries experienced in the past or is it a new phenomenon-a shift in global economic paradigm. Objectives: The objective of this empirical analysis is to investigate into the causes of fast economic growth of China in the context whether this growth pattern is a normal phenomenon or an indicator of shifting global economic paradigm. Methodolo...

International migration, an issue as old as the history itself, needs to be tabled. The Syrian conflict which happened due to the Arab Spring led millions of Syrians to leave their country. The wave of uncontrolled immigration, starting from the neighbouring ones and spreading to various countries, became an important tool for terrorists to infiltrate into target countries and caused a serious security problem for migrant-hosting states. Additionally, this human flow has led to changes in the demographic structures of the hosting countries, and these changes have brought many social and economic costs that threaten the internal security. In this context; in Turkey, who applied open door policy for the people fleeing from the humanitarian crisis in Syria from the very first days, issues caused by Syrians in time are quite attention grabbing. An in-depth analysis of these events reveals the relationship between illegal and irregular migration and considerable increase in terrorist activities, social, political and economic costs and demographic changes.

Öz
Tarihin kendisi kadar eski olan uluslararası göç, ele alınması gereken önemli konulardan biridir. Arap Baharı'nın etkisiyle Suriye'de ortaya çıkan iç çatışma, milyonlarca Suriyelinin ülkelerini terk etmesine neden olmuştur. Kontrolsüz bir göç dalgası komşu ülkelerden başlayarak çeşitli ülkelere yayılmaya başlamış ve bu durum teröristlerin hedef ülkelere sızmaları için önemli bir araç haline gelerek göçmen barındıran ülkeler için ciddi bir güvenlik soruna dönüşmüştür. Ayrıca, bu insan akışı ev sahibi ülkelerin demografik yapılarında değişikliklere yol açmış ve bu değişiklikler iç güvenliği tehdit eden birçok sosyal ve ekonomik maliyet getirmiştir. Bu bağlamda, Suriye'deki insani krizden kaçanlara ilk günden itibaren açık kapı politikası uygulayan Türkiye'de, Suriyelilerin zaman içerisinde neden olduğu durum ve gelişmeler oldukça dikkat çekicidir. Bu olayların derinlemesine analizi, yasadışı ve düzensiz göçün; terörist faaliyetler, sosyal, politik ve ekonomik maliyetler ile demografik değişim arasındaki ilişkisini ortaya koymaktadır.