Sanxingdui Culture

The West China region has traded with horses in the grasslands since the Shang Dynasty. Through these routes, the image of the far regions of West Asia spread to East Asia. The wandering ethnic group that masters the horse training technique and the horse politics is the link connecting the cultures of the East and the West. In the context of the "Bronze Age" and the flow of ethnic groups, artifacts brought by Western Asia began to appear in China, and through the spread of hearsay, Chinese art modeling began to merge a small amount of distant shapes. However, the earliest winged beast shapes in China have not yet formed a tradition. Later, the emerging winged beast shapes of the Warring States period and the image inheritance relationship between the late Yin and Zhou dynasties were weak.
Key words:Winged Beast; Cultural Exchange; Sanxingdui; Shigushan; Yin, Zhou
摘  要：華西地區自殷商以來與草原地帶有馬匹貿易往來，通過這些路線網絡，西亞遠域的形象傳播到東亞。掌握馴馬技術和馬政的游戰族群是聯接東、西方文化的紐帶。在“青銅時代陷落”、族群流動大背景下，中國地區開始出現西亞帶來的器物，並通過道聽途說式的傳播，中國藝術造型開始少量融合遠域的形貌。但是，中國最早的翼獸造型還沒有形成傳統，後來戰國新興的翼獸造型與殷末周初的形象傳承關係薄弱，更多可見新時代再發生的外來影響。
關鍵詞：翼獸、文化交流、三星堆、石鼓山、殷周藝術

The bronze trees from  Sanxingdui, China, are shown to be representations of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil and the story of Eve and the snake, as we know from Genesis 2 and 3.  It is also shown these artifacts date to the time prior to the Flood, at about 3000 B.C.  This makes them older than Moses.  The Jews didn't have any contact with the Chinese until the silk road trade.  Therefore, since these artifacts are separated in time and place from the Jewish Bible, these bronze trees provide an independent source of the information we have about Adam and Eve, the Garden of Eden, and the origin of sin.  An explanation of why these trees and other statues were found deliberately broken, burned and buried, is shown as evidence of repentance following the preaching of Enoch, Methuselah, and Noah. A call to repentance is given for us, too.

В статье представлены данные по раскопкам памятника Саньсиндуй в сезон 2021 г. К двум жертвенным ямам, исследованным в 1986 г., добавилось еще шесть ям размерами от 3,5 до 19 м2. Обнаруженный внутри инвентарь отличается исключительным богатством и содержит бронзовые и золотые маски, ритуальные сосуды, другие культовые предметы (алтарь, солярное «колесо», фрагменты бронзовых деревьев). Сверху изделия из металлов, как правило, закрывались слоем из слоновьих бивней. Из новых открытий особо выделяются находки фрагментов шелковой ткани и деревянного сундучка, выкрашенного с двух сторон киноварью. Раскопки, проведенные на высочайшем
технологическом уровне, должны наглядно свидетельствовать о больших успехах китайской науки в постковидную эпоху, что имеет важное идеологическое значение. В то же время публикация новых археологических материалов стимулировало возобновление научных дискуссий о назначении раскопанных ям и о происхождении культуры Саньсиндуй в целом. По авторитетному мнению акад. Ван Вэя, рядом с ямами должен был находиться храм или иная сакральная конструкция, пока не найденные археологами. Что же касается культурогенеза Саньсиндуй, то большинство китайских археологов относит его к государству (варианты: культуре, народу, цивилизации) Древнее Шу, располагавшемуся на территории Сычуани. Но дело в том, что именно Саньсиндуй представляет собой наивысшую вершину в развитии этой культуры (цивилизации, народа); ничего подобного ни до, ни после Саньсиндуя не возникало. Поэтому культуру Шу, также как Шан, Лянчжу и др., можно считать лишь одним из возможных компонентов комплекса Саньсиндуй, но отнюдь не самым важным. Для определения истоков этого уникального явления в древней истории Китая потребуются новые материалы и новые методики их изучения.

BRONZE MASKS AND MASKOIDS FROM THE SACRIFICIAL PITS OF SANXINGDUI

This article presents a brief review of the most specific feature of Sanxingdui Bronze Age culture, spread in Sichuan province of the PRC – bronze masks, found in sacrificial pits. The lines of the possible evolution of those bronze masks are outlined in the article and reconstructions of the ways of their everyday use as the details of the interior of ancient temples are given. According to the authors’ opinion the technological evolution of those bronze masks from Sanxingdui sacrificial pits can be divided into three stages. Stage I is represented by bronze mask from the first sacrificial pit (JK1) and types D and B bronze masks from the second sacrificial pit (JK2). Stage II is represented by types C and A bronze masks from the pit JK2. Stage III is represented by large zoo-anthropomorphic masks with multiple bizarre bronze details from the second sacrificial pit (JK2). Authors state that bronze masks of C type were used in combination with zun and lei bronze vessels from the same sacrificial pit JK2 as parts of huge anthropomorphic sculptures (with wooden core). Flat bronze maskoids from the second sacrificial pit (JK2) were originally details of carved (?) or painted figures of human-bird, placed on the walls of ancient temple at Sanxingdui.

РЕЗЮМЕ
В статье кратко представлена одна из наиболее специфических черт культуры Саньсиндуй, относящейся к эпохе бронзы и распространенной в пров. Сычуань КНР – бронзовые маски, встреченные в жертвенных ямах на эпонимном памятнике. В статье намечаются возможные пути эволюции бронзовых масок Саньсиндуя и реконструируются способы их применения в составе интерьера древних храмов. По мнению авторов, технологическая эволюция бронзовых масок из жертвенных ям Саньсиндуя может быть разделена на три стадии. Стадия I представлена бронзовой маской из первой жертвенной ямы (JK1) и бронзовыми масками типов D и B из второй жертвенной ямы (JK2). Стадия II представлена бронзовыми масками типов C и A из ямы JK2. Стадия III представлена большими зоо-антропоморфными масками из второй жертвенной ямы (JK2), с множеством вычурных бронзовых деталей. Авторы считают, что бронзовые маски типа C использовались в комбинации с бронзовыми сосудами цзунь и лэй из той же жертвенной ямы JK2, как части огромных антропоморфных скульптур (на деревянной основе). Плоские бронзовые маскоиды из второй жертвенной ямы (JK2) первоначально были деталями резных (?) или рисованных фигур человека-птицы, помещенных на стенах древнего храма в Саньсиндуе.

ABSTRACT:
This article presents a brief review and analysis of one of the most interesting features of the Sanxingdui Bronze Age culture, which is widespread in the Sichuan province of the PRC – bronze anthropomorphic statues, found in the sacrificial pit JK2. The authors refer to full-size human figures at least 50 cm tall (but not their parts, e.g. heads) assembled from pre-cast details, as “statues”. Smaller items cast in one go, they propose to call “figurines”. The ways of production of anthropomorphic statues are described; they are linked to one of the stages of technological evolution of Sanxingdui bronze casting, and myths and rituals reflected by anthropomorphic statues are discussed.
There are three bronze anthropomorphic statues from Sanxingdui, all three found in the sacrificial pit JK2: a big statue of a man standing on a pedestal, the upper part of a human figure with zoomorphic headdress, and the lower part of a skirt-dressed human figure with bird talons instead of feet, holding two snake-like creatures. Long ears and trunk (or horn) on top of the zoomorphic headpiece and hands of the upper part of the human figure were precast and inserted into the intentionally left holes of the main pour (body, head and headdress) cast in a two-sectional mould. After that, precast details were soldered in place with cover pour. Two snake-like creatures with birds’ heads were precast and brazed to precast feet with birds’ talons, and the latter were fixed in the mould for casting of the lower part of the skirt-dressed human figure. The method of casting of the human figure with zoomorphic headdress and bronze masks of A and C types is the same. The skirt-dressed human figure with talons was produced in the same way as bronze “spirit trees” No 2 and No 1. They all belong to stage II of the technological evolution of Sanxingdui bronze casting.
The skirt-dressed human figure with talons closely resembles representations of Garuda – a personage of Indian mythology. The whole composition may illustrate one of the two episodes, described in ancient Indian epic “Mahabharata”. In one case, Garuda has transported his half-brothers Naga serpents to a nice island amidst the ocean. Another story tells of how Garuda has stolen the elixir of immortality Amrita for Naga, after tearing to pieces two dragons that guarded it, with his talons. The zoomorphic headdress on top of the head of a human figure copies the head of a fictional animal from the lowest level of the so-called “sacred altar”, also found in the JK2 sacrificial pit. It may depict the Lord of the Underworld in his anthropomorphic form, or be the evidence of the existence of a ritual in Sanxingdui, resembling Japanese Gigaku theatre or Cham performance, with this personage as its main hero.

РЕЗЮМЕ
В статье представлены уникальные находки культуры Саньсиндуй, относящейся к эпохе бронзы и распространенной в пров. Сычуань (КНР) – бронзовые антропоморфные статуи, встреченные в жертвенной яме JK2 на эпонимном памятнике. Авторы считают статуями ростовые изображения человека (а не отдельных частей его тела, например, голов) общей высотой не менее 50 см, смонтированные из предварительно отлитых деталей. Отлитые в один прием изваяния меньшего размера они предлагают называть статуэтками. Конструктивные особенности бронзовых антропоморфных статуй Саньсиндуя позволяют синхронизировать время их создания с бытованием бронзовых масок типов A и C, а также бронзовых «деревьев духов» № 2 и № 1, поскольку при их изготовлении применялись одни и те же технологические приемы. Статую человека с птичьими когтями на ногах, в которых зажаты змееподобные существа с птичьими головами, предложено интерпретировать при помощи древнеиндийского мифа о Гаруде. Статуя в зооморфном головном уборе рассматривается как иллюстрация к мистерии о владыке саньсиндуйского подземного мира, подобной по форме современной мистерии цам.

The article is dedicated to findings belonging to the Sanxingdui culture of the Bronze Age from the Sichuan province of the People’s Republic of China - anthropomorphic statues discovered in sacrificial pit JK2 at an eponymous site. The author refers to full-size human figures at least 50 cm in height (as opposed to body parts, e.g. heads), assembled from pre-cast elements, as “statues”. He proposes to referrer to smaller items cast in a single step as “figurines”. The evolution of anthropomorphic statues can be subdivided into two or three stages. The final stage is represented by a bronze statue of a man standing on a pedestal. It was preceded by the stage of wooden anthropomorphic statues with bronze overlays. Their predecessors could be primitive sculptures crafted entirely from wood. The structural features of Sanxingdui bronze anthropomorphic statues allow to link the period of their existence with the period of bronze masks of A and C types and bronze “Spirit Trees” No. 2 and No. 1, as they were crafted using the same techniques. The human figure with talons on the toes clenching anguiform creatures with bird heads is suggested to be interpreted on the basis of the Ancient Indian Garuda mythology. The statue with a zoomorphic headdress is considered as an illustration of the myth concerning the master of Sanxingdui underworld. An assumption that the items clenched in the toes of the statue of a man standing on a pedestal are jade Cong regalia is considered by the author as insufficiently justified.

BRONZE HEADS FROM THE SACRIFICIAL PITS OF SANXINGDUI
AND THE RECONSTRUCTION OF ITERIOR DETAILS OF ANCIENT TEMPLES

This article presents a brief review of the most specific feature of Sanxingdui bronze age culture, spread in Sichuan province of the PRC – bronze masked heads, found in sacrificial pits. The authors state that those pits were the results of the intended attempts made by ancient people of Sanxingdui to transfer their temples from this world to the other one. Examples of the reconstruction of the details of the interior of those temples are given.

РЕЗЮМЕ
В статье кратко представлена одна из наиболее специфических черт культуры саньсиндуй, относящейся к эпохе бронзы и распространенной в пров. Сычуань КНР – бронзовые головы в масках, встреченные в жертвенных ямах на эпонимном памятнике. Авторы считают, что эти ямы были результатом намеренных попыток древних обитателей Саньсиндуя перенести свои храмы в потусторонний мир. Приводятся примеры реконструкции деталей интерьеров этих храмов.

In Eighteenth century, German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel proposed in his Aesthetics Lectures on Fine art a chronological aesthetic model that progress with a rhythmic pattern of three artistic stages – Symbolic, Classical and Romantic – towards a goal in art. This essay investigates the applicability of his model in Chinese art history. Hegel only analysed Eastern artistic cultures up till Symbolic era without including later Eastern art in his theory. For Hegel, Eastern art is arrested in the Symbolic form with no potential for the later two styles. This essay puts aside Hegel’s apparent Eurocentric lens in order to test his theory with Chinese art after the Symbolic era. My selected Chinese cultures pay close attention to match with the timeline set out in Hegel’s original model. This essay explores Hegel’s proposed model of continuity in the development of art history, but also considers the possible discontinuity fragments present in the course of history.

ABSTRACT:
This article presents a brief review of one of the most interesting features of Sanxingdui Bronze Age culture, spread in Sichuan province of the PRC – bronze birds, found in sacrificial pit JK2. The possible classification of bronze birds from Sanxingdui, their division into groups and the relative chronology of the isolated groups are discussed.
There are no bird images in the early sacrificial pit JK1. All the bronze images of birds from the sacrificial pit JK2 can be united into several groups: 1) birds with long straight beak and luxuriant crest (type A, type B and the bird on the shoulder of zun vessel); 2) birds of prey with hooked beak and short crest (type C, birds from «big spirit trees», F type bell and the large bronze head of the bird of prey); 3) birds with curved beak and fluffy feathers (type D, type E, birds sitting on the flowers and bird-shaped ornaments of A and B types); 4) birds «with human face» («small spirit tree» with twisted brunches and «heavenly chamber» of the «sacred altar»). Outside the isolated groups is the realistic image of a rooster.
Almost all the figurines of birds were originally parts of bigger items. Type A bird whose legs are broken off matches the conical foundation in the form of chairman’s bell, on the top of which its talons have remained. The birds of prey with hooked beak and short crest were all fixed on branches of «big spirit trees» No. 1 & No. 2 (type C bird is just the broken off head of one of them) and the large bronze head of the bird of prey was a fitting, fixed with pins or pegs on a wooden core of a huge sculpture. Small birds with curved beak and fluffy feathers, sitting on the flowers, were bronze details of the «spirit tree» No. 3 with wooden trunk and brunches. Birds «with human faces» were used in the same way.
The birds of Sanxingdui with long straight beak and luxuriant crest are the most numerous. They have marked vertical protruding ribs at the shoulders of zun bronze vessels at stage III of their evolution. At stage IV the birds at the shoulders are sitting not only on the ribs, but also in the center of bulls’ and rams’ heads cast between them. At stage IV of evolution of vessels the birds were also placed on the shoulders of lei bronze vases. For casting zun vessels ancient craftsmen have used three-sectional molds, and for lei vases four-sectional molds. It means that at stage III every zun vessel was decorated with three birds, and at stage IV – with six. Every lei vase had four birds.
Judging by the relative chronology of items on which different groups of birds from Sanxingdui were fixed, the birds with curved beak and fluffy feathers and the birds «with human face» are earlier, than the birds of prey with hooked beak and short crest and the birds with long straight beak and luxuriant crest.

РЕЗЮМЕ
Представлена одна из наиболее интересных черт культуры Саньсиндуй, относящейся к эпохе бронзы и распространенной в пров. Сычуань (КНР) – бронзовые изображения птиц, встреченные в жертвенной яме JK2 на эпонимном памятнике. Их можно объединить по внешнему виду (видовой принадлежности) в несколько групп: 1) птицы с прямым длинным клювом и пышным хохолком; 2) птицы с хищным крючковатым клювом и коротким гребнем; 3) птицы с изогнутым клювом и пышным оперением; 4) «птицы с человеческим лицом». Отдельно, вне выделенных групп, оказывается реалистичное изображение петуха. Исходя из относительной датировки предметов, на которых монтировались разные виды птиц, более ранними следует признать птиц с изогнутым клювом и пышным оперением и «птиц с человеческим лицом». Более поздними, соответствующими III и IV стадиям эволюции бронзовых сосудов, и бронзовым деревьям № 2 и № 1 оказываются хищные птицы с крючковатым клювом и коротким гребнем и птицы с длинным прямым клювом и пышным хохолком. По аналогии способа крепления, относительно поздним должно быть и изображение петуха.

ABSTRACT:
This article presents a brief review of the most interesting feature of Sanxingdui Bronze Age culture, spread in Sichuan province of the PRC – bronze “spirit trees”, found in sacrificial pit JK2. The lines of the technological evolution of the ways of production of those bronze trees are outlined in the article and reconstruction of the way of their possible use in ancient ritual is discussed.
All the “spirit trees” consisted of the same parts: foundation, trunk and brunches with flowers and birds sitting on them. According to the authors’ opinion the technological evolution of those bronze trees from Sanxingdui sacrificial pit JK2 can be divided into three stages. Stage I is represented by the bronze foundation from the tree No 3. Stage II is represented by the tree No 2. Stage III is represented by the tree No 1. The tree No 3 consisted of the wooden trunk and brunches, bronze fitting over a wooden foundation and bronze flowers with birds sitting on them. The tree No 2 was assembled from pre-cast bronze details, joined through the rivet-holes with wooden pins or pegs, the joints being later covered with melted bronze. The bronze tubular details of trunk and brunches of the tree No 1 were joined with clutches and muffs cast on the spot. 
The authors hold the opinion that so-called “small spirit trees” were just the tops of the big ones. No one of the big trees does have a top. No one of the small trees does have a foundation or a long trunk. Each of the small trees can be correlated with the big one. The small tree with tubular brunches was the top of the big tree No 1. The small tree with flat brunches was the top of the big tree No 2. The small tree with twisted brunches was the top of the big tree No 3. The method of fixing of the bronze foundation-fitting on the wooden core of the “spirit tree” No 3 with wooden pins through the small holes in the bronze detail closely resembles the method of fixing of bronze masks of B and D types on the wooden core of huge anthropomorphic sculptures. These types of masks were the earliest in JK2 sacrificial pit. So the three stages of the technological evolution of the “spirit trees” in JK2 could be brought into correlation with the three stages of the technological evolution of the bronze masks from the same sacrificial pit.
Almost all researchers unanimously link Sanxingdui “spirit trees” with the East-Asiatic myth about shooting down of extra Suns. One of the hypotheses presumes that a special ritual reproducing this myth has been performed by ancient Sanxingdui inhabitants. It included touching of bronze birds, sitting on the brunches of the big “spirit tree” No 1 with a wooden staff covered with gold foil, that has been found in sacrificial pit JK1. The authors state that the joining of artifacts from two different sacrificial pits is a wrong move. They present a graphic reconstruction of presumable rite, from which it is evident, that the topmost birds of the tree No 1 could not be reached this way.

РЕЗЮМЕ
В статье представлена одна из наиболее интересных черт культуры Саньсиндуй, относящейся к эпохе бронзы и распространенной в пров. Сычуань (КНР) – бронзовые модели деревьев, встреченные в жертвенной яме JK2 на эпонимном памятнике. Намечаются возможные пути эволюции больших бронзовых деревьев Саньсиндуя, обсуждается реконструкция древних ритуалов с их использованием. По мнению авторов, технологическая эволюция больших бронзовых деревьев может быть разделена на три стадии. Стадия I представлена деревом № 3, стадия II – деревом № 2 и стадия III  – деревом № 1. Конструктивные особенности дерева № 3 позволяют синхронизировать время его создания с бытованием бронзовых масок типов B и D, наиболее ранних для жертвенной ямы JK2, а трех стадий технологической эволюции деревьев – с тремя стадиями такой же эволюции бронзовых масок. Авторы считают, что так называемые «малые деревья» на самом деле являлись обломанными верхушками больших, и дают схему их соотнесения. В заключительной части статьи обсуждается предполагаемая реконструкция ритуала уничтожения лишних светил, с которым, как считается, было связано создание и использование бронзовых деревьев Саньсиндуя.

ABSTRACT:
This article presents a brief review of the feature that Sanxingdui Bronze Age culture, spread in Sichuan province of the PRC has in common with Yinxu culture of the Central Plain – bronze vessels, found in sacrificial pits. The lines of the possible evolution of those bronze vessels are outlined in the article and reconstructions of the ways of their everyday use as the details of the interior of ancient temples are given.
There are five bronze vessels of four different categories in the first sacrificial pit (JK1): two zun, one bu (pou), one pan plate and one gai lid. In the second sacrificial pit (JK2) at least 12 bronze vessels of only two (or three) categories (excluding gai lids) were met: 8 zun vessels, 4 lei vessels and, perhaps, a hu vessel. Because categories are scarce in Sanxingdui collection of bronze vessels and zun vases are the most numerous among them, the authors propose to divide zun vases from Sanxingdui into two variants: A & B. Zun of A variant has the plain upper part of the base with rectangular holes in it. Zun of B variant has the upper part of the base with two or three lines in relief and cross-shaped holes in it. The differences between zun of A and B variants have no technological or semantic meaning and represent two variants of tradition of casting of those bronze vessels.
The development of two variants of zun bronze vessels in Sanxingdui came in parallel and followed the same lines of the typological evolution. According to the authors’ opinion, the typological evolution of bronze vessels from Sanxingdui sacrificial pits can be divided into four stages. Stage I is represented by bronze vessels from the first sacrificial pit (JK1). Zun vase of B variant has vertical protruding ribs, dividing ornamentation belts at the body and the base into three parts, and zun vase of A variant has none. Stage II is represented by zun bronze vessels of I-III types and by lei bronze vessel of I type from the pit JK2. Zun vases of B variant have vertical protruding ribs, dividing ornamentation belts at their bodies and shoulders into three parts, and zun vase of A variant has none.
Stage III is represented by zun bronze vessels of V type and by lei bronze vessel of II type from the pit JK2. At stages III and IV one can see the partial fusion of two traditions of casting of zun bronze vessels. Both variants of vases have vertical protruding ribs, dividing ornamentation belts at their bases, bodies and shoulders into three parts (sign of B variant) and holes at their bases are rectangular (sign of A variant). Vertical ribs at the shoulders of vessels are now shaped like sitting birds. Stage IV is represented by zun bronze vessels of IV and V types and by lei bronze vessel of III type from the second pit (JK2). Vertical ribs and bases of vessels are now even higher, than at the III stage, and birds at the shoulders are sitting not only on the ribs, but also in the center of  bulls’ and rams’ heads cast between them.
The authors think that two variants of bronze vessels of the same category at the initial stages of functioning of sacrificial pits presume the existence of two traditions borrowed from the Central Plain and represented by two craftsmen who stood at the cradle of Sanxingdui bronze casting for a number of years. The authors state that bronze vessels in Sanxingdui were used in combination with bronze masks of C type from the sacrificial pit JK2 and bronze heads of A type from the sacrificial pit JK1  as parts of huge anthropomorphic sculptures (with wooden core).

РЕЗЮМЕ
В статье представлена одна из черт, общих для культуры Саньсиндуй, относящейся к эпохе бронзы и распространенной в пров. Сычуань (КНР), и Иньской культуры с Центральной равнины – бронзовые сосуды, встреченные в жертвенных ямах на эпонимном памятнике. Намечаются возможные пути эволюции бронзовых сосудов Саньсиндуя и реконструируются способы их применения в составе интерьера древних храмов. По мнению авторов, типологическая эволюция бронзовых сосудов может быть разделена на четыре стадии. Стадия I представлена сосудами из первой жертвенной ямы (JK1). Стадия II представлена чарками цзунь I-III типов и вазой лэй I типа из ямы JK2. Стадия III представлена чарками цзунь V типа и вазой лэй II типа из ямы JK2. Стадия IV представлена чарками цзунь IV-V типов и вазой лэй III типа из второй жертвенной ямы (JK2).
Наличие двух вариантов бронзовых сосудов одной и той же категории на начальных стадиях функционирования жертвенных ям предполагает существование двух традиций, заимствованных с Центральной равнины и представленных двумя мастерами, которые стояли у истоков саньсиндуйского бронзолитейного искусства. Авторы утверждают, что бронзовые чарки цзунь и вазы лэй использовались в комбинации с бронзовыми масками типа C из жертвенной ямы JK2 и бронзовыми головами типа A из жертвенной ямы JK1, как части огромных антропоморфных скульптур (на деревянной основе).