Viral Immunology

Erythema multiforme was first described by Ferdinand von
Hebra over a century ago.1 In a simple language it means
multiple forms of redness and reflects the broad morphologic
spectrum of the lesions. It is characterized by a polymorphous
eruption composed of symmetrically distributed
macules, papules, bullae, and typical target lesions with a
central vesicle or bulla. The lesions have a propensity for
the distant extremities and the oral mucosa; however, though
uncommon, not all cases have acral targetoid lesions, and
central distribution could also occur.2 Desquamation of <10%
of the body surface can occur. Spontaneous resolution occurs
with scaling and hyperpigmentation within 3–5 weeks.
Fatalities are rare.

Rather than viewing viral infections in a manner that is phenomenalistic and enigmatic, and therefore unwieldy, leading to clumsy prevention and treatment strategies, we should deconstruct the complexity of the infectious process. Doing so – at least in the manner that I have described – gives us four areas upon which we can focus our efforts: 1) targeting the virus directly, 2) blocking viral replication, 3) supporting immune function, and 4) supporting cellular and whole-body health. These are illustrated in the accompanying diagram and briefly described and exemplified in the four respective paragraphs that follow.

A special edition of the book “Science Without Borders”  is dedicated to the most important problem of modern civilization at present - the fight against a pandemic of COVID-19.
The authors of this issue offer their concept of reducing the risks of coronavirus infection and mortality from it before the advent of the vaccine.
Based on the analysis of long-term clinical and laboratory tests of the drug “«AZEOMED»”, the authors give convincing arguments in support of the possibility of effective use of the drug “«AZEOMED»” in the process of prevention and treatment of COVID-19.
Clinical and laboratory studies of the mineral composition “«AZEOMED»” were coordinated and funded by the International Scientific and Technical Complex "Intergeo-Tethys". The book contains data on analogues of the drug AZEOMED produced in different countries.

Morbilli (Measles) is an acute viral infections disease caused by a morbillivirus as the paramyxovirus family. The disease primarily affects children, but can also occur in adults. The risk of complications of Morbilli in adults over the age of 20 years is greater than in children. Similarly, the risk of death in adults greater than in children

An overview of how viruses-retroviruses could be utilized as to instigate viral bio-weaponization and bio-warfare (much like other pathogens as bacteria, fungi, etc.), as well as a highlight of the history of how this has occurred in the past, has been presented. In particular, two issues need to be clarified here. First of all, almost all of our history of evolution prior to 5,500 years ago has been purged from the records, as well any memory of such happenings have been blank-slated from our consciousness memories. Secondly, that humanity has been lurking in the low dimensional level of consciousness, without having a clue about some of the advanced technologies with regard to the true nature of its genetics, and the possibility of its manipulation leading to genetic mutations and alien hybridization. However, as of more recently, with the advent of knowledge of radiation technological development, together with more novel approaches as nanotechnology in materials science, as well as the fact that we are beginning to better understand the nature of our bioenergetics and the role it plays in our genetics and physiognomy and holographic reality, we are beginning to get a better grasp of how a formidable nefarious alien artificial intelligence machinery can play a devastating role in our genetic modification, hybridization, as well as the using viral bio-weaponization for our demise or total annihilation. Thus, in the present paper, the author

This study detected and subtyped strains of influenza virus from pigs in Lagos, South-western Nigeria. A total of 116 (58 nasal and 58 throat) samples from healthy pigs were analysed from two different sites in Ayedoto farm at Ojo Local Government between June and September, 2010 using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Influenza virus type A 31(26.7%) was detected. Subtyping was done using RT-PCR with H1, H3 and H5 primers and only subtypes H1 [5(16.1%)] and H5 [5(16.1%)] were detected. No positive detection was made for subtype H3. This research work is the first documented detection of influenza A virus in pigs in Lagos, Nigeria and demonstrates the need for a sustainable surveillance mechanism of swine and other influenza viruses to be able to prevent influenza epidemic in the environment.

This essay summarizes, in a non-technical style, the principal characteristics of one of the most important facts of life facing the world in 2020-viral disease. This essay puts major diseases in their historical context by briefly summarizing the bacterial and viral diseases, emphasizing their important differences and similarities. This analysis is used to derive the Lessons we can learn from the History of Disease that will put our present situation in a broader context; some of these lessons are a shocking disappointment that are being ignored today. The heart of this essay is obviously the new variant of the Corona virus itself. After reviewing its history and scientific characteristics, I discuss how our governments and medical experts have made serious mistakes in handling this outbreak. I then take the liberty to offer suggestions on how our modern society can best upgrade the hospital concept to better handle the realities of disease and aging people. I also suggest innovations in how science can do a better job to improve public health and how each of us can take a stronger responsibility for our own health (without the gimmicks of masks and social distancing). I conclude the essay with my impressions of the failing nature of our international War-on-Disease.

Rather than viewing viral infections in a manner that is phenomenalistic and enigmatic, and therefore unwieldy, leading to clumsy prevention and treatment strategies, we should deconstruct the complexity of the infectious process. Doing so – at least in the manner that I have described – gives us four areas upon which we can focus our efforts: 1) targeting the virus directly, 2) blocking viral replication, 3) supporting immune function, and 4) supporting cellular and whole-body health. These are illustrated in the accompanying diagram and briefly described and exemplified in the four respective paragraphs that follow.

Entecavir is one of the therapeutic options currently available for the management of chronic
hepatitis B.  In this study,  we aimed to analyse the virological response and antiviral
resistance mutations in chronic hepatitis B subjects experiencing entecavir therapy from the
Indian subcontinent.  A total of 45  chronic hepatitis B subjects  were studied at baseline and
were followed up on  entecavir treatment.  Among these subjects, 25 (56%) were HBeAg-positive  at baseline. Virological response was measured by hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA
levels. HBV reverse transcriptase (rt) domains were sequenced for the identification of
resistance mutations. Three-Dimensional (3D) model of HBV polymerase/rt protein,  docking
and molecular dynamics simulation  (MDS)  studies were performed for characterization of
antiviral resistance mutations. At the median treatment duration of 6 (IQR 6-11) months, 38
(84%) showed virological response. Subjects who showed anti-HBe response  demonstrated
significant association with virological response (p=0.034). On sequence analysis, none of
the subjects were identified with signature  entecavir  resistance mutations.  However, one
subject was  exclusively detected with rtV173L mutation. Molecular modeling, docking and
MDS  studies revealed that the rtV173L mutation cannot confer resistance to entecavir
independently. Our findings also showed that the prevailing HBV genotypes, subgenotypes
and subtypes in this population does not influence treatment outcome to entecavir therapy. In
conclusion, entecavir is a potent drug in terms of viral DNA suppression. In addition, none of
the subjects developed  antiviral  resistance  mutations  to entecavir. Therefore entecavir is a
suitable drug of choice in the management of chronic HBV

Zika virus is a mosquito transmitted flavivirus belongs to family Flaviviridae which became the focus of an ongoing pandemic and public health emergency all around the world. It is often misdiagnosed with other disease like Dengue and Chikungunya because of same clinical manifestation. After outbreak of ZIKV infection in Brazil in 2007, a severe neurological complications, Guillain-Barre syndrome and congenital malformations (microcephaly) suspected to be linked with ZIKV. The association between these conditions with Zika virus infection is still not confirmed and is under examination. Since ZIKV has neither an effective treatment nor a vaccine is available, therefore the public health authority focuses on preventing infection, particularly in pregnant women and virus transmitted region. World Health Organization and other health officials are working on the development of new projects and mosquito control methods to cope up with infection as there is very less literature present on the pathogenesis of the Zika virus to help interpret the clinical disease spectrum and target treatments to lessen or prevent infection. WHO/PAHO encourages the countries to establish and maintain Zika virus infection detection, clinical management and community assurance strategies to reduce transmission of the virus. The future status of ZIKV spreading to other parts of the world is still
unknown.

This study describes an erythema multiforme (EM) in breeding sows, after their mixing in the group housing system. Sows at 30-35 days of gestation showed red and raised skin areas, depression, anorexia, fever, respiratory problems, and increased return to estrus. Blood and nasal samples from diseased sows were examined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for respiratory pathogens. Hematological and biochemical analyses were performed on the blood samples. From diseased sows, vaginal swabs for microbiological examinations and samples at slaughterhouse for gross and microscopic examinations were collected. Samples from the complete gestation and lactation feed were examined for mycotoxins. All sampled sows were seropositive for Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (App) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). No viremia for PRRSV and porcine circovirus type 2 were detected. All nasal samples were positive for Streptococcu...

The potential threat of a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus has spurred the need to develop reliable countermeasures. Since the virus has yet to mutate into a form readily transmissible in humans, a cogent plan for MCMs and their distribution has yet to be put in place. The scientific community remains divided as to the best way to proceed, leaving some institutions to move forward on their own, sometimes in direct opposition to common sense.

In the present study, we initiated validation by experimental transcriptome data available
in public domain combined with advancing plant wet lab research. We compared plantadapted transcriptomes according to ‘RegroVirus’ complemented by alternative oxidase
(AOX) genes during de novo programming under SE-inducing conditions with in vitro
corona virus-induced transcriptome profiles. This approach enabled identifying a major
complex trait for early de novo programming during SARS-CoV-2 infection, called
‘CoV-MAC-TED’. It consists of unbalanced ROS/RNS levels, which are connected to
increased aerobic fermentation that links to alpha-tubulin-based cell restructuration and
progression of cell cycle.

Effective immunologic protection contributes to resilient behavior of higher organisms. It is essentially based on the diversity of innate and adaptive cell responses and cell memory tools (1–4). Immunologic responses are energy consuming and require efficient metabolic reprogramming. However, metabolic reorganization is only recently recognized as an integrated part of immunology (5–8). It is increasingly understood that plants and animals have similar responses and cell memory mechanisms to manage immunology (1, 3). These insights enable science to profit from experimental systems across organisms and to apply a higher degree of abstraction for gaining relevant knowledge on early reprogramming events that link to overall resilience.

Background Information and Aim: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a blood borne virus and responsible for a worldwide health problem with frequent occurrence and high prevalence of Hepatitis B surface Antigen (HBsAg). In this view, the present study was carried out to find out the incidence of seropositivity of HBsAg of healthy carriers and to assess the implication for horizontal transmission of HBV infection.

Materials and methods: The study was carried out among high risk group and normal population of Arcot area of Vellore district, Tamilnadu, India. The proforma sheet and blood samples were collected from the respondents and HBsAg screening was determined using one step HBsAg test manufactured by Bio Standard Diagnostics Pvt. Ltd., India.

Results: Among 300 samples, 100(33.3%) were high risk group while 200(66.7%) were normal population. Only six (6) were found to positive for HBsAg giving a seroprevalence of 5%.  For studying the possible implication for horizontal transmission of HBV, urine samples were collected from seropositive individuals and analysed by immunochromatographic member based assay(HEPA CARD) and ELISA(PATHOZYME) technique and found to negative for both immunological methods.

Conclusion: Overall, the study portrayed the incidence of seropositivity (5%) to HBsAg among normal and high risk individuals. In this pilot study an attempt had made to explore the implication for horizontal transmission of HBV. Finally awareness about disease and strict international guidelines should be followed in clinical laboratories for safety issues.

Keywords: Hepatitis B Virus, Immunological, Seropositivity, Serum, Transmission

In small ruminant lentivirus infections, cellular immune responses are diminished in clinically affected animals. The underlying mechanisms for this are unknown. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that alterations in expression of the co-stimulatory molecules B7-1 and B7-2 ...

Previous studies showed that DNA immunization of newborn mice with plasmids expressing influenza virus antigens induced protective immunity. We have now extended the study of neonatal responsiveness to DNA vaccines to nonhuman primates. Baboons immunized as neonates with plasmids expressing type A influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) and nucleoprotein (NP) in doses ranging from 40 microg to 1 mg per plasmid per dose developed virus-specific humoral responses. The titer and kinetics of appearance of virus-specific IgG antibodies were dose dependent. Specific antibodies were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) as early as 1 month after birth in baboons immunized with the highest and intermediate doses of vaccine. Virus-neutralizing antibodies were detected in the group of baboons immunized with the highest dose. The specificity of virus-neutralizing antibodies was found to be directed against homologous determinants of HA; however, the IgG antibodies also cross-reacted with HA of a drift variant. Thus, DNA vaccination of newborn baboons with a prototype vaccine against influenza virus resulted in induction of specific humoral immunity.

Filoviruses are highly lethal in humans and nonhuman primates, likely due to potent antagonism of host interferon (IFN) responses early in infection. Filoviral protein VP35 is implicated as the major IFN induction antagonist, while Ebola virus (EBOV) VP24 or Marburg virus (MARV) VP40 are known to block downstream IFN signaling. Despite progress elucidating EBOV and MARV antagonist function, those for most other filoviruses, including Reston (RESTV), Sudan (SUDV), Taï Forest (TAFV), Bundibugyo (BDBV) and Ravn (RAVV) viruses, remain largely neglected. Thus, using standardized vectors and reporter assays, we characterized activities by each IFN antagonist from all known ebolavirus and marburgvirus species side-by-side. We uncover noncanonical suppression of IFN induction by ebolavirus VP24, differing potencies by MARV and RAVV proteins, and intriguingly, weaker antagonism by VP24 of RESTV. These underlying molecular explanations for differential virulence in humans could guide future investigations of more-neglected filoviruses as well as treatment and vaccine studies.

Natural killer cells are important in innate defense against viral infections. The interplay between stimulatory and inhibitory natural killer cell receptors and their corresponding human leukocyte antigen ligands are known to influence the outcome of acute Hepatitis C virus infection. Frequencies of NK receptor genes (8 inhibitory, 6 activating and 2 pseudogenes) and HLA class II alleles (DRB1, DQB1) were