The Portable Mentor: Expert Guide to a Successful Career in Psychology

Part 1

Applying to Graduate School

Mitchell J. Prinstein (ed.)The Portable Mentor2nd ed. 2013Expert Guide to a Successful Career in Psychology10.1007/978-1-4614-3994-3_1© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

1. Before You Apply to Graduate Programs in Psychology: Knowing When You’re Ready and Gaining Postbaccalaureate Experiences

Casey D. Calhoun¹   and Mitchell J. Prinstein¹

(1)

Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Casey D. Calhoun

Email: cdcalhou@email.unc.edu

Abstract

Do you want to go to graduate school to study psychology? If so, when? These extremely important decisions can be very difficult to consider for undergraduate students who are interested in psychology as a potential focus for their career. Unfortunately, little information is available to guide students through this difficult decision, and even less seems to be available to help students navigate the time between the receipt of their undergraduate degree and the time they decide to apply (i.e., the postbaccalaureate years). This chapter focuses on the process of assessing one’s personal interests while maximizing postbaccalaureate learning experiences. First, it is important to think about whether to take time off from school before applying. Next, how does one get a postbacc research job? Last, how can one use these years most effectively to help inform an application decision? Note: this chapter is likely biased towards research-oriented options; however, most of the information may be relevant to students with more applied interests as well.

Do you want to go to graduate school to study psychology? If so, when? These extremely important decisions can be very difficult to consider for undergraduate students who are interested in psychology as a potential focus for their career. Unfortunately, little information is available to guide students through this difficult decision, and even less seems to be available to help students navigate the time between the receipt of their undergraduate degree and the time they decide to apply (i.e., the postbaccalaureate years). This chapter focuses on the process of assessing one’s personal interests while maximizing postbaccalaureate learning experiences. First, it is important to think about whether to take time off from school before applying. Next, how does one get a postbacc research job? Last, how can one use these years most effectively to help inform an application decision? Note: this chapter is likely biased towards research-oriented options; however, most of the information may be relevant to students with more applied interests as well.

Of course, before addressing each of these questions in detail, it is important to remind the reader that no single source of advice should be relied upon exclusively when making such difficult and personal decisions, including the advice in this chapter. Seek out information from people within your field of interest as well as from those who offer an outside perspective. Keep in mind during this process that opinions can sometimes be highly skewed and informants’ levels of enthusiasm and conviction can unjustly bias your predictions of personal happiness. Collect perspectives, compare them to your own, and make decisions with the acknowledgement of individual differences.

Given that the process of collecting perspectives and developing personal interests can take a substantial amount of time, it is recommended that students initiate the process early to make a well-informed decision about their choice of program and avoid taking multiple years off unnecessarily before applying to grad school. As an undergraduate, it is easy to become consumed by classes and avoid, or miss, additional opportunities to learn. However, time spent investigating the field before graduation will pay off in a more efficient decision-making process.

Should I Take Time Off?

You may be burnt out after 17 years of schooling. Your parents may be worried that you are delaying your career path by taking time away. You may not know what will look good on your application. Indeed, many factors may influence your decision regarding the postbacc years and whether to take time away from school before applying to doctoral programs in psychology. Yet, this is a very important decision. Graduate school (and even just the application process to get in) is a long, arduous, difficult endeavor.

Are You Ready Now?

Some students transition directly from undergraduate schooling to graduate programs and are very pleased with their decision. These well-prepared students have usually spoken with many people, worked in and outside of school to establish their interests, and have a good idea of what to expect in graduate school before applying. In other words, they have worked hard during their time as an undergraduate to develop their resume and determine which program best matches their interests. These students usually have identified an area of research that they are truly passionate about. It is something they could imagine spending every day thinking about for the next 40 years, and they are excited about the opportunity to get started now. They have a clear sense of a few possible careers options post-degree, and they are feeling energetic.

On the other hand, there are also students who make the direct transition from undergraduate to graduate school, and realize that they are not as happy as they had hoped. They often report that they got wrapped up in the application process, followed the crowd (i.e., falling in with departmental trends or those of lab mates), or hastily guessed their interests instead of adequately evaluating them. They may have been pressured by parents or scared to enter the real world. For these students, graduate school isn’t quite what they expected and/or isn’t quite as enjoyable as they had hoped.

Do You Want to Wait?

At many top graduate programs in psychology, a growing trend is evident. About 50% of short-listed applicants (a higher proportion each year, it seems) have taken a year or more off before applying to graduate school. Students who have taken time off to gain research experience also are somewhat overrepresented in the proportion of successful applicants who ultimately gain admission. Taking time off is not required, but it is becoming the norm. Why do students take time off? There are at least three good reasons. First, many students take time off to learn more about the field. Most students find that as they gain more experience, they generate more questions about the field, their own capabilities, and their own interests. Students interested in applied areas of psychology, for instance, may wish to get more experience working with people within the age range, diagnostic group, or in the setting that they believe they will be interested in.

Second, students take time off hoping to develop increased confidence that they will make the correct decision of graduate program. Taking time off won’t necessarily guarantee that you will make the correct decision when applying to graduate school, but it can help you make a better, more well-informed decision if you use the time wisely. Third, and perhaps most common, many students take time off to help improve the strength of their application. Indeed, it may be good for students to take time off if their GPA or GRE score is considerably lower than posted averages, and/or if they are applying to research-oriented programs but do not have adequate research experience (and/or do not know their personal research interests). In addition to these main reasons, many students simply take time off because they want to save money for graduate school, they are exhausted from their undergraduate studies, or they have another opportunity that seems too good to pass up (e.g., Teach for America, Peace Corps, etc).

Ultimately, students should realize that their graduate school application can always be improved and that they will never fully gain all of the knowledge that they need before applying. To some extent, the decision to apply eventually will require a leap of faith that is informed by previous experiences. The remainder of this chapter is dedicated towards a discussion of opportunities that are available during the postbacc years for students who have decided to take time off before applying to graduate school and would like to use that time most wisely.

What Should I Do During My Time Off?

If you decide that you need to acquire more knowledge and skills, or further explore your personal interests, there are various opportunities that may help you accomplish these goals. Such opportunities include volunteering, working as a research assistant, and attending national psychology conferences. A brief discussion of each opportunity is offered below.

Volunteer Positions

There are various ways to volunteer in the field of psychology, and the opportunity that someone chooses should depend on their personal goals and intentions for graduate school. Volunteer positions broadly include assisting with psychological research, working with specific populations in the community (e.g., special needs children, at-risk individuals, etc.), or assisting clinicians in their practice (these are more rare). Students interested in pursuing a research-oriented program in graduate school should primarily focus on gaining experience in research labs. Doing so will provide opportunity to more thoroughly develop your knowledge of the scientific process and, more specifically, how it applies to psychology (see the Research Assistant Positions section below for more details). Students interested in pursuing a more clinically oriented program (i.e., programs that focus more on working directly with and/or treating a specific population in the absence of a research training emphasis) may wish to gain experience primarily in applied clinical settings. In such clinical positions, volunteers are not expected to become an expert in treating people with psychological difficulties. Instead, they are often asked to provide basic treatment services, serve as advocates, intervene in crisis situations, or simply spend time with individuals afflicted with mental illness. These positions offer excellent opportunity for students to practice their rapport-building skills, begin to understand the life of a person with a mental illness, and develop passion for continuing to work in the field.

The term primarily was used above, when referring to the pursuit of research and clinical opportunities, because experience in each area (research and applied) offers invaluable information that supports the scientist–practitioner model of applied psychology. In other words, research-oriented students can become better researchers by gaining personal experience with the same populations that they plan to research, and clinically oriented students can become better clinicians by incorporating evidence-based methods of assessment and treatment into future practice. Admission committees do not always share this sentiment regarding the importance of acquiring both research and clinical volunteer experiences, but students generally find that each type of experience significantly contributes to the development of their interests and their eventual choice of graduate program.

The unique opportunities of volunteering are often overlooked, but in fact, there are several aspects of volunteer positions that do not necessarily apply to paid positions. These include: availability of positions, time commitment, and evaluation without compensation.

Availability of Positions

The first benefit of volunteer positions is that they are more readily available than paid positions. Students can generally find advertisements for available volunteer positions posted on bulletin boards in the psychology department or on the department’s website. Students may also contact local inpatient and outpatient treatment centers, crisis centers, mental health agencies, research centers, or individual researchers to inquire about volunteer positions. As students begin to narrow their interests, it is commonly found that paid positions offering experience in the particular area of interest are extremely rare and competitive. Additionally, those students who succeed in acquiring a paid position often have a great deal of volunteer experience and accompanying skill sets to reference during their interviews for the positions. In some situations, volunteer positions can even serve as preliminary screening for paid positions.

Time Commitment

Second, a student’s commitment to volunteer positions is more negotiable than time committed to paid positions. Unless you have made a commitment to work in a lab for a specified period of time, you can reassess your interests in the position after a preestablished period of time and choose to stay or move on to a different opportunity. Your commitment to the position should be clearly stated in the beginning so that if you decide to leave, you do so with early notification and respect for your supervisor. If after a semester, or a few months, you decide that you would like to pursue a different area of psychology, it is highly recommended that you follow your interests. A semester spent in a position deemed uninteresting is a semester that you could have spent testing out a different potential interest. Given that the majority of students want to take off as little time as possible, this can prove to be a more efficient way of determining which area you want to pursue at the graduate level. Along these lines, don’t make the mistake of guessing the topics that you will enjoy studying/researching in graduate school; pursue them fervently before applying.

Evaluation Without Compensation

A final benefit to volunteering is the substantial opportunity to stand out and make an impression. Supervisors and graduate school admissions committees are especially taken with someone who is excited and committed to working on a project when no direct compensation is offered. Similarly, the volunteer setting allows you to assess your own motivation about a particular area without the influence of a paycheck. To set yourself apart from other volunteers, it is important demonstrate initiative and go beyond the basic duties of the position. Be sure to demonstrate your commitment to detail, reliability, and knowledge about the particular area of research or clinical work. This will ensure that your performance and enjoyment for the project is being assessed under optimal conditions. Also, be aggressive in your development of skills. Try to master the simple tasks quickly so that you can advance to the more sought-after skills that are often a bit more difficult to acquire. A supervisor will not always explicitly offer such opportunities so sometimes it is necessary for you to ask if more advanced training or tasks are available. Additionally, keep in mind during your volunteer experience that you will most likely ask your supervisor to write a letter of recommendation for applications to other labs, jobs, and/or graduate school. The letter will be much more impressive if your supervisor can state that you excelled in your position and sought additional learning opportunities.

Research Assistant Positions

A postbaccalaureate research assistant (sometimes referred to as a postbacc, RA, or project coordinator) can refer to an employee or student who assists with one or multiple aspects of a research study. Note that some investigators may use these terms differently to refer to different roles within a similar project (sometimes a project coordinator is a postdoctoral fellow; sometimes an RA is an undergraduate assistant receiving course credit, etc.). Also note that different labs may have different constellations of RAs, PCs, postbaccs, etc. all working together, or in a hierarchical relationship among one another. For clarity in this chapter, we will refer to this kind of a position as an RA.

Finding an RA Position

As implied in the section above, paid RA positions can be more difficult to find and secure. Unfortunately, it is very rare that a study directly related to your area of interest will exist at your university (if so, then great!); it is even more rare that the study’s principal investigator will be hiring RAs. Therefore, when looking for a paid position that will help you accomplish your career goals, it is often necessary to broaden your scope and search for positions in different cities and universities. Of course not everyone is willing to move to a different location, and in this situation, you should seek out a local position that is most closely related to your interests. If a paid position is not available in an appealing lab, you can always volunteer in that lab and receive compensation from a different source, which is highly recommended for all of the reasons mentioned earlier.

There are several different methods for locating paid RA positions. Students with less well-defined interests, or those who are intent on staying in a particular geographic region, may want to begin by searching for RA positions on the human resources (HR) websites of universities and local research centers that they are willing to consider. Generally, HR websites will have a Jobs or Employment page that allows you to search for jobs specifically relating to research. Such a search is less likely to reveal positions that are a perfect match for a student’s specific interests, but positions in any research lab provide opportunity to become familiar with the scientific process and the general framework of research. Keep in mind that each university may have this type of position classified under a very specific job title (e.g., clinical research assistant, research cleric, etc.), and it may not be immediately obvious which types of jobs match the traditional RA position you are likely looking for.

Postbaccalaureate students with more well-defined interests, especially those who may be able and willing to relocate, would likely benefit most from conducting a much geographically broader, yet more content-specific search that begins by determining which researchers are currently conducting research in their line of interest. There are several ways to identity RA jobs; unfortunately, no centralized service is available to locate these coveted positions. However, there are several recommended steps one can take in their search for RA positions.

1.

The search should begin by entering your research interests as search parameters in PsycINFO. When reviewing the literature, note the researchers who appear multiple times in recent publications and those who are tied to the present theories relating to their particular area of interest; these are often the researchers who are conducting great research. Use the name list generated in PsycINFO to go a step further and search for personal or lab websites for each of the research faculty; here, the researcher may have the most current information on their ongoing research projects. It is possible that the current projects listed on the researcher’s website will remain highly related to your interests. On the other hand, it is also possible that the researcher is currently working on projects that are not as relevant to your interests. If the researcher does not have a website, or their website does not present information on current projects, it may be necessary to send a brief, professional email to gather more information about their current research.

2.

To find investigators that likely have current funds available to hire an RA, search the NIH REPORTER website. This database will offer a list of active NIH-funded grants by area, name, or even university.

3.

Investigators often post job ads on listservs sponsored by the professional society or association most closely aligned to their area of interest. Ask your professors to recommend professional societies that may be important for you to join so that you may subscribe to their listserv, or ask someone who may have extra time to forward you relevant postings from listservs they are on.

Professional Communication

When contacting professors, it is extremely important that students convey professionalism and maturity at all times. Professors often form initial impressions by considering the manner in which a student approaches them, the content of what the student says or writes, the effort the student puts forward, and the student’s excitement for working with them. A professor is much less likely to hire someone who sends an email with multiple spelling errors, grammatical mistakes, or obnoxious font or colors; this demonstrates a lack of effort, a lack of maturity, a lack of competence, or some combination of these factors (none of which are well-suited for the position). Similarly, a professor is not likely to form a favorable impression of a student who is disrespectful or demanding in an email. It often works in your best interest to have someone read through a draft of your emails to ensure their professionalism before you send them to a potential employer.

In short, emails should be polite and concise. Acknowledge that the professor receives many (sometimes hundreds) of emails daily and expect that the professor will likely not respond immediately. With this in mind, keep emails short and to the point. Introduce yourself, briefly express your interest in their research, and ask your question(s). In your self-introduction, state who you are (i.e., name and status) and your collegiate affiliation. It could also be helpful to mention your ties to previous faculty supervisors that the professor may know. If your previous supervisor has a collegial relationship with the professor you plan to email, you may ask him or her to send the professor a note prefacing your email; this may help to ensure that your email is acknowledged more quickly and that you are given consideration for available positions. Feel free to include your curriculum vitae (or resume) as an attachment to the email but do not list all of your accomplishments within the body of your message; if the professor wants to review your accolades and previous experiences, he or she can always review the attachment. After expressing interest in the professor’s research, politely ask if they could provide information on their current projects and/or if they may have any available paid RA positions. Avoid asking questions that are clearly answered on the professor’s website.

Interviewing for RA Positions

Interviews for RA positions are a great opportunity for a student to practice their interviewing skills for potential grad school interviews. For the interviews, bring your CV (or resume) and be prepared to answer questions about your previous experiences, why you want the position, and your career goals. Importantly, avoid the temptation to overstate your knowledge, and instead, confidently communicate your enthusiasm for the opportunity to learn.

Also, don’t forget to assess the supervisor and the position. You could ask questions about the requirements of the position, additional opportunities to excel (see below), time commitments (both regarding weekly hours and start/stop dates for the position), and compensation. Additionally, your intentions should be clearly stated upfront so that there is no confusion later; if you would like a position that offers advanced tasks (after mastering the more basic ones) or independent research projects, make sure that these opportunities exist and that the supervisor is aware of your determination to pursue them. At the conclusion of the interview, be sure to thank the supervisor for spending the time to consider you for the position; it is polite to send a follow-up email conveying your appreciation.

Duties of an RA

The duties of an RA vary greatly based on the requirements of a research study, the responsibility given to you by your supervisor, and your personal efforts to acquire knowledge and skills. RAs duties could include: conducting literature reviews, drafting/submitting IRB applications (i.e., ensuring that your study meets the ethical requirements dictated by your school’s Institutional Review Board), administering therapies (i.e., drug or psychological), leading subjects/participants through an experimental or observational protocol, collecting data, managing data, coding data (i.e., transforming observed behaviors, written statements, and other interpretive constructs into quantitative variables), developing coding systems, conducting statistical analyses, and assisting with the dissemination of findings (in posters, presentations, or manuscripts). For research involving human participants, RAs may have the additional responsibilities of recruiting participants, scheduling lab visits, arranging participant compensation, or assisting with measure/survey development. Data collection in human-based research often involves administering surveys or measures, collecting physiological or observational data, or conducting clinical assessments. RAs in animal-based research may have the additional responsibilities of providing animal care and performing medical procedures necessary for their particular field of study. The RA duties mentioned here are certainly not an exhaustive list. The needs, goals, and protocols of every lab are variable and require RAs to perform different, and sometimes exceptionally unique, duties for each project.

While performing your duties as an RA, take note of any aspects of research that are particularly difficult for you. Once you have determined your problem areas, you should confidently seek out support. Self-assessment, paired with the ability to ask for help, will be very important as you continue to progress in the field. Additionally, while some of the complexities of research are initially overwhelming, don’t let this scare you away! You will find that most research processes follow a written or unwritten (i.e., generally understood) set of guidelines. Once you learn these guidelines, the research process becomes less intimidating.

The same recommendations regarding work ethic and development of personal interests mentioned in the volunteer section apply to RA positions as well. In addition to those recommendations, RAs should work to build their resume, assess their general interest in psychological research, and refine their interests. For research-oriented students who are building their CV, it is highly recommended that students take part in the development, reporting, and presentation or publication of a research project. Presentations mostly include posters or papers presented at national or regional psychology conferences; the formats for these presentations vary by conference (see the National/Regional Psychology Conferences section below). Although you may have the fortunate opportunity to assist with the presentation or publication of another person’s research project, you should eventually strive to conduct your own independent research project. For a personal research project, you could analyze archival data (i.e., a preexisting dataset), insert measures into an ongoing research project, or design a study that is solely dedicated to answering your specific research questions. Admission committees of research-oriented graduate programs are especially impressed with students who have demonstrated the ability to undergo the full scientific process, from idea conception to the presentation of findings. In any case, being involved with a presentation or publication is almost always a result of a student’s persistence in pursuing such options.

As an RA, students should ultimately determine if they would like to remain in the world of psychological research or pursue psychology from a different perspective (e.g., policy maker or clinician). If, at some point, you conclude that you have a passion for psychological research and want to pursue it further, the next step is to determine which area of research is most appealing to you. During the application process, your specific research interests and questions will most likely inform your decisions of where to apply and with whom you would like to work. Narrowing one’s interests can be difficult for some students as their interests may be multifaceted and broadly conceived. However, specific areas of interest can often be found by searching for common themes existing across all potential interests and identifying a general research question, or set of questions, that you would like to attempt to answer in your personal research. Importantly, as an RA, you should not feel obligated to find an interest that perfectly aligns with the goals of the lab that has employed you. In fact, you may realize after testing your interests in a lab that the research on a topic was not as interesting or rewarding as you had hoped. In this case, you should test out other interests and continue working to develop your interests.

National/Regional Psychology Conferences

In addition to the time you may spend engaged in volunteer or paid research assistant positions, another important opportunity during your time off is to attend conferences in psychology. The general purpose of psychology conferences is to keep researchers, students, clinicians, and the public current with the field through continuing education, discussion/debate of current topics, and dissemination of recent advances in research. Conferences are recommended for all students planning to apply to graduate school as they provide information that is useful for both researchers and clinicians. Further, conferences can positively influence students’ motivation and excitement for becoming an active member of the field. Although conferences focusing on special topics or populations are certainly available (you should ask researchers who specialize in your field of interest which ones they recommend), some excellent conferences that broadly focus on many areas of psychology include APA (American Psychological Association, http:​/​/​www.​apa.​org/​) and APS (Association for Psychological Science, http:​/​/​www.​psychologicalsci​ence.​org/​).

Conferences offer several types of presentations. Poster sessions are generally housed in an auditorium or large room and are organized by topic; many people (30+) present posters during a single session. A poster is simply a condensed summary of a research study that communicates the general purpose, results, and significance of the study. Symposia are slide-driven presentations that are given by a smaller group of researchers (typically 5–8) who are conducting research on a shared topic; these presentations are more selective and reserved for the presentation of more high-quality studies. Clinical round tables consist of a panel of experts who discuss/debate current issues relevant to a specific topic in psychology. There are other types of presentation formats (which you can view on the conference websites), but these are the ones that are generally the most informative for students.

Students are not necessarily required to be a presenter to attend some conferences; however, others are more restrictive and may only allow certain groups (e.g., members only, presenters, and guests only) to attend. During all conference activities, your attire should be professional. Costs of attendance often include membership (sometimes not required), registration, flight, hotel (can be divided with colleagues/peers), ground transportation, poster printing, meals, and of course, souvenirs.

As with all learning opportunities, your experience at a conference can be much more valuable if you take advantage of everything it has to offer. Some of the opportunities offered by conferences are obvious, but others are more subtle. A few benefits are reviewed below.

Current Information

Obviously, conferences provide current information about the field. The research presentations mostly represent studies that were conducted more recently and are intended for publication (or were just published). Often, the data presented at conferences precede publications, and as such, attendees sometimes receive a sneak peak at what will be published in upcoming journals. Equally informative, discussions of current topics give attendees more insight as to the current concerns and directions for clinical work, training programs, career development, legislature related to psychology, and the general information structure of the field (i.e., efficient methods for sharing information). This knowledge will be useful as students determine which area of psychology is appropriate for their interests and preferences. Further, with knowledge of the current trends in psychology, students will be better prepared to conduct innovative research, or implement more empirically based treatments with a clinical population while in graduate school. Note that many professional associations keep prior conference agendas on their website long after the conference has completed. If you missed a conference, you can still learn a great deal about the field, recent research, and active researchers by reviewing the old conference agendas.

Reputable Presenters

Conference presenters include researchers, clinicians, and/or political figures who have great influence and have significantly contributed to the field. When sitting in on their presentations, students can begin to appreciate the effort and dedication that these individuals have exerted during their time as an active member of the psychological community. Their opinions are often the result of continued (decades-long in some cases) discussions, debates, and personal efforts to improve the science and/or practice of psychology. As a result, attendees receive information that is highly intellectual and thoroughly contemplated. During the experts’ presentations, pay close attention to their programmatic way of thinking about the information that they present. More often than not, success in psychological research is accomplished with studies that smoothly integrate preexisting theories with novel ideas or new perspectives.

Grad School Representatives

At conferences, potential graduate school applicants can observe, meet, and evaluate faculty and students from prospective universities. Upon registering for a conference, you will receive a conference program that includes the schedule of presentations and presenters. Look through the program and identify any faculty and students who can provide you with useful information about each university’s psychology program. Try to attend their presentations so that you can get a feel for their current projects or general lines of interest.

For research-oriented students, who could possibly have one mentor during graduate school, presentations can be especially useful and give them a feel for their potential mentor’s personality, enthusiasm for research, and interactive style; all of which could possibly foreshadow their life as a graduate student under their supervision. If you choose to interact with a potential mentor, be mindful of how you present yourself and what you choose to say. We highly recommend interacting with a prospective mentor if, and only if, you have something important to say, or ask, that is relevant to their presentation or line of research. Remember, this will be your first impression so you want to come across as knowledgeable, confident (not arrogant), and appropriate, both in content and in the timing of your interaction. Regarding the timing of your interaction, it is important to keep in mind that the person may have many people wanting to speak with them. Also, during your conversation, don’t feel obligated to announce that you are planning to apply to work with him or her. In fact, you should avoid approaching a potential mentor with the sole intention of stating your plans to apply; instead, your intention should be to gather useful information about the person, their research, or their area of expertise. Announce your plans to apply only when, and if, the timing is appropriate (e.g., the conversation becomes directed towards your interests/status in the field). In conversations with graduate students, it is more appropriate to ask questions about their respective graduate programs and discuss their overall levels of satisfaction. But, again, the primary focus should be to gain information about the grad student’s research and the ongoing projects in their lab.

The Language of Science

Whether you are presenting your own research or discussing research with a presenter, you should attempt to develop your scientific ­language. This language is difficult to acquire and speak fluently so any opportunity to practice should be welcomed. Developing your scientific discussion skills will increase your credibility both in future research discussions and in graduate school interviews. Importantly, there are several things to avoid when speaking the language of science. First, avoid sounding arrogant and overusing technical jargon. Strive to balance necessary scientific lingo with more common terminology so that you appear knowledgeable but also easily comprehensible. Second, don’t overstate your knowledge. Instead, admit your lack of knowledge about a topic, remain confident, and at the same time communicate your enthusiasm for learning new information. Lastly, be positive and nonconfrontational. Bad impressions can easily be made with snide remarks, harsh criticism, and negative outlooks. Acknowledge the need for improvements in the field, but do so with respect for those who have dedicated their lives to the progression of psychology.

Final Remarks

Hopefully the information contained in this chapter will be useful as you determine your career path in the field of psychology. Please acknowledge that the content presented is intended to be more suggestive than directive as every individual’s path could and should be unique. Examining your interests, seeking out multiple perspectives, and thoughtfully considering your preferences and abilities during this transitional phase will serve you well in choosing the most appropriate program to suit your interests and career aspirations. Good luck!

Mitchell J. Prinstein (ed.)The Portable Mentor2nd ed. 2013Expert Guide to a Successful Career in Psychology10.1007/978-1-4614-3994-3_2© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

2. Deciding to Apply and Successfully Gaining Admission to Graduate Schools in Psychology

Mitchell J. Prinstein¹  , Sophie C. Choukas-Bradley¹ and Karen Guan¹

(1)

Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Mitchell J. Prinstein

Email: prinstein@unc.edu

Abstract

Psychology is the most popular major on a large proportion of college campuses. Many thousands of students apply to graduate schools with hopes of pursuing a career in the science or practice of mental health services. Yet, as compared to other types of graduate programs (e.g., law, medicine), remarkably little information is available to help students determine the career path that offers the best match to their interests. Specific practical advice on how to successfully navigate the application process also is lacking.

Excerpts of this chapter are reprinted from Mitch’s Uncensored Advice for Applying to Graduate School in Clinical Psychology with permission from Mitch Prinstein, Ph.D.

Psychology is the most popular major on a large proportion of college campuses. Many thousands of students apply to graduate schools with hopes of pursuing a career in the science or practice of mental health services. Yet, as compared to other types of graduate programs (e.g., law, medicine), remarkably little information is available to help students determine the career path that offers the best match to their interests. Specific practical advice on how to successfully navigate the application process also is lacking.

This chapter is designed to provide an overview of different types of possible career options in the behavioral sciences and mental health industry. Especially detailed information is provided for the most common option in the world of psychology doctoral programs: the clinical psychology doctoral (Ph.D.) program.

An important disclaimer should be mentioned here. The text in this chapter focuses mostly on our opinions and impressions of the current state of the field and of the application process for psychology graduate programs. In no way should this informal advice be used to replace actual data or specific information provided by professional organizations in the mental health field, individual doctoral programs, or even advice from other professionals. We feel best prepared to comment on Ph.D. programs in clinical psychology, especially those that subscribe to the scientist–practitioner or clinical science models of training. Our experience is exclusively with the admission processes and training goals of these types of programs, and we cannot speak directly to programs that have adopted distinctly different training models. We also have relatively less experience with training programs in nonclinical subdisciplines of psychology. In many places, we have offered links to websites that can provide more detailed information.

Do You Really Want To Be a Psychologist?

When students ask us for professional development advice regarding graduate school, they usually have already determined that they would like to apply to doctoral programs in psychology. Very often, students are interested in clinical psychology. Indeed, applications to clinical psychology programs often outnumber applications to all other types of psychology doctoral programs combined. At many universities, clinical doctoral programs receive 100–600 applications. Far fewer apply to programs in developmental, social, cognitive, biological, and quantitative psychology programs, roughly in descending order of popularity. This apparent preference for clinical psychology often is based on students’ general desire to work as a therapist, perhaps in a private practice type of setting (e.g., a home office or group practice). Sometimes, students will state an interest in research. Other times, students might indicate that they are somewhat afraid of statistics and turned off by the idea of writing a dissertation.

We would say that these impressions of the field of clinical psychology, and of the training activities included during graduate school, are somewhat accurate, but in some ways quite inaccurate. An accurate and thorough description of the field of clinical psychology is somewhat difficult to articulate because the field is changing quite dramatically and quickly. Nevertheless, we think it is important to briefly reconsider what your career goals are (or at least what you are not interested in) before talking about graduate applications and deciding on the type of doctoral program that is the best match. We divide this portion of the chapter into two sections: a discussion of careers that include the option for clinical practice and a discussion of careers that do not involve work as a practitioner.

Careers with a Practice Option

Let us assume that you know that you are interested in gaining training as a practitioner and you are intrigued by the mental health field. There are then at least six different mental health fields and many different graduate degrees available to you to pursue these interests. The differences between these fields and degrees are quite dramatic. Each involves somewhat distinct training expectations and opportunities as well as different types of career activities.

Are you interested in research? Teaching? Practicing (e.g., offering therapy or conducting assessments)? Consulting? Mentoring students? Working with young children? Adolescents? Do you want to work in a hospital? A university? A teaching college? An elementary or secondary school? A business corporation? Who will your colleagues be?

What kind of job stability do you want? What salary? A consistent salary or one based on billable hours?

How many years are you willing to dedicate towards training? Are you willing to move, perhaps several times, in order to complete all aspects of training?

Not sure yet? Keep reading for more details about which options may be a good match.

You can also find resources on the Careers page of the American Psychological Association’s website: http:​/​/​www.​apa.​org/​careers/​resources/​guides/​careers.​aspx.

We will offer some brief descriptions (and links) to discuss the six fields below. These fields are summarized in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1

Subfields of psychology with a practice component

1.

Social Work (Terminal Master’s or Doctoral degree)

2.

School Psychology (Terminal Master’s or Doctoral degree)

3.

Master’s in General Psychology (note: work as an independent practitioner rarely is possible with this option)

4.

Counseling Psychology (Doctoral degree)

5.

Child Psychiatry (Medical degree)

6.

Clinical Psychology (Doctoral degree)

For doctoral degrees in clinical psychology, we also will offer some comments on the choice between a Ph.D. degree and a Psy.D. degree.

Social Work

What do social workers do? The Master’s in Social Work (MSW) is a very versatile degree. Social workers can be involved in many different types of careers and settings. Visit the websites of the National Association of Social Workers (http:​/​/​www.​naswdc.​org/​ and http:​/​/​www.​helpstartshere.​org/​). As you will see on these websites, the many fields within social work include: Social Caseworkers (also known as case managers, work within health and community service settings to coordinate the resources received by individuals and their families), Medical Social Workers (work with a variety of patients and their families in health care facilities), School Social Workers (work in school settings to provide emotional and structural support to facilitate students’ education), Clinical Social Workers (work in mental health care settings to provide therapy and counseling), Administration and Management (organize and superintend larger structures that offer social services), Community Organization (collaborate with members of the community to address gaps within existing service systems), Social Policy and Research (engage in research to identify social issues and develop policies to address those issues).

What is the training like? Although you can obtain a doctorate in social work (DSW or Ph.D.), it is completely possible to be an autonomous, practicing social worker with a Master’s degree. With only 2 years of schooling (plus an internship), it also can be a quick way to get into the workforce. Master’s programs generally can accept a much higher proportion of applicants for admission than doctoral programs (in either social work or psychology); thus, it is somewhat easier to gain admission if going this route.

School Psychology

What do school psychologists do? The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP; http:​/​/​www.​nasponline.​org/​) has a great website that describes the field, the roles, and the salaries of school psychologists. School psychologists generally are focused on helping children succeed in the school setting, both academically and emotionally. Most work in a school setting. Their work can involve individual consultation with children and families, designing programs to assist teachers with specialized classroom instruction needs, and program development to help train basic skills like anger management and social skills. In these ways, school psychologists are like the ambassadors of psychology in a school setting. When a child is experiencing difficulties, if there is a crisis in the school (e.g., trauma, death), or if administrators are setting a policy that will affect children’s educational lives, school psychologists are there to ensure that psychological well-being is maintained and to help educate other professionals on children’s psychological needs or limitations.

Another major task for many school psychologists is to conduct assessments of children’s academic and social–emotional functioning. Every child who may be eligible for giftedness placement, or for learning disability (LD) services, needs to be evaluated using standardized assessments. School psychologists typically are the only professionals within the school setting with the training to administer and interpret these types of standardized assessments. LD evaluations in particular have important implications not only for children but also for school policy and funding. Public law mandates that children receive the services they need to obtain an adequate education, and each child meeting LD criteria must have an individualized educational plan developed and evaluated periodically. School psychologists often serve the lead role in this endeavor.

What is the training like? You may have heard that to practice as a psychologist, you must have a doctoral degree. That is true for all fields except school psychology. School psychologists can be hired with a Master’s degree (plus a yearlong internship). This may be, in part, because there is a tremendous shortage of school psychologists working in the USA, and the field is reducing barriers to getting new, bright students into the profession! Keep in mind, however, that Master’s-level school psychologists are not able to practice autonomously; but they can be hired and even tenured within a public school system (e.g., elementary, middle, or high school).

Master’s in General Psychology

What is the master’s in general psychology? There are not too many terminal Master’s programs in psychology left, but those that exist offer a nice option for students who wish to gain advanced experience in psychology before pursuing a doctoral degree. Each Master’s program varies in its training goals. However, many offer graduate coursework and require the completion of a Master’s thesis to obtain a degree. Programs typically last 1–2 years.

There are benefits and drawbacks to the terminal Master’s degree. The good news is that this is an opportunity for structured education in psychology. The coursework is taught at the graduate level and may even include some specialty work (e.g., training in clinical psychology specifically). The Master’s thesis offers an opportunity to learn more about psychological research. Students who did not major in psychology during their undergrad years, had a low GPA in college, or who feel like their interests are not yet well-developed, may find this structured educational opportunity enormously helpful.

Unfortunately, the terminal Master’s degree in itself does not offer many career options. It should be noted that many doctoral programs in psychology offer a Master’s degree en route to the doctoral degree. Thus, within the 4–6 years of doctoral training, a Master’s thesis may be required, and the degree will be granted—somewhat marking the half-way point of doctoral training. The terminal Master’s degree is different. Many students in terminal Master’s programs go on to a doctoral program. Some of these doctoral programs will credit the time in the terminal Master’s program towards the doctoral training requirements (e.g., some courses or the need to write a new thesis may be waived). However, other doctoral programs will not waive requirements; thus, there is the potential for some repetition in training. A final drawback pertains to the cost of training. Many schools will charge tuition for terminal Master’s training. In contrast, most Ph.D. doctoral programs in psychology waive tuition and typically offer a stipend. Thus, for students who are certain that they are interested in doctoral training and can gain admission into a Ph.D. program, the terminal Master’s may not always be a wise option. However, for other students, this can be a very valuable experience!

Counseling Psychology

What is counseling psychology? The American Psychological Association’s Division 17 is specifically focused on Counseling Psychology. This division’s website has a section specifically dedicated to students with pertinent information (http:​/​/​www.​div17.​org/​students.​html).

A long time ago, a clear distinction between clinical psychology and counseling psychology was offered. The field of clinical psychology was meant to address serious mental illness, such as any of the disorders that might be found in the DSM. In contrast, counseling psychology sometimes was referred to as a field that addressed normal people with normal problems, often including vocational counseling.

This distinction remains somewhat true, but the boundaries between clinical and counseling psychology are certainly a bit more blurred. Both require a doctoral degree for independent work. Both are referred to among the public as therapists or psychologists. And few potential clients discriminate between the fields when selecting a therapist. A great many clinical psychologists primarily offer counseling to clients with no obvious DSM symptoms. Counseling psychologists also have substantial contact with individuals who meet criteria for some specific disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, substance use, and eating disorders, for instance).

Counseling psychologists may work in private practice; they also often work in counseling centers (e.g., College Student Mental Health Services, Community Clinics, Community Mental Health Centers). Some counseling psychologists also work in academia as professors or clinical supervisors in counseling psychology graduate programs. Counseling psychologists also can conduct and interpret assessments.

To a large extent, counseling psychologists and counseling graduate training programs are less heavily involved in research activities than are clinical psychologists. Counseling psychologists also are less likely to work as professors within university departments of psychology or as instructors in undergraduate classes (but they may work in schools or departments of education). As compared to clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists also are less likely to work with severe forms of mental illness, such as autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, etc. See the web link above for more information on counseling psychology, its mission, and training emphases.

What is the training like? Like clinical psychology, counseling psychology requires a doctoral degree. Doctoral programs typically require 4–6 years to complete in addition to a yearlong internship. A dissertation is required, although the research expectations for this project sometimes are lower as compared to the clinical psychology dissertation. Counseling programs often involve more coursework and practical than clinical psychology programs.

Psychiatry

As you may already be aware, the fields of psychiatry and clinical psychology have some overlap in the types of patients or clients who are seen, the types of services offered, and the types of settings in which members of these professions may work. However, several prominent differences exist between psychiatrists and clinical psychologists; these are briefly outlined here.

First, psychiatry is a medical specialty requiring a medical degree (MD), an internship, and a residency (and sometimes a fellowship as well). In contrast, clinical psychologists obtain a doctorate degree (either Ph.D. or Psy.D.) in clinical psychology and complete an internship and an additional year of supervised clinical experience before obtaining licensure.

Second, psychiatry has traditionally focused on the use of psychotropic medications more than psychosocial treatments (e.g., therapy) to ameliorate mental health symptoms, while the opposite is true for clinical psychology. Many psychiatrists do conduct therapy, although some may use a somewhat different approach that relies on a different theoretical discipline than is emphasized in clinical psychology. Likewise, some states in the USA now are allowing clinical psychologists to obtain prescription authority. Within the next decade, many psychologists may live in regions that will allow them to prescribe medications to their clients. However, psychologists’ training regarding medications will likely be less thorough in scope than the training offered within psychiatry programs.

Third, the majority of clinical psychology training programs adopt a scientist–practitioner or clinical science training model. This model emphasizes both the science and practice of psychology based on the premise that these educational experiences reciprocally inform one another and are conjointly needed to produce a qualified professional. In contrast, training models in psychiatry typically do not subscribe to scientist–practitioner models; few involve research training or activities.

Clinical Psychology Ph.D. Degree

Many describe the clinical psychology Ph.D. degree as one of the most versatile graduate degrees available. Clinical psychologists with a Ph.D. degree are qualified to work as practicing clinicians, professors in academia conducting research or teaching, consultants, and supervisors to other mental health professionals.

As described above, clinical psychologists often are trained in scientist–practitioner programs (often referred to as the Boulder model of training). However, this model often causes some confusion among students evaluating career options. In a scientist–practitioner model (or the distinct clinical science model, see below), students are trained as both researchers and practitioners. In other words, in addition to the research expertise required to complete a Master’s thesis and dissertation, students’ experiences include many clinical hours conducting assessments and therapy in a variety of structured, supervised clinical placements to develop practitioner skills. Doctoral Ph.D. programs almost exclusively are located within university departments of psychology that employ clinical psychology professors who themselves are dedicated largely towards research and teaching endeavors. Thus, many clinical psychology Ph.D. students feel that they receive excellent exposure to research experiences during graduate school, and perhaps even implicit pressure to pursue a research-oriented career following graduate studies. Indeed, many graduate programs specifically examine graduate applications for information confirming an interest in research.

Yet, the majority of graduates of clinical psychology Ph.D. programs nevertheless pursue careers that involve primarily practitioner experiences. This raises a common question regarding the pursuit of a Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology: Is this the best option for you if you are not at all interested in research?

The short answer is: No. But a longer answer is necessary.

The scientist–practitioner model is based on the idea that clinical psychologists should have expertise in both science and practice. It also is based on the idea that education in both areas is necessary to be fully competent in either. The model suggests that a psychologist who is unable to critically evaluate theories and methods related to practice will be inadequate as a clinician. Similarly, a researcher who has not had exposure to actual clients experiencing psychopathology will be unable to develop and test appropriate hypotheses regarding psychological symptoms or treatment.

An apt analogy may come from a description of graduate training in law. Many who have pursued a law degree state that the curriculum is not specifically designed to teach trial room strategies or jury selection techniques, etc., but rather, that graduate training is meant to help students learn to think like a lawyer.

Doctoral Ph.D. training often is based on the idea that students must learn to think like a psychologist. This means that students must be extremely comfortable with the scientific method, including the generation of hypotheses, the development of standardized procedures that can be used to evaluate these hypotheses, and the ability to draw appropriate conclusions that may inform future hypotheses. These skills are necessary not only for research endeavors but also when interacting in a therapeutic context. Case conceptualization skills involve a similar set of procedures as described above, and it is this approach that necessitates dual training as a scientist–practitioner during graduate school in clinical psychology. Unlike law school, however, graduate school in clinical psychology involves direct application of coursework learning in real-world situations. Within a year of admission in most programs, clinical psychology graduate students will begin seeing clients, conducting assessments, and offering treatment (all with supervision, of course).

Thus, the reason why many Ph.D. graduate programs emphasize and even select students who are interested in research is because it is believed that research training helps students develop the critical thinking skills that are needed in any activity as a clinical psychologist.

Having said this, it is important to note that research training is a major emphasis of the graduate curriculum (including a Master’s thesis, dissertation, etc.). Students who do not enjoy research or the research process will not be happy graduate students. Students who do not anticipate any openness to the possibility of conducting research in their careers, even if only as a small proportion of their job responsibilities, also may not be a good match for Ph.D. training. It is important to be very honest with yourself at this stage in your professional development. The Ph.D. application process is somewhat arduous, and graduate training can be demanding. It is very important to carefully determine whether this is a good match for you.

The Clinical Science Option in Clinical Psychology

Although most doctoral programs in clinical psychology have adopted the Boulder Model or Scientist–Practitioner Model of training, an increasing number of programs have adopted a philosophy that emphasizes scientific training above clinical practice. Specifically, these programs have a unified commitment emphasizing the promotion, training, and dissemination of clinical psychology as a scientific discipline. Clinical science programs therefore emphasize training in evidence-based treatments (i.e., those that have substantial evidence supporting their efficacy) and offer opportunities for students to gain exceptionally strong training in cutting-edge research methods. Many of the philosophies of the clinical science movement are reflected in the writings of Dr. Dick McFall, which can be found through the website of the Society for a Science of Clinical Psychology (SSCP), in the About the Society section: http:​/​/​sites.​google.​com/​site/​sscpwebsite/​Home/​manifesto-for-a-science-of-clinical-psychology. Clinical psychology programs that have successfully adopted a clinical science training perspective are members of the Academy of Psychological Clinical Science; a list of these programs can be found on the Members page of the Academy’s website: http:​/​/​acadpsychclinica​lscience.​org/​index.​php?​page=​members. The astute student may notice that Academy member programs also are among the most popular in the country, receiving perhaps more applications than non-Academy programs on average. Clinical science programs are believed to produce more graduates who pursue academic careers in clinical psychology and who are more likely to offer evidence-based treatment options to their clients in practice.

Research and Clinical Work in Clinical Psychology

Perhaps you still are unsure whether you are interested in research or you would like to know more about different possibilities for research activity in clinical psychology. This section discusses three clinical psychology subfields that offer distinct opportunities for research and clinical work.

Most clinical psychology programs offer experiences that could be broadly categorized as fitting the subfields of Clinical Child/Adolescent, Clinical Adult, or Clinical Health Psychology (or combinations, such as Child Health Psychology). Some programs have specific tracks or concentrations in these subfields, and some offer more varied experiences across two or more of these areas in a more generalist training model. A brief description of each is included below.

Clinical Child/Adolescent Psychology

Clinical child/adolescent psychology generally is concerned with psychopathology among youth, such as the types of disorders that are discussed in the DSM. Note: although many refer to the field using the term clinical child psychology, research and clinical work usually involves exposure to youth at all developmental levels, including infants, toddlers, school-aged youth, and adolescents. Clinical child/adolescent psychologists may work as practitioners, work in academia as professors, or work in a variety of settings (e.g., universities, medical centers, counseling centers) in which research, teaching, and/or clinical work is possible.

Examples of clinical child/adolescent psychology research and clinical work: Much of the work done by clinical child/adolescent psychologists can be organized into general themes of psychological symptoms:

Externalizing disorders (e.g., conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, ADHD)

Internalizing disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression)

Mental retardation and pervasive developmental disorders (e.g., autism)

Serious mental illness (e.g., childhood schizophrenia, bipolar disorder)

For each disorder, there are bodies of literature that examine:

(a)

Causes and consequences of symptoms, including (1) the study of individual biological, cognitive, and social factors that may