Sports

15 pages, 1095 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chaos Caused by Different Cutoff Dates: Relative Age Effects and Redshirting in Collegiate Volleyball in the United States

by Grace Redman, Scott Pierce and Adam Leigh Kelly

Sports 2025, 13(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020053 - 11 Feb 2025

Abstract

Relative Age Effects (RAEs) are a phenomenon in athletics related to an over-representation of individuals born closer to an arbitrary cutoff date. Such effects have been shown in many different countries, levels of play, and contexts, although they are yet to be studied [...] Read more.

Relative Age Effects (RAEs) are a phenomenon in athletics related to an over-representation of individuals born closer to an arbitrary cutoff date. Such effects have been shown in many different countries, levels of play, and contexts, although they are yet to be studied in volleyball within the United States, which is the second most popular high school girls’ sport and the fastest growing high school and college sport for males. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine RAEs in college volleyball. Publicly available data were collected from the websites of women’s Division I program (n = 1253) and men’s Division I/II (n = 164). Chi-squared goodness of fit tests were used to compare birth rate distributions. Data accounted for gender, school and club cutoff dates, athletic timing, and redshirt status. Results showed RAEs were strongest in women on-time school group. Interestingly, reverse effects were observed (i.e., an overrepresentation of relatively younger athletes) for delayed school volleyball players, but this expected trend was not observed in the redshirt group. On-time women’s club group showed academic timing was a significant contributor towards RAEs, whilst these effects were strongest for the on-time school group in men. Full article

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30 pages, 1752 KiB

Open AccessReview

Exercise Modalities for Improving Frontal Plane Knee and Foot Posture in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review

by Gülsüm Mandir Cömert and Markus Gruber

Sports 2025, 13(2), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020052 - 11 Feb 2025

Viewed by 191

Abstract

Lower extremity misalignments increase the risk of chronic overload and acute injuries during sports and daily activities. Medial positioning of the knee and foot in the frontal plane is one of the key biomechanical risk factors associated with lower extremity injuries and pain. [...] Read more.

Lower extremity misalignments increase the risk of chronic overload and acute injuries during sports and daily activities. Medial positioning of the knee and foot in the frontal plane is one of the key biomechanical risk factors associated with lower extremity injuries and pain. Different exercise interventions have been implemented to counteract misalignments. However, most studies have been conducted on clinical populations. Therefore, in this review, we aimed to assess the preventive effects of exercise interventions on frontal plane knee and foot posture in healthy individuals. Electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, PEDro) were systematically searched for original articles published between 2008 and 2024. This review included clinical trials on healthy adults (18–45 years) with or without lower extremity biomechanical misalignments, examining the effects of exercise interventions alone on knee and foot frontal plane biomechanics. Eligible studies reported at least one relevant frontal plane foot and knee biomechanical measure, such as knee valgus/abduction, medial knee displacement, foot pronation/eversion, or navicular drop. Studies involving non-exercise interventions, single-session protocols, and participants with neurological or spinal disorders, pain, or injury were excluded. A total of 35 articles with 1095 participants were included in this review. A total of 20 studies included individuals without a biomechanical misalignment, and 15 studies focused on individuals with a biomechanical misalignment. Mean values, standard deviations, and p-values were extracted from the included studies. Effect sizes and confidence intervals were then calculated to provide a quantitative presentation of the data. In conclusion, in healthy individuals without biomechanical misalignment, technique training and core muscles strengthening were most effective for improving knee valgus. Hip, core, and foot muscle strengthening reduced foot pronation in those with pronated feet, while short foot exercises improved foot positioning in individuals with flat feet. Combining lower extremity strengthening with knee position control training may reduce knee valgus in individuals with increased knee valgus. Full article

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12 pages, 857 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Correlations Between Body Composition and Aerobic Fitness in Elite Female Youth Water Polo Players

by Mark Zamodics, Mate Babity, Gusztav Schay, Tamas Leel-Ossy, Agnes Bucsko-Varga, Panka Kulcsar, Regina Benko, Dora Boroncsok, Alexandra Fabian, Adrienn Ujvari, Zsuzsanna Ladanyi, Dorottya Balla, Hajnalka Vago, Attila Kovacs, Eva Hosszu, Szilvia Meszaros, Csaba Horvath, Bela Merkely and Orsolya Kiss

Sports 2025, 13(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020051 - 10 Feb 2025

Viewed by 288

Abstract

Body composition and cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) are vital for optimizing sports performance, but the correlations between them are still underexplored. Our study aimed to investigate the relationships between body composition and specific CPET variables describing physical fitness in young athletes, also adjusting [...] Read more.

Body composition and cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) are vital for optimizing sports performance, but the correlations between them are still underexplored. Our study aimed to investigate the relationships between body composition and specific CPET variables describing physical fitness in young athletes, also adjusting for age and height, in a less-studied, female population. Seventy players participated in our study (age: 16.10 ± 1.63 y). After determining body composition using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, we conducted treadmill-based maximal-intensity CPET. Data were analyzed in R using multivariate linear regression, accounting for age and height as confounders. Lean body mass (LBM), body fat mass (BFM), and bone mineral content (BMC) showed no effect on resting, maximum, or recovery heart rates and no correlation with resting or maximal lactate values. LBM positively correlated with maximum ventilation (VE-max) (Est: 1.3 × 10⁻³; SE: 6.1 × 10⁻⁴; p < 0.05) and maximum absolute oxygen consumption (VO2_abs-max) (Est: 7.710⁻⁵; SE: 6.9 × 10⁻⁶; p < 0.001)—with age as an influencing factor for VE-max and height as an influencing factor for VO2_abs-max. Conversely, BFM showed a negative correlation with maximum relative oxygen consumption (VO2_rel-max) (Est: −4.8 × 10⁻⁴; SE: 1.2 × 10⁻⁴; p < 0.001). Moreover, BFM and BMC were also negatively correlated with maximal exercise duration (Est: −2.2 × 10⁻⁴; SE: 8.0 × 10⁻⁵; p < 0.01; Est: −3.2 × 10⁻³; SE: 1.4 × 10⁻³; p < 0.05) with height as an influencing factor. Our findings indicate complex correlations between body composition and CPET parameters, providing important information for the analysis of individual ergospirometric data. Our results draw attention to the fact that body composition is more precise than weight and height in the evaluation of athletes’ physical fitness. Full article

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17 pages, 1487 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Sleep, Recovery, and Nutrition Characteristics of Elite Adolescent Athletes

by Lorcán Mason, James Connolly, Lydia E. Devenney, Karl Lacey, Jim O’Donovan, Maria Faulkner and Rónán Doherty

Sports 2025, 13(2), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020050 - 10 Feb 2025

Viewed by 216

Abstract

Background: Elite sport participation creates a significant burden on adolescent athletes due to demanding training schedules, high training intensities, and the complexity of puberty. As such, an athletes’ ability to effectively balance stress and recovery is essential for their athletic performance and requires [...] Read more.

Background: Elite sport participation creates a significant burden on adolescent athletes due to demanding training schedules, high training intensities, and the complexity of puberty. As such, an athletes’ ability to effectively balance stress and recovery is essential for their athletic performance and requires appropriate management throughout the competitive season. This research aimed to investigate: (i) the quantity, quality, and timing of sleep; (ii) general and sport-specific nutrition knowledge; (iii) recovery practices; and (iv) the relationships between sleep, nutrition, and recovery practices in elite adolescent athletes. Methods: A total of 51 athletes completed a battery of previously validated and reliable questionnaires which investigated their sleep characteristics, nutrition knowledge, and recovery practices. Results: Statistically significant moderate correlations were observed between their Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) global score, Sleep Difficulty Classification (SDC), and Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (REST-Q Sport) scales, with small significant correlations observed between the SDC and REST-Q recovery scales. Participants had lower scores in both their sport (36.10 ± 12.13) and total (40.25 ± 11.18) nutrition knowledge compared to their general nutrition knowledge (49.53 ± 16.46). Moderate levels of general (1.50 ± 0.86) and sport-specific (1.57 ± 0.85) stress and high levels of general (3.92 ± 0.74) and sport-specific (3.72 ± 0.96) recovery were demonstrated. Furthermore, 94% reported their sleep quality to be “fairly good” (n = 30) or “very good” (n = 18). Conclusions: These findings highlight the necessity of further investigating the effect of educational strategies on improving sleep, nutrition, and recovery knowledge in athletes to aid recovery and dietary behaviours. Full article

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11 pages, 1060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validity and Inter-Device Reliability of the OTBeat Burn^TM Monitor to Estimate Heart Rate During Exercise

by Matteo F. de Leon, Clayton L. Camic, Matthew J. Herring and Christopher M. Hill

Sports 2025, 13(2), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020049 - 8 Feb 2025

Viewed by 253

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy and inter-device reliability of the OTBeat Burn^TM heart rate monitor during an incremental test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. Twenty males (mean ± SD age = 21.1 ± 1.9 years) volunteered [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy and inter-device reliability of the OTBeat Burn^TM heart rate monitor during an incremental test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. Twenty males (mean ± SD age = 21.1 ± 1.9 years) volunteered to complete a test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer with OTBeat Burn^TM devices placed on the forearm and upper arm, with a 12-lead electrocardiogram used as the criterion. The heart rate was recorded every 30 s and averaged across each two-minute stage. Accuracy was assessed through calculation of the mean absolute percent error (MAPE), Bland–Altman plot, and Lin’s concordance correlation coefficient (CCC). An intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was used to assess the inter-device reliability. Statistical significance was set at α < 0.05. The MAPE (±SD), Bland–Altman regression analyses, and Lin’s CCC values were 0.9 (±0.6)% and 0.8 (±0.5)%, r = 0.107 and 0.303, and r_c = 0.998 and 0.998 for the forearm and the upper arm monitors, respectively. The ICC for inter-device reliability was R = 0.999. Our findings indicated the OTBeat Burn^TM monitors placed on the forearm and upper arm provided highly accurate and reliable values when compared to an electrocardiogram from low to maximal exercise intensities. Full article

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14 pages, 2889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Objective Evaluation of Out-of-Competition Volume of Action in Wheelchair Basketball Classification

by Yuki Shimoyama, Shintaro Kasai, Hiroaki Wagatsuma, Tatsuru Ibusuki, Takumi Tsukada and Kaori Tachibana

Sports 2025, 13(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020048 - 8 Feb 2025

Viewed by 241

Abstract

In wheelchair basketball, classes are based on competition observations. Since 2021, out-of-competition testing has been implemented; however, research remains limited. This study aimed to determine whether the quantified volume of action (VOA) can be an indicator for classification and examined the influence of [...] Read more.

In wheelchair basketball, classes are based on competition observations. Since 2021, out-of-competition testing has been implemented; however, research remains limited. This study aimed to determine whether the quantified volume of action (VOA) can be an indicator for classification and examined the influence of a competitive wheelchair on VOA evaluation. This cross-sectional study included 47 wheelchair basketball players (21 able-bodied, 26 with physical impairments: class 1, n = 8; class 2, n = 5; class 3, n = 4; class 4, n = 9). Tests were performed in a wheelchair (wheelchair condition) and on a trainer bed (bed condition). Participants held a ball and rotated their trunks in various planes. Movements were recorded using four cameras, and position coordinates were extracted using the three-dimensional DLT method. Classes and sitting conditions were compared across five groups: classes 1, 2, 3, 4, and able-bodied. Comparisons between classes revealed significant differences in all planes, including wheelchair and bed conditions (p < 0.05). The VOA expanded in the wheelchair condition compared to the bed condition across multiple classes and planes (p < 0.05). Measuring the VOA outside the competition while sitting on a bed may effectively classify players by eliminating equipment influence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Researching Physical Activity and Participation in Adapted Sports for People with Disabilities)

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19 pages, 4000 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Speed, Orthosis, and Load on Calf Muscle Electromyography Signal During Treadmill Walking

by Yasha Nahreini, Monika Herten, Jens-Peter Stahl, Christoph Schönle, Marcel Dudda and Thomas Jöllenbeck

Sports 2025, 13(2), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020047 - 8 Feb 2025

Viewed by 274

Abstract

Background: Achilles tendon rupture rehabilitation protocols often emphasize two key factors, namely plantar flexion and load restriction during the early recovery stages. However, we hypothesize that variations in walking speed also play a significant role in affecting the load on the Achilles tendon. [...] Read more.

Background: Achilles tendon rupture rehabilitation protocols often emphasize two key factors, namely plantar flexion and load restriction during the early recovery stages. However, we hypothesize that variations in walking speed also play a significant role in affecting the load on the Achilles tendon. This study aims to explore the combined impact of plantar flexion angle and walking speed on the surface electromyography (EMG) activity of the calf muscles. Methods: Surface EMG measurements on 24 healthy volunteers assessed the activity of the calf muscles (gastrocnemius lateralis, gastrocnemius medialis, and soleus). Participants walked on a treadmill using two designs of ankle foot orthoses set at three different angles of the ankle joint (mainly 0°, 15°, or 30° plantar flexion), as well as barefoot and in sports shoes. The tests were performed at full loads of 1, 2 and 4 km/h or with additional measurements at 1 and 2 km/h with a partial load of 20 kg. The walking speed of 4 km/h in sports shoes was used as reference, corresponding to the maximum load on the calf muscles during walking. Results: Both orthoses demonstrated a significant reduction in EMG activity by more than half even at a 0° setting and 1 km/h compared to walking barefoot or in sports shoes. However, as walking speed increased to 2 km/h and especially to 4 km/h, EMG activity significantly increased, approaching the level of walking with sports shoes at 1 km/h. The results indicated that even minor changes in walking speed had a significant impact on muscle activity, underscoring the importance of this parameter. Conclusions: This study suggests that walking speed should be considered a crucial factor in rehabilitation protocols for Achilles tendon ruptures, alongside plantar flexion and load restrictions, to optimize recovery outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation Strategies)

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32 pages, 1270 KiB

Open AccessReview

Predictive Utility of the Functional Movement Screen and Y-Balance Test: Current Evidence and Future Directions

by Adam C. Eckart, Pragya Sharma Ghimire, James Stavitz and Stephen Barry

Sports 2025, 13(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020046 - 8 Feb 2025

Viewed by 325

Abstract

Musculoskeletal injury (MSI) risk screening has gained significant attention in rehabilitation, sports, and fitness due to its ability to predict injuries and guide preventive interventions. This review analyzes the Functional Movement Screen (FMS) and the Y-Balance Test (YBT) landscape. Although these instruments are [...] Read more.

Musculoskeletal injury (MSI) risk screening has gained significant attention in rehabilitation, sports, and fitness due to its ability to predict injuries and guide preventive interventions. This review analyzes the Functional Movement Screen (FMS) and the Y-Balance Test (YBT) landscape. Although these instruments are widely used because of their simplicity and ease of access, their accuracy in predicting injuries is inconsistent. Significant issues include reliance on broad scoring systems, varying contextual relevance, and neglecting individual characteristics such as age, gender, fitness levels, and past injuries. Meta-analyses reveal that the FMS and YBT overall scores often lack clinical relevance, exhibiting significant variability in sensitivity and specificity among different groups. Findings support the effectiveness of multifactorial models that consider modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors such as workload ratios, injury history, and fitness data for better prediction outcomes. Advances in machine learning (ML) and wearable technology, including inertial measurement units (IMUs) and intelligent monitoring systems, show promise by capturing dynamic and personalized high-dimensional data. Such approaches enhance our understanding of how biomechanical, physiological, and contextual injury aspects interact. This review discusses the problems of conventional movement screens, highlights the necessity for workload monitoring and personalized evaluations, and promotes the integration of technology-driven and data-centered techniques. Adopting tailored, multifactorial models could significantly improve injury prediction and prevention across varied populations. Future research should refine these models to enhance their practical use in clinical and field environments. Full article

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14 pages, 918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Heart Rate Slow Component Dynamics: A Model Across Exercise Intensities, Age, and Sex

by Massimo Teso, Alessandro L. Colosio, Maura Loi, Jan Boone and Silvia Pogliaghi

Sports 2025, 13(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020045 - 7 Feb 2025

Viewed by 322

Abstract

The heart rate slow component (_scHR) is an intensity-dependent HR increment that emerges during constant exercises, partially dissociated from metabolism (

\dot{V}

O₂). The _scHR has been observed during constant-workload exercise in young and older adults. Unless [...] Read more.

The heart rate slow component (_scHR) is an intensity-dependent HR increment that emerges during constant exercises, partially dissociated from metabolism (

\dot{V}

O₂). The _scHR has been observed during constant-workload exercise in young and older adults. Unless this _scHR is accounted for, exercise prescription using HR targets lead to an undesired reduction in metabolic intensity over time. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to characterize _scHR across intensities, sex, and age to develop and validate a predictive equation able to maintain the desired metabolic stimulus over time in a constant aerobic exercise session. Methods: In our study, 66 individuals (35 females; 35 ± 13 yrs) performed the following: (i) a ramp-test for respiratory exercise threshold (GET and RCP) and maximal oxygen uptake (

\dot{V}

O_2max) detection, and (ii) 6 × 9-minute constant exercises at different intensities. The _scHR was calculated by linear fitting from the fifth minute of exercise (bpm⋅min⁻¹). A multiple-linear equation was developed to predict the _scHR based on individual and exercise variables. The validity of the equation was tested on an independent sample by a Pearson correlation and Bland–Altman analysis between the measured and estimated HR during constant exercises. Results: The _scHR increases with intensity and is larger in males (p < 0.05). A multiple-linear equation predicts the _scHR based on the relative exercise intensity to RCP, age, and sex (r² = 0.54, SEE = 0.61 bpm⋅min⁻¹). _scHR (bpm⋅min⁻¹) = −0.0514 + (0.0240 × relative exercise intensity to RCP) − (0.0172 × age) − (0.347 × Sex (males = 0 and females score = 1)). In the independent sample, we found an excellent correlation between the measured and estimated HR (r² = 0.98, p < 0.001) with no bias (−0.01 b·min⁻¹, z-score= −0.04) and a fair precision (±4.09 b·min⁻¹). Conclusions: The dynamic of the _scHR can be predicted in a heterogeneous sample accounting for the combined effects of relative intensity, sex, and age. The above equation provides the means to dynamically adapt HR targets over time, avoiding an undesired reduction in the absolute and relative training load. This strategy would allow the maintenance of the desired metabolic stimulus (

\dot{V}

O₂) throughout an exercise session in a heterogeneous population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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14 pages, 254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reasons for the Practice, Abandonment, and Non-Practice of Extracurricular Physical Activity and Sport Among Primary and Secondary School Students in Cantabria: What Can We Do About It?

by Martín Barcala-Furelos, Iván González-Gutiérrez, Josune Rodríguez-Negro, Marcos Mecías-Calvo and Rubén Navarro-Patón

Sports 2025, 13(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020044 - 7 Feb 2025

Viewed by 371

Abstract

(1) Background: Physical education at school is not able to meet the need for physical activity and sport (PA and S) established by international organizations, making it necessary to implement its practice outside school hours. This study aimed to find out the reasons [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Physical education at school is not able to meet the need for physical activity and sport (PA and S) established by international organizations, making it necessary to implement its practice outside school hours. This study aimed to find out the reasons for practicing, abandoning, and never having practiced PA and S outside school hours among students of Primary Education (PE) and Secondary Education (SE) in Cantabria (Spain). (2) Overall, 1038 students participated (349 from PE and 689 from SE), consisting of 512 boys and 526 girls between 10 and 17 years old (M = 12.92; SD = 1.92). They completed an ad hoc questionnaire with 21 questions about reasons for practicing (12 items), abandoning (3 items), and never having practiced PA and S (6 items) between the months of May and June 2024. (3) Results: As for active students, boys argue that they do so because of the influence of friends (p = 0.024), search for excitement (p = 0.002), liking PA and S (p = 0.022), and entertainment (p = 0.001). In PE, compared to SE, the most important factors are excitement (p < 0.001), health (p = 0.005), and liking PA and S (p = 0.022). Students who abandon PA and S do so because of the competitive environment (p = 0.001), with boys predominating. SE students highlight reluctance and laziness (p < 0.001) and the loss of liking PA and S (p = 0.013). Students who have never practiced PA and S do so because they do not find any sport motivating (p = 0.047) and because of reluctance and laziness (p = 0.018), especially among girls. In SE, the differences appear due to reluctance and laziness (p = 0.009) and because friends do not practice PA and S (p = 0.049). (4) Conclusions: Boys prioritize emotional and competency aspects, while girls focus on social aspects and happiness. PE students tend to participate in sports for fun and to improve their skills, while SE students tend to show reluctance and laziness and a loss of interest in PA and S. Full article

16 pages, 1603 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Bastian Mester, Kim Lennartz, Julia Kristin, Heinz-Lothar Meyer, Christina Polan, Monika Herten, Marcel Dudda and Manuel Burggraf

Sports 2025, 13(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020043 - 6 Feb 2025

Viewed by 339

Abstract

Background: Deaf squad athletes regularly participate in national/international competitions and most prepare for competitions in clubs with hearing athletes. Hearing loss is associated with difficulties in balance control which may impair functionality. The aim of this study is to provide epidemiological data on [...] Read more.

Background: Deaf squad athletes regularly participate in national/international competitions and most prepare for competitions in clubs with hearing athletes. Hearing loss is associated with difficulties in balance control which may impair functionality. The aim of this study is to provide epidemiological data on sports injuries in deaf squad athletes. Methods: In this retrospective study, data on main sport, training and competitions, injury rates, and downtimes were collected. Questionnaires from n = 65 athletes (n = 15 females, n = 50 males; age 28.00 ± 0.40 years) were finally analyzed. All injuries during the athlete’s career within nine body regions were recorded. The influence of contact sports, supervision by Olympic Training Center (OSP), and hearing aids on injury rates and downtimes were analyzed. Results: An amount of 89.20% were additionally registered in a regular sports club. A total of 1430 injuries were recorded during 465,400 training hours (3.07 injuries/1000 training hours). The highest prevalences were found for hand/fingers (43.00%) and ankle/foot (14.00%). Contact sport athletes had higher injury rates and longer downtimes (5.66 versus 1.28 injuries/1000; p < 0.001; 2.45 versus 1.11 weeks/1000; p = 0.011). OSP athletes showed lower injury rates (0.92 versus 4.38 injuries/1000, p = 0.004). Longer downtimes were recorded for athletes without hearing aids during training (2.29 weeks/1000 versus 0.96 weeks/1000; p = 0.045). Conclusions: Deaf athletes are exposed to additional training and competition in hearing sports. The negative impact of contact sports may be attributed to hearing loss. Hearing aids in training seem to be protective. Athletes should consider supervision by OSP. The results of this study may help to improve treatment and integration of deaf athletes into hearing sports. Full article

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12 pages, 1632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sex-Based Effects on Muscle Oxygenation During Repeated Maximal Intermittent Handgrip Exercise

by Modesto A. Lebron, Justine M. Starling-Smith, Ethan C. Hill, Jeffrey R. Stout and David H. Fukuda

Sports 2025, 13(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020042 - 6 Feb 2025

Viewed by 416

Abstract

Background: This investigation aimed to examine sex-based differences in deoxy[heme] (HHb), tissue saturation (StO₂), and force-deoxygenation ratio (FD) of the forearm flexor muscles during a maximal-effort intermittent fatiguing handgrip protocol. Methods: Thirty-three healthy males (n = 15) and females ( [...] Read more.

Background: This investigation aimed to examine sex-based differences in deoxy[heme] (HHb), tissue saturation (StO₂), and force-deoxygenation ratio (FD) of the forearm flexor muscles during a maximal-effort intermittent fatiguing handgrip protocol. Methods: Thirty-three healthy males (n = 15) and females (n = 18) completed a fatiguing handgrip protocol consisting of 60 4 s contractions separated by a 1 s rest. Near-infrared spectroscopy was used to measure muscle oxygenation before, during, and after the protocol. Results: Sex differences in HHb (p = 0.033) and StO₂ (p = 0.021) were observed with significantly greater values for females (HHb: 110.204 ± 12.626% of baseline; StO₂: 72.091 ± 5.812%) in comparison to males (HHb: 101.153 ± 12.847% of baseline; StO₂: 66.978 ± 7.799%). Females (0.199 ± 0.081 AU) also demonstrated significantly (p = 0.001) lower FD in comparison to males (0.216 ± 0.094 AU). However, males (b = −0.023 ± 0.008 AU) demonstrated a significantly (p < 0.001) greater rate of decline in FD in comparison to females (b = −0.017 ± 0.006 AU). Conclusions: Prior to, during, and after a maximal-effort intermittent fatiguing handgrip fatiguing protocol, males demonstrate significantly lower StO₂ than females and a faster rate of decline in FD. Moreover, females demonstrate greater HHb values than males when assessed relative to a resting baseline. Full article

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12 pages, 360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Analysis of Young Women University Students’s Physical Activity Levels

by Gema Díaz-Quesada, Juan Francisco Jiménez-Jiménez, Rosario Padial-Ruz and Gema Torres-Luque

Sports 2025, 13(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020041 - 5 Feb 2025

Viewed by 275

Abstract

The physical activity (PA) level in women, it seems, tends to decrease in adulthood. The aims of the study were: (i) to evaluate the degree of compliance with PA recommendations in young women university students and (ii) to measure steps and the level [...] Read more.

The physical activity (PA) level in women, it seems, tends to decrease in adulthood. The aims of the study were: (i) to evaluate the degree of compliance with PA recommendations in young women university students and (ii) to measure steps and the level of PA in different periods during the week. Eighty-eight young adult girls (21.38 ± 2.71 years) were recruited for this study. Participants wore an “Actigraph GT3X” accelerometer for seven days, collecting minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and steps volume. The results show an 80% of compliance of the 10,000 steps per day and a 220% of compliance of the 300 min/week of MVPA. The analysis shows a trend towards higher steps and PA minutes at the Weekdays (steps/day, BF10 = 168.563, δ = 0.418; meeting recommendations 10,000 steps/day, BF10 = 168.563, δ = 0.419; MVPA minutes/day, BF10 = 10.648, δ = 0.323; meeting recommendations 300 min/week, BF10 = 10.648, δ = 0.324) and during the Out-of-University-Time (steps/day, BF10 = 1.387 × 10¹⁰, δ = −0.883; meeting recommendations 10,000 steps/day, BF10 = 1.387 × 10¹⁰, δ = −0.886; MVPA minutes/day, BF10 = 1.110 × 10¹⁵, δ = −1.138; meeting recommendations 300 min/week, BF10 = 1.1 × 10¹⁵, δ = −1.144). This study can provide strategies and motivational PA guidelines at university to enhance well-being in young female university students. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Maintaining a Healthy Lifestyle: Sustainability of Promoting Physical Activity)

22 pages, 1024 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Aerobic Fitness Dynamics in Post-COVID-19 Athletes: Implications in the Return-to-Play Performance

by Lucas Rafael Lopes, Rui Medeiros, Valéria Tavares, Francisca Dias, Marcus Vinícius Galvão Amaral, Rodrigo Araújo Goes, João Antonio Matheus Guimarães and Jamila Alessandra Perini

Sports 2025, 13(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020040 - 5 Feb 2025

Viewed by 300

Abstract

Maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O₂max) assesses athletic performance; however, its values are inconsistent in post-COVID-19 athletes. This study aimed to analyze the dynamics of V̇O₂max in post-COVID-19 athletes. Observational studies were identified by screening the PubMed database published up to [...] Read more.

Maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O₂max) assesses athletic performance; however, its values are inconsistent in post-COVID-19 athletes. This study aimed to analyze the dynamics of V̇O₂max in post-COVID-19 athletes. Observational studies were identified by screening the PubMed database published up to 17 July 2023. The initial electronic search found 320 studies. Of these, 26 employing the cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) to assess aerobic fitness were selected. Of the 2625 pooled athletes, 1464 were infected and considered as the post-COVID-19 group, either asymptomatic or symptomatic, while the remaining 1161, who were uninfected or had V̇O₂max results prior to infection, were defined as the infection-free group. Age and V̇O₂max were differently distributed between post-COVID-19 athletes and those without infection (p = 0.03 in both). Persistent symptoms athletes had 8 mL/Kg/min lower V̇O₂max than those without infection (p = 0.04). In addition, post-infected athletes who underwent CPET after 12 weeks showed a significant reduction of 2.9 mL/Kg/min in V̇O₂max according to the increase in body mass index (BMI). The pooled analysis showed that aerobic fitness was reduced in athletes post-COVID-19. V̇O₂max was negatively correlated with BMI in those who underwent CPET at 12 weeks, suggesting that symptoms persist beyond 12 weeks, affecting return-to-play. Full article

19 pages, 706 KiB

Open AccessReview

Injury Prevention Strategies in Female Football Players: Addressing Sex-Specific Risks

by George John, Ameen AlNadwi, Tiffany Georges Abi Antoun and Ildus I. Ahmetov

Sports 2025, 13(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020039 - 4 Feb 2025

Viewed by 606

Abstract

There has been rapid growth in women’s football worldwide; however, research on injury prevention strategies and physiological considerations specific to female athletes remains insufficient. Women’s football has experienced an increase in injury prevalence, despite being underrepresented in sports literature, with less than 25% [...] Read more.

There has been rapid growth in women’s football worldwide; however, research on injury prevention strategies and physiological considerations specific to female athletes remains insufficient. Women’s football has experienced an increase in injury prevalence, despite being underrepresented in sports literature, with less than 25% of research focused on this demographic. The incidence of injuries, particularly among young elite female footballers, is notably high, impacting long-term health outcomes such as osteoarthritis and contributing to shorter playing careers. Certain injuries, such as anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) ruptures, occur at significantly higher rates in women compared to men, underscoring sex-specific risk factors that must be addressed in injury prevention programs (IPPs). This narrative review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of IPPs tailored for female football players and to address their heightened susceptibility to injuries compared to males. Research studies and review articles were identified using a literature search of the PubMed, SportDiscus, and Google Scholar databases from 1990 to December 2024. Biological factors, including hormonal influences—such as increased ACL laxity during the menstrual cycle—and musculoskeletal differences, such as muscle strength imbalances, reduced joint stability, and hip weakness, significantly contribute to this increased risk. Despite the existence of injury prevention protocols like FIFA 11+, their consistent application and adaptation to meet the unique needs of female footballers remain limited. In addition to physical injuries, mental health is a critical concern. Female football players exhibit higher rates of depression and anxiety compared to their male counterparts, influenced by factors such as injury-related stress and menstrual cycle variations. In conclusion, the growing participation of women in football highlights the urgent need for research and implementation of injury prevention strategies specifically tailored to female players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Prevention and Rehabilitation of Training Injuries)

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20 pages, 1637 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Shape of Success: A Scoping Review of Somatotype in Modern Elite Athletes Across Various Sports

by Ximena Martínez-Mireles, Edna Judith Nava-González, Manuel López-Cabanillas Lomelí, Debbie Samantha Puente-Hernández, Miriam Gutiérrez-López, José Omar Lagunes-Carrasco, Ricardo López-García and Erik Ramírez

Sports 2025, 13(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020038 - 4 Feb 2025

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Abstract

This scoping review aimed to determine the somatotype of modern elite athletes across various sports. The literature search followed the PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews. Four databases were consulted, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Clarivate InCites, as well as platforms such as [...] Read more.

This scoping review aimed to determine the somatotype of modern elite athletes across various sports. The literature search followed the PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews. Four databases were consulted, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Clarivate InCites, as well as platforms such as Google Scholar, Taylor & Francis Online, Books Ovid, CAB eBooks, MyiLibrary, and Core Collection. Eligibility criteria included articles published between 1995 and 2024 involving athletes at the elite level, such as junior, senior, Olympic, first-division professionals, world-class competitors, national competitors, black belts, master athletes, non-professional athletes with at least 10 years of experience, those ranked in the national or international top 10, and high-level collegiate athletes. A total of 66 studies were included. Modern male elite athletes predominantly exhibited an endomorphic mesomorphic somatotype, whereas female athletes were classified as central. The present study was the first to synthesize data from 66 articles, encompassing athletes of varying elite levels, both males and females, while providing detailed information on age, weight, height, BMI, somatotype and its classification, and complemented by somatoplot references. Future research is recommended to include a greater diversity of sports and a more significant number of elite female athletes to enhance the representativeness of elite athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning: Enhancing Athletic Performance and Promoting Health)

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13 pages, 1482 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Sports in Building Resilience: A Machine Learning Approach to the Psychological Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents

by Giulia Di Martino, Carlo della Valle, Alessandra di Cagno, Giovanni Fiorilli, Giuseppe Calcagno and Daniele Conte

Sports 2025, 13(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020037 - 3 Feb 2025

Viewed by 568

Abstract

(1) Background: This study evaluated whether physical activity and sports serve as a protective factor in mitigating COVID-19 pandemic long-term consequences. (2) Methods: A survey of 1702 participants (8–18 years) used the Impact of Event Scale (IES), Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7), and [...] Read more.

(1) Background: This study evaluated whether physical activity and sports serve as a protective factor in mitigating COVID-19 pandemic long-term consequences. (2) Methods: A survey of 1702 participants (8–18 years) used the Impact of Event Scale (IES), Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7), and Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children (CES-DC). Participants were categorized based on their engagement in sports, cultural activities, or sedentary behaviors. Statistical analysis included non-parametric tests, CHAID models, and clustering. (3) Results: In total, 65.5% of participants experienced minimal to mild anxiety, and 34.5% reported moderate to severe anxiety. The main predictor of depression is the sample age, followed by the training experience. Depressive symptoms were identified in 71.3% of participants (75.7% adolescents; 64% children). Adolescents with longer training experience (67.6%) showed lower depression compared to those with shorter experience (77.2%). For post-traumatic stress, 38% of children and 46% of adolescents exceeded cut-off scores for significant symptoms, with age and training level identified as key predictors. Among children, sport experience with low weekly frequency was associated with the lowest depression rates (59.5%). (4) Conclusions: Four years after the pandemic, a high percentage of anxiety and depression disorders is observed in the youth population, particularly among adolescents. Sports appear to slightly alleviate this serious condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health)

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10 pages, 1112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Different Neuromuscular Recovery Strategies in Elite Youth Female Football Players

by Silvia Sedano and Sergio Maroto-Izquierdo

Sports 2025, 13(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020036 - 29 Jan 2025

Viewed by 620

Abstract

This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of various active recovery strategies in youth female soccer players during competitive tournaments with limited recovery periods (i.e., 24–48 h). Twenty-two elite under-17 female football players participated in this randomized controlled trial, which encompassed fourteen 90 [...] Read more.

This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of various active recovery strategies in youth female soccer players during competitive tournaments with limited recovery periods (i.e., 24–48 h). Twenty-two elite under-17 female football players participated in this randomized controlled trial, which encompassed fourteen 90 min official matches. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three recovery protocols: passive stretching, foam rolling, or lumbopelvic mobility exercises, which were implemented ten minutes after each match. Countermovement jump with free arm (CMJA) height was measured pre-intervention, immediately post-intervention, and 5 h post-intervention. Wellness perception was evaluated 24 h later. Significant enhancements in CMJA height were observed immediately after all recovery protocols and at 5 h post-intervention compared with pre-intervention (p < 0.001). The lumbopelvic mobility protocol yielded the most substantial improvement, significantly surpassing both stretching and foam rolling. Moreover, significant increases in wellness perception were observed following the foam rolling (p < 0.001, ES = 0.95) and mobility (p < 0.05, ES = 0.88) protocols, with the mobility protocol demonstrating a marginally larger effect size than stretching. Active recovery strategies significantly enhanced neuromuscular function and wellness perception in under-17 female soccer players. Lumbopelvic mobility exercises exhibited superior efficacy, suggesting that they should be prioritized in post-match recovery regimens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Prevention and Rehabilitation of Training Injuries)

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16 pages, 1208 KiB

Open AccessArticle

They’re Only Human! Tension and Stress Predict Performance of Softball Umpires in National Championships

by Ronald J. Houison, Andrea Lamont-Mills, Michael Kotiw and Peter C. Terry

Sports 2025, 13(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020035 - 28 Jan 2025

Viewed by 594

Abstract

The psychology of sports officials is often overlooked in psychology research. The present study addressed this disparity by exploring relationships among the mood, stress, and performance of Australian softball umpires. Six male and two female participants aged 25–68 years (M = 48.95 [...] Read more.

The psychology of sports officials is often overlooked in psychology research. The present study addressed this disparity by exploring relationships among the mood, stress, and performance of Australian softball umpires. Six male and two female participants aged 25–68 years (M = 48.95 ± 17.39 years) each completed the Brunel Mood Scale before games and provided saliva samples on multiple occasions prior to and after officiating games at two Australian National Softball Championships. Data from 65 games were analysed with performance assessed using Softball Australia’s umpire assessment tool. A significant positive relationship (p < 0.01) was found between tension scores and umpire performance. Using a stepwise regression analysis, tension scores and baseline cortisol level collectively explained 22.6% of the variance in umpire performance scores. These findings suggest that umpires require an optimal level of tension in the period leading up to competition to perform successfully, supporting the relationship between tension and performance first proposed by the inverted-U hypothesis. Full article

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12 pages, 239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gambling and Gaming: A Comparative Study of Professional Footballers Versus the General Population

by Rafael González-Moret, Isabel Almodóvar-Fernández, María Gimeno, Ana Blanco, Paula Sánchez-Thevenet, Héctor Usó, Gonzalo Haro and Antonio Real-Fernández

Sports 2025, 13(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020034 - 24 Jan 2025

Viewed by 631

Abstract

(1) Background: Elite sport can increase vulnerability to developing mental health pathologies. The purpose of the study is to determine the frequency at which these behavioural disorders appear in elite footballers and evaluate their relationship with other addictions. (2) Methods: A cross-sectional study [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Elite sport can increase vulnerability to developing mental health pathologies. The purpose of the study is to determine the frequency at which these behavioural disorders appear in elite footballers and evaluate their relationship with other addictions. (2) Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between November 2020 and January 2022 on 306 participants. The variables of gambling and gaming were studied. The different groups were compared using Chi-squared tests. Probabilities exceeding 95% (p-values < 0.05) and residuals results greater than 2 or less than −2 were considered significant. (3) Results: There were significant differences between the two groups in terms of alcohol (p < 0.001), tobacco (p < 0.001), and cannabis (p = 0.016) consumption. We also found differences between those who had a history of a nervous disease (p = 0.015). 6.6% of the of football players had a probable diagnosis of a gambling disorder compared to 1% in the general population (p = 0.011). Among the pathological and non-pathological cases of gambling in the football population, significant differences were found between those with a salary of EUR 900–1500/month (p = 0.027) or a history of a nervous pathology (p = 0.021). (4) Conclusions: This study showed that professional football players were vulnerable to mental health pathologies related to gambling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sport Psychology)

17 pages, 643 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Early Athletic Identity Formation and Development: Perceptions of Elite Gaelic Athletes

by Marion Geary, Niamh Kitching, Mark Campbell and Frank Houghton

Sports 2025, 13(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020033 - 24 Jan 2025

Viewed by 606

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Athletic identity (AI) is an important part of an elite athlete’s self-concept and can positively impact sports performance, but over-emphasis can lead to potentially negative outcomes. Identity theory suggests that identity is shaped by individuals’ roles, group affiliations, self-perceptions, and important changes [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Athletic identity (AI) is an important part of an elite athlete’s self-concept and can positively impact sports performance, but over-emphasis can lead to potentially negative outcomes. Identity theory suggests that identity is shaped by individuals’ roles, group affiliations, self-perceptions, and important changes in personal circumstances. Athlete transitions are changes that occur in an athletes’ athletic and/or non-athletic circumstances, which can impact identity development. Using identity theory, this study aimed to explore the athletic transitions important in early AI formation and development in elite Gaelic athletes. Methods: Nine athletes were purposively sampled and participated in semi-structured interviews that were analysed using a six-step thematic analysis. Results: Findings indicate that the initiation, development, and mastery transitions in sport influence AI formation and align with the identity theory precepts of roles, groups, and persons in identity development. AI formation and development is individualised and shaped by perceived athlete competence, associated external validation, and the increased professionalism and personal commitment associated with higher levels of performance. Conclusion: We call for a greater emphasis to be placed on the development of multi-faceted identity profiles in elite Gaelic athletes. Full article

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21 pages, 1454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adherence to the Singapore Integrated 24 h Activity Guidelines for Pre-Primary School Children Before, During and After the COVID-19 Lockdown in Singapore

by Seow Ting Low, Terence Buan Kiong Chua, Dan Li and Michael Chia

Sports 2025, 13(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020032 - 23 Jan 2025

Viewed by 592

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted the lives of pre-primary school children in Singapore where increased infection rates prompted lockdown measures that altered children’s daily routines. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of the pandemic on the lifestyle behaviours and health quality [...] Read more.

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted the lives of pre-primary school children in Singapore where increased infection rates prompted lockdown measures that altered children’s daily routines. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of the pandemic on the lifestyle behaviours and health quality of 3134 children aged 5 to 6 years across three periods: pre-COVID, COVID-19 lockdown, and COVID-19 endemicity. Data were collected using the Surveillance of Digital Media Habits in Early Childhood Questionnaire (SMALLQ^®) to measure on- and off-screen media habits of children and the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PaedQL) to assess children’s health quality. Adherence to physical activity (PA) guidelines dropped from 32.7% pre-COVID to 27.4% during lockdown but improved to 34.4% in endemicity (p < 0.05). Sleep (SL) adherence followed a similar pattern, decreasing from 33.4% to 27.9% before rising to 40.6% (p < 0.05). Screen time (ST) adherence significantly declined during lockdown (16.7% to 10.8%, p < 0.001). Weak positive correlations with all PaedQL metrics were observed across periods, except during endemicity (p < 0.05). Concerted efforts involving key stakeholders must be made to mitigate the negative effects of the pandemic on children’s lifestyle behaviours and QoL, ensuring they are better prepared for the transition to primary school. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Motor Behavior and Child Health)

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10 pages, 960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of a Short-Term Supplemental Breathwork Protocol on the Aerobic Performance of Recreational Runners

by Adrian T. Wolff, Sara R. Sherman and Craig A. Horswill

Sports 2025, 13(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020031 - 23 Jan 2025

Viewed by 463

Abstract

We investigated the effects of a functional breathing program on the aerobic performance of recreational runners. Runners participated in an aerobic endurance training program with functional breathing (FBP; n = 8, 34.8 ± 5.1 yrs, 25.3 ± 2.5 kg·m²) or without [...] Read more.

We investigated the effects of a functional breathing program on the aerobic performance of recreational runners. Runners participated in an aerobic endurance training program with functional breathing (FBP; n = 8, 34.8 ± 5.1 yrs, 25.3 ± 2.5 kg·m²) or without functional breathing (CON; n = 8, 29 ± 5 yrs, 23 ± 2 kg·m²). The treatment group underwent daily breathing exercises, and nasal-only breathing during low-intensity sessions of the training program. The primary outcome variables measured before and after the program included the following: the breath-hold time at rest, the duration and VO_2max with nasal-only breathing, and the VO_2max with normal breathing during a graded running test. The data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA (p < 0.05). We found a significant group x time interaction for breath-hold time (∆ from PRE: +1.9 s [CON], +11.7 s [FBP]; p = 0.04; d = 1.13). However, the changes in the time and VO_2max with nasal-only breathing, and in the VO_2max with normal breathing, did not differ between the FBP and CON groups. A small but significant time (main) effect for the increase in VO_2max (~3.0%, p < 0.05) suggested that both groups had adequate stimuli for physiological adaptations. The four-week supplementary functional breathing protocol increased the breath-hold time, but not the maximum nasal-only breathing time, nasal-only breathing VO_2max, or VO_2max, in recreational runners. Full article

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16 pages, 1498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Athleticism and Sports Profiles Throughout Machine Learning Applied to Heart Rate Variability

by Tony Estrella and Lluis Capdevila

Sports 2025, 13(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020030 - 22 Jan 2025

Viewed by 787

Abstract

Heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive health and fitness indicator, and machine learning (ML) has emerged as a powerful tool for analysing large HRV datasets. This study aims to identify athletic characteristics using the HRV test and ML algorithms. Two models were [...] Read more.

Heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive health and fitness indicator, and machine learning (ML) has emerged as a powerful tool for analysing large HRV datasets. This study aims to identify athletic characteristics using the HRV test and ML algorithms. Two models were developed: Model 1 (M1) classified athletes and non-athletes using 856 observations from high-performance athletes and 494 from non-athletes. Model 2 (M2) identified an individual soccer player within a team based on 105 observations from the player and 514 from other team members. Three ML algorithms were applied —Random Forest (RF), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and Support Vector Machine (SVM)— and SHAP values were used to interpret the results. In M1, the SVM algorithm achieved the highest performance (accuracy = 0.84, ROC AUC = 0.91), while in M2 Random Forest performed best (accuracy = 0.92, ROC AUC = 0.94). Based on these results, we propose an athleticism index and a soccer identification index derived from HRV data. The findings suggest that ML algorithms, such as SVM and RF, can effectively generate indices based on HRV for identifying individuals with athletic characteristics or distinguishing athletes with specific sports profiles. These insights underscore the importance of integrating HRV assessments systematically into training regimens for enhanced athletic evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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18 pages, 2677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Test–Retest Reliability and Concurrent Validity of Photoplethysmography Finger Sensor to Collect Measures of Heart Rate Variability

by Donald W. Rogers, Andreas T. Himariotis, Thomas J. Sherriff, Quentin J. Proulx, Megan T. Duong, Sabrina E. Noel and David J. Cornell

Sports 2025, 13(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020029 - 22 Jan 2025

Viewed by 576

Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to determine the test–retest reliability and concurrent validity of a photoplethysmography (PPG) finger sensor when collecting heart rate variability (HRV) metrics in reference to electrocardiography (ECG) and heart rate monitor (HRM) devices. Five minutes of R-R [...] Read more.

The purpose of the current study was to determine the test–retest reliability and concurrent validity of a photoplethysmography (PPG) finger sensor when collecting heart rate variability (HRV) metrics in reference to electrocardiography (ECG) and heart rate monitor (HRM) devices. Five minutes of R-R interval data were collected from 45 participants (23 females; age: 23.13 ± 4.45 yrs; body mass index: 25.39 ± 4.13 kg/m²) in the supine and seated positions in testing sessions 48 h apart. Moderate-to-excellent test–retest reliability of the HRV data collected from the PPG sensor was identified (ICC_2,1 = 0.60–0.93). Additionally, similar standard errors of the mean, coefficient of variation, and minimal detectable change metrics were observed across all devices. Statistically significant (p < 0.05) differences were identified in the HRV data between the PPG sensor and ECG and HRM devices; however, these differences were interpreted as trivial-to-small (g = 0.00–0.59). Further, the PPG sensor tended to only overestimate HRV metrics by <0.5 ms and near perfect relationships (r = 0.91–1.00) and very large-to-near perfect agreement (CCC = 0.81–1.00) were identified between collection methods. The PPG sensor demonstrated adequate test–retest reliability and concurrent validity in both the supine and seated resting positions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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12 pages, 1049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Technical, Tactical, and Time–Motion Match Profiles of the Forwards, Midfielders, and Defenders of a Men’s Football Serie A Team

by Rocco Perrotta, Alexandru Nicolae Ungureanu, Domenico Cherubini, Paolo Riccardo Brustio and Corrado Lupo

Sports 2025, 13(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020028 - 21 Jan 2025

Viewed by 609

Abstract

The present study aimed to verify the (1) differences between players’ roles in relation to technical and tactical and time–motion indicators, and the (2) relationships between individual time–motion and technical and tactical indicators for each role in a men’s Italian football Serie A [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to verify the (1) differences between players’ roles in relation to technical and tactical and time–motion indicators, and the (2) relationships between individual time–motion and technical and tactical indicators for each role in a men’s Italian football Serie A team. A total of 227 performances were analyzed (28 players: 8 forwards, FWs; 11 midfielders, MDs; 9 defenders, DFs). Technical and tactical indicators, such as ball possession (played balls, successful passes, successful playing patterns, lost balls, ball possession time), offensive play (total and successful dribbles, crosses, assists), and shooting (total shots, shots on target) were obtained by means of Panini Digital (DigitalSoccer Project S.r.l). In addition, a time–motion analysis included the total distance, distances covered at intensities of 16.0–19.8 km/h, 19.8–25.2 km/h, and over 25.2 km/h, the average recovery time between metabolic power peaks, and burst occurrence, the latter of which was performed by means of a 18 Hz GPS device (GPexe Pro2 system tool) worn by the players. Results showed role-specific differences: MDs covered more distance, while DFs had better ball possession. MDs and DFs had more successful playing patterns, and MDs and FWs performed more dribbles and shots. Strong correlations (p < 0.01, ρ > 0.8) were found between bursts and assists for FWs, high-intensity running and ball possession for MDs, and distance, dribbling, and shots for DFs. These findings highlight the importance of individual and tailored training programs to optimize role-specific performance demands. Full article

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11 pages, 415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Contractile Characteristics Among Various Muscle Groups in Youth Elite Female Team Handball Players Compared to a Control Group

by Milan Petronijević, Katarina Ohnjec and Milivoj Dopsaj

Sports 2025, 13(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020027 - 21 Jan 2025

Viewed by 476

Abstract

Muscular strength and explosiveness are generally known as factors that affect physical performance. Physical ability modeling has a profound connection with long-term athlete development and talent identification. The purpose of the current study was to investigate differences in contractile characteristics (maximal isometric force [...] Read more.

Muscular strength and explosiveness are generally known as factors that affect physical performance. Physical ability modeling has a profound connection with long-term athlete development and talent identification. The purpose of the current study was to investigate differences in contractile characteristics (maximal isometric force and maximal rate of force development) among various muscle groups in youth elite female team handball players (n = 35, 16.6 ± 1.1 years) compared to a control group (n = 28, 16.7 ± 1.1 years). The following tests were performed: isometric non-dominant hand grip, isometric dominant hand grip, isometric deadlift, isometric standing leg extension, and isometric bilateral ankle extension. For each subject, the maximal isometric force and maximal rate of force development were derived from the isometric strength tests. The research analyzed a total of twenty-four variables, presented in both absolute and relative values. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences among all pairs of variables in the absolute values of maximal isometric force (Λ = 0.531, F = 10.07, p = 0.000) and maximal rate of force development (Λ = 0.692, F = 5.08, p = 0.001) between the two groups. The most significant difference was found in the grip of the dominant hand, where the impact of the difference was 43.6% and 37.0% for the absolute values of force and explosiveness. Conversely, no differences were observed between the pairs of variables representing the relative values across the two subject groups, except for the dominant hand grip relative force (p = 0.006). The results provide information about the contractile potentials of important muscle groups in the game of handball, which could help in adapting strength training according to the specifics of the strength and explosivity development of young female handball players. Full article

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Sports, Volume 13, Issue 2 (February 2025) – 27 articles

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