Career Choices Among Individuals with Disabilities in the Gulf Region: Cultural, Religious, Policy, and Socio-Economic Influences: A Literature Review

Abstract

This study explores the multifaceted factors influencing career decisions among individuals with disabilities (IWDs) in the Gulf region, emphasizing the interplay between health and cultural/religious contexts. To examine these complex influences, this review adopts Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory as a guiding framework. This theoretical lens facilitates an in-depth analysis of how personal attributes, religious and cultural beliefs, disability-specific challenges, systemic and environmental barriers, gender-related issues, social networks, transition and teachers’ attitudes, work environment, and government policies interact across multiple levels to shape career choices for IWDs in the Gulf region. Cultural and religious beliefs critically shape both the perceptions and opportunities available to IWDs, reflecting the broader macrosystem influences. By applying this multi-layered approach, this review highlights the need to integrate religious and spiritual considerations into support frameworks to enhance the mental and physical well-being of IWDs as they navigate their career paths. The findings suggest actionable implications for policymakers and practitioners dedicated to improving inclusion and equity in the workforce for individuals with disabilities.

1. Introduction

In the Arab region, the UN Special Rapporteur on Disability identified two significant challenges faced by individuals with disabilities (IWDs): a lack of awareness of their rights, and insufficient clear and actionable legislation to protect those rights [1]. The Arab Gulf states, including Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), have ratified the UNCRPD [2] and implemented both regional [3] and national laws to safeguard IWDs’ right to work. These laws are complemented by national policies aimed at employing IWDs in both the government and private sectors [3,4,5,6,7,8,9]. These initiatives align with the GCC’s efforts to coordinate policies and leverage regional capabilities in addressing security, foreign policy, and economic development challenges, which have been the foundational principles of the GCC since its establishment in 1981 [10].

Gulf countries share common demographic and economic characteristics and are economically prosperous owing to abundant natural resources. Each country has articulated a national vision aimed at transitioning to knowledge-based economies and reducing its dependency on natural resources [11,12]. At the cultural level, these nations are deeply rooted in Islamic values and civilization, which shape their conservative and traditional societal structures. This cultural backdrop necessitates a balance between modernity and tradition and between adhering to international standards and preserving local customs [11,13].

In Islam, disability is not considered to be a result of wrongdoing by individuals with disabilities (IWDs) or their parents. Rather, it is viewed as a divinely ordained test, reflecting a broader Islamic philosophy that maintains a positive attitude toward individuals in need or disadvantaged situations. The Qur’an and the Hadith recognize disability as an inherent part of human diversity and provide not only moral principles but also practical suggestions for the care and inclusion of disabled individuals [14,15]. They emphasize the significance of such care and the virtues of patience and perseverance [15]. Islam teaches that disabilities are tests of faith, requiring patience and adjustment. Some believe that disabilities are a virtue bestowed by Allah upon certain individuals to test their faith, patience, and perseverance [14,15]. The importance of accepting Allah’s will under such circumstances is crucial. Those with strong faith are often seen as better adjusted and capable of coping, while others may mistakenly view disabilities as punishments. This perception varies widely depending on the intensity of an individual’s faith, as well as their socio-economic status, level of education, and cultural context [14,16]. However, the social perception of disability varies across regions, with some communities still holding traditional views that may stigmatize disability. In contrast, others are more progressive, promoting inclusion and support for the disabled, in line with Islamic teachings of social justice and equality [17,18].

Contemporary Islamic views and practices concerning disabilities are shaped by a complex interplay of factors. These factors include the depth of an individual’s faith, their socio-economic status, educational attainment, and awareness. Most significantly, the cultural context within which individuals interpret and apply Islamic philosophy plays a pivotal role in shaping attitudes toward people with disabilities. Cultural norms and values are essential for framing societal responses to disadvantaged groups. For instance, in affluent and conservative Gulf countries, the availability of resources has led to a significant emphasis on providing services and creating mainstream opportunities for IWDs. This reflects a broader commitment to inclusivity and support within these communities [14,17].

In these countries, IWDs are entitled to various government-funded services, including social assistance, disability benefits, access to healthcare and rehabilitation, and opportunities for public and higher education [13]. The interplay between religious beliefs, cultural norms, and health significantly influences the employment and career decisions of IWDs. Thus, addressing these factors is crucial for supporting their mental and physical health and fostering an inclusive and equitable work environment in the Gulf region. This study highlights the importance of integrating cultural and religious considerations into policies and practices to better support IWDs’ career aspirations and overall well-being.

2. The Current Study

The purpose of this study is to analyze and identify the factors that impact the employment and career decisions of IWDs in the Gulf region, as reported in the existing literature. This investigation is crucial for several reasons. First, it establishes the factors that IWDs encounter in the Gulf context when making decisions about employment and careers, highlighting areas that require further investigation. Second, it provides insights into actionable recommendations for states, businesses, and communities to enhance their support for IWDs in education, workplaces, and daily lives. Third, it uses a behaviorally informed approach to policymaking to promote effective and sustainable behavior changes that enhance employment opportunities for IWDs.

This literature review is framed by Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory [19], which provides a structured approach to understanding how personal, cultural, religious, policy, and socio-economic factors interact to shape career decisions among individuals with disabilities. This theoretical lens allows for a nuanced exploration of the Gulf region’s unique socio-cultural and policy landscape.

In the Gulf, where Islamic values and societal norms deeply influence personal and professional life, these religious and cultural contexts significantly affect both the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for IWDs. This interplay shapes how IWDs perceive their opportunities and challenges in terms of employment and career development. Our study not only seeks to delineate these factors but also to explore how the cultural and religious fabric supports or impedes the integration and employment of IWDs. This approach aimed to foster a deeper understanding of how spiritual and cultural dimensions interact with health and disability issues, thereby informing holistic and culturally competent policy interventions.

Theoretical Framework

This literature review is grounded in Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, which provides a structured approach to understanding how multiple environmental systems influence individual choices and development [19]. The theory outlines four interrelated systems—the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem—that interact to shape individual behavior, each offering a unique lens through which to examine the social, cultural, and policy-driven factors impacting career decisions among individuals with disabilities in the Gulf region [20].

In this context, the microsystem encompasses the immediate environments and relationships of individuals with disabilities, such as family, social networks, and workplaces. These interactions have been shown to profoundly affect career choices, especially where family beliefs and close social networks strongly influence educational and professional decisions [21,22]. The mesosystem represents the connections between these microsystems, where, for example, the interaction between family and educational institutions affects career transitions and choices [23].

The exosystem includes the larger institutional and policy contexts, such as government legislation and workplace policies, which indirectly shape opportunities available to individuals with disabilities. Research highlights how regional disability policies and accessibility frameworks can either facilitate or hinder inclusive workforce participation [24]. At the broader societal level, the macrosystem reflects the cultural and religious norms unique to the Gulf region that shape both public perceptions of disability and the career opportunities afforded to individuals with disabilities [14]. These norms are critical, as they influence social attitudes and potentially restrict or expand occupational options within a region that places high value on traditional cultural beliefs [25].

3. Method

3.1. Literature Search Strategy

The search was performed in two stages. The first stage consisted of three search strategies used to identify the articles for this review. First, a computer search of nine major electronic databases (Eric, Education Source (Ebsco), Education Database, Teacher Reference Center, Wiley Online Library, PsycInfo, PsycArticles, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar) was conducted. These are authoritative databases of indexed and full-text psychology literature and resources. Specialized databases such as Education Source (Ebsco), Education Database, PsycINFO, PsycArticles, and ScienceDirect add unique references to reviews where the topic of the review is related to the focus of the database. Optimal searches in systematic reviews should search for generic databases, such as Google Scholar, and specialized databases [26], such as those used in this study, to guarantee adequate and efficient coverage. We have included this in the search results. Our search used the keywords “Employment” AND “Disability(ies)” AND “Arab”, and “Career” AND “Disability(ies)” AND “Arab”. In addition, we used these combinations when substituting the word Arab for “Middle East” once and “Gulf” once. Second, an ancestral search of all the identified articles was conducted to locate additional studies that were not found through a computer search.

3.2. Selection Criteria

A total of 77 studies were identified during the first stage of the investigation. Research studies were selected for this review based on the following four inclusion criteria: (a) the studies were reported in peer-reviewed and published articles; (b) articles were published between January 2011 and March 2023; (c) the studies investigated any factor that had an impact on IWDs’ decision-making regarding their employment and career; and (d) the research was based in the Gulf region, which was central to the review. However, those studies that focused on the broader Arab region were also included to corroborate the findings from Gulf studies or to fill any gaps. Relevant studies from other parts of the world are then discussed in cases where they may have served to strengthen the points or provide comparative findings.

3.3. Exclusion Criteria and Analysis

Studies excluded from this review were those that investigated the same factors influencing areas other than IWDs’ employment and career decisions and those that were conducted in countries other than our target countries. Studies discussing career and employment for the mainstream, not specifically for IWDs, were also excluded. Two reviewers independently applied the inclusion criteria and extracted data.

The synthesis approach employed in this review was guided by eight predefined key factors identified from the research objectives and the existing literature. These factors are personal attributes intertwined with religious and cultural influences, disability-specific challenges, systemic and environmental challenges, gender-related issues, social networks, transition and teachers’ attitudes, the work environment, and government policies.

4. Results

Of the 77 articles found, 23 met all the selection criteria and were included in this review.

Table 1. Description of reviewed studies.

Study	Country	Disability	Topic	Measure	Research Design
Al-Hendawi et al. (2022) [11]	Kuwait, Oman, Qatar	Visual disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, quadriplegia, cerebral palsy, and other physical disabilities	Experiences and challenges in the workforce faced by individuals with disabilites and their career decisions	Semi-structured interviews	Qualitative
Kelly et al. (2016) [12]	Gulf region	Autism	Overview of autism in the Gulf Cooperation Council	N/A	Qualitative
Morgan (2021) [13]	United Arab Emirates	Government officials, institutions serving PWDs, and employed and unemployed PWDs	The challenges and successes in integrating persons with disabilities in the labor market	Interviews	Qualitative
Mahdi et al. (2018) [27]	Saudi Arabia	Autism	Develop international classification of functioning, disability and health	WHO ICF Checklist version 2.1	Qualitative
Peter (2018) [28]	Saudi Arabia	Women with disabilities	Access to employment for women with disabilities and highlight the barriers to employment	Interviews	Qualitative
Abusukkar (2019) [29]	Saudi Arabia	Autism	Employment challenges among youth with autism spectrum disorder	ASD Youth Employment Challenges Scale	Quantitative
Alanazi (2022) [30]	Saudi Arabia	Intellectual disabilities	The perceptions of individuals with intellectual disability toward workplace environment and practices	Interviews	Qualitative
Alshammari (2019a) [31]	Kuwait	Multiple sclerosis	Personal account on dealing with a disability (on survival and education)	Narrative Personal account	Qualitative
Elahdi & Alnahdi (2022) [32]	Saudi Arabia	Intellectual disabilities	Factors associated with workers’ attitudes towards employment of individuals with intellectual disabilities	ATWQ and CHQ questionnaires	Quantitative
Kadi (2018) [33]	Saudi Arabia	Physical disability	Challenges for individuals with physical disabilities in their personal, political, economic, and professional life	Interviews Survey	Mixed method: quantitative & qualitative
Almalki, Bagadood, & Sulaimani (2022) [34]	Saudi Arabia	Intellectual disabilities	Exploring the perceptions of individuals with intellectual disabilities regarding the services of the Sa3ee initiative for rehabilitation and employment and transitional services at postsecondary school age	Semi-structured interviews	Qualitative
Alakhzami & Huang (2023) [35]	Oman	Autism and developmental disorders	The challenges faced by individuals with autism and developmental disorders in obtaining various services	Demographic and background information	Qualitative
Alnahdi (2013) [36]	Saudi Arabia	Mild intellectual disability	Transition services for students with mild intellectual disability	Survey	Quantitative
Alkhouli (2017) [37]	Saudi Arabia	Employers with/without disabilities	Examines policy issues associated with the employment of people with disability/disabilities	Interviews Questionnaire	Mixed method: quantitative & qualitative
Azhar (2014) [38]	Saudi Arabia	None Bank managers	Investigate the understanding of managers in the banking sector of diversity management, including disability diversity management	Interviews	Qualitative
Alborno & Gaad (2012) [39]	United Arab Emirates	Physical & intellectual disabilities	Evaluation of an employment program initiated by a private national landscaping company	Interviews	Qualitative
Al-Kiyumi et al. (2020) [40]	Oman	Students with disabilities	Promoting entrepreneurial culture among students with disabilities	Questionnaire	Quantitative
Alborno (2017) [41]	United Arab Emirates	None	Framework for inclusion	Semi-structured interviews, observations	Qualitative
Gaad (2017) [42]	United Arab Emirates	Learners with disabilities	Inclusion of learners with disabilities in government school	Interviews and survey	Mixed method: quantitative & qualitative
Jihad et al. (2011) [43]	Qatar	Intellectual and learning disabilities	Exploring the benefits of developing software tools in integrating IWDs into all aspects of social and economic life	TUIs and an assessment component are developed by the authors	Quantitative
Salem (2020) [44]	Saudi Arabia	None	Developing essential labor market skills	Questionnaire	Quantitative
Al-Qahtani & Hiassat (2016) [45]	Saudi Arabia	Motor disability, sensory disability, & speech impairments.	Quality of life of IWDs	Quality-of-life measure developed by authors	Quantitative
Yaghi & Yaghi (2013) [46]	United Arab Emirates	None	Human resource diversity	Survey	Qualitative

summarizes the characteristics of the selected studies. Outlining the characteristics of the reviewed studies helped in identifying gaps in the existing literature that may require further investigation in future research. Approximately 52% of the included studies were conducted in Saudi Arabia, 21% were conducted in the UAE, one study was conducted in Kuwait, 17% were conducted in Oman and Qatar, with two studies per country, and one study was conducted in all the Gulf countries. Fifty-two percent of these studies used qualitative designs, whereas thirty-four percent used quantitative research designs. The remaining studies used mixed methods, employing interviews and surveys.

4.1. Qualitative Research

Among the selected studies related to IWDs’ employment in the Gulf region (Table 1), most focused on IWDs and used qualitative methods. Qualitative research allows for the interpretation of complex data, such as economic (in)activity and (un)employment in the Arab region, which are necessary to better understand IWDs’ situation in the labor market [47].

4.2. Factors Influencing Career Decisions

4.2.1. Personal Attributes and Religious and Cultural Influences

Mahdi et al. (2018) reported significant variation in the personal factors affecting individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Positive influences, such as specific interests in arts and sports, enhanced social interaction skills by fostering connections with others. Conversely, negative personal experiences, such as bullying at school, adversely affected self-esteem and self-worth. The study also noted that having caregivers with psychiatric disorders could exacerbate individual stress levels and worsen symptoms in individuals with ASD. Additionally, perfectionism has been identified as a barrier, making it difficult for individuals to engage in and initiate tasks and activities [27].

Similarly, Peter (2018) detailed the journey of a participant confronting the reality of incurable blindness. Initially, facing significant uncertainty about her future and career aspirations, she resolved to find alternative paths and was determined to continue her education. The factors that fostered her resilient attitude included her social class, religiosity, and education. Coming from a middle- or upper-economic background, she had access to resources that bolstered her resolve and ambitions. Her religious faith provided vital support, and education served as an empowering tool, providing her with the necessary knowledge, skills, and self-confidence to overcome the barriers [28].

Building on the influence of personal attributes and religious faith, Al-Hendawi et al. (2022) [11] conducted a qualitative study highlighting the profound impact of Islamic beliefs on the career and employment decisions of IWDs. Participants strongly identified with their Muslim identity, which shaped their perceptions and aspirations. They expressed the belief that career outcomes and employment decisions are ultimately in Allah’s hands, emphasizing the acceptance and faith that Allah will appropriately provide for their efforts [11]. This belief influenced their acceptance of workplace challenges and opportunities. Additionally, participants’ faith inspired a sense of duty to return to the community, particularly to others with disabilities, influencing their career paths and the types of jobs they pursue [11]. This altruistic drive is seen as a divine calling, influencing their career paths and decisions regarding the type of job they pursue. This perspective is critical in understanding the unique interplay between religious faith and career strategies among IWDs in the Gulf, reflecting a complex blend of self-confidence, faith, and community service, all of which are deeply rooted in their spiritual lives [11]. The study highlights instances where participants exhibited significant volitional actions and self-agency, enabling them not only to navigate the obstacles presented by their disabilities but also to challenge societal misconceptions about disability. One participant shared that despite experiencing bullying and discouragement from even his family—who doubted his ability to graduate from college due to his special needs—he remained resolute. His determination not only led him to succeed academically but also served to challenge and change the negative perceptions surrounding him, illustrating the critical importance of resilience and self-belief in achieving personal and professional aspirations. Further, Al-Hendawi et al. noted the significant influence of religion in conservative Islamic societies of the Arab Gulf, where personal and professional lives are deeply intertwined with religious beliefs. Participants who were identified as Muslims reported that their faith profoundly influenced their career and employment decisions. They articulated that acceptance and perseverance rooted in their faith were decisive factors in their career trajectories. For example, Participant 7 emphasized the importance of faith in managing his disability, while Participant 2 pointed out that self-acceptance and trust in Allah were essential for mitigating feelings of depression and frustration. These participants acknowledged their career ambitions but also recognized that their efforts and the outcomes of their endeavors were ultimately perceived as being determined by divine will. This dimension of their experience highlights the complex interplay between individual agency and cultural-religious values in shaping the career paths of IWDs [11].

4.2.2. Disability-Specific Challenges

Abusukkar (2019) acknowledged that disability-specific challenges significantly affect individuals with autism in gaining employment and making career choices in Saudi Arabia. His study, focusing on the perspectives of parents of youths with ASD, pinpointed ASD-based challenges as primary barriers to employment [29]. These challenges include difficulties with social communication, sensory sensitivity, and behavioral patterns, which can hinder performance in typical work environments. Notably, individuals with ASD may struggle to interpret social cues during job interviews or workplace interactions, which makes it challenging to secure and maintain employment. Additionally, repetitive behaviors and strict adherence to routines, common in ASD, can conflict with the dynamic nature of many jobs, further limiting suitable employment opportunities [29].

Mahdi et al. (2018) reported that individuals with ASD often face personal factors such as perfectionism and difficulty initiating tasks, which can serve as barriers to employment. Perfectionism may cause individuals to spend excessive time on tasks, impacting productivity, whereas initiation difficulties can hinder task completion and overall job performance. Negative personal experiences, such as bullying at school, can adversely affect self-esteem and self-worth, leading to increased anxiety and reluctance to engage in new social environments, such as workplaces [27].

In a study by Peter (2018), women with disabilities in Saudi Arabia faced challenges specific to their disabilities, which impacted their employment opportunities. One participant who had lost her vision had to navigate the reality of her incurable blindness, which initially devastated her career aspirations of becoming a doctor. Her visual impairment required her to find alternative career paths that accommodated her disability, illustrating how physical limitations directly influenced career decisions. The process of adapting to her disability involved overcoming significant personal challenges, such as learning new ways to access information and developing skills compatible with her abilities [28].

4.2.3. Systemic and Environmental Challenges

Alanazi (2022) conducted a detailed examination of the perceptions of individuals with intellectual disabilities regarding employment preparation programs in Saudi Arabia. The study revealed that participants pointed out the need for more learning centers that would act as crucial intermediaries between people with disabilities and potential employers. It was highlighted that in contrast to centers in other countries, Saudi rehabilitation facilities often fell short of the standards necessary for effective rehabilitation. One participant was quoted as saying that there were not enough centers to help them connect with jobs suited to their abilities, which made it hard to find work. The study further noted that the lack of adequate training programs tailored to the Saudi labor market was a recurrent concern among participants. Participants expressed that existing programs did not prioritize initiatives that would enhance employability for people with intellectual disabilities. Another participant stated that they needed training that matched what employers were looking for; otherwise, they would not have stood a chance [30].

Al-Hendawi et al. (2022) reported on the experiences of participants who had sought government assistance for employment in Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar. The study described the case of Participant 3, an individual with autism, who had encountered difficulties finding suitable employment through the Ministry of Administrative Development. The participant’s father explained that the available job options did not meet his son’s specific needs. The father was reported to have stated that they had offered his son positions that did not consider his challenges with social interaction. The study also presented the case of Participant 1, who was visually impaired. It was reported that this participant shared concerns about accepting a teaching-assistant position. The reasons given were unfamiliarity with and uncertainty about accommodations for his disability when studying abroad. The participant expressed worry about how he would manage in a new environment without proper support. The researchers concluded that these examples underscored the critical need for employment opportunities tailored to the unique challenges and needs of IWDs [11].

It has been reported that the integration of IWDs into the workforce is hindered by a lack of supportive infrastructure and resources. Alanazi’s (2022) study revealed that participants emphasized feeling unprepared to enter the workforce without proper training aligned with market demands. One participant was quoted as saying that they needed skills valued by employers, but there were not enough programs to teach them those skills. The study noted that online platforms had emerged as a partial solution. Some participants found solace in digital spaces that facilitated communication with other workers with disabilities and streamlined the job application process. One participant was cited as sharing that using online forums helped them connect with others like themselves and find job leads they would not know about otherwise. However, the researchers concluded that reliance on online platforms alone was insufficient without systemic support from educational institutions and government agencies [30].

Government policies have been reported to play a crucial role in mitigating or exacerbating the systemic challenges faced by IWDs. Despite the existence of laws intended to support the employment of IWDs, enforcement was often weak. Abusukkar (2019) revealed that parents of individuals with ASD expressed frustration regarding the poor enforcement of regulations in Saudi Arabia. These regulations require employers to hire individuals with special needs. One parent stated that while the laws existed, employers ignored them, and no one was held accountable. They concluded that this lack of enforcement led to limited job opportunities and reinforced barriers to employment [29].

The study also highlights that the absence of tailored employment support services further complicates the job-seeking process for IWDs. Alanazi (2022) indicated that participants emphasized the scarcity of employment agencies or services specializing in assisting individuals with intellectual disabilities. Participants noted that existing services were not equipped to address their specific needs. One participant commented that when they visited employment agencies, the staff did not know how to help someone with their disability. The researchers concluded that these systemic and environmental challenges highlight significant gaps in current employment strategies and policies within the Gulf region [30].

4.2.4. Gender-Related Issues

Studies on gender and disability within the Gulf region emphasize advocacy and agency for women with disabilities, particularly concerning employment and career challenges. Peter (2018) examined the experiences of working women with disabilities in Saudi Arabia, identifying both barriers and enablers to their employment. This study highlighted the challenges faced by these women in accessing employment opportunities and the factors that facilitate their participation in the workforce [28]. Alshammari (2019a), an assistant professor of literature at Kuwait’s Gulf University for Science and Technology, explores her disability through literature. She highlights the intersection of academia, women’s studies, and disability studies as vital for survival and representation, emphasizing the importance of incorporating disabled female protagonists into the broader narrative on women in literature [31].

Elahdi and Alnahdi (2022) explored gender differences in attitudes towards employment among workers interacting with individuals with intellectual disabilities. Their findings revealed no significant differences in responses between male and female participants. Most female participants were employed as cashiers, a role increasingly filled by women in recent years, which might explain the uniformity of their responses. These women did not have direct interactions with individuals with intellectual disabilities, unlike their counterparts in other roles within the study. The authors suggest that a broader distribution of female roles, including positions such as supervisors, might have uncovered a more diverse range of attitudes [32].

In a related study, Abusukkar (2019) provided an analysis indicating that the challenges faced by parents of youth with ASD related to employment do not differ significantly based on the parent’s gender, child’s gender, or child’s age [29]. This finding suggests a level of uniformity in the experiences of families in Saudi society, where family patterns and living conditions tend to be relatively homogeneous. Peter (2018) also called for national strategies, increased research, and policy development to support the employment of women, including those with disabilities. The study emphasized the need for fairer opportunities and treatment for women in the workforce, reflecting ongoing changes in societal attitudes within Arab countries [28].

4.2.5. Social Networks

Family and friends have a mixed influence on the professional lives of IWDs in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf region. Kadi (2018) and Peter (2018) found that IWDs received familial and emotional support from their social circles. Mothers have the greatest influence on their career and employment decisions, followed by fathers and friends [28,33]. Conversely, Kadi (2018) and Abusukkar (2019) observed that family members and a broader society may also have a negative impact on IWDs’ decisions. This includes not showing support for employment or narrowing IWDs’ employment options by emphasizing economic value and social status [29,33]. Elahdi and Alnahdi (2022) suggested that families’ beliefs that IWDs are employed out of pity rather than appreciation and are thus paid low salaries negatively influence their career and employment decisions [32].

Studies have highlighted that social challenges rank among the top obstacles faced by individuals with ASD when finding employment. Despite Saudi Arabia’s efforts to support people with special needs, the social support available to those with ASD remains inadequate, often leaving them under considerable stress and straining their relationships with family, friends, and colleagues [29]. Alanazi (2022) reported cases of discrimination and a lack of trust from employers, reflecting societal attitudes that contribute to the stigmatization and marginalization of IWDs [4]. Conversely, Al-Hendawi et al. (2022) found that many IWDs receive significant support from their social networks, relying on their families, especially their parents, for guidance and encouragement. For instance, Participant 9 credited his mother’s support and prayers as pivotal to his sense of progress and achievement, while Participant 6 drew strength from both a disabled sports club coach and his family, which boosted his independence [11].

Almalki, Bagadood, and Sulaimani (2022) explored the impact of family support on IWDs in vocational training and educational activities. They found that two participants did not receive support from their families or educational institutions during or after secondary school. One participant expressed this lack of support by stating, “No, not once, or anything”. In contrast, participants who received family support benefited from an increased awareness and understanding of their needs. The study revealed that approximately one-third of participants received family support, while the majority did not [34].

4.2.6. Transition and Teachers’ Attitudes

Alakhzami and Huang (2023) emphasized the importance of transition support and services for promoting independence and successful employment outcomes for students with disabilities in Oman. They noted that such programs are currently lacking for students with autism in secondary education settings. Although Oman’s Ministry of Education provides career development training to special education teachers, it does not adequately address the needs of transition-age students with autism. As a result, employment rates for IWDs in Oman are notably low: only 15.7% of IWDs are employed and living independently, and approximately 65% have never worked in their lifetime, according to the 2003 census. The authors argued that establishing secondary-level transition programs is crucial for promoting independence and competitiveness in the job market for students with disabilities. They also pointed out a significant gap in the qualifications of special education professionals, noting that only Sultan Qaboos University and the University of Nizwa offer teacher training programs in special education, with no specific focus on ASD or developmental disabilities (DD). The authors recommend that Oman systematically trains professionals in evidence-based practices for ASD and DD to better prepare students for successful transitions into employment [35].

Alnahdi (2013) examined the attitudes and perceptions of teachers toward transition services for students with mild intellectual disabilities in Saudi Arabia. The study found that teachers had positive attitudes toward transition services, with no differences in attitudes according to gender or educational background. However, differences were observed based on the years of teaching experience and having a relative or close acquaintance with a disability. The study also found that teachers felt unprepared to provide transition services. These findings highlight the need for further professional development and training to equip teachers with the skills necessary to support transition services for IWDs in the Gulf region [36].

In Saudi Arabia, Almalki et al. (2022) highlighted the significance of involving individuals with intellectual disabilities in their transition planning. Their findings emphasized the need for policies and training at the secondary school level that cater to the interests and abilities of IWDs, showcasing the success of early training initiatives like the one at Panda supermarket. Participants who engaged in such programs reported increased confidence and readiness to enter the workforce [34].

Al-Hendawi et al. (2022) emphasized how special education and disability support services impact employment opportunities for IWDs. Examples include participants who, with the support of educational institutions, have been able to pursue higher education and secure better jobs beyond their traditional roles. Some participants leveraged sports and university education to overcome barriers and expand their career possibilities, highlighting the transformative impact of targeted support and opportunities on shaping their professional lives [11].

4.2.7. Work Environment

Despite cultural and religious teachings against prejudice, IWDs in the Gulf region continue to face significant discrimination in the workplace [30]. Several studies have highlighted various factors that impact employment outcomes, particularly those concerning the work environment. Although employers often claim to favor the employment of IWDs, negative attitudes toward them remain prevalent [28,33]. Workplace prejudice frequently revolves around misconceptions of low productivity, frequent absences, poor communication skills, and an inability to assume responsibility. These factors contribute to the stagnation or ostracism of IWDs in the workforce, resulting in low employment rates in this population.

Workplace attitudes toward individuals with intellectual disabilities reveal a complex mix of supportive and hesitant behaviors among employees [32]. While many are willing to assist with work tasks, cooperate in training, and aid in job preparation, there is a notable reluctance in other areas. Employees are generally unwilling to work unpaid overtime to help their colleagues, cover the costs associated with their errors, or value their opinions, highlighting the challenges IWDs face in achieving full workplace inclusion.

Employers have varying views on the employment of IWDs, ranging from empowerment initiatives to uncertainty about their contributions to the workplace. The lack of clear policies and guidelines regarding employment leads to challenging and inaccessible work environments [29,32,33,37]. This discrimination affects hiring decisions, salary disparities, and career development opportunities, with many reporting lower salaries and fewer advancement opportunities than their non-disabled counterparts [30]. The perception of employers, oscillating between viewing employees with disabilities as assets or liabilities, plays a crucial role in this dynamic.

Workplace environmental challenges significantly hinder the employment of adults with ASD in Saudi Arabia [29]. Employers need to adopt more inclusive hiring practices and address negative attitudes toward individuals with ASD. Recommendations include adapting workplaces to ensure occupational safety, creating vocational training programs aligned with labor market demands, and implementing employment support programs specifically designed for adults with ASD. Disability diversity in the private sector is a relatively new concept in Saudi Arabia that is not yet well understood [38]. Several barriers to the employment of IWDs in Saudi Arabia have been identified, including the lack of vocational training, difficulties in using technologies, job requirements unsuited to their abilities, and unsafe work environments [30,32]. There is also a preference for hiring foreign workers, who may offer higher productivity at lower costs. Additional obstacles include negative societal attitudes, economic constraints, employer and supervisor biases favoring workers without disabilities, resistance from coworkers, and architectural barriers hindering accessibility.

Despite these challenges, there are positive examples of inclusive employment practices. A private national landscaping company in Dubai offered sustainable employment to 36 adults with disabilities, providing livelihood opportunities, social capital development, and significant boosts in self-esteem [39]. This initiative offered these individuals a source of livelihood and opportunities to build social contacts. Most importantly, it enhanced their self-esteem, which is crucial for empowering IWDs to integrate into their communities. This approach demonstrates the significant impact of inclusive employment practices, enabling IWDs to lead more autonomous and fulfilling lives. Similarly, Sultan Qaboos University in Oman fostered entrepreneurship among IWDs through workshops and training programs that promote entrepreneurial thinking and facilitate inclusion in the business world [40].

Varied workplace experiences for IWDs in the Gulf region further illustrate these issues [11]. Some individuals receive strong employer support, such as contract renewals during illness, and assistance in pursuing further education. Others face neglect or discrimination, including unacknowledged job applications or low salary offers. Positive interview experiences contrast with frustrations over bureaucratic delays and lack of cooperation, impacting job satisfaction and effectiveness. These struggles often limit opportunities for growth and skill development among IWDs [30]. Employers’ perceptions significantly affect hiring decisions, salary disparities, and career development opportunities, emphasizing the need to reassess practices to prevent biases against disabled employees and promote fair treatment.

4.2.8. Government Policies

Several studies have highlighted the significant role of government policies in empowering IWDs seeking employment in the Gulf region. Azhar (2014) investigated the understanding of managers in the Saudi Arabian banking sector regarding diversity management, including disability diversity. This study found that disability diversity is a relatively new and not yet well-understood concept in the private sector. Employers had varying views on the employment of IWDs, ranging from initiatives aimed at empowerment to uncertainty about how IWDs can contribute to the workplace. This lack of understanding underscores the need for clear policies and education to promote inclusivity [38].

In the UAE, governmental support is evident through initiatives like the “School for All” inclusive education program launched in 2010 by the Ministry of Education [41]. This initiative aimed to meet the standards set by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities by promoting equal educational opportunities for all children, including those with disabilities. By fostering an inclusive educational environment, the program seeks to lay the foundation for greater workforce participation among IWDs. Further advancing inclusive education, Gaad (2017) presented the results of a nationally funded project in the UAE known as “Kayani”, which means “my identity” in Arabic. This project facilitated the acquisition of knowledge and skills by non-working Emirati women to become teacher assistants in the UAE. By transforming these individuals into productive employees, the initiative supported the inclusive education policy and contributed to the country’s development [42].

In Qatar, Jihad et al. (2011) developed an assistive learning system for children with moderate intellectual and learning disabilities. This system fosters collaboration, communication, creativity, and data exploration by providing tutorials on fundamental concepts in elementary science. This initiative supports the inclusion of IWDs in education, which can provide long-term benefits for their employment opportunities by enhancing their skills and confidence from an early age [43]. Kelly et al. (2016) highlighted the establishment of the first government-funded center for autism in Kuwait in 1995. This center provided Arabic-language services utilizing methods combined with sensory integration, music and art therapy, and behavior management. Additionally, the Kuwaiti government enacted a law in 1996 to address the needs of IWDs, including provisions related to housing, rehabilitation centers, disability pensions, monthly allowances, and assistance with employment. These legislative efforts represent significant steps forward in supporting IWDs and facilitating their integration into society and the workforce [44].

In Saudi Arabia, Salem (2020) determined that the Vision 2030 initiative aims to achieve social equity through the provision of resources to support vocational education for all members of society. The implementation of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) plays a crucial role in developing the requisite labor market skills. The government’s efforts to prioritize TVET align with the overall goal of diversifying the economy and reducing reliance on oil, thereby creating more job opportunities and improving the quality of life of its citizens, including those with disabilities [45]. Almalki et al. (2022) investigated the perspectives of individuals with intellectual disabilities regarding the Sa3ee rehabilitation and employment program in Saudi Arabia. This initiative promotes public awareness of the functional rights of IWDs, showcases their abilities and skills, offers pre- and post-employment training, generates appropriate job opportunities in various sectors, and ensures sustained employment and professional growth. Participants appreciated the program’s role in facilitating their entry into the workforce [34].

Despite these positive initiatives, some studies highlight the challenges in the enforcement and effectiveness of government policies. Abusukkar (2019) noted that although Saudi Arabia has laws requiring employers to hire individuals with special needs, including adults with ASD, these regulations are poorly enforced. The intended legal protections aim to secure equal rights and safeguard IWDs from exploitation but often fail in practical applications. This lack of enforcement leaves individuals without equal employment these laws and penalize employers who discriminate against hiring, role assignment, or wage equity [29].

Alanazi (2022) highlighted the lack of clear policies regarding the employment of IWDs in Saudi Arabia. The absence of definitive guidelines leads to challenging and inaccessible work environments that adversely impact IWDs. Employers’ perceptions and practices significantly affect their hiring decisions, salary disparities, and career development opportunities. This study underscores the necessity for clearer policies and better enforcement to promote fair treatment and the inclusion of IWDs in the workforce [30]. To explore this further, Morgan (2021) examined the challenges and successes in integrating persons with disabilities into the labor market in the UAE. They found that while government efforts exist to support the employment of IWDs, barriers remain related to workplace accessibility, employer attitudes, and insufficient enforcement of existing policies. Participants reported that physical barriers in the workplace and a lack of accommodation hindered their employment prospects. In addition, some employers lacked awareness or misconceptions about the capabilities of IWDs [13]. Yaghi and Yaghi (2013) discussed human resource diversity laws and employment practices in the UAE to ensure equality in the workplace. Their study indicated that while such laws exist, their effectiveness depends on proper implementation and the willingness of organizations to fully opportunities [29]. The study emphasizes the urgent need for the state to actively enforce embrace diversity. The authors suggest that, without organizational commitment, policies alone are insufficient to bring about meaningful changes [48].

5. Discussion

This literature review identified a comprehensive range of factors that significantly influence career and employment decisions of IWDs in the Gulf region. The reviewed studies highlight eight key factors: personal attributes, religious and cultural influences, disability-specific challenges, systemic and environmental challenges, gender-related issues, social networks, transition and teachers’ attitudes, the work environment, and government policies. Understanding these multifaceted drivers is essential for developing effective strategies to enhance the employment outcomes of IWDs in this region.

These findings reflect Bronfenbrenner’s ecological framework, with each factor aligning across the four interrelated systems. The microsystem includes direct influences like personal attributes and immediate social networks, while the mesosystem captures the interconnected roles of family, school, and community in shaping career aspirations. Systemic and environmental challenges, as well as organizational policies, fall within the exosystem, impacting individuals indirectly through institutional practices. Finally, broader cultural and religious values influencing societal attitudes toward disability are embedded within the macrosystem. Together, these systems underscore the complex, layered influences on employment outcomes for IWDs, guiding future research and policy-making toward addressing key barriers and promoting inclusive practices [19,20].

Culture plays a pivotal role in shaping employment opportunities for IWDs, particularly in regions such as the Gulf, where community ties and traditions strongly influence daily life and business practices. Communal values and social networks, exemplified by the concept of wasta—the use of personal connections to secure jobs—can act as both facilitators and barriers for disabled individuals. While wasta may help some IWDs gain employment through family and community connections, it can also exclude those outside these networks, exacerbating existing inequalities [11,49]. Additionally, cultural stigmas associated with disabilities, often viewed as a source of shame or an ill omen, severely limit social integration and employment opportunities. However, there are ongoing cultural shifts influenced by global human rights movements and local advocacy efforts, which are gradually transforming perceptions of disability from a charitable concern to a social and rights-based issue [16].

Religion, particularly Islam, significantly shapes attitudes towards disability in the Gulf. Islamic teachings emphasize equality and the provision of rights to all individuals, including those with disabilities, and support community-based services [15,16]. However, interpretations that view disability as a divine will or a test from Allah can hinder societal and infrastructural accommodations. Leveraging specific religious narratives that frame the inclusion of IWDs as a community responsibility and religious duties can promote more inclusive policies. Of note, Quranic examples advocating care for all individuals can serve as powerful advocacy tools in these cultural contexts [14]. The extent of cultural stigma varies across the Arab region, with some areas maintaining more progressive attitudes that facilitate greater inclusion and accommodation in the workplace [14,16]. Religious and cultural beliefs, deeply embedded in the Gulf region’s macrosystem, shape societal attitudes toward disability, influencing both the aspirations of individuals with disabilities and the opportunities available to them. These influences form a value system that informs career decisions by defining culturally appropriate roles and expectations. For individuals with disabilities, religious beliefs may offer sources of resilience and personal identity, but they can also present limiting norms regarding “acceptable” careers or roles. In the exosystem, these cultural and religious norms are reflected in institutional policies and workplace practices, which indirectly impact the types of career paths considered accessible or acceptable for individuals with disabilities.

Disability-specific challenges, such as a lack of vocational training, difficulties in using technologies, unsuitable job requirements, and unsafe work environments, significantly hinder the employment of IWDs in Saudi Arabia [30,32]. Additionally, systemic and environmental challenges, including architectural barriers and a preference for hiring foreign workers who may offer higher productivity at lower costs, further limit employment opportunities for IWDs [30]. Negative societal attitudes, economic constraints, employer and supervisor biases favoring non-disabled workers, and resistance from coworkers also pose substantial barriers to IWD inclusion in the workforce. These findings align with global research on IWDs’ employment challenges, suggesting that they may be exacerbated by local cultural factors that are not unique to the Gulf region. The conflict between IWD-related rigidity and the dynamic nature of many jobs raises questions regarding workplace adaptability and the need for more flexible work environments. Disability-specific challenges often manifest within the exosystem. These challenges are shaped by institutional and systemic structures, including government and workplace policies, that either provide or limit resources for individuals with disabilities. At the macrosystem level, societal beliefs about disability influence how these challenges are perceived, either encouraging inclusive practices or reinforcing barriers.

Gender-related issues uniquely impact IWDs, particularly women who face a double disadvantage in both gender and disability discrimination. Social networks including family and friends play a crucial role in employment decisions. Families often serve as role models, instilling the belief that work is an expectation of adulthood, which can lead to more successful employment outcomes for IWDs seeking advice from close family and friends [50]. However, the intersectionality of gender and disability requires further exploration in order to understand how these factors collectively influence career and employment decisions. Gender-related issues, strongly influenced by cultural expectations, primarily reside within the macrosystem, where societal norms shape beliefs about appropriate career paths for men and women, particularly those with disabilities. These norms are reflected within the exosystem, where workplace policies and community programs may restrict or enhance career opportunities based on gender. For women with disabilities, navigating these cultural expectations can significantly impact their career choices and opportunities.

Transition periods, such as moving from education to the workforce, and the attitudes of teachers and educators significantly affect the employment decisions of IWDs. Positive experiences and supportive attitudes from educators, situated within Bronfenbrenner’s microsystem, can enhance self-determination and career readiness in IWDs. Conversely, negative attitudes and insufficient support impede their transition to the workforce. The work environment itself, including employer support, workplace accommodation, and inclusive policies, reflects exosystem influences, where organizational practices play a critical role in either facilitating or hindering the employment of IWDs. Discrimination in hiring, salary disparities, and limited career advancement opportunities, rooted in broader societal norms, highlight the macrosystem challenges that exacerbate the difficulties faced by IWDs [31,32].

Government policies and legal frameworks are instrumental in empowering IWDs to pursue and retain employment. However, the effectiveness of these policies often diminishes when they are not adequately enforced or when there is a lack of financial support and general awareness among both IWDs and employers [51,52,53]. Policies advocating for universal flexible or remote work arrangements can be particularly effective when aligned with cultural and religious practices that emphasize family values and community participation [54,55]. Similarly, removing bias in hiring processes by framing these changes within cultural and religious norms can enhance acceptance and implementation [56,57]. Within Bronfenbrenner’s framework, government policies operate within the exosystem, indirectly influencing employment outcomes by establishing regulations that organizations must follow. These policies, shaped by broader cultural norms at the macrosystem level, affect the degree of inclusivity in workplaces and the quality of employment opportunities available to IWDs. Stronger policy enforcement and targeted reforms could better support this population, fostering a more equitable work environment.

Self-determination is a crucial concept for understanding how IWDs navigate their career paths and trajectories. It encompasses personal attributes such as self-awareness, proactivity, and goal setting, reflecting a strong sense of self-agency [50]. While self-determination is universally recognized, its manifestation within the cultural and religious context of the Gulf remains underexplored [58]. Existing studies suggest that self-determined behaviors may be more prevalent than reported and influenced by cultural and spiritual frameworks. Initiatives such as those at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) demonstrate the transformative role of promoting an entrepreneurial mindset, alleviating career anxiety and supporting self-employment among disabled students [40]. These initiatives align with the Islamic principles of equity, community support, and personal dignity, highlighting the practical applications of culturally sensitive frameworks in enhancing the quality of life of IWDs. Personal attributes, such as resilience, self-determination, and ambition, play a significant role in shaping career aspirations for individuals with disabilities. Within Bronfenbrenner’s microsystem, personal attributes are cultivated through personal experiences and interactions with close family and community members, who often reinforce or challenge self-determination and career ambitions. The mesosystem further influences these attributes, as support from broader social and educational networks can strengthen self-confidence and persistence. In contexts where family and community support is strong, individuals are more likely to feel empowered to pursue fulfilling career paths despite external challenges.

5.1. Gulf and Western Contexts

When comparing the Gulf region to Western contexts, several similarities and differences emerge in the factors influencing IWDs’ employment and career decisions. Both regions recognize the importance of personal attributes such as self-determination and resilience in overcoming employment barriers. For instance, studies from the Gulf [27,28] demonstrate that personal determination and support systems play a crucial role in IWDs’ career decisions, similar to findings in Western contexts [50,59].

However, cultural and religious influences in the Gulf have introduced unique dynamics that are not typically present in Western studies. In the Gulf, Islamic beliefs significantly shape attitudes towards disability and employment [11,31]. The concept of wasta—relying on personal networks to secure employment—differs from Western merit-based hiring practices and can both aid and hinder IWDs’ employment opportunities. This reliance on personal connections can perpetuate existing inequalities, a factor less prominent in Western contexts, where employment is more often based on formal qualifications and policies [49].

Moreover, gender-related issues are particularly pronounced in the Gulf because of cultural and religious norms that uniquely impact women with disabilities. While Western contexts also face gender disparities in employment for IWDs, the intersectionality of gender and disability in the Gulf is influenced by traditional gender roles and expectations within Islamic societies [28,31]. This intersection creates compounded challenges for women with disabilities, as societal perceptions and cultural norms may limit their employment opportunities more severely than in Western contexts.

Disability-specific challenges, such as those faced by individuals with ASD, are universally recognized but are addressed differently across regions. The lack of specialized training programs and rehabilitation facilities in the Gulf [29,30] contrasts with Western countries, where more established support systems and evidence-based practices are in place [60,61]. This discrepancy highlights the need for the Gulf to adopt more comprehensive and culturally tailored support systems to bridge the gap in employment opportunities for IWDs.

Government policies also play a pivotal role in both regions; however, their implementation and effectiveness vary. Western countries often have more robust enforcement mechanisms for disability employment laws and greater public awareness [62,63]. In contrast, the Gulf region faces challenges in policy enforcement and clarity, as seen in Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 and Oman’s Sa3ee program, which require stronger implementation and support to be effective [29,45]. The effectiveness of these policies in the Gulf region is further complicated by cultural factors and varying levels of commitment among employers to enforce inclusive practices.

5.2. Research Gaps and Future Directions

Despite valuable insights provided by the reviewed studies, several research gaps remain. More Gulf-focused research is needed to explore additional factors that influence IWDs’ employment decisions, such as education and capability levels, access to funding for small businesses, and the effects of social protection systems on economic activity [47,61,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73]. Additionally, the influence of wasta on IWDs remains an unexplored area deserving attention. Future research should also examine how Islam specifically impacts the employment and career decisions of IWDs, leveraging religious teachings to promote inclusion and shift negative perceptions [74,75,76].

Moreover, qualitative research methods should be employed to gain a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of IWDs in the Gulf region. While quantitative studies provide valuable data, they often fail to capture the nuanced ways in which various factors influence IWDs’ employment decisions from an insider’s perspective. Qualitative approaches can uncover the layers of each influencing factor, offering richer insights into the personal experiences and challenges faced by IWDs [50,76].

5.3. Policy Implications and Recommendations

To enhance employment outcomes for IWDs, policies must be framed within the cultural and religious contexts of the Gulf region. Advocating flexible work arrangements can support both IWDs and broader cultural practices that prioritize family and community participation. Additionally, removing bias in hiring processes by aligning policy changes with religious teachings can increase acceptance and effectiveness. Framing disability within diverse categories that resonate with communal values and Islamic principles can further support the inclusion of IWDs, reinforcing the social fabric of Gulf societies [56,57].

Involving women with disabilities in policymaking is particularly impactful, as it aligns with the core values of enhancing family and societal health. Empowering women with disabilities not only addresses their unique challenges but also strengthens families and communities, aligning with Islamic principles of justice and equality [23,47]. By grounding these practices in the cultural and religious values of the Gulf, policies are more likely to be embraced and effectively implemented, ensuring that they are perceived as natural extensions of existing values rather than foreign impositions.

5.4. Strengths and Limitations

This review has several strengths and limitations. A major strength lies in its thorough exploration of how cultural norms and Islamic values shape the career paths of IWDs in the Gulf, offering valuable insights into the unique societal factors that influence employment opportunities in this region. Additionally, the focus on the Gulf region fills a critical gap in the existing literature by providing a nuanced understanding of the intersection between disability, culture, and religion. However, the review is limited by the scarcity of empirical data directly related to the career choices of IWDs in the Gulf, potentially leading to overreliance on theoretical perspectives. Furthermore, there is the potential for cultural bias, as the review may predominantly reflect the experiences of specific Gulf countries, reducing the generalizability of its findings. However, it should be noted that the review may not fully capture the impact of rapid modernization and globalization in the Gulf, which are increasingly influencing traditional cultural and religious values, and, consequently, the career choices of IWDs.

6. Conclusions

This review reveals eight key factors that significantly influence the employment and career trajectories of IWDs in the Gulf region. These factors include personal attributes intertwined with religious and cultural influences, disability-specific challenges, gender-related issues, the role of social networks, transition processes, teachers’ attitudes, work environment considerations, and government policies. Personal attributes shaped by cultural and religious contexts interact with disability-specific challenges, such as social communication difficulties, sensory sensitivities, and behavioral patterns, particularly affecting individuals with ASD. Additionally, gender-related issues compound the barriers faced by women with disabilities, while social networks can either provide crucial support or exacerbate existing inequalities through practices such as wasta. Transition periods and the attitudes of educators critically influence vocational outcomes, and the work environment, encompassing employer support and inclusive policies, plays a vital role in facilitating or hindering employment integration. Government policies establish the necessary legal frameworks for inclusive employment but often fall short without proper enforcement and widespread awareness.

It has been found that adopting evidence-based, cultural, and religious strategies is crucial for enhancing employment outcomes for IWDs in the Gulf region. Policies promoting flexible work arrangements and the removal of hiring biases, when aligned with the Islamic principles of justice and community support, have the potential to increase their acceptance and effectiveness. Involving women with disabilities in policymaking processes can strengthen families and communities, aligning them with the core Islamic values of equality and justice. By grounding interventions in the cultural and religious context of the Gulf, policymakers and practitioners can foster sustainable and inclusive work environments. This approach not only improves the economic participation and overall well-being of IWD but also contributes to the creation of a more equitable and inclusive society.

This review also highlights significant research gaps, predominantly the need for more Gulf-focused studies that explore the unique sociocultural and religious dynamics impacting IWDs’ employment decisions. While regional efforts to raise awareness about disability inclusion have been commendable, there remains a critical need for actionable research that delves deeper into these unique dynamics. Future studies should prioritize the development and evaluation of targeted small-scale interventions that address specific barriers at the individual level and promote sustainable and practical improvements in employment conditions for IWDs. Additionally, qualitative research capturing the lived experiences of IWDs is essential to providing deeper insights into how personal and external factors interact to shape employment outcomes. Understanding how religious teachings and cultural norms can be leveraged to foster inclusive practices will be particularly valuable for creating effective support systems.