3 3

Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Aspects akta Tantrism alcta Tantrism S

The Sanskrit term tantra derives from the verb tan meaning to expand, and thus, it derives tan meaning expand, and thus, it literally denotes anything that can be stretched or extended like threads on a denotes anything that can be stretched or extended threads loom.1 In its developed form, Tantra refers to a complex of cultic practices, rituals, loom. mysticism, and secret rites that are based on a philosophy and deep spiritual and secret rites that are based on a philosophy and deep spiritual 1 a devotion centering on the concept of Supreme Power. That power, called Skti, centering concept of Power. al(ti, I n has diverse manifestations. According to traditional beliefs, the Tantras, whether According whether has diverse i t a associated with al(tism or other sectarian orders of Indian origin, evolved in origin, evolved associated with Sktism or other sectarian orders s Assessment of remote antiquity and were interwoven with an intricate mythology. Assessment of d e available data, both and archaeological, provides the available data, both literary and archaeological, provides information on the v e a a other Skta Tantrism has origin and growth of Skta Tantrism and other similar systems. a.kta Tantrism has of al(ta l o a systems for its roots in prehistoric concepts of a fertile mother goddess and ancient systems for mother goddess p e Scores her Upper her worship. Scores of her representations dating to the Upper Paleolithic, if not not d attest to her Indias earlier, attest to her primary importance in India's most ancient culture. f earliest example Indian mother goddess gurine dates The earliest example of an Indian mother goddess gurine dates to the o Upper Paleolithic. Found in the Belan Valley near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh by Upper Valley near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh by made the late G. R. Sharma, the r late G. R. Sharma, the image is made of bone and is carved in the round; in it resembles a harpoon. the basis has shape it resembles a harpoon. On the basis of carbon 14 determinations, it has m been dated between 23,840 (plus or minus 830 years) B.C. E. and 17,765 (plus or or , minus 340 years).2 Also dating to the Upper Paleolithic are colorful stones marked years). T with natural triangles. Sharma found the rst of these stones resting on an area of Sharma area of of these stones 2 Also a raised ground at Baghor in Son Valley, near Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh. According near rai a d sed t i n g n to Sharma, several similar stones now have been found in that same area; they t Sharma, several similar stones now have been found that same area; they o t presently are under worship as Argarimai or Mother-Fire. These stones with Mother-Fire.3 t h are under worship as Argarimai e r triangles,e s e claims, are related to a primitive mother goddess. They also may mother also may 3 T p Sharma s t o n e s h Sharma U p a demonstrate connections to the later Tantric use of yantras in which triangles connections to the later Tantric use yantras which triangles w r t i h e r a vital symbolism connected fertility. While we have specic manifest a vital symbolism connected with fertility. While we have no specic P e a l toe Sharmas comments offer on Sharma's hypothesis, it should be noted that it is difcult to o la direct link between the archaeological evidence from Belan and Baghor and f evidence Belan trace a i t Baghor and h i goddess gurines that have been found in later Neolithic and Chalcolithic c have been e those goddess gurines excavations. a excavations. r r s 39 39 e t c o o l o a

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Of the interesting Mother Goddess gurines brought to light in recent the interesting Mother Goddess gurines brought to light recent times in Pakistan mention should be made of specimens found at Sheri Khan in Pakistan mention should be made specimens found at Sheri Khan Tarakai in the Bannu District and Mehargarh-Nausharo. The former site, dated Bannu and Mehargarh-Nausharo. former between 4500 and 3000 B.C.E. by the excavators, has yielded several female 4500 and 3000 ... by the excavators, has yielded several female gurines, both plain and painted; the various examples can be placed into three and painted; the examples broad classes: (1) examples with a pinched nose and wearing a headdress with classes: (1) examples with a pinched nose and wearing a headdress curled horns; (2) examples with a black spot showing afliations with a snake horns; (2) examples with a black spot showing a snake goddess; (3) examples showing exaggerated genitalia. O f the three groups, the (3) examples showing exaggerated genitalia. Of three groups, the most signicant is the third, in which gurines with one enlarged female organ signicant the in which one enlarged female traces male genital above. Excavators have as have traces of a male genital above. Excavators have identied this rare type as being hermaphroditic.4 being hermaphroditic. Related to this group is a protohistoric female fertility lower half is gure from Periano Ghundai, Pakistan, which 4 R e l a Periano Ghundai, Pakistan, in which only the lower half is marked t e d with a t o yoni. Goddess gurines are executed a primit h Most of the protohistoric Mother Goddess gurines are executed in a primii of s tive style with conventionalized features; those found at Harappa and Nausharo in g r o u Pakistan, however, are somewhat more rened.5 Pakistan, however, are somewhat more rened. Mother Goddess gures from p Harappa and Mohenjo Daro demonstrate a s and e r the may 5 M o s h Mohenjo Daro d d e s a variety of styles; the diversity may t G o demonstrate variety i indicateg existence e different craft or religious traditions in Harappan culture. the existence of different u r of s a Harappan sites in India, Lothal in Gujarat and Banawali in Haryana, have Two Harappan sites m Lothal Banawali have f r ro t o o p yielded Goddess images that may indicate religious diversity in the Harappan Goddess images that may indicate religious diversity the Harappan h i s of the subcontinent as well. Representation of female deities on the population t o subcontinent as Representation r i seals and sealings include indications of rituals involving animal sacrice. c Indus seals and sealings include f Cultic forms of a fertility goddess appear on seals showing a female gure standing e a appear seals a gure in the branches of the pipal tree. It is likely that the Mother Goddesses represented m a Mother Goddesses in terra-cotta and the female deities carved on seals represented two types of beliefs seals types of beliefs l e pertaining to worship of goddesses in at least two levels of the society that were worship goddesses least society were of f e r located in the same settlement; in other words, an authoritarian class and a located in the same settlement; in other words, an authoritarian class and a t i l common class may have had two distinct modes of worship. Given our current Given our i t class may have had two distinct modes y knowledge, we are unable to understand fully the position of a Mother Goddess as of a Mother Goddess as a fertility deity or, for that matter, the role of other female divinities in the religious a of other female fabric of the protohistoric societies o f India. It is uncertain if the Harappan of the protohistoric societies of It is uncertain Harappan population had any idea of a single supreme Goddess with or without a male had any idea a single supreme Goddess counterpart or if they were governed by magician-priests or even if they had a or were governed by magician-priests even they had a highly developed religion. developed religion.6 From the later Chalcolithic culture, a tiny clay gurine of a headless goddess 6 of a headless goddess is worthy of mention. Found in a small container at Ingamgaon in Maharashtra, Found container is worthy the image was buried under the oor of ahouse (1300 B.C.E. to 1000 13.C.E.).The ... ...).7 of a headless e a as headl h of 7 T ess gures has a parallel in the medieval form of the Tantric Devi known as Chinnamasta. The oldest literary works in India, the Vedas, preserve some interesting oldest literary works in India, the Vedas, preserve some interesting elements of Skta Tantrism. Of the Vedic female divinities, the most signicant for elements a al(ta signicant for development of a Ua s the historical development of Sktism are Aditi (Universal Mother), Up. (Dawn), al(tism Rtr (Night), Sarasvat (Supreme Mother and the River), Vc (Speech), and a a Rata (Night), Sarasvati (Supreme Mother and the River), Vac (Speech), and

Historical and Iconographic Aspects of S kta Tantrism Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism a

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P thiv (Earth) who together with Dyaus (Sky) represented the elements of univerPt-thivi r together elements of univera of later sal parenthood as did Skti and Siva of later times. Sarasvatialso is called Bhrat, a sal as al(ti iva Sarasvat also is Bhdrati, a a name that later became a synonym for llanguage and speech. became a synonym anguage speech. Important to the growth of Sktism was the Vedic Vc who represented the of a aktism was Vedic Vat a rst perception of innite, incomprehensible and invisible Energy in the form of of innite, Energy of sound. In fact, Vdc had four stagesthe subtle state called Para Vac, the internal Vc a Par V c, a a internal vibrant stage called Pas'yanti, the more developed vibrant form called Madhyama stage Payant s developed form Madhyam a V c, and the externally audible sound called Vaikhari. Para and Pas'yantirepreVac, and the externally audible sound called Vaikhar. Par and Payant reprea a s sented the higher stages of perception; but, according to tradition, the realization was a a of mantras as divine words was possible only in the state of Madhyam Vac. Thus, mantras as of Madhyama V c. in the Atharva Veda (19711), Vat was called Veda Mt or the Mother of the the Atharva Veda (19-71-1), Vc was a Veda Mad aa Mother of the Vedas (Stutamaya sahita Vedamata). Similarly, the later Tantras call the Goddess a a a aa later Tantras call Goddess Vedas (Stut may sahit Vedam t ). a a Janan, that is, Creator of Words. Sabd n m lanani, that is, Creator of Words.8 In our search for the roots of Sabdanam a I n we u r Sktism, we cite the important Vedic hymn called the VagambhrniS kta from the V gambh ni Saleta from a r u 8d,l(tism, o s e a r c h Rg Veda (10.125). The hymn, h composed by Vc, the daughter of the sage was e a / f o r t Ambhna. o r Vc refers herself as the female energy that is Supreme Ambht-na. In the hymn, Vat refers to herself as the female energy that is Supreme . r o t sa the upholder and the deities such as Power, the upholder of sovereignty and the controller of various deities such as ? o f Soma, Tvast, the a and She source of Vasu, Soma, Tvastd, the Rudras, and the Adityas. She also is called a source of g treasures, sustainer of natures forces, and bestower of favors. Without doubt, the sustainer nature's and bestower of V preserves a strong elements very hymn preserves a strong elements of monotheistic thought that forms the very e a basis of historical aktism. basis Sktism. d i Lakmi or a among s rim Important among the later Vedic female deities is Sr Lakm or Srm who r a mentioned for the rst time in the Sri Saleta, a supplementary hymn in the Rg S kta, a is Sr u is mentioned / Veda. As the goddess of prosperity, wealth, fortune, and vegetation, she is identigoddess of she is identiVeda. As .( 1 a ed as a (hirayavaniam harhillp) silver ? g asa golden doe (hiranyavarn m harinm) decked with gold and silver threads, 0 as a she asa column of pleasant golden light-bearing lotus garlands; she is a royal divinity pleasant . presence of trumpeting seated within a golden enclosure who derives joy from the presence of trumpeting elephants (hastin da pramodinm). Subsequently, a common symbolic form a elephants (hastinada pramodiniip). Subsequently, a common symbolic form 1 Buddhists, Jains, and Hindus represented Lakm anked s elephants. among Buddhists, Jams, and Hindus represented Lakgni anked by elephants. 2 as a a She also was incorporated into the Tantric pantheon asone of the ten Mahvidys. of the Mandvidyds. 5 also was u a now, the Sr S kta recited akta especially Even now, the Sri Saleta is recited in Skta Tantric rituals, especially during the ) u bath Goddess. The Sr S kta, addressed Jatavedas ceremonial bath of the Goddess. The Sri Saleta, addressed to latavedas or Fire,9 Fire, . demonstrates that the Goddess originally was invoked for the performance of the Goddess d of the 9emonstrates T u yaj a n One verse Sr S kta Jyeth Alakami, s a s yajna (re sacrice). One verse of the Sri Saleta refers to lyqthd or Alakam, the h a a u a goddess of poverty and misfortune, who is identical to the Mahvidy Dh mvat Mahavidyd Dhumdvati e tradition. the Bhad ranyaka Upaniad r a s of later Tantric tradition. In the Brhadaralgaka Upani,cad 7.4, there is an imporh reference associating Vc a such tant reference associating Vat with such ritualistic terminology that formed the a y components mantras of dkta. elementary components of the mantras of Skta Tantrism. m By the middle of the rst millennium 13.C.E., certain names and forms of the ..., names of the of the n such as Um-Haimavat, Ambik, Durg, Varocan, Sarvn a a a a a goddess, such as Umd-Haimavati, Ambikd, Durgd, Varocani, Sarvar, Bhavn, were known. In connection with the construction of forts, the Arthas'astra of known. In connection with the construction of the Arthaastra of s ., Kauilya referred n ithe worship of the goddesses Aparajita and Madird, both of goddesses Aparajit a Madir, a Kautilya referred to the w t of ii, B h a v a , whom were recognized later in the medieval Tantric tradition. Aparajitd (Invinclater medieval Aparajit (Invinca a s c o m

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ible) might have been an Indianized representation of the Greek Goddess Nike. might have been an Indianized of Greek Goddess Madird (the Goddess of Wine) also was known as Sudha or Suradevi in Tantric Madir a Goddess also was as Sudh Surdev a a rituals. In Tantric texts, she is described as a lustful young damsel of sixteen years she as a damsel of sixteen years with three eyes, wearing ornaments and red clothing.10 According to the Purnic eyes, clothing. a tradition, Madird d iSudhadevi, like Lakgni, had her birth in the churning of the her of the 10 A c Madir or Sudhdev t Lakm, c o ra n ga os ocean. What is more interesting in Kautilya's Arthajastra (14.117.1), there is a t s there a t h What is more interesting r Kauilyas Arthaastra e P u r d sacricial chant (mantra) invoking Aditi and Sarasvati and other gods for the chant (mantra) invoking and Sarasvat and other gods . preservation of a fort. Kautilya also identies the diverse types of res used in Kauilya also identies t types of res used c sacrices, that is, the kilns of potters or smiths, funeral pyres, houses of fallen and of potters houses of fallen wives, or c n al s ad a He also mentions offerings of animal devoted wives, or can(latas (outcastes). He also mentions offerings of animal fat esh as being magical, religious practices. He and esh as being part of the magical, religious practices. He indicates too that mantras expressions used for certain mantras with non-Sanskritic expressions should be used for the sacrices.11 sacrices. Certainly some of the components of the magical religious rituals and practices some components magical religious and 11 a derived from the Thara or other aboriginal tradition of the Tantras. the Sbara The growth of the cult of the Goddess between the third century B.C.E. and of century ... the rst century B.C.E. is veried by a number of beautifully carved ring stones that ... number of beautifully stones been found urban sites a have been found in various urban sites ranging from Taxila to Patna, by a stone from Rajgir and by terra-cotta and metal images recovered tablet from Rajgir and by terra-cotta and metal images recovered from various historical sites. The ring stones have minute carvings of various geometric designs, of various geometric designs, animals, birds, vegetation motifs, and palm trees conjunction scrolls, animals, birds, vegetation motifs, and palm trees in conjunction with images images of goddesses (Figure 2).12 Some of the goddesses are xed on the points of a 2 ). triangle. One ring-stone from Ropar in the Punjab is carved with the image of the of the 1 2 S One e o m o f goddess, e devotee, a hut-shaped temple, a priest, and perhaps another devotee a and perhaps another devotee t h a devotee, a hut-shaped temple, a (Figure d d e s s e (Figure g o 3). While most ring stones were fashioned with a hole in the center, a few were stones a a few were s formed as a at disk. V. S. Agrawala called these carved stones ryantras13 (mystias a V. S. Agrawala stones s s'riyantras" a r e cal diagram of the Goddess) and they, in fact, seem to be the earliest known diagram of Goddess) and they, in fact, seem to be the earliest known xpossible that they may have been used e a yantras. It is specic yantras. It is possible that they may have been used by a specic group of Skta akta d devotees. The existence of a cult of the Mother Goddess around the third century The existence of a of Mother Goddess century o n ... is suggested also by a plaque from Rajgir that depicts a Mother Goddess in a Mother Goddess B.C.E. is suggested Rajgir t h and a priest or devotee who holds a wine cup (Figure 4). Also, the various poses and poses e stence existence of a fertility cult is conrmed in part by pots that are decorated with conrmed exi nga human gures displaying conspicuous genitalia; these were found in Sur and p gures i o n these u Kushans excavations at Mathura, Purana Qla in New Delhi, and Bhita near t excavations at Mathura, Purana Qila in New Delhi, and Bhita near . Allahabad. n d og a a i a (ta Skta Tantrism entered a more conspicuous phase of development after the d,l of development after f as beginning of the Common Era, perhaps as the result of the increasing interaction of the increasing a a a between India and West Asia, the rise of Mahyna Buddhism and the growth of of Mahayana Buddhism and of Pupata Saivism and other Brahmanical sects. Some non-Indian goddesses such as Some goddesses Pdgupata aivism and other as Cybele, Ardoxsho, and Brahmanism as asCybele, Ardoxsho, and Nana gradually were incorporated into Brahmanism as Bhadrakl (then Dhum?), Mahlakm and Durg Simhavhin. Possibly the a a a s a a Bhadrakdli (then Dhumd?), Mandlakmi and Durga Sirhavdhini. Possibly the Greek Goddess Artemis was modied into Vana Durgd who subsequently was Goddess Artemis was modied Vana Durg a subsequently was identied with Bhilli or Kirat in the Indian aboriginal tradition. The inltration Kirati

Figure 2 Stone disk with Mother Goddesses. Patna, Bihar. Third century B.C.E. (Courtesy of the Stone Goddesses. Patna, ... of the Archaeological Survey of India) of India)

Figure 3 Ring Stone with relief of a Mother Goddess. Ropar, Punjab. Third century B.C.E. (Courtesy Ring Stone a ... of the Archaeological Survey of India) Archaeological Survey

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s e o z e o Figure 4 Steatite stone tablet. Rajgir, Punjab. Third Steatite stone Rajgir, n ... century B.C.E. (Courtesy of the Archaeological n Survey of India) t

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C Joshi M. C. Joshi

of non-Indian goddesses into south Asia is veried by a sliver plaque excavated goddesses into Asia veried a plaque excavated from Ai-Khanoum in Afghanistan depicting Cybele on a chariot drawn by lions Ai-Khanoum by and accompanied by Nike and priests crossing hilly terrain. In conjunction with accompanied and priests crossing this, we cite the Chhoti Sadari epigraph dated 491 C.E. describing an angry Dev we the Sadari .. describing angry Devi who rides on a chariot drawn by erce lions.14 rides on a lions." During the Kushan Period, Durga became known as Mahiamardini and the Kushan Period, Durg became a as Mahiamardin s Katyayani; she was depicted as being seated on a Katyyan; she was depicted as being seated on a lion and was associated with a and was associated Kt-Fp at Mathura. In the Ksna at Mathura. In the popular tradition, she was regarded as the daughter of r she was regarded as daughter of Nanda and Yaoda, the foster parents of Ksn.15 It is possible that followers of and Yaod, the foster parents s a Km1. r a Sktism, during the earlyscenturies era, borrowed ideas 15 I t during the early centuries lofethe Christian era, borrowed certain ideas aktism, i s p o s i b a of pu or animal as from the Pupatas, Tantric t h Paupatas, particularly the concept ofpas'u or animal (equated in Tantric as t as terminology with an uninitiated human beings) and pa (bondage f o l l with an uninitiated human beings) and pas'a (bondage to material o w e r s such attachments fand existence). Having incorporated such ideological notions, Skand existence). Having aako required a pedigrees back tism required a long line of gurus with pedigrees relating back to the rst mastergurus master a Siva or Adintha himself. An inscription by Candragupta found teacher iva or Adinatha himself. An inscription by Candragupta II found at gives evidence that a tradition of gurus already existed among the Mathura gives evidence that a tradition o f gurus already existed among the a Lakuls as LakulTa-Pupatas cult at Mathura. The aktas also adopted the idea of unha-Pagupatas cult at Mathura. The Sktas also adopted the idea compassion (as the Eternal) and the bounded compassion (as if emanating from the Mother Eternal) and the term unya from the philosophy of the Mahayana Buddhism. Images of the Matt-kas, s the philosophy Mhyana Buddhism. Images of a a Mtks, ar a s'unya Sath and Durg Mahiamardin s a s Sathi and Durga Mahipmardini produced at Mathura may indicate that the site a was center wasa center for followers of Neo-Sktism. One notable sculpture from this period of Neo-aktism. from this apparently Jains her as from Mathura is of Sarasvat as a Jain deity; apparently the Jams regarded her as Sarasvati as teachings of Tina. .. her the personication of the teachings of Jina. The image is dated to c.132 C.E. In her of hands, she carries a and the akam l s aa that symbolizes two hands, she carries a manuscript and the ales'amala (rosary) that symbolizes and unrecorded knowledge. Although Jaina, recorded and unrecorded knowledge. Although the image is Jaina, it is carved in a akam l s aa accordance with iconographic prescriptions of Skta thought. The akmmala held dl(ta this image is the earliest known sculpted example; signies Sanskrit by this image is the earliest known sculpted example; it signies the Sanskrit alphabet s s alphabet from the rst letter A to the last letter ka.16 The string of letters A to ka les'a. has profound meaningi in the Tantric tradition. The alqamala held by this repreakam l s aa has by repre16 T h e s t r n g o f sentation of Sarasvatssignies sound/speech or Vac, the rst and ancient form of ancient form of or l e t of Sarasvati signies t e r A a conceptions. The Skta conceptions. The Jain Sarasvati from Mathura, thus, embodies the personSarasvat embodies persondl(ta o t k c a ied form of the teachings of the Jaina or Tirthankara as stated by Vappabhati (c. Jaina or Tirthankara as t of of by Vappabhatti a a century ..) in his S rad stotra.17 eighth century c.E.) in his Saradastotra. growth Tantr c ra aa evidenced 17 The growth of Tantracara (practice of the Tantra) is evidenced by certain in the Divy vad nam, a a a stories datable references in the Divyavadantag, a collection of Buddhist stories datable to the century .. Particularly close second or third century C.E. Particularly relevant is the story of Ananda, a close of avast, Prakt-ti the associate of the historical Buddha. While roaming near Sr r associate o f the historical Buddha. While roaming near i-avasti, Prak ti the daughter of a Canclala (Matanga), fell in love with Ananda at rst glance. Realiza a a glance. Realizdaughter of a Cndla (Mtanga), ing that the fulllment of her desire to have him was not possible, she enlisted help was she of her from her mother, a mandvidhyddharT (an expert in magical and religious forher mother, a mah vidhy dhar a a expert magical and religious mulas). The mother prepared a sacricial altar and offered oblations of 108 ar The mother prepared a sacricial altar ar of owers and recited a mantra to the Goddess Arnala Vmal.18 The mantra appears a Amal Vimala. a a to be T h of the m a n tabara Matanga tradition; it is composed in a mixture a aboriginal Sabara Mtanga 18be part e r a a a p p e a r s

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of Prakrit and Sanskrit. Under the spell of this mantra, according to the text, and Sanskrit. Under the spell mantra, according Ananda lost control of himself and became highly disturbed. Thereupon, the lost control himself became highly Thereupon, Buddha gave him a mantra called Sadaksari Vidy to counteract the Goddess's gave him a mantra Sad ksar Vidyti counteract a a Goddesss magic. Afterward, the Buddha explained to Ananda the importance of the mantra; of the mantra,. furthermore, he related that the mantra should be used in conjunction with an he related used an amuletic cord that is tied to the arm for protection. The llanguage of the hymn is anguage of the very primitive and cannot be understood fully today. It can be determined, at least, can be at least, that the mantra is the product of a pre-Buddhist tradition and that such practices of a practices were incorporated by early Sarvstivda teachers in order to popularize Buddhism. by early Sarvastivada teachers in order to popularize Buddhism. a a Because the mantras invoke only female deities such as Arnald, Vimald, and the mantras invoke only female deities such as Amal, Vmal, and a a a Ku kum, they seem to have specic relevance to aktism. n a Kunkuma, they seem have specic relevance Sktism. Certainly one important milestone in the development of Tantrism was the of Tantrism was emergence of the iconographic form of Kali, the pre-eminent form of Skti, of the iconographic form Kl, the pre-eminent form of a a al(ti, sometime between the Kushan and Gupta periods. The earliest reference to her is reference her is as one o f the seven ames o f Agni in the Mtaidaka Upani,cad (2.4). But d s as one of the seven ames of Agni in the Mun aka Upaniad (2.4). But a Asvaghosha, the Buddhist author of the Buddhacaritam and the Saundrar nanda, author of the Buddhacaritam and the Saundrarananda, described her as a (kap la) a as described her as a terrifying woman (divinity?) holding a skull (leapala) who, as a member Mara's a attempted member of Mras army, attempted to disturb the Buddha from his meditations. The verse indicates a somewhat prejudicial Buddhist view toward the Goddess verse indicates a somewhat Buddhist view Goddess Kl; but it is, nonetheless, a very early reference associating the kapala with Kl. a nonetheless, associating kapala with Kali. a Kali; The well known Sanskrit poet Kalidasa refers to Kl in the Kumarasambhavam; Klidsa a a a Kum rasambhavam; a Kali she attended the marriage of Siva and Prvat wearing ornaments made of skulls. a of '11 a a a also refers Kali as a The Dev-M h tmya, akta. , Devi-Mahatmya, the most outstanding Skta Tantric text, also refers to Kl as C mu a Caa n r d P as v as t i a a a amun d (7.18)a rwell a Mahkl (12.37); in these forms, she represents the dreadful a rdestructive aspects of Supreme Power. and i n g Power. . e and destructive aspects w Dev Mahatmya, also a a also Candip tha a a Durga vitally id a r The Devi M h tmya, n called Candipacha or Durg Saptasati, is vitally o n a m e a important for assessing the growth of Sktism in the context of Indian history. It assessing al(tism of Indian ( . t 7s generally has been dated between the fth and seventh centuries C.E., but the has been dated between the fth and seventh centuries .., 1 m 8 ) of any references to Ganea or Ganean suggests that it was composed d absence a s references G a rs a e during a time when Brahma did not recognize Ganea as a Bramanical deity. a time when Brahma did not recognize G a r s . s o f Other Brahmanical gods like Siva, Vitiu, and Skanda are mentioned in the text, gods Vinu, and Skanda s iva, . le a o r G a r w Ganea had s aGat:1ea had not yet been admitted into the orthodox fold; therefore, the text k but a ss u a l been a m a n i c a l le B r . e l sbe dated before the fth century C.E., either in the early fourth or even third l . before should .., either early or even third d e l e a n ii t y . l century C.E. There is no doubt that the Devi M h tmya has all the major Tantric .. There no Dev Mahatmya has a a s u g g e s t s a characteristicstotal devotion to the Goddess, re sacrices her honor, a characteristics t o t a l devotion to the Goddess, re sacrices in her honor, a t t systemh japaa of (mystical chants), offerings that include the esh of the devotee and s ofjapa esh of the devotee and i t references to material enjoyment (bhukti) and liberation (mukti). The text mento material enjoyment and M w the triple forms of Supreme Power that symbolically are based on three a s tions the triple forms of Supreme Power that symbolically are based on three a c ements; they are tama (darkness), raja (brilliance), and sattva (purity) and they o m p elements; they are tama o and sattva and they el h s represented respectively by her aspects called Tamasi or Yoganidrd, Mahie d are represented respectively by her aspects called Tamas or Yoganidr, Mahi a a samardin and Sarasvat These a a prnardini,, and Sarasvati. These forms mentioned in the Dev M h tmya symbolDevi Ma hatmya symbolk ize the inner movement of the devotee from the darkness of ignorance to the light ize of ignorance a of knowledge. h ( 1 2 .

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From the Gupta Period, fth and sixth centuries C.E., one image portrays an .., episode from the rst chapter of the Devi M h tmya; the terra-cotta plaque from episode the Dev Mahatmya; a a Bhitargaon and now in the Indian Museum in Calcutta depicts the killing of the and now of twin demons Madhu and Kaitabha (Figure 5).19 Vinu, who sleeps on the snake demons Madhu and Kaitabha 5 ). s Ananta, g are with this sculpture, the Gupta 1 9 V iand Brahma are shown with the two demons. In this sculpture, the Gupta artist meant to convey the idea that Vinu was able to kill the twin demons only meant convey idea V ig s . through the grace of the Goddess. The Dev M h tmya also contains references Goddess.20 a a . lu, w grace o h a to lw ra and a s a k other goddesses such as Skambhar, Sivadut, and 2 Mte as and p b l e lu Mattkasse other forms of the goddesses such as dkambhari, ivaduti, and s akta Tantras and the Brahmar Brahm e a n D e i v the l () t T oh n. Elements of l i monotheistic philosophy of the S k o point are apparent as concept h a e m point . M a hhof bindu (focal y a for meditation) are apparent as well. t e t t a Skti worship and its connection to Tantrism are attested to by an inscripand al(ti s ii. a ln ok t w i n s e Rajasthan; the inscription, dated .. 423 424, found a t a tion e e n at Gangadhar in n s E l found at Gangadharnin Rajasthan; the inscription, dated C.E. 423-424, c i d o m o a records preserves a distinct reference to Tantric practices. It records the construction of a of a m s o e n the Goddess and Mattkas by a local minister. It refers also to a Tantric l yar a shrine to n Goddess and Mtks the t r s e(tantrodbhuta) r f e e which perhaps based system of Tantrism ritual (tantrodbhuta) which perhaps is based on a left-handed system of Tantrism o n amcra)ebecause it mentions dkins and calls the temple ugraves'ma(powerful c s (V a a because a ugravema (powerful s (Vamacara) dakinis calls f where all wishes are fullled).21 temple where all wishes are fullled). The somewhat obliterated inscription t appears to employ the terms kulyapa (corpse) and mulyda, suggesting that it is d 21 T to e h employ the terms kunapa (corpse) and mun a, suggesting h a ar a referring to a shrine a t s o m to a w h dedicated to the Goddess Ca mu d and the Mtks and e shrine dedicated to the Goddess Cmun r a e a e attended by dkins. We, therefore, propose that the damaged section of . b l by dakinis.rWe, therefore, propose that the damaged section o f the o i t a t e d m a o a n mentions chanting the mantras for Cmund with her corpse that were a r inscription Ca mu a id n s dc rt h e t mantras i i p i revealed t thek akins. It is quite likely that thedunknown author of this inscripn oed to the clakinis. d a s author of this reveal . a M t a n o n tion wanted to indicatee r during the daily p j (worship), in accordance with ua accordance t h wanted h pup icla w i t h that, Tantric r p bah (offering of grain) was offered in the temple of the dkins which a of grain) was of the clakinis e o rites bali e i c s t h a t they accepted rwith great joy; their presence was felt in a gust of wind. That the great their presence was s t accepted ie w e temples Tantric rituals are efcacious is made clear by use o f the term vgterm ves temple's Tantric rituals are efcacious is made clear by use of c matyugram (most powerful or effective shrine where desires are accomplished matyugram (most powerful or effective shrine where desires are accomplished p easily). Fleet's translation of the term as terrible abode" does not seemto be quite Fleets as "terrible abode does seem be of the h i appropriate.22 It is apparent that, in the Gupta Period, the goddess Durg or a appropriate. l atyyan was worshiped in various aspects. The K o a Sadari epigraph also Katyayani 22 I t was worshiped in various aspects. The Chhoti Sadari epigraph also s a associates Sivas Ardhanrvara form with Sktism and thus the inscriptional a s associ i s ates iva's Ardhandrigvara form with a.ktism and thus the inscriptional o akta worship; such notions, in fact, appear to have appear have information conforms to later S al(ta a p p a p as the base a a served astthe base for the growth of the concept of K makal (the triad of Skti, of Kimakata of a akti, r e n and Nda-Brahm). hiva and Nada-Brahma). Siva a a t h a y For an understanding o f early Tantric practices passages from the an understanding of early Tantric practices passages from the t s a Har,acarita of Bna are useful. The work describes Skta rites performed for King a o Har,wcarita of Bar i who was gravely ill. Worship included the use of the Pabhakaravatdhana who was gravely ill. Worship included the use o f the f . n attman ala or yantra by Kulaputras and offering of human or animal heads to m a r d tmar rma l la e t. God Amardaka (Rudra) as Mahabhairava, prayers to the Goddess Cauclika a Goddess Candik a thesGodf Amardaka (Rudra) as Mahbhairava, prayers h u e u l . h ata (ten-handed Durga) by a priest from Andhra country and the burning of guggula Durg) a a from country and the burning of guggula zd e T h e encense) on the devotee's head in order to propitiate Mahkla. Bakia'sdescription (incense) devotees head order a a a (i Mahakala. Bnas description o a r o w r of a special anusthana please G a non the performance by priests of a special anusthana (ritual) to please the focuses ly k Goddess, the Mattkas, Bhairava, and Mahakala as a means of curing the king. A ar a a a u r a the Mtks, Bhairava, and Mahkla as means of curing t ( e s c d p t tb i b e r a y a s P u K T a . e a r l p a

Figure 5 Anantasayin Viglu in yoganidra. Bhitargaon. Fifth to sixth century C.E. (Courtesy of the Anantasayin Vinu yoganidra. Bhitargaon. s .. of the Archaeological Survey of India) of India)

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a signicant feature of this special a.1(ta ritual was the offering of the worshiper's special Skta was of worshipers a own esh to the Goddess which, according to Skta tradition, is a great sacrice. esh the Goddess according al(ta The Haryicarita also preserves some notable references to a secret ritual connected Haracarita also s a secret connected with some kind of ava (vet la or zombie); the rite was performed by a Mahaiva of s aya (vetala s' a was by a Mallaaiva as Bhairavacarya who was South Indian by birth. At the end o f the sadhana, Bhairvcarya who was South Indian by birth. At the end of the s dhana, a a a Bhairavacarya became a vidyadhara and King Prabhakaravardhana was granted a Bhairavcrya became a vidyadhara a a was boon by the Goddess Lakmi (Rajya-Lakmi). The Haracarita also refers to the by the Goddess Lakm (Rajya-Lakm). The Harwarita s s s Matamantra, a secret initiation which, according to the a.iva system, required M lamantra, a secret initiation which, according u the Saiva system, required sacricing a buffalo on Mahanavami (the ninth day of _Mvin) and the Tantric a buffalo on Mahanavami (the day Avin) and s riparvata. Srparvata cult. Thus, the Harwarita clearly indicates that, by the seventh cen Thus, the Haracarita s cena Skta Tantrcra was well established. This a a development tury, al(ta Tantracara was well established. This kind of religious development a much earlier beginning for Tantra. Therefore, the reference presupposes a much earlier beginning for Tantra. Therefore, the reference to rites the Gangadhar Tantric rites in the Gangadhar inscription is quite meaningful Indias medieval period regarded as the age India's medieval period is regarded as the golden age of Tantrism, particua n a larly for Sktas and Buddhists. The employment of the Pa ca Mak ras (sometimes al(tas of the Paw Makaras (sometimes as mudr (ritual a referred to as the ve Msmadya (wine), maithuna (sex), mudra (ritual gestures), M'smadya matsya (consumption of sh), and mamsa (consumption of esh) in the Tantric m msa a matsya of of esh) Tantric became References as Mattavil sa Prahasana by a rituals became popular. References in such works as the Mattavilasa Prahasana by and Kaip ra Manjari u n Rajasekhara us wideMahendravarman and Kai pra Ma jari by Rajasekhara inform us of the widewas spread awareness of such rites. In addition, alchemy was practiced by some Tantric of such by some Tantric ascetics and a ascetics and teachers in order to turn base metals into gold and to attain a long and life. During this period, highly developed yantras and man alas d healthy life. During this period, highly developed yantras and malydalas were to serve as the abodes particular aspects of introduced to serve as the symbolic abodes of particular aspects of the Goddess. goddesses such as Tripur, Tr, Sarad a aa Kirat, Mta g a n Additional goddesses such as Tripura, Tara., a ra da,, Bhilli or Kirati, Matangi Padmvat as a as Nitys a Yogins Yantras as Padmavatias well as Nityas and Yoginis were introduced. Yantras were regarded as images because (s kma) u s gross (sth la) u superior to images because they represented the subtle (sukcma) and gross (sthula) forms of Devi.. Tantric tradition regards the goddess as formless, but she may of Dev Tantric tradition regards the goddess as formless, but she may assume a form at will. a at will. a The Skta Tantras also incorporated Kuudalin Yoga into their system somealso r al(ta K n time before the eighth century. The basic concept of Kuu dalin Yoga recognizes before the eighth century. The basic concept r K n . that the Supreme Power of the universe exisits in the human body where it lies in a Power g a body a it . id a lin i Y o staticl ior idormanto g aThe sole aim of Tantrins is to awaken the kun alin and state. The h e i r d and kwydalini i d a in n Yt o state. t make c rise gin n i body through various practices. Such notions are clearly it o the it rise in s bodye through various practices. Such notions are clearly the tz e s m r e s y n a indicated in the Devi Pur n (10.9.7 8), alikaracarya's Saundarayalahari(9.10) Dev Puralya (10.9.78), Sa karcaryas Saundarayalahar (9. 10) aa s o m e and Bhavabhuti's M lat M dhava (5.1). This last work also refers to the system of Bhavabhutis Malati Madhava a a also system of ny sa (purication of the body through the recitation of mantras) (5.21).23 a nyasa of of mantras) (5.21). a most signicant Skta Sryantra 23 The most signicant yantra in the a.kta Tantric tradition is the Srlyantra (Figure 6) which is rst referred to in an Indonesian inscription dating to the Indonesian dating the seventh century ..24 We can assume then that in India, the country of origin, the c.E. Sr W must have existed long before the time of its introduction to Indonesia. have Srlyantra before of its Indonesia. 24yantra e we can be the a goddess associated Likewise, we can be certain that the cultic deity Srvidy, the goddess associated rividya, c a n her however, with the Srlyantra, predated the seventh century inscription; her cult, however, a s the Sryantra, predated the seventh s u m popular in India after the eleventh century. The Goddess Srvidy a became popular in India after the eleventh century. The Goddess rividya oce t h e n t h a t

L
Figure 6 Sryantra
F i gu re 6 ' 5 ' n Y a n t

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a cupies an important position Skta Tantrism. The cupies an important position in akta Tantrism. The two principal divisions of akta Tantra are the Kalikulas and the Srkulas; each has a complicated system of S akta. are Klkulas a rikulas; each has system of dkas (rites),and sadhanas (meditations) involving a principal deity and related dikOs s s dhanas a a principal deity and related divinities who emerge from the ultimate source, that is, the Primordial Energy. As emerge is evident from the names, the Kalikulas are associated with the goddesses Kl and is Klkulas a associated goddesses Kali a destruction (samhara); the rikulas are connected to Sr or Srvidy and creation (samhara); the Srkulas are connected i rividya r a (rti). The complex form of these sects seems to have been developed sometime (s s after the ninth century. century. m the What is most signicant for students of iconography is the symbolism of the signicant for of iconography symbolism of the t goddesses goddesses with their various attributes. We are concerned here primarily with Sr i vidy, a creative force whose highest form is represented by the goddess a or rividya, a creative force whose highest form is represented by the goddess ) Sr Mahtripura Sundar or Sodai. Her other forms are Lalit, Tripur Bhairav, a s a a Mahatripura Sundari or Soclai. Her other forms are Lalita, Tripura Bhairavi, T Bhuvanevar, Bala Tripur-Sundar, Rjarjevar and others. Mta g, Bagal s a a a s a n a Bhuvanevari, Bala Tripura-Sundari, Rajarajevari and others. Matangi, Bagala h Kamal a also are a and Kamala who also are connected with creative aspects of Srvidy are included of rividya e the Srkulas. According i i Vidy emerged Tantric a by the rikulas. According to Tantric tradition, Sr or Sr Vidya emerged from r r c akmakal, that is union of Mahakala (Siva) and Adya (Kali) in a state of a (Kl) Mah a a a a state of Mahakamakala, that is union Mahkal (iva) and Ady a o The same Lalit sahasran man a a supreme bliss. The same idea is described in the Latitasahasranaman wherein the m Sr took her birth from the re of consciousness (Cid gnikun aa d Goddess r i took her birth from the re o f consciousness (Cidagnikunda i or r i Vidya a p Sambh t ). Thus, Sr or Sr Vidy is a creative energy responsible for the expanua a energy responsible for the expanSambhta). r l The attributes, and godsion of creation. The primary forms, attributes, and colors of the principal godof desses of the rikulas desses of the Srkulas are earthboundred, vermilion, or yellow, which turn white e connection the ideal goal or blue in specic conceptual contexts or in connection with the ideal goal of x blue in specic conceptual contexts or mukti. The goddesses of the Srkulas are described asbeautiful, young, and charmgoddesses of the as rikulas and charmf they hands attributes such as the noose, goad, sugarcane bow ing; they carry in their hands attributes such as the noose, goad, sugarcane bow o rosary, and assume mudr s. a and arrow, rosary, and book. Other hands assume meaningful mudras. The noose, r goad, and bow and arrow that are held by the Goddess Tripura are symbols of and bow and arrow are held Goddess Tripur a of m worldly attachment, material desires, and things causing worldly attraction. causing o The Latitasahasranama explains the symbolism of the attributes of Lalit or Lalit sahasran ma a a a of the of Lalita or f ; she holds the noose that symbolizes material attachment (r ga), the goad that Sr she a material attachment (raga), the goad that t (ahamk ra), and a a represents wrath (ahamkara), and the sugarcane bow that characterizes a mind full h desires. Because the bow and ve arrows are weapons of Kmadeva, they of desires. Because the bow and ve arrows are weapons o f Kamadeva, they a e symbolize the ve basic human faculties. Other attributes such as the rosary and Other as rosary book that are held by the divine female deities have signicance. The rosary that are held by the divine female deities have signicance. The rosary s represents the Sanskrit alphabet from A to lqa and is the same as the varnamala the Sanskrit alphabet ka s same as varnam l aa e (universal creative energy in the form of sound); the book symbolizes all kinds of energy s form of sound); book symbolizes all kinds of codied knowledge including dharma (righteous law) and adharma (unrighteous and e law), vairagya (detachment), and avairagya (non-detachment), j ana (knowledge) vair gya a avair gya a n jana (knowledge) c and apiana (ignorance). aj ana n t The rikulas who are the sectarian family of the Goddess rividya place Srkulas who are the sectarian family of Goddess Srvidy place a s great signicance on the Srlyantra ( the mystical diagram of Sr) o which the signicance the Sryantra the mystical diagram of t to s earliest reference occurs in the Saundarya-Lahari. As the abode of the goddess Sr, of the goddess e it consists of a central point (bindu) ve inverted and four upward triangles within a e eight and sixteen petaled lotuses that are surrounded by three circles (vrtta). The and sixteen petaled lotuses are (v tta). r m s t o

Historical and Iconographic Aspects of S kta Tantrism Historical and Iconographic Aspects ofSakta Tantrism a

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whole is enclosed in a square (bhapara) that is marked with a projection on each enclosed (bh para) u a each side to mark the entrances to the interior. Although the Sriyantra, has been side to mark the entrances to the interior. Although the Sryantra, has been interpreted by scholars in metaphysical terms, it also has tangible symbolic associa-also has associa tions, particularly its outer enclosing perimeters (bhapura) which signify city or particularly its outer enclosing (bh pura) which u or temple walls with four portals, its central pavilion formed o f jewels (ratna walls with four portals, its central pavilion formed of jewels (ratna man apa), and its lion throne symbolized by the central point (bindu). The malidapa), and its lion throne symbolized by the central point d The location of Sr or Tripura in the Sriyantra is likened to that of a great queen of i or Tripur r a the Sryantra likened that of a great queen (Mah raj ) who rules over a country or city called Srpura. That place, according (Maharajlii) a n over a country or city ripura. That place, according to the Tripura Mahimanstotra, is similar to the mundane world (Samsaracakthe Tripur Mahimanstotra, is similar to the mundane world (Sams racaka a r makam). For this reason perhaps, Sr is worshiped in royal form with the a royal the ramakam). For this reason perhaps, i is worshiped r accessories (angas), attributes ( yudh s), vehicle (v hana), and a a a accessories (angas), attributes (ayudhas), vehicle (vahana), and family (parivara) Lalit sahasran ma Stotram identies Tripura or a a a that bet her royal status. The Lalitasahasranama Stotram identies Sr, Tripur or sri, Lalit as Rjarjevar (Empress) and as one who enjoys absolute power a a a s Lalita as Rajarajevari (Empress) and as one who enjoys absolute power a (anulamghita-Sasana). (anulamghita-S sana). In this context, we need to discuss the Goddess Kali or DaWnakall. She is context, we need discuss Goddess Kl Dakinakl. She a s a as disheveled a represented as standing naked with disheveled hair on the corpse of Siva. Kl is of ova. Kali of has three eyes and wears bodies of the color of a dark cloud, has three eyes and wears earrings of the dead bodies of babies and a She babies and a garland of skulls. She carries a sword and a human head in two hands; hands the other two hands signify welcome and blessings. Her blue-black color symbolblue-black color symbolizes the limitlessness energy her mahanirguna-r pa u izes the limitlessness of cosmic energy or her mahanirgulia-rapa (purest formless that is space itself. Her blue-black complexion also characterizes her as form) that is space itself. Her blue-black complexion also characterizes her as sarvatattvatmik a elements and She because she sarvatattvatmika (all elements and colors). She is without clothing because she is she Kl because she a creates above all illusion; she is Kali because she governs and creates time. The dead and powerless Siva below her represents Nirguna-Br hman a powerless iva below her feet represents the Nirgulia-Brahman (beyond qualities or attributes). Her three eyes characterize a trio of light, that is, the sun, moon, and of light, represent adharma her re. Her grisly earrings represent dharma and adharma and her garland of skulls of skulls the (varnam l ), aa represents the fty letters in the Sanskrit alphabet (vamamala), which is symbolic Sabdabr hman a of Sabdabrahman (union leading to ultimate peace). The girdle of severed human of arms around her waist indicates the loss of karma or the end of all action. She around her waist indicates the loss end She protection and boons upper grants protection and boons with the word of knowledge held in the upper left and as head hand and kills animal instincts as symbolized by the severed human head in the a left hand. The weapons held by Skta deities including Tr symbolize aa lower left hand. The weapons held by akta deities including Tara symbolize (mukti ) in that they remove fetters (pa). Because as liberation (mukti) in that they remove all fetters of attachment (pas'a). Because a Kl is the embodiment of a her yantra has only Skti triangles or Kali is the embodiment of destruction, her yantra has only a.kti triangles or with the apex pointing downward (Figure 7). Her yantra has no Siva triangles with the apex pointing downward (Figure 7). Her yantra has no iva (apex because she does triangles (apex upward) because she does not symbolize creation. In contrast, the Sryantra has ve Skti trikonas (triangles) and four Siva trikonas (triangles) to and four iva trikonas (triangles) Sriyantra has ve aakti trikonas indicate creation. creation. a last notable development Tantric Sktism was systematizing the The last notable development in Tantric aktism was systematizing the Goddesses the Mahvidys. a a after important Goddesses into the ten Mahavidyas. This development occurred after a recognition Tr Sktism eastern aa around century .. the recognition of Tara in aktism in eastern India around twelfth century C.E. ten Mahvidys are Kl, Tr, Sodas (Sundar), Bh vanevari, Tripur a a a a a u s a The ten Mahavidyas are Kali, Tara, Sodasi (Sundari), Bhavanegvari, Tripura Bhairav Mta g Bagal Chinnamast, Dhumvat a n a a a Kmal (Lakgni); they a a s Bhairavi,, Matangi,, Bagala, Chinnamasta, Dhumavati and Kamala (Lakm); they

Figure 7 Kailyantra a Figure 7 K lyantra

Historical and Iconographic Aspects of S kta Tantrism Historical and Iconographic Aspects of Sakta Tantrism a

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are equated wit h the ten incarnations of Vig Kl, Tr, Chinnamast and equated with the ten incarnations V isnu. a a a a Dhum are associated with the Klkulas; the remaining goddesses are associated Dhuma . a Kdlikulas; a l i , with theai-I1(111a. While the Supreme Mother is regarded equally by both groups, m. K Srkula. T a r a , by both for purposes of initiation, a s t are asked to follow one of the two systems that C h i n n initiation, devotees d asked a m of the that led ultimately to the same goal. a n d
NOTES 1. M . C. Joshi, "Tantrism and Womanhood, "Indian Horizons 34, no. 1- 2 (1985): M. C. Joshi, Tantrism and Womanhood, Indian Horizons 12 40- 41. 4041. 2. Govardhan Rai Sharma, Bharatiya Sanskriti Puratattvik Adhar (1985), 32. Govardhan Sharma, Bharatiya Sanskriti Adhar 3. Ibi d, 33. Ibid, 4. Far id Khan, J. R. Knox, and D. K. Thomas, "Prehistoric and Protohistoric SettleFarid Khan, J. R. Knox, a K. Thomas, Prehistoric ment iin Bannu District," Pakistan Archaeology 23 ((19871988): 113- 75. District, Pakistan Archaeology ment n 1987- 1988) : 11375. 5. J. F. Jarriage, "Excavations at Nausharo," Pakistan Archaeology 23 (198788): 149 J. F. Excavations Nausharo, Archaeology23 ( 1987- 88) : 149203. 6. Shubhangana Atre feels, however, that the Harappans had a powerful female god6. Shubhangana Atre feels, however, that the Harappans had a powerful female goddess; see; Shubhangana Atre, The Archetypal Mother (Pune: Ravish Publishers, 1987). dess; see; Shubhangana Atre, The Archetypal Mother (Pune: Ravish Publishers, 1987). 7. d i a n ArchaeologyA Review 1970- 1971 (New Delhi: 1974), 2526, pl. 34-A 7 I nIndian Archaeology-A Review 19701971 (New Delhi: 1974), 25- 26, pl. 34- A and B. B. 8. See Sri Pa chastavi, ed. Sri Ram Saiva (Assam, V.S. 1974), 15. See Sr Panchastavi, n Saiva VS. 9. M uni sh Chandra Joshi, Etihasik Sandarbh-main Saktatantra (New Delhi: 1988) , Munish 1988), Sandarbh-main Saktatantra 2627. 26- 27. 10. See Sankshipta Tantrakamanhikam (Allahabad V.S.2023), 98- 100. 10. See Sankshipta Tantrakamanhikam (Allahabad V.S.2023), 98100. 11. Ar thtthistr a 14.178.3.2 and 14.178.3.4. s 11. Arthaastra 12. Sharan Agrawala Vasuveda, Bharatiya Kala (Varanasi: 1977), 147. Sharan Agrawala Vasuveda, Bharatiya Kala (Varanasi: 1977), 147. 12. 13. Ibi d., 95. 13. Ibid., 95. 14. See D. C. Sirkar, Epigraphia Indica 30:124. 14. See a C. Sirkar, Epigraphia Indica 30:124. 15. See Devi-Mahatmya, Ch. 10. 15. See Devi-Mahatmya, Ch. 10. 16. M . C. Joshi, " A Note on the Sarasvati image of the Kushan Period," Ftambhara 16. M. C. Joshi, A Note on the Sarasvat image of the Kushan Period, Rtambhara (Studies in Indology), ed. K. C. Varma (Ghaziabad: 1986): 147- 48. Indology), ed. K. C. Varma (Ghaziabad: 1986): 147 48. (Studies in 17. Ibi d., 147- 48. 17. Ibid., 147 48. 18. Divyavadtinam, ed. R L. Vaidya (Mithila: 1959), 314 15. a a 18. Divy vad nam, ed. P. L. Vaidya (Mithila: 1959), 314 19. .M . C. Joshi, " A Note on Anantasayi: A Vishnu Image from Bhitaragaon," in Pt. M. C. Joshi, A Note on Anantasayi: A Vishnu Image from Bhitaragaon, i n Pt. 15 19. Kunjilal Dube Smriti Grantha, ed. Dr. Rajbali Pandey (Jabalpur: 1971): 39396. Kunjilal Dube Smriti Grantha, ed. Dr. Rajbali Pandey (Jabalpur: 1971): 393- 96. a 20. M. C. Joshi, Skta Tantrism in the Gupta Age," Aruna Bharati: Professor A. N Jani 20. M . C. Joshi, "Sakta Tantrism in the Gupta Age, Ar una Bharati: Professor A. N. Jani Felicitation Volume, ed. B. Data (Baroda: 1983), 77- 81. Volume, ed. B. Data 1983), 7781. 21. JJohn Faithful Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (Varanasi: 1963) , 74- 76. Faithful Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum 3 (Varanasi: 1963), 74 76. 21. ohn 22. Ibi d, 78. Ibid, 78. 23. M . C. Joshi, "Tantrism and Womanhood," 44- 46. 23. M. C. Joshi, Tantrism and Womanhood, 44 46. 24. J. G. de Casparis, Prasasti Indonesia 2 (Bandung: 1968), 16 ff. 24. J. G. de Casparis, Prasasti Indonesia 2 (Bandung: 1968), 16 ff.