RAVEN CHAPTER 7(pg. 123-143) GUIDED NOTES: HOW CELLS HARVEST ENERGY 1. Define the following terms a.

autotrophs- An organism able to build all the complex organic molecules that it requires as its own food source,using only simple inorganic compounds (SELF FEEDERS). b. heterotrophs-An organism that cannot derive energy from photosynthesis or inorganic chemicals,and so must feed on other plants and animals, obtaining chemical energy by degrading their organic molecules (FED BY OTHERS). c. digestion- process when enzymes break down the large molecules into smaller one d. catabolism- In a cell,those metabolic reactions that result in the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler compounds,often with the release of energy. e. aerobic respiration - The process that results in the complete oxidation of glucose using oxygen as the final electron acceptor. Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor for an electron transport chain that produces a proton gradient for the chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP. f. anaerobic respiration- The use of electron transport to generate a proton gradient for chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP using a final electron acceptor other than oxygen. g. fermentation- The enzyme catalyzed extraction of energy from organic compounds without the involvement of oxygen. 2. In what bonds is the chemical energy stored in fats and in carbohydrates? Carbon-Hydrogen Bonds 3. How is energy stored in chemical bonds? Energy is stored in the potential energy of the electrons that make up that bond. This energy is released once the bond is broken. 4. Identify some activities the cell uses ATP for.the is the currency of energy the cell needs, and uses chemical reactions and cellular respiration. 5. Explain why ATP is such a high energy molecule.-ATP is a high-energy molecule because of the close packing of three negatively charged phosphates that make the molecule unstable. 6. How does ATP drive endergonic reactions? How does ATP function in coupled reactions? Endergonic reactions need to receive energy to undergo their reaction. ATP has three phosphates bonded together on adenosine. One or two of the phosphates create the energy when those anhydride bonds are broken, producing ADP or AMP.;ATP assists enzymes by providing activation energy to speed up reactions and make them more effective. 7. Explain how ATP synthase produces ATP.-ATP synthase binds ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP. This happens in the final stage of cellular respiration, which is oxidative phosphorylation. 8. Briefly distinguish between the two methods of producing ATP in respiration: a. substrate-level phosphorylation-In substrate-level phosphorylation, an enzyme directly transfers a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate. All ATP production in glycolysis occurs by substrate-level

phosphorylation; this form of ATP production also occurs at one step in the citric acid cycle. b. aerobic respiration-The aerobic respiration is a high energy yielding process. During the process of aerobic respiration as many as 38 molecules of ATP are produced for every molecule of glucose that is utilized. Thus aerobic respiration process breaks down a single glucose molecule to yield 38 units of the energy storing ATP molecules. 9. List the four stages of cellular respiration: a. Glycolysis Process occurs in the cytoplasm; A six-carbon glucose molecule is converted to two, 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate This process occurs in the cytoplasm. In order to initiate the process, 2 molecules of ATP are consumed. Four molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of NADH are produced; b. Formation of acetyl coenzyme A Process involves shuttling pyruvate molecules into mitochondria Each pyruvate molecules is oxidized to carbon dioxide and a 2-carbon acetyl group. The carbon dioxide is released as a waste product, and the 2-carbon acetyl group is bound to coenzyme A and brought into the mitochondrion; c. The citric acid cycle Each of the 2-carbon acetyl groups produced from the original glucose molecule is bonded to a preexisting molecule of oxaloacetate to form citrate (i.e. citric acid). These two citric acid molecules are gradually oxidized, and the hydrogen ions are bound to NAD to form NADH and to FAD to form FADH2. Oxaloacetate is produced when the last carbon atom is released in the form of carbon dioxide; Two ATP molecules are synthesized for each glucose molecule entering the cell. d. Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis The electrons removed from the molecules in glycolysis and citric acid follow a series of cytochromes on the mitochondrial membrane, Hydrogen ions (protons) are pumped across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. These protons flow through ATP synthase enzyme molecules, and thereby release energy which drives the formation of 34 ATP molecules. 10. List two classes of prokaryotes that utilize anaerobic respiration and explain what molecules they use as electron acceptors (instead of oxygen). a.In anaerobic environments sulfate serves as terminal electron acceptor and is reduced to sulfide, giving rise to both the formation of metal sulfides in sediments and the evolution of hydrogen sulfide gas. b.Carbon dioxide is used as terminal electron acceptor by methanogenic Archaea for energy generation, yielding methane as final product and by different groups of prokaryotes to produce acetate. 11. STAGE 1: Glycolysis a. occurs where? occurs in the cytoplasm

b. starts with? 2 molecules of ATP are consumed. c. produces?Four molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of NADH are produced; d. yields how much ATP? six-carbon glucose molecule is converted to two, 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate e. produces ATP through what process? 2 molecules of ATP are consumed 12. Why is glycolysis thought to be one of the earliest of all biochemical processes to have evolved? Glycolysis is the most widespread metabolic pathway. 13. STAGE 2: Oxidation of Pyruvate a. occurs where? occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. b. starts with? It starts with c6h1206 (glucose), oxygen and 2 atps. The glucose is broken into 2 3-carbon molecules, is oxidized to pyruvate which gives 2 atps. c. produces? NADH and FADH2 d. yields how much ATP? yields 38 atps. 14. If the body has enough ATP, what is the fate of acetyl-CoA? It produces a small amount of ATP and the three-carbon compound pyruvate. ... CO2 and H2O; the fate of the released electrons is described in the next section. One of the most important molecules in the body undoubtedly is adenosine ... The conversion of pyruvate (product of glycolysis) to acetyl CoA (one of the starting ... 2 molecules of ATP are invested to produce pyruvate, which is useless if PDC is not functioning properly.6 At this point, the pyruvate molecule has many fates. 15. STAGE 3: The Krebs Cycle a. occurs where? mitochondrial matrix b. starts with? The citric acid cycle begins with acetyl-CoA transferring its two-carbon acetyl group to the fourcarbon acceptor compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon compound (citrate). c. produces? This is the most important link to the electron transport chain where most of the ATP needed for energy reactions is produced. d. yields how much ATP? 2 ATP's, e. produces ATP through what process? by releasing energy stored in glucose and other sugars. 16. What is the major function of the Krebs cycle? The Krebs cycle is also called the citric acid cycle. The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms. The main function of the Krebs cycle is to generate energy through the oxidation of acetate and turn it into carbon dioxide and water. 17. Define each of the following: a. oxidation-loses an electron b. reduction-gains an electron 18. What are the roles of NAD+ & FAD+2 in respiration? NAD+ and FAD+2 are acceptor molecules that transport electrons

19. STAGE 4: The Electron Transport Chain a. occurs where? b. starts with? c. produces? d. yields how much ATP? e. produces ATP through what process? 20. What is the final electron acceptor in the Electron Transport Chain? 21. Describe the role of the Electron Transport Chain. What happens to the electrons and H+? The Electron Transport Chain is located in the: inner mitochondrial membrane. The electron transport chain creates water. The energy from this water is stored in the mitochondria to later be transformed into ATP. 22. What is chemiosmosis and how is it generated?Chemiosmosis is the coupling of the electron transport chains redox reactions with ATP synthase. It uses energy stored in the H+ gradient.

23. Explain why respiration is considered exergonic.-Through the process of cellular respiration, ATP is produced, therefore the reaction is exergonic. 24. What is the main reason energy is harvested in stages in respiration 25. What happens to most of the energy released during cell respiration? 26. What is the theoretical ATP yield of aerobic respiration? ...the actual yield? Explain why they differ. 27. Identify examples of each of the following feedback mechanisms in aerobic respiration: a. negative feedback -Negative feedback If there is too much ATP in a cell then the process of cellular respiration will slow down so as not to have an overabundance. b. positive feedback28. Write the summary equation for cellular respiration: C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy a. Where did the glucose come from? Where did it go? In plant cells the glucose is manufactured by the chloroplasts. In animal cells the glucose comes from the food the organism eats; b. Where did the O2 come from? Where did it go? The oxygen is either produced during photosynthesis or breathed in by an animals repertory system; c. Where did the CO2 come from? Where did it go? From the breakdown of acetate from oxaloacetate during the Krebs cycle;

d. Where did the H2O come from? Water is a byproduct of the electron transport chain. e. Where did the ATP come from? the use of an existing proton gradient in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. This occurs during the electron transport chain. f. What else is produced that is not listed in this equation?Ammonia is also produced.

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Glucose is extracted from complex molecules, such as fats, proteins, disaccharides (e.g., sucrose), and polysaccharides (e.g., starch) Energy can be extracted from molecules more complex than glucose such as proteins, carbohydrates and fats. These complex molecules are broken down into monomers, which then enter glycolysis or the citric acid cycle at various positions, Disaccharides and polysaccharides are broken down into glucose for glycolysis; other molecules may require more processing,Amino acids are used directly to create new proteins.

30. What is the fate of these other organic molecules when they are used as fuel molecules:

a. Proteins-Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which are used by the cell to make new proteins; excess amino acids are converted for use in glycolysis or the citric acid cycle following deamination.

b.Fats-are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids. Fatty acids contain most of the energy in fats. Fats store almost twice as much energy as carbohydrates.

31. Fermentation a. Alcoholic fermentation converts glucose to ethanol and energy for the cell. b. Alcoholic fermentation is utilized by what organisms? Bacteria and yeast c. Lactic acid fermentation converts glucose to Lactic Acid Glucose goes through glycolysis, pyruvic acid is made, and it is converted to lactic acid d. Lactic acid fermentation is utilized by what organisms?It is utilized by animals that use this process when oxygen is scarce. One example is muscle cells 32. Big Picture Thought Questions a. Why do we eat?We eat to gain the glucose necessary to undergo cellular respiration. b. Why do we breathe? Breathing provides the oxygen needed for cellular respiration and expels the carbon dioxide that is produced during the reaction.