Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur

77

Chapter VI

LAND USE AND JHUM CULTIVATION IN MANIPUR:
PROBLEMS, PROSPECTS AND ALTERNATIVES

6.1 Introduction
Shifting cultivation, also known as jhum
i
cultivation in Northeast India, is an ancient
method of agriculture that is still practiced by tribal communities in many parts of the world,
particularly in the wet tropics
ii
. In 1984, the Central Forestry Commission estimated that 6.7
million ha of cultivable area was affected by jhum in India. According to the Task Force on
Shifting Cultivation, as many as 70,000 families in Manipur practiced jhum cultivation
bringing 90,000 ha under this method of cultivation annually. Table 6.1 below highlights the
status of J hum cultivation in the North-Eastern Region.

Table 6.1: Shifting Cultivation in The N.E. Region
State
Annual Area under
shifting cultivation
(Sq.Kms.)
Fallow period
(in years)
Minimum Area under
shifting cultivation one
time or other (Sq. Kms.)
No. of families
practicing shifting
cultivation
Arunachal Pradesh 700 3-10 2100 54000
Assam 696 2-10 1392 58000
Manipur 900 4-7 3600 70000
Meghalaya 530 5-7 2650 52290
Mizoram 630 3-4 1890 50000
Nagaland 190 5-8 1913 116046
Tripura 223 5-9 1115 43000
Total 3869 (1.5 Per cent) - 14660 (5.7 per cent) 443336
Source: RTFSC (1983),
Basic Statistics of NER, 2002, Government of India, North Eastern Secretariat, Shillong. p. 42.

The continuance of jhum in the state is closely linked to ecological, socio-economic, cultural
and land tenure systems of tribal communities. Since the community owns the lands the
village council or elders divide the jhum land among families for their subsistence on a
rotational basis. In this chapter, we take a close look at jhum cultivation from the point of
view of ecological sustainability and tribal livelihoods, examine the role of agro-forestry,
sericulture and horticulture as alternatives/supplementary activities and review the current
thinking on methods to upgrade and develop jhum.

Table 6.2: Trend of Shifting Cultivation in Manipur
Parameters/ Years 1976
1
1983
2
1986-1997
3
Area affected by shifting cultivation (hectare) 1,00,000 3,60,000 3,60,000
Jhum cycle (years) NA 4-7 NA
Annual area under shifting cultivation (hectare) 60,000 90,000 60,000
Number of families practising shifting cultivation 50,000 70,000 NA
Source: NCA, (1976), TFSC, Ministry of Agriculture (1983), FSI, The State of Forest Report, 1999.

6.2 Land Use And Cropping Pattern
The dry broadcast or punghul method involves sowing in the month of March/April and
harvesting in August/September. Wet sowing or pamphel is done in the month of May/J une
and harvested during October/November. Transplanted paddy or aringba is also sown in the
month of May/J une and harvested in the month of October/November.
iii

In the hilly areas of Manipur, shifting cultivation is widely practiced, with settled terrace
farming in foothill or low slope areas, above the adjacent rivers and streams. Depending on
the slope, wet broadcast on bunded fields or dry broadcast on unbunded fields is practised. In
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
78

the plains wet paddy rice cultivation is prevalent. Traditional methods of production are still
widely used by the farmers, especially on the hill slopes.

The cultivable area is limited while the population pressure has increased. The valley
districts, comprising a tenth of the geographical area of the state, support roughly two-thirds
of the population. Most of the permanent cultivation and agricultural land is in the valley,
with the four districts accounting for over seven-tenths of settled cultivation and agricultural
land resources, even though the hills comprise 90 per cent of the states total area.

Table 6.3: Land Under Different Uses as a Percentage of Geographical Area, 1990
Note. The total across rows do not add up because are under settlement is not included.

The land use/land cover patterns of the state have been classified into five categories, namely
settlement, agricultural land, forest, water bodies and others. The last category of others
includes rivers/streams, roads, water logged areas converted to new agricultural land, etc.
There are sharp differences in land use patterns between the valley districts and the hill
districts. In the valley districts, settlements account for more than ten per cent of their
respective areas (in fact, for Thoubal district it is almost 20 per cent) whereas for the hill
districts settlements account for less than one per cent of the area excepting Churachandpur
for which the figure is 1.44 per cent. For the state as a whole, it is 2.44 per cent.

Agricultural land in the valley districts, is more than 40 per cent of the land area with the
figure touching the 50 per cent mark for Imphal district. In contrast, the figures for the hill
districts are found to be less than 2, except for Senapati whose figure is 3.39 per cent. For the
state as a whole, it is 2.44 per cent.

Forest land for all the hill districts was above 95 per cent of the areas. In Thoubal and
Bishnupur, it is about five per cent and for Imphal it is 22.71 per cent. For the state, it is quite
high at 78 per cent. However, dense forest (forest with crown density greater than 40 per
cent) accounted for less than ten per cent of the forest lands in all the districts with the figure
for Senapati district being as low as two per cent and the valley districts scoring a blank on
this front. For the state, dense forest accounted for a meagre 5.19 per cent of the forest land
(See Chapter -V). Not surprisingly, the valley reports a large area under lakes, waterlogging
and biomass (in particular, Bishnupur and Thoubal). The rate of expansion of swampy land is
rising at an alarming rate every year on account of conversion of basins and lakes into
residential areas in the valley resulting in a loss of natural drainage, rapid siltation on account
District/State
Agricu
-ltural
Land
Moderatel
y dense
forest
(canopy
cover 20%
- 40%)
Land with
or without
scrub
(canopy
cover below
30 %)
Area under
Lake/
Reservior/
Tank/Canal
Area under
waterlogge
d/marshy/
swamp land
Area
under
biomass
Area under
submerged
cropped
land
Area
under
River/
Stream
Area
under
Road
Waterlog-
ged area
converted
to new
agricultur-al
land
Area under
paddy by
permanent
including
terrace
cultivation
Total
Jhum
Area
in
1997
Senapati 3.39 38.76 53.93 0.80 0.62 5.58 2.89
Tamenglong 1.57 54.39 35.12 0.01 5.28 2.53 0.52 6.15
Churachandpur 2.12 58.58 32.46 0.45 0.44 0.89 6.42
Chandel 1.87 37.77 50.46 0.60 0.60 0.85 2.86
Imphal (U) 50.47 12.21 10.40 1.36 0.61 3.85 1.07 1.17 1.33 0.22 42.56
Bishnupur 49.32 1.25 3.05 18.13 0.72 7.49 3.62 2.14 2.69 35.15
Thoubal 42.40 5.77 3.80 20.45 0.55 2.18 2.37 2.90 59.13
Ukhrul 1.42 71.26 44.34 0.39 0.35 1.91 1.86
Manipur 6.65 44.68 38.72 0.59 0.52 0.39 0.16 0.62 0.58 0.08 6.08 3.51
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
79

of illegal felling, jhum-induced deforestation, as well as closing of the barrage at Ithai under
the Loktak Hydro-electric Project.

Table 6.4: Land Use as a Percentage of Total Geographical Area
Year Geographical Area Total Forest
Area under Jhum Cultivation
(Rice & Maize)
Area under
foodgrains
1982-83 67.87
1992-93 78.92 3.40 6.83
2000-2001
2232700
78.01 3.51 7.35
Source: (I) RGI, (ii) PCCF, (iii) MI; for the period, 1984-85 to 2000-01, from BSNR, 2002, Shillong, p.70

Table 6.5: Percentage of Kharif and Rabi Area in Gross Cropped Area, Manipur
Year 1986-87 1990-91 1996-97 2001-02
Gross cropped Area to Geographical Area 11.77 14.78 12.75 12.52
Area under Kharif Crops 83.64 85.91 85.18 84.31
Area under Rabi Crops 16.36 14.09 14.83 15.69
Source: Department of Agriculture, Government of Manipur

The area under cultivation has not increased much, but what is more disturbing is that
cropping intensity has not increased either. After rice, maize is the second important crop and
is grown both in the hills and in the plains. In 2002, there was an increase in the area under
jhum maize in all the hill districts (Table 6.5). One reason for this may be the planting of
maize as a cash crop with a ready market in the plains. Other crops like, potatoes, sweet
potatoes, root crops; cotton, chillies, tobacco, etc., along with plantation crops like tea,
coffee, rubber, sandalwood, etc. and a variety of fruits like oranges, pineapples, plums,
passion fruit and bananas are also grown in the state.

I. Area Under jhum
The area under jhum cultivation is roughly half that under permanent cultivation and supports
34 per cent of the states population. The highest percentage of geographical area where
shifting cultivation is practiced is recorded in Tamenglong and Churachandpur (accounting
for 45 per cent of the total area under jhum cultivation in the state) and the lowest in Senapati
district (even though Senapati has the highest proportion of forest area degraded by jhum). It
is also practiced in the southern and eastern parts of Ukhrul district. In Churachandpur
district, about 84.6 per cent of the population depends on jhum cultivation
iv
. Overall, the area
and production of jhum rice in Manipur has remained more or less constant.

Table 6.6: Jhum Rice Area as Percentage of Geographical
Area
District 1997 1998 1999 2001 2002
Senapati 2.89 2.89 2.89 2.89 2.72
Tamenglong 6.15 6.15 6.15 6.15 6.04
Churachandpur 6.42 6.42 6.53 6.42 6.39
Chandel 2.86 2.86 2.86 2.86 2.86
Ukhrul 1.86 1.86 1.86 1.85 1.86
Source: AC, p.16

Much of the permanent cultivation in the hills is in Senapati district, followed by Ukhrul. The
precariousness of production through jhum cultivation is clear from both the low levels of
yield as well as its unreliability.
Table 6.7: Percentage of Jhum area under Paddy to total Jhum area Paddy and Maize
S. No. District Years
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
80

2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05
1. Senapati 88.39 97.50 03.17 -
2. Tamenglong 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
3. Churachandpur 90.33 100.00 98.92 99.38
4. Chandel 94.78 88.44 95.87 95.95
5 Ukhrul 95.75 96.86 96.64 90.30
Total 94.67 98.09 96.71 95.09

Estimates for the area under jhum vary widely. The Registrar General of India and the
Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Manipur, reported an average 40,000 hectares in the
1990s, while the Agricultural Census, Department of Agriculture, Government of Manipur,
reported an average of 90,000 hectares and the Directorate of Economics & Statistics, GoM
reported around 44,000 hectares in the same period. The most widely quoted estimate is that
of the study by the Task Force on Shifting Cultivation, Ministry of Agriculture, according
to which, 90,000 ha are cultivated by 70,000 families in the state. Table 6.8, shows the
alarming divergence in database, which would make planning very difficult.

Table 6.8: Average Area Under Jhum Rice/Paddy in
('000 Hect,) 1996-2002 From Different Sources
District State Col. 1 Col. 2
Senapati 1.96 9.34
Tamenglong 8.94 26.92
Churachandpur 11.13 29.40
Chandel 5.61 9.47
Ukhrul 12.96 8.45
Manipur 40.61 83.57
Source for Column 1: SAM, 1998, pp. 97-9; and for 1998-9 to 2001-02 from RCES, 2000-02, pp. 48-52 and for Column 2: AC.

Combining jhum and permanent cultivation, the area under foodgrains (97 per cent of the
gross cropped area) comes to only 7 per cent of the states geographical area, with the forest
area accounting for 78 per cent. Rice is the main crop of the region, though diversification is
high in the hill districts of Chandel, Senapati and Ukhrul.

Table 6.9: Crop-wise Percentage Distribution of Gross Cropped Area (2001-02)
Kharif Rabi
District/State
Gross Cropped
Area (000 hect.)
Paddy Maize Pulses Oilseeds Sugarcane Wheat Pulses Oilseeds Potato
Senapati 22.22 56.36 13.50 4.37 1.31 5.58 1.47 5.45 7.07 4.91
Tamenglong 37.91 75.28 2.90 1.11 0.66 3.14 2.90 3.43 7.78 2.80
Churachandpur 43.88 70.72 11.62 1.66 0.84 4.40 0.42 2.58 6.50 1.25
Chandel 19.48 55.90 14.37 3.90 1.59 4.98 0.00 5.39 10.78 3.08
Imphal (U) 72.78 86.14 1.37 0.52 0.82 1.04 0.40 5.18 3.63 0.89
Bishnupur 42.26 75.65 1.77 0.85 1.66 3.41 0.47 7.62 6.01 2.56
Thoubal 34.20 71.43 4.53 1.29 1.93 3.10 0.73 7.28 6.49 3.22
Ukhrul 20.42 52.16 8.32 2.15 1.27 8.18 0.00 9.55 12.88 5.48
Manipur 279.54 74.31 6.08 1.43 1.23 1.25 0.45 5.77 6.98 2.50
Source:AC, p.31







Table 6.10: Percentage of Jhum Rice Area to Total Rice Area
Year District/State Senapati Tamenglong Churachandpur Chandel Ukhrul Imphal (U) Bishnupur Thoubal Manipur
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
81

Total Rice
Area (000 hec) 23.47 9.32 14.19 7.05 15.35 42.56 17.72 28.14 157.9
1997-98
Percentage of
Jhum Rice to
Total Rice
Area 8.82 89.38 81.47 64.40 90.88 0.00 0.00 0.00 25.62
Total Rice
Area (000 hec) 23.23 9.19 12.60 9.41 13.53 97.01 18.66 23.33 156.96
2000-01
Percentage of
Jhum Rice to
Total Rice
Area 3.19 100.00 82.94 74.07 91.94 0.00 0.00 0.00 25.35
Total Rice
Area (000 hec) 25.97 10.07 20.08 7.24 13.69 42.17 16.47 22.14 157.83
2003-04
Percentage of
Jhum Rice to
Total Rice
Area 0.08 82.42 82.32 67.27 88.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 26.48
Total Rice
Area (000 hec) 24.11 8.52 21.04 8.23 13.58 53.34 21.74 25.75 176.31
2004-05
Percentage of
Jhum Rice to
Total Rice
Area 0.00 94.60 83.56 80.56 91.83 1.20 0.00 0.00 25.74
Source: SAM 2005, p.150-151

Much of the area under rice in the hills, and about 40 per cent of it in the state as a whole is
under jhum cultivation. Considering that rice is the staple crop, this is alarming and has
serious food security implications. Most of the areas under jhum have low productivity and
are in remote and isolated parts of the state without proper transport facilities, resulting in
serious shortages.

Table 6.11: Yield of Jhum Rice
Yield (Kg/Hectare)
District/State
1994 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Senapati 430.21 1066.67 1045.50 991.53 970.00 1044.44 578.00
Tamenglong 429.92 924.84 917.44 957.05 972.67 926.32 850.79
Churachandpur 421.69 962.15 955.34 906.13 891.92 712.82
Chandel 429.34 961.99 940.87 955.65 969.80 925.03 713.83
Ukhrul 429.91 962.17 938.53 1028.37 969.03 908.45 398.72
Manipur 428.57 961.90 949.59 955.57 970.09 925.66 710.58
Source: AC, various issues.

2. Characteristics Of Jhum Cultivation In The Northeast
The characteristics of jhum cultivation in Manipur are as follows: (i) Cutting and clearing of
forest areas and burning of the dried biomass by fire, (ii) rotation of jhum land every four to
seven years, (iii) use of human labour as the chief input, (iv) non-employment of animals
implements or machinery, (v) collective ownership of land, (vi) reciprocal labour sharing and
(vii) mixed cropping system. Women predominate in seed selection and planting, weeding,
and other operations, while operations such as cutting of the jungle, clearing, burning of the
cut undergrowth, etc., are done by men. Both men and women participate in harvesting. The
produce is transported from the jhum land to the village by head-loading.
Based on a long-term study of jhum, Toky and Ramakhrishnan (1981) state that, the version
found in this region is that the cultivation is carried out on slopes of 30-40 angles; the
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
82

climate is monsoonic with a high rainfall of over 2,200 mm followed by a dry winter and a
brief warm summer, supporting a mixed sub-tropical humid forest. The normal jhum cycle is
of three-four years, but rarely longer; and the forest is clear felled before planting
v
.

J hum enables multiple cropping of several crops which provide a balanced diet and also
offers some form of crop insurance to the J humias in the event of failure of some crops. This
system of food production might have worked well in the past when a balance was
maintained between population and soil fertility as a result of a longer fallow cycle of 20 to
30 years.
vi


The shortening of the jhum cycle to an average of four-five years due to increase in
population has resulted in a number of distortions appearing in the system including
decreasing soil fertility and crop yields and inadequate management of fallows.

3. Impact Of Shifting Cultivation
So long as the jhum cycle has a duration of 10 years or more this type of cultivation did not
pose any threat to the ecological stability and soils of the largely forested hill area.

Underlying the view that shifting cultivation has alone been responsible for deforestation and
environmental degradation is a deep-seated resentment felt by some sections of Manipuri
society and the state administration at the lack of control over land and forests in the hills, the
acknowledged power of traditional village councils and headmen, and the assertion by the hill
tribes of their rights over local natural resources. The solutions offered in terms of regulating
jhum cultivation include: a) resettlement of jhum farmers by relocation of their villages and
provision of alternate means of livelihood; b) introducing terrace cultivation or forestry
cooperatives on jhum lands; c) diversification into horticulture, floriculture and plantation
crops and d) a complete change in the land tenure system in the hills whereby communally-
owned and operated holdings are replaced by individual holdings. If these programmes are
implemented without massive public investment and instituting a more participatory model of
development planning in consultation with the communities for whom they are designed,
they are, likely to cause major disruptions in the agricultural systems, food security, and way
of life of the hill people and possibly endanger the very identity of tribal societies and their
traditional institutions.

4. Soil Conservation Programmes Under Five-Year Plans
The ICARs model of land use for the hilly areas in the Northeast region of India consists of
bench terracing for agriculture at the lower portion of the hill slopes. The mid-portion of the
hill slope is to be converted into half-moon terraces for horticulture and the top portion for
forestry. The prevailing pattern of community land ownership in the hill areas and the high
capital investment involved in the ICAR model deter the J humias from adopting it.
vii


In Manipur, soil conservation and land use programmes initiated to control or reverse the
deleterious consequences of jhum are carried out by two agencies, viz., the Department of
Horticulture and the Forest Department. Soil conservation works are also undertaken under a
number of centrally sponsored schemes, viz; Watershed Development Project in Shifting
Cultivation Areas (WDPSCA), and National Watershed Development Project in Rain-fed
Areas (NWDPRA). WDPSCA is executed by (i) the Department of Horticulture and Soil
Conservation, (ii) Barak River Development Board, and (iii) Eastern Border Area
Development Agency. With regard to NWDPRA, the nodal agency is the Department of
Horticulture and Soil Conservation. The concept of the carrying capacity of land under jhum
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
83

wherein a certain population density is to be maintained to sustain jhuming is not practical
today since existing population density far exceeds the carrying capacity.
viiiixx


The first major thrust for jhum regulation was given in the Fifth Plan under which three
different programmes were introduced in the state. These programmes consisted of soil
conservation schemes in the states Plan and centrally-sponsored and NEC river basin
schemes for the control of shifting cultivation. Under the scheme, Control of Shifting
Cultivation, implemented by the States Department of Horticulture and Soil Conservation, a
cumulative area of 29,694 ha under the State plan and 7876 ha under the centrally-sponsored
scheme has been covered up to the Eighth Plan (1992-97) with outlays of Rs. 1053.57 lakhs
and Rs. 709.20 lakhs, respectively. The components of this scheme were of terrace
construction/land development, horticultural plantations, agro-forestry, plantation crops and
irrigation channels. During the same period, the Forest Departments scheme of
Rehabilitation of J humias, was launched to rehabilitate on 135 jhumia families out of a total
of 80,000 families through the provision of 1 ha of terrace and 2 ha of land for forestry and
horticultural plantations to each family.
xi


During the Fifth Plan, a soil conservation programme on agricultural lands was initiated. An
Intensive Valley Development Programme was taken up in two hill districts, Churachandpur
and Tamenglong. The Seventh Plan saw an attempt being made to bring a total of 20,000 ha
under terrace cultivation The major programmes introduced in this period were: coffee
plantations, model projects in integrated watershed management and establishment of soil
conservation demonstration farms. The total outlay for this plan was Rs. 675,000 lakhs.
xii


During the Ninth Plan (1997-2002) a part of the schemes was extended to the Agriculture
Department. The agreed outlay for the Ninth Plan under the Soil Conservation (Horticulture)
was Rs. 3700 lakhs against which the expenditure was only Rs. 664.80 lakhs
xiii
. The proposed
outlay for the Tenth Plan (2002-2007) under Soil Conservation (Horticulture) for the
implementation of the five ongoing schemes
xiv
is Rs. 1760 lakhs.
Some of the causes of the failure of these schemes are as follows
xv
:
(i) Non-involvement of the community and rural institutional infrastructure in
decision-making and execution.
(ii) Undue stress on development of terraces and poor production in dry terraces
devoid of top soil due to lack of irrigation.
(iii) Exclusion of entire villages or communities from the programme, in many cases.
(iv) Laying of stress exclusively on raising rice crop inducing farmers to revert back to
jhuming for raising the other crops.
(v) Conversion of farmers of horticultural and plantation crop to wage earners without
taking care of food security in remote areas.

5. Jhum Re-development Strategies
There is now a significant body of literature that shows that jhum cultivation with longer
cycles has many advantages over other agricultural systems in the hills. Much of the current
thinking has evolved out of a series of long-term inter-disciplinary studies carried out under
the aegis of the North Eastern Hill University (NEHU) with support from agencies like the
CSIR, UGC, DST, and the MoEF, from the 1970s to the early 80s. A synthesis volume on
shifting agriculture was published under the imprint of UNESCOs Man and the Biosphere
(MAB) project. The various reports of these studies outlined the methods to redevelop jhum
and other agro-ecosystems for effective resource management and conservation in north-
eastern India
xvi
There are over 250 reports and publications on jhum alone which establish
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
84

the merits of this form of agriculture and identify the methods by which distortions in jhum
systems may be remedied.

Amongst the advantages of jhum farming is a high species diversity. Farmers are known to
plant up to 35-40 species on individual plots including seven-eight varieties of rice and
alternate cereal crops. Mixed cropping creates a multi-layered canopy above and root system
below for efficient light capture and optimal nutrient use respectively
xvii


Economic and energy analyses suggest that a 10-year period is the minimal cycle length if
jhum in its present form is to be sustained.
xviii
Distortions set in and the system breaks down
when the cycle is reduced to four-five years. The two options presented are:
a) to strengthen alternate land use systems, and
b) to stabilize or redevelop jhum under the shortened five-year cycle by introducing
agro-forestry and commercial horticulture as well as modern agronomic practices into
the system.

6. Jhum and Food Security
The potential of horticulture (and plantation to some extent) development is rated very high
on account of the soil and climate suitability. Horticulture and plantation crops are high
value, labour intensive and yield more per unit area, and citrus fruits are more suited to the
soil. Constraints for the realization of the high potential of horticulture are lack of proper
research and extension support for upgradation of production technology, inadequate
communication and transport facility, improper post-harvest handling and storage and the
absence of an organized market system.

Lack of viable alternatives result in the continuation of jhum. The jhumias are extremely poor
and they have no other viable options. Through jhum they are assured of at least the food and
fibre requirement for their survival. Food security is thus the most critical reason for the
continuance of jhum. The absence of a reliable public distribution system exacerbates the
problem further

7. Recommendations For Jhum Control
The planning department of Manipur has laid considerable emphasis on the control of
shifting cultivation. The government has introduced certain measures aimed at i) restricting
jhuming like allowing natural forest to grow in jhum lands, ii) initiating resource surveys, iii)
increasing the area under terrace cultivation, iv) promoting programmes for intensive valley
development and development of horticulture, v) plantation farming in jhum land and vi) the
development of sericulture and a few forest-based industries
xix
. However, the performance of
these programmes and schemes was very poor.

The primary cause of the failure to attract people to settled farming was that the new
settlements provided were not readily accepted by the people due to their close attachment to
their traditional villages and way of life. Moreover, the switch to terrace cultivation or the use
of bullocks for ploughing causes great technical difficulties for jhum farmers. Limited
availability of land for terrace farming at higher altitudes is also a major problem. Some
terraces, built with retaining walls at a height of three-seven feet, are very difficult to
maintain during the rains, resulting in the collapse of whole terraces with standing crops. A
prerequisite for the success of terrace farming is the development of a proper technology for
water management and water conservation. Since terraces are above perennial streams and
rivers, it is essential that adequate power is available for lift irrigation schemes. Thus, while
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
85

promoting terrace cultivation on the model recommended by the Indian Council of
Agriculture Research (ICAR), due consideration and attention needs to be given to all the
above-mentioned requirements.

Essentially, jhum control will only be possible if there are alternative land use systems.
Alternative land use systems like horticulture require marketing and other infrastructural
facilities to the farming communities. Until such systems are evolved any attempt to stop
jhum cultivation will amount to depriving the people of their basic means of survival.

Along with development of land up to 50 per cent slope by constructing bench terrace,
contour bund in the low hill slopes for permanent cultivation and creation of irrigation
facilities by constructing dams, water harvesting structures, channels, etc, horticulture
development along with soil and conservation plantation crop is vital. Afforestation too must
be encouraged in the hills and non-agricultural activities to be given utmost priority, with
technical, financial and marketing supports from the government and NGOs.

8. Emerging Strategies
a) Transfer of indigenous technology from one tribe to another or one area to
another;
b) Upgrading of jhum by introducing variations in the species composition in the
crop mix in order to increase economic returns and improve ecological
efficiency;
c) Use of bamboo varieties and other fast-growing native trees as wind-breaks to
check wind and minimize the loss or water borne soil, ash and nutrients;
d) Introduction of appropriate rural technology such as rainwater harvesting,
tanks, mini-hydels, biogas, to strengthen village ecosystems; and
e) Participatory development based on jhum fallow management including
community involvement in the selection of preferred species for fallow cycles
f) Creation of the right kind of institutions for natural resource management at
the local level that are built on the pattern of the traditional institutions that
already exist
g) Redevelopment of valley wet rice cultivation and improvement of other land
use systems such as homestead gardens to increase productivity in the plains
for state level food security.

9. The Redevelopment of Jhum
Redevelopment and diversification is the only way in which the jhum system can be
stabilised. The system should have high crop as well as species diversity to ensure a
sufficiently long cycle that can also take care of the need to harvest food. The species
suggested are the alder tree (Alnus nepalensis), which has been widely adopted in Nagaland.
Bamboo brakes are recommended around the jhum fields to prevent leaching and soil
erosion. The crop patterns can include forbs or perennial broad-leafed herbs that are not
grasses (beans and pineapple), grasses (corn and sugarcane), woody species (yucca, cashew
and papaya), and larger trees (brazilnut and jackfruit). After the first two years, the crop area
may be planted with fast-growing species such as alder in one or two additional strata so that
the jhum plot has continuous crop cover. The cinnamon tree is another tree that can be
promoted in these areas. The investment projected for cycles of different duration for the
hilly regions of Meghalaya where these experiments have been tried is given in the table
below (table 6.12):

Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
86

Table 6.12: Economics of Jhum Redevelopment
Jhum Cultivation Cycle (Rs)
5 Year Production Measures
15 Year 10 Year
1
st
Year Crop 2
nd
Year Crop
a) Input:
Labour
Organic Manure
Fertiliser
Seed
Interest on Working Capital (12%)

2220
NA
NA
1061
394

2049
175
NA
1206
412

1613
287
19
1235
378

1604
537
39
1254
412
b) Output:
Root and Tuber Crops
Cereal Grains
Legumes
Fruits and Other Vegetables
Leafy Vegetables
By Products

14711
65
16
4220
778
NA

9875
90
9
3908
289
NA

6463
94
NA
NA
1631
NA

3914
13
NA
NA
500
NA
c) Cost of Production
d) Gross Return
e) Net Return
f) Return Per Rupee
3675
19790
16115
5.4
3842
14171
10329
3.7
3532
8188
4656
2.3
3846
4427
581
1.4
Source: P.S. Ramakrishnan, SCAD, 1992, p.32.

Table 6.12 shows that the ten years cycle is viable for the current situation, but given needs of
the local population, this may not be possible. Hence, it is important to stabilise jhum through
the cover strategy described above and a silvi-pastoral system that maintains a four to five
year cycle. This can be done by promoting mixed plantation and silvi-pasture development in
the 4905 hectares of forest degraded by jhum under the National Afforestation Programme.
The total investment for five years is about Rs.18985 per hectare or Rs. 93.12 lakh in five
years.

The MAB report, referred to earlier, also recommends encouraging artisanal skills and
products based on accessible natural resources like bamboo and wood
xx
. Horticulture,
sericulture and related activities as an alternative to or a modification of the jhum cycle are
dealt with below.

A) Sericulture
Sericulture is a highly labour intensive industry. Since the 1950s hundreds of cooperatives
have been set up to carry out silk reeling and weaving activities, some exclusively by women.

During the Ninth Plan period, the goal was to increase the area under silkworm food plants in
order to increase production of silk yarn from 216 MTs to 324 MTs by 2001-2. The Japanese-
aided Manipur Sericulture Project (MSP) gave an impetus to mulberry and seri culture. The
Tenth Plan aims to a) generate employment opportunities for individual farmers and rearers
and b) upgrade traditional silkworm rearing, yarn production and silk weaving techniques to
international grades. The government proposes introduction of improved mulberry varieties,
Quercus species for Chinese tasar, experimental food plants and a new silkworm breeds
evolved by the Central Silk Board (CSB).
xxi
The CSB has opened one grainage-cum-
extension centre at Imphal to supply DFLs (Disease Free Layings) to rearers and conduct
field trials. However, infrastructural constraints remain a major impediment to the
development of this industry.
xxii

To date, 760 primary sericulture cooperatives have been established in Manipur of which 117
are village based cocoon producers societies and 645 are silk weavers societies. About 700
of these societies are federated into two umbrella organisations, the Manipur State Sericulture
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
87

Cooperative Ltd. and the Manipur State Handloom Womens Cooperative Societies. They are
provided financial assistance from the State Cooperative Bank under NABARDs handloom
finance schemes. However, sales by weavers cooperatives or the KVIC (Khadi and Village
Industries Commission) remain limited and marketing of both yarn and fabrics is largely in
the hands of private traders who do not always give a fair price to the primary producers.

Some of the recommendations for the development of the sericulture industry are:

i) Oak tasar should be promoted in degraded forests in the hill areas and training provided
to local communities, particularly women, in rearing, protection, and tasar yarn and fabric
production. Both mulberry sericulture and oak tasar could be promoted as supplementary
sources of livelihood for farm families practicing jhum. However, new oak plantations would
need a long lead time or gestation period to establish, while the use of existing oak forests for
tasar cultivation will need: a) the approval of the forest department, and b) regulation by
village councils/traditional authorities, as many communities enjoy usufructory rights over a
variety of MFPs in these forests.
ii) The Loi and other groups in the Manipur valley who have traditionally practiced
sericulture could be targeted for skill development and income-generation programmes.
iii) The present thinking on eliminating the use of indigenous silkworm races should be
reviewed as Manipuris have a long familiarity with them, and,
iv) The high value non-mulberry (eri and tasar) Ahimsa line of products being promoted by
the KVIC should be developed and marketed.

B) Horticulture
The state has considerable scope for the development of horticulture. The hilly terrain and
acidic soils are especially suitable both for citrus fruits and other plantation crops
xxiii
.
Farmers grow fruits for home consumption. Large quantities of fruit that cannot be marketed
locally are wasted during good harvests. Lack of storage, processing and marketing facilities
has discouraged farmers from going in for commercial horticulture.

Table 6.13: Area Under Some Fruits And Vegetables in Manipur, 1990-91 to 2001-2002 (Area in 000 Hectares)
Crops Pineapple Orange Lemon Papaya Arum Banana Bean Cabbage Cauliflower Peas Potato
1990-91 1.47 0.54 0.12 0.03 3.29 3.11 0.50 3.05 0.68 3.28 3.59
1991-92 1.47 0.48 0.18 0.08 3.37 3.10 0.72 3.13 0.73 2.87 3.79
1992-93 1.55 0.67 0.40 0.08 4.08 3.58 0.91 3.29 0.87 2.52 3.29
1993-94 1.58 1.06 0.90 0.08 4.48 3.52 0.03 3.04 0.61 2.00 3.64
1994-95 1.01 1.13 0.88 0.09 4.92 3.15 1.49 2.87 0.58 2.24 3.31
1995-96 0.57 1.06 0.90 0.10 5.07 3.07 1.40 3.03 0.88 1.82 3.41
1996-97 0.63 1.07 0.84 0.04 5.39 3.30 1.32 3.03 0.78 1.91 3.23
1997-98 0.46 0.99 0.67 0.06 4.99 4.41 0.60 3.87 0.76 4.45 3.23
1998-99 0.24 1.65 0.93 0.07 5.39 2.90 1.25 2.23 0.43 1.79 2.17
1999-00 0.30 1.66 0.82 0.09 6.22 3.51 1.72 2.28 0.44 2.28 2.47
2000-01 0.55 1.67 0.86 0.12 6.23 3.53 1.72 2.39 0.38 2.34 2.59
2001-02 0.45 2.11 0.92 0.02 6.28 4.42 1.66 2.71 0.40 2.44 3.04
2002-03 1.03 1.13 0.07 0.15 7.22 3.88 2.30 3.22 0.59 1.82 4.22
2003-04 0.73 1.71 0.37 0.07 9.18 4.14 2.75 6.63 0.76 1.23 4.98
Source: ES, 2003-2004 P.81 & SAM, 2005, P. 148-149.

Cultivation of both traditional crops like pineapple and exotics like passion fruit are being
developed. The Horticulture Department is also experimenting with potato and other
vegetables for production on a commercial scale
xxiv
.

Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
88

Table 6.14: Horticulture Production of Manipur for The Last Few Years (M.T.)
Year Fruits Vegetables Spices
1992-93 3800 6000 640
1993-94 4577 8000 700
1994-95 5100 10043 850
1995-96 5868 12084 1000
1996-97 6813 13414 1100
1997-98 (T) 9950 15460 1400
Source: ES, 1999-2000, P.47.

Horticultural development has been promoted in Manipur since the Third Plan period. A
horticultural research station was set up at Churachandpur in 1975. Progeny orchard-cum-
nurseries were set up in Maram, Ukhrul and Tengnoupal in the same year under the North
Eastern Council. The construction of the Trans-Asian Highway linking South-east Asia with
India may open up new markets in neighbouring countries for fresh fruits and processed
foods.

Among the plantation crops, tea and coffee cultivation appear promising and can be tried out
on abandoned jhum lands. Tea is growing satisfactorily, in Ukhrul and Tamenglong districts.
According to government reports there is an immense potential for the establishment of tea,
coffee and fruit processing industries in the state. However, the growing role of global agri-
business concerns, the overall decline in global prices, particularly of tea and coffee, and
imposition of new phyto-sanitary and other norms under the WTO regime threaten the
survival of these industries in other parts of the country.

6.3 Conclusion
Programmes aimed at arresting or eradicating shifting cultivation in the Northeast had been
underway since the start of the 20th Century. After Independence, jhum control programmes
started in earnest. Initially these programmes were based on the assumption that the
introduction of cash crops would help to wean people away from jhum. J humias were given
planting material and financial help to switch over to these crops. Coffee, pepper, and rubber
plantations achieved some success. However, it was soon realized that cash crop cultivation
couldnt be adopted as an alternative to jhuming which people practice mainly to meet their
essential food requirement.
xxv


In areas where farmers have taken up wet rice cultivation on terraces and valley bottoms with
the support of government subsidies, farm families continue their jhuming activities on other
fields. Single crop wet rice cultivation in the hills is a seasonal activity while jhum provides
work around the year. Moreover, people prefer the taste of jhum rice over improved wet rice
varieties.
xxvi


J humias are unable to shift overnight to plough agriculture from hoe agriculture, and only the
better-off families can afford to hire the additional labour needed for transplanting and
maintaining of terraces. Schemes to resettle jhumias by distributing marginal lands for
permanent cultivation in Tripura have lead to greater indebtedness, land alienation and
impoverishment of the resettled families.
xxvii
A series of research projects on the agro-
ecological systems of the Northeast has led to a shift in emphasis in recent years from jhum
control to jhum management, more specifically, to the management of fallows.. The
Government of Nagaland pioneered agro-forestry interventions in jhum farming cycles.

Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
89

The Task Force on Strategy for Management of Shifting Cultivation, which presented its
report to the Ministry of Environment and Forests in J anuary 2003, reviewed the work
undertaken under the Eighth and Ninth Plans, respectively, as well as the implementation of
the Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas of northeastern states
(WDPSCA) that emphasized soil conservation as a remedy to mitigate the ill effects of jhum.

The setting up of the task force marks a significant departure from the approach of earlier
reports dealing with forests and shifting agriculture. It cites the unique socio-economic
conditions of the different tribal communities as reasons for precluding uniform
prescriptions and requiring the development of location-specific solutions to deal with the
problems currently affecting jhum cultivation.
xxviii


The major constraints identified by the report are: lack of coordination between different line
departments and inexperience of extension staff in participatory development techniques,
lack of service facilities such as credit, input supply and marketing; and lack of scientific
analyses of farming systems in different locations and micro-climatic conditions. It expressly
seeks to dispel the notion that large-scale erosion is chiefly caused by shifting cultivation and
takes the view that land use based on long periods of fallow rotation is a sustainable model.

In its vision for the Tenth Plan, the report rejects the a priori assumption that shifting
cultivation must be replaced by more permanent or settled forms of agriculture and
states that given the fact that jhuming continues to be a way of life for many of the hill tribes,
efforts should instead be directed towards making it more productive and effective in meeting
the needs of the hill people
xxix
.

The report mentions eliciting peoples participation and addressing livelihood concerns, and
farmer-developed indigenous fallow management strategies of the Northeast and elsewhere
for tree-based, shrub-based, herbaceous legume-based and animal based fallow
management. The report recommended a) improvement and not replacement as the
approach to be followed; b) mixed tree farming to avoid the dangers of monocultures in
forestry and c) conducting small research projects and pilot projects with appropriate
institutions to study shifting cultivation in different micro-regions.

By stressing peoples needs and avoiding the one size fits all approach this report could
well be a first step towards sensitising governmental agencies to the special needs of the hill
tribes and evoking better appreciation of the unique features of the various farming systems
developed in the Northeast.



i
J hum is an Assamese term used commonly in Northeast India. Every tribe in the region has its own name for
the practice; the Meitei called it pam lou and in the Tangkhul dialect it is called ahanglui.
ii
Schlippe, P.D. (1956) Shifting Cultivation in Africa, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. In Agro-forestry
Based Farming System as an Alternative to J huming. Reprinted from Proceedings of a Seminar on Agro-
Forestry organised by ICAR at Imphal, Manipur, May 16-17, 1979.
iii
Thokcham, Biren Singh (1993). P. 73.
iv
L. Chinzakham Ngaihte (1998) Tribal Agrarian System Of Manipur (A Study of Zomi), Anmol Publication,
New Delhi.
v
P.S. Ramakrishnan (1981). Cropping and yields in agricultural systems of the northeastern hill region of India.
Agro-Ecosystems 7: pp. 11-25. in P.S. Ramakrishnan. Shifting Cultivation and Sustainable Development. Man
and the Biosphere Series, Vol. 10. 1993. Paris/New Delhi: UNESCO/Oxford University Press.
Land Use and Jhum Cultivation in Manipur
90


vi
Ramakrishnan, P.S. Shifting Cultivation and Agricultural Development, UNESCO and OUP, 1992. Also See
Arti Nandi and P.K. Bose Shifting Cultivation in Manipur.
vii
ICAR, Technological Bulletin ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region during the decade (1975-1984),
Vol-I: Crop Science, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Shillong, Meghalaya, 1990.
viii
Saradindu Bose, Carrying Capacity of Land under Shifting Cultivation, Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1968.
ix
J .B. Ganguly, Economic problems of the jhumias of Tripura, Bookland Pvt. Ltd., Calcutta, 1969.
x
N. Saha, Economics of shifting cultivation in Assam, Ph D Thesis (unpublished), Gauhati University,
Gauhati, Assam.
xi
Government of Manipur, Ninth Five Year Plan and Annual Plan, Planning Department, 1997-98; Government
of Manipur, Draft Annual Plan, Planning Department, 1990-91.

xiii
Draft Annual Plan (2003-2004) Proposals (write-up), Vol. 1 Planning Department, April, 2003. p. 8.
xiv
Ibid.
xv
D.N. Borthakur, Shifting Cultivation in Northeast India: An Approach Towards Control, in BJ Deb (Ed.),
Development Priorities in Northeast India, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 2002, pp. 123-134.
xvi
PSR-P 384
xvii
P.S. Ramakrishnan: Shifting Agriculture and Sustainable Development. Man and the Biosphere Series,
Volume 10. 1993. Paris/ New Delhi: UNESCO/Oxford University press. Pp 39-40
xviii
PSR Idib p. 42
xix
See, Ansari. p. 108.
xx
PS Ramakrishnan op.cit. pp 384-385
xxi
Draft Annual Plan (2003-2004) Proposals (Write-Up), Vol. 1 Planning Department, April 2003. p. 42.
xxii
Manipur Sericulture Project in India, Final Report submitted to the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund,
J apan. Imphal: SAPROF team, May 1997.
xxiii
Biren Singh (1993) p. 82.
xxiv
Ibid. p. 6.
xxv
: L. Rinjah, Land Use Pattern J humming and Control, Settled and Terraced Cultivation with Related
Problems, in T. Mathew (Ed.), (1981), North Eastern Hills Regions of India Problems and Prospects of
Development. New Delhi: Agricole Publishing Academy
xxvi
Anthony Patton (1981), Socio-Economic Impact Of Shifting Cultivation Control Schemes In Nagaland - A
Case Study Of Baghty In Wokha District, Pp 38-40. in T. Mathew (1981, Ibid.)
xxvii
Tripura Statistical Department: 18
th
Round of NSS (1963-64). Indebtedness of Scheduled Tribe Households
in Tripura. In J .B. Ganguly, Progress of J humia Rehabilitation in Tripura: a critical review, in T. Mathew
(1981, ibid.)
xxviii
MoEF 2003, p.10
xxix
Ibid, p.14