Maths Quest 11C Teacher's Addition

YE AR
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TEACHER EDITION
Nick Simpson
Catherine Smith
Peter Posetti
Sue Campbell
CONTRI BUTI NG AUTHOR
Robert Rowlan
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YE AR
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MATHS C
FOR QUEENSLAND
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TEACHER EDI TI ON
Second edition published 2009 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2001
Typeset in 10.5/12.5pt Times
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2001, 2009
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
National Library of Australia
Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Author: Simpson, N. P. (Nicholas Patrick), 1957
Title: Maths Quest: Maths C Year 11 for
Queensland/Simpson, Smith and Posetti.
Edition: 2nd ed.
ISBN: 978 0 7314 0814 6 (pbk.)
978 0 7314 0868 9 (web.)
Notes: Includes index.
Target Audience: For secondary school age.
Subjects: Mathematics Textbooks.
Other Authors/
Contributors: Smith, Catherine, 1969
Posetti, Peter.
Dewey Number: 510
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Maths Quest: Maths C Year 11 for Queensland,
Teacher edition/Simpson, Smith and Posetti.
978 0 7314 0831 3 (pbk.)
978 0 7314 0866 5 (pdf)
Contents
Introduction ix
About eBookPLUS xi
Acknowledgements xii
CHAPTER 1
Number systems: the Real

Number System 1
Introduction 2
The Real Number System 3
Classification of numbers: rational and
irrational 3
Exercise 1A 9
Recurring decimals 11
Exercise 1B 14
Investigation Real number
investigations 15
Investigation Other number systems 16
Surds 17
Exercise 1C 20
Simplifying surds 21
Exercise 1D 22
Addition and subtraction of surds 24
Exercise 1E 25
Multiplication of surds 27
Exercise 1F 30
The Distributive Law 32
Exercise 1G 35
Division of surds 36
Exercise 1H 38
Rationalising denominators 40
Exercise 1I 42
Rationalising denominators using conjugate
surds 44
Exercise 1J 48
Further properties of real numbers
modulus 49
Exercise 1K 50
Solving equations using absolute
values 51
Exercise 1L 54
Solving inequations 55
Exercise 1M 62
Investigation Approximations for p 63
Investigation Real numbers application
and modelling 64
Summary 66
Chapter review 69
CHAPTER 2
Number systems: complex

numbers 75
Introduction to complex numbers 76
Exercise 2A 79
Investigation Complex numbers in
quadratic equations 80
Basic operations using complex numbers 80
Investigation Plotting complex
numbers 84
Exercise 2B 86
Conjugates and division of complex
numbers 87
Exercise 2C 91
Radians and coterminal angles 95
Exercise 2D 96
Complex numbers in polar form 96
History of mathematics Abraham de
Moivre 108
Exercise 2E 109
Basic operations on complex numbers in
polar form 111
Investigation Multiplication in polar
form 111
History of mathematics William Rowan
Hamilton 118
Exercise 2F 119
Investigation Complex numbers:
applications 120
Summary 122
Chapter review 123
CHAPTER 3
Matrices 127
Introduction to matrices 128
Operations with matrices 130
Exercise 3A 135
vi
Multiplying matrices 137
Exercise 3B 140
History of mathematics Olga Taussky-
Todd 142
Powers of a matrix 143
Investigation Matrix powers 143
Exercise 3C 144
Investigation Applications of matrices 145
Multiplicative inverse and solving matrix
equations 146
Exercise 3D 152
The transpose of a matrix 154
Exercise 3E 154
Applications of matrices 155
Exercise 3F 160
Investigation Matrix multiplication using a
graphics calculator 162
Dominance matrices 164
Investigation Dominance matrices
another application of matrices 165
Exercise 3G 169
Summary 170
Chapter review 172
CHAPTER 4
An introduction to
groups 177
Introduction 178
Investigation Algebraic structures 178
Modulo arithmetic 179
Exercise 4A 180
The terminology of groups 180
History of mathematics Niels Henrik
Abel 183
Exercise 4B 184
Properties of groups 184
Exercise 4C 188
Cyclic groups and subgroups 189
Exercise 4D 191
Investigation Application of groups
permutations 191
Further examples of groups
transformations 192
History of mathematics Arthur Cayley 194
Exercise 4E 195
Investigation Some applications of group
theory 197
History of mathematics
Cryptography 199
Summary 201
Chapter review 202
CHAPTER 5
Matrices and their

applications 205
Inverse matrices and systems of linear
equations 206
Exercise 5A 208
Gaussian elimination 209
Exercise 5B 215
History of mathematics Carl Friedrich
Gauss 216
Investigation Performing Gaussian
elimination using a graphics
calculator 217
Introducing determinants 222
Exercise 5C 224
Properties of determinants 224
Exercise 5D 227
Inverse of a 3 3 matrix 228
Exercise 5E 232
Cramers Rule for solving linear
equations 234
Exercise 5F 237
Investigation Solving simultaneous
equations 242
Investigation Applications of
determinants 243
Summary 244
Chapter review 246
CHAPTER 6
Transformations using
matrices 249
Geometric transformations and matrix
algebra 250
Exercise 6A 258
Linear transformations 259
Exercise 6B 262
vii
Linear transformations and group
theory 263
Exercise 6C 269
Rotations 270
Exercise 6D 275
Reflections 276
Exercise 6E 283
Dilations 284
History of mathematics Maurits Cornelius
Escher 290
Exercise 6F 291
Shears 291
Exercise 6G 295
Investigation Transformations 295
Summary 296
Chapter review 297
CHAPTER 7
Introduction to vectors 299

Vectors and scalars 300
Exercise 7A 305
Position vectors in two and three
dimensions 308
Exercise 7B 320
Multiplying two vectors the dot
product 324
Exercise 7C 329
History of mathematics Charles Lutwidge
Dodgson 331
Resolving vectors scalar and vector
resolutes 332
Exercise 7D 337
Investigation Vectors and matrices 337
Time-varying vectors 339
Exercise 7E 344
Summary 346
Chapter review 348
CHAPTER 8
Vector applications 353

Introduction 354
Force diagrams and the triangle of
forces 354
Exercise 8A 361
History of mathematics Sir Isaac
Newton 363
Newtons First Law of Motion 364
Exercise 8B 371
Momentum 374
Investigation Conservation of momentum
using and notation 378
Exercise 8C 379
Investigation Collision momentum 381
Relative velocity 382
Exercise 8D 384
Using vectors in geometry 385
Investigation Three-dimensional non-zero
vectors 387
Investigation Vector geometry 388
Exercise 8E 388
Summary 390
Chapter review 391
CHAPTER 9
Sequences and series 395

Introduction 396
Arithmetic sequences 396
Exercise 9A 404
Geometric sequences 406
Exercise 9B 414
Applications of geometric sequences 418
Exercise 9C 424
Finding the sum of an infinite geometric
sequence 427
Exercise 9D 431
Contrasting arithmetic and geometric
sequences through graphs 432
Exercise 9E 438
Investigation Reward time 440
Investigation Changing shape 441
Fibonacci Sequence 442
Investigation Fibonacci numbers 445
The Mandelbrot Set 446
Investigation Draw the Mandelbrot
Set 449
Summary 450
Chapter review 453
i
viii
CHAPTER 10
Permutations and
combinations 459
Introduction 460
The addition and multiplication
principles 460
Exercise 10A 465
Factorials and permutations 467
Exercise 10B 474
Arrangements involving restrictions and
like objects 476
Exercise 10C 480
Combinations 482
Exercise 10D 488
Applications of permutations and
combinations 490
Exercise 10E 495
Pascals triangle, the binomial theorem and
the pigeonhole principle 497
Investigation Counting paths 498
Exercise 10F 504
History of mathematics Blaise
Pascal 506
Summary 507
Chapter review 509
CHAPTER 11
Dynamics 513
Displacement, velocity and
acceleration 514
Exercise 11A 521
Projectile motion 524
Exercise 11B 536
Motion under constant acceleration 540
Exercise 11C 544
Summary 547
Chapter review 548
Appendix 553
Answers 591
Index 621
Introduction
Maths Quest Maths C Year 11 for Queensland 2nd edition is one of the
exciting Maths Quest resources specically designed for the Queensland
senior Mathematics syllabuses beginning in 2009. It has been written and com-
piled by practising Queensland Maths C teachers. It breaks new ground in
Mathematics textbook publishing.
This resource contains:
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Clear, concise theory sections contain worked examples, graphics calculator
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Worked examples in a Think/Write format provide clear explanation of key
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Exercises contain many carefully graded skills and application problems,
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Investigations, often suggesting the use of technology, provide further dis-
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Each chapter concludes with a summary and chapter review exercise con-
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Technology is fully integrated within the resource. To support the use of
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Solutions manual
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5_61_08144_MQ11C2E_Prelim Page xiv Monday, November 10, 2008 1:51 PM
syllabus
reference
Core topic:
Real and complex number
systems
In this
chapter
1A Classication of numbers
1B Recurring decimals
1C Surds
1D Simplifying surds
1E Addition and subtraction of
surds
1F Multiplication of surds
1G The Distributive Law
1H Division of surds
1I Rationalising denominators
1J Rationalising denominators
using conjugate surds
1K Further properties of real
numbers modulus
1L Solving equations using
absolute values
1M Solving inequations
1
Number
systems: the
Real Number
System
2 M a t h s Q u e s t M a t h s C Ye a r 1 1 f o r Q u e e n s l a n d
Introduction
The number systems used today evolved from a basic and practical need of primitive
people to count and measure magnitudes and quantities such as livestock, people,
possessions, time and so on.
Early cultures and societies used their body parts, such as
ngers and toes, as a basis for their numeration systems. As
the need for larger numbers grew, symbols were developed to
represent them. Ancient Egyptians, for example, used the
symbol of the lotus ower to represent the number 1000, and
Romans used the letter M to represent 1000. Roman numerals
can be seen today on some clock and watch faces. At the end
of movie credits Roman numerals are often used to indicate
the year in which the movie was made. For example,
MCMXCIX represents the year 1999 and MMIX represents
the year 2009.
As societies grew and architecture and engineering
developed, number systems became more sophisti-
cated. Number use developed from solely whole
numbers to fractions, decimals and irrational
numbers.
We shall explore these different types of
numbers and classify them into their specic
groups.
Consider solutions to equations such as:
2x = 10, 3x = 15, 20x = 100
What do they have in common? Each of
the statements is true for a whole-number
value of x.
This type of equation represents many
real-life situations; for example, how
many people will I need to collect $2
from to cover the cost of hiring a $10
game?
The rst types of numbers to
evolve were the whole numbers. As
you work through this chapter on
the Real Number System and
Chapter 2 you will be introduced
to types of numbers that
evolved to ll other, more
sophisticated needs.

structure of the real number system including rational numbers and irrational numbers

simple manipulation of surds
C h a p t e r 1 N u m b e r s y s t e m s : t h e R e a l N u m b e r S y s t e m 3
The Real Number System
The Real Number System contains the set of rational and irrational numbers. It is denoted
by the symbol R.
The set of real numbers contains a number of subsets which can be classied as shown
in the chart above.
Classication of numbers: rational
and irrational
Rational numbers (Q)
A rational number (ratio-nal) is a number which can be expressed as a ratio of two
integers in the form where b 0 and a and b have no common factors.
Rational numbers are given the symbol Q. Examples are:
, , , , 7
Rational numbers may be expressed as terminating decimals. Examples are:
= 0.7, = 0.25, = 0.625, = 1.8
These decimal numbers terminate after a specic number of digits.
Rational numbers may be expressed as recurring decimals (non-terminating or
periodic decimals). For example:
= 0.333 333 . . . or 0.3
.
= 0.818 181 . . . or 0.8
.
1
.
= 0.833 333 . . . or 0.83
.
= 0.230 769 230 769 . . . or 0.2
.
30769
.
These decimals do not terminate, and the specic
digit (or number of digits) is repeated in a pattern.
Recurring decimals are represented by placing a dot
or overscore above the repeating digit or pattern.
Real numbers R
Irrational numbers I
(surds, non-terminating
and non-recurring
decimals, ,e)
Rational numbers Q
Integers
Z
Non-integer rationals
(terminating and
recurring decimals)
Zero
(neither positive
nor negative)
Positive
(Natural
numbers N)
Z
+
Negative
Z
a
b
---
1
5
---
2
7
---
3
10
------
9
4
---
7
10
------
1
4
---
5
8
---
9
5
---
1
3
---
9
11
------
5
6
---
3
13
------
3 4 2 1 3 2 1 0 4
3.743
1.63 3.6 2
3
4
1
2
Q
Rational numbers are dened in set notation as: Q = set of rational numbers
Q = { , a, b Z, b 0, g.c.d (a, b) = 1} where means an element of and
g.c.d. (a, b) = 1 means greatest common divisor of (a, b) = 1.
Rational numbers may be represented on the number line (as illustrated on page 3)
and include whole numbers, fractions, and terminating and recurring decimals.
Whole numbers form a set of integers (which is a subset of the set of rational
numbers).
Integers (Z)
The set of integers consists of positive and negative whole numbers, and 0 (which is
neither positive nor negative). They are denoted by the letter Z and can be further
divided into subsets. That is:
Z = {. . . 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
Z
+
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}
Z
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 . . .}
Positive integers are also known as natural numbers (or counting numbers) and are
denoted by the letter N. That is:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}
Integers may be represented on the number line as illustrated below.
Note: Integers on the number line are marked with a solid dot to indicate that they are
the only points in which we are interested.
Irrational numbers (I)
Numbers that cannot be expressed as a ratio between two integers are called irrational
numbers. Irrational numbers are denoted by the letter I. Numbers such as surds (for
example , ), decimals that neither terminate nor recur, and and e are
examples of irrational numbers. The numbers and e are examples of transcendental
numbers; these will be discussed briey later in this chapter.
Irrational numbers may also be represented on the number line with the aid of a ruler
and compass.
An irrational number (ir-ratio-nal) is a number which cannot be expressed as a
ratio of two integers in the form where b 0.
Irrational numbers are given the symbol I. Examples are:
, , , , , e
Irrational numbers may be expressed as decimals. For example:
= 2.236 067 977 5 . . . = 0.173 205 080 757 . . .
= 4.242 640 687 12 . . . = 5.291 502 622 13 . . .
= 3.141 592 653 59 . . . e = 2.718 281 828 46 . . .
These decimals do not terminate, and the digits do not repeat themselves in any
particular pattern or order (that is, they are non-terminating and non-recurring).
a
b
---
3 2 1 3 Z 2 1 0
The set of integers
N
The set of positive integers
or natural numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 Z
The set of negative integers

1 2 3 4 5 6
7 10
a
b
---
7 13 5 21
7
9
-------
5 0.03
18 2 7
Once the decimal approximation for an irrational number is obtained, it can be
shown on a number line. For example, 4.24. This approximation is between 4
and 5, but closer to 4.
Irrational numbers in surd form can also be represented on the number line exactly,
as follows.
Consider an isosceles right-angled triangle of side length 1 unit.
By Pythagoras Theorem, (OB)
2
= (OA)
2
+ (AB)
2
;
therefore the length of the hypotenuse is units.
By using a compass, we can transfer the length of the
hypotenuse OB to the number line (labelled C). This distance
can now be measured using a ruler. Although this distance
will be inaccurate due to the equipment used, there is an exact
point on the number line for each irrational number.
This geometric model can be extended to any irrational number in surd form.
(pi)
The symbol (pi) is used for a particular number; that is, the circumference of a circle
whose diameter length is 1 unit. It can be approximated as a decimal which is non-
terminating and non-recurring. Therefore, is classied as an irrational number. (It is
also called a transcendental number and cannot be expressed as a surd.)
In decimal form, = 3.141 592 653 589 793 23 . . . It has been calculated to trillions
of decimal places with the aid of a supercomputer.
Rational (Q) and irrational (I) numbers belong to the set of real numbers denoted by
the symbol R. They can be positive, negative or 0. The real numbers can be represented
on a number line as shown (irrational numbers above the line and rational numbers
below the line).
Relationship between subsets
The relationship which exists between the sub-
sets of the Real Number System can be illus-
trated in a Venn diagram as shown on the right.
We can say N Z, Z Q, and so on, where
means is a subset of.
To classify a number as either rational or
irrational:
1. Determine whether it can be expressed as an
integer, a fraction, or a terminating or
recurring decimal.
2. If the answer is yes, the number is rational; if the answer is no, the number is irrational.
18
3 4 5 6 2 1 0
2 7
1 2
5 0.03 18 e
3 4 5
2
R
1 unit
0
O
A
B
C
1 unit 1 2 2
2 units
3 4 2 1 0 1 2
12 9
3
2
1
4
3
5
3e
2
3
2
1.75 0.2
3.62
3 4
3
(Irrational
numbers)
Q (Rational numbers)
(Integers)
(Natural
numbers)
= R
I
N
Z
Specify whether the following numbers are rational or irrational.
a b c d 2 e 0.28 f g h
THINK WRITE
a is already in rational form. a is rational.
b Evaluate . b
The answer is an integer, so classify
.
is rational.
c Evaluate . c = 3.316 624 790 36 . . .
The answer is a non-terminating and
non-recurring decimal; classify .
is irrational.
d Use your calculator to nd the value
of 2.
d 2 = 6.283 185 307 18 . . .
The answer is a non-terminating and
non-recurring decimal; classify 2.
2 is irrational.
e 0.28 is a terminating decimal; classify it
accordingly.
e 0.28 is rational.
f Evaluate . f = 4
The answer is a whole number, so
classify .
is rational.
g Evaluate . g = 2.802 039 330 66 . . .
The result is a non-terminating and
non-recurring decimal; classify .
is irrational.
h Evaluate . h =
The result is a number in a rational
form.
is rational.
1
4
--- 16 11 64
3
22
3 1
8
---
3
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
16 16 4 =
2
16
16
1
11 11
2
11
11
1
2
1
64
3
64
3
2
64
3
64
3
1
22
3
22
3
2
22
3
22
3
1
1
8
---
3
1
8
---
3
1
2
---
2
1
8
---
3
1
WORKEDExample
A graphics calculator can be used to nd the square root, cube root or higher root of a
number.
For the Casio fx-9860G AU
1. Press and select RUN-MAT (highlight RUN-MAT and press ).
2. To calculate the square root of a number (for example, ), press [ ]
followed by the number (8 in this case) and press .
3. To calculate the cube root of a number (for example,
), press [ ] followed by the number
(8 in this case) and press .
4. To calculate a higher root of a number (for example,
), rst enter the type of root (4 in this example),
then press [ ] followed by the number
(81 in this case) and press .
For the TI-Nspire CAS
1. From the Home screen (press c), highlight 1: Calculator and press .
Alternatively, open a new Calculator document. Press /Nand follow the
prompts as to whether you wish to save the previous document. Then press 1to
select 1: Add Calculator.
2. To calculate the square root of a number (for example, ), press /and q,
followed by the number (8 in this case) and press . For the decimal
approximation to this answer, press /and .
3. To calculate the cube root of a number (for example, ), press /and l.
Complete the gaps in the expression on the screen. First enter 3 for the type of root
(n) and then enter the number (8 in this case for x). Use the tab key to move to the
appropriate place in the expression. Press .
4. To calculate a higher root of a number (for example,
), repeat the steps used for the cube root. In this
example, enter 4 for the type of root (n).
(Note that the square and nth root functions can also be
accessed from the Catalog menu. Press k to access
the catalog. Select Option 5 (by pressing 5) then
highlight the required symbol and press .)
Summary of set notation
The following symbols are used to describe relationships in sets.
Consider a group of numbers from 1 to 9 (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). These numbers
can be referred to as a set and denoted by A such that A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. We
can say that 2 is an element of set A and write this as 2 A.
Similarly 0 is not an element of set A and this is written as 0 A.
The elements 2 and 4 both belong to set A and this can be written as {2, 4} A,
where 2 and 4 are a subset of A.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Square, cube and nth roots
MENU EXE
8 SHIFT
EXE
8
3
SHIFT
3
EXE
81
4
SHIFT
8
x
EXE
8
8
3
81
4
Classify each of the following elements of the set
{
5, , 3.9, , ,
}
into the
smallest subset in which it belongs, using Q, I, Z, Z
+
and Z
.
THINK WRITE
The number 5 is a positive whole number;
classify it accordingly.
5 Z
+
(a) Change into a decimal. = 6.5
(b) The fraction can be expressed as a
terminating decimal; therefore it can be
classied as a rational number. The fraction
is in the form , b 0, so it is rational.
Q
The number 3.9 is a terminating decimal,
so classify it accordingly.
3.9 Q
(a) Simplify . = 6
(b) The result is a negative whole number,
so classify accordingly.
Z
(a) Use your calculator to nd the value of . = 4.795 831 523 31 . . .

(b) The result is a non-terminating and
non-recurring decimal, so can
be classied as an irrational number.
I
(a) Change into a decimal. = 0.628 318 530 718 . . .
(b) The resulting decimal is neither
terminating nor recurring,
so is an irrational number.
I
13
2
------
12
2
------
23
p
5
---
1
2
13
2
------
13
2
------
13
2
------
a
b
---
13
2
------
3
4
12
2
------
12
2
------
12
2
------
12
2
------
5
23 23
23
23
6
5
---
5
---
5
---
5
---
2
WORKEDExample
1. The real number system (R) contains the set of rational numbers (Q) and the set
of irrational numbers (I).
2. Rational numbers are those that can be written as a ratio of two whole numbers
in the form where b 0. Rational numbers include whole numbers,
fractions, and terminating and recurring decimals.
3. The set of rational numbers includes the set of integers (Z).
4. The set of integers consists of positive whole numbers (Z
+
), negative whole
numbers (Z
) and 0. Positive whole numbers (Z

+
) are also called natural
numbers (N).
5. Irrational numbers cannot be expressed as a ratio of two whole numbers in the
form where b 0. Irrational numbers include surds, non-terminating and
non-recurring decimals, and numbers such as and e.
a
b
---
a
b
---
remember
Classication of numbers
1 Specify whether the following numbers are rational (Q) or irrational (I).
2 Specify whether the following numbers are rational (Q), irrational (I) or neither.
3
Which of the following best represents a rational number?
4
Which of the following best represents an irrational number?
5
Which of the following statements regarding the numbers 0.69, , , is correct?
A is the only rational number.
B and are both irrational numbers.
C 0.69 and are the only rational numbers.
D , and are all irrational numbers.
E 0.69 is the only rational number.
6
Which of the following statements regarding the numbers 2 , , , is
correct?
A and are both irrational numbers.
B is an irrational number and is a rational number.
C 2 is the only rational number.
D and are both irrational numbers.
E 2 is a rational number and is an irrational number.
a b c d e
f g 2 h i j 0.15
k 2.4 l m n o
p q 7.32 r s t 7.216 349 157 . . .
u v 3 w x y
a b c d e 6
f g h i j
k l m n o
p q r s t
u v w x y
A B C D E none of these
A
B C D E
1A
WORKED
Example
1
4
4
5
---
7
9
--- 2 7
0.04
1
2
--- 5
9
4
---
100 14.4 1.44
25
9
------ 21 1000
81 62
3 1
16
------ 0.0001
3
1
8
--- 625
11
4
------
0
8
---
1
7
---
81
3
11
1.44
4
----------
8
0
---
21
3
7
--- 5 ( )
2
3
3
11
------
1
100
---------
64
16
------
2
25
------
6
2
------- 27
3
1
4
-------
22
7
--------- 1.728
3
6 4 ( 2)
4
4 6
multiple choice
4
9
---
9
12
------ 3
3
multiple choice
81
6
5
--- 343
3
0.0676 22
multiple choice
7
3
--- 49
3
---
7 49
49
7
3
--- 49
multiple choice
1
2
---
11
3
------ 624 99
3
11
3
------ 624
624 99
3
1
2
---
624 99
3
1
2
---
11
3
------

Q Q Q
I I
Q Q Q I
Q
Q Q I
Q
I
Q Q I
I
I
Q
I
I
Q I
Q
Q
Q Q Q
Q I I I

Undefined

I
I
I
Q
Q
Q
Q
I I Q
Q Q
Q
I I
7 Classify each of the following into the smallest subset in which it belongs, using Q,
Z
+
and Z
.
8 Classify each of the following into the smallest subset in which it belongs using Q, I,
Z
+
and Z
.
9
The smallest subset in which 7 + 2 belongs is:
10
The smallest subset in which belongs is:
11
Which of the following statements regarding numbers
{
16, 3 , 0, ,
}
is correct?
A 16 and 0 are the only rational numbers.
B 16, 0 and may be expressed as rational numbers.
C 16 and 0 are positive integers.
D 3 is the only irrational number.
E is the only irrational number.
12
Which of the following statements regarding the given set of numbers
{ , , , , } is correct?
A All of the above numbers in the set are irrational.
B and are the only irrational numbers of the set.
C is a rational number of the set.
D is the only rational number of the set.
E and are the only irrational numbers of the set.
a 5 b 0.621 c d 0.26
.
e
f 0.515 151 . . . g h i j
k l m n o
p 0.4
.
21
.
q r s t
u v w x y
a 6 b 0.3415 . . . c d e
f g h i 0.612 612 . . . j 0.25
k l m n o
p 5 q r s t
u v w x ()
2
y
A Q B I C Z
+
D Z E Z
A Q B I C Z
+
D Z E Z
WORKED
Example
2
1
81
------ 3 16 +
8
3
42
6
------ 7 4
27
3
------
9 144
0
4
--- 4 ( )
2
9
3
---
3
2
---

2
8
2
------- 32
5
6 ( )
2
6
5
---
8 2
4
3
--- 2 ( )
6
100
2
------------- 343
3
7
9
16
------ 2 25
6 2 49 21 5
144
9
--------- 64
3
11
19
------
9
144
---------
50
2
------
16 27
3
3 ( )
3
7 5 6 3 16
16
8
------ 8 12.5
1
5
--- 125
3
multiple choice
1
8
---
3

multiple choice
144
9
---------
512
8
---------
3
multiple choice
2
8
2
---
8
2
---
2
multiple choice
2 9 + 11
16 2 32 81
2 9 + 11
2 9 +
81
11 32

Z

+

Z

+

Q
Q
Q
Q
Z

+

Z

+

Z

+

Z

Q
Z

Z

+

Q
Q
Z

+

Z

Z

+

Q
Z

Q Z

+

Z

+

Z

Z

+

I
I
Q
Z

I I Z

Q
Q
Z

+

Z

Q Q Z

+

I
Z

I
I Z

I
Z

+

Q
I
Z

+
Recurring decimals
A rational number may be converted to a decimal by dividing the numerator by the
denominator. The resulting decimal may be a terminating decimal containing a specic
number of digits, that is:
= 1.4 or = 0.125
or it may be a recurring decimal containing a repeating digit or pattern, that is:
= 0.222 . . . or = 0.538 461 538 461 . . .
For convenience, recurring decimals are represented by placing a dot over the
repeating digit, for example:
1. 0.777 777 7 . . . can be written as 0.7
.
.
2. 0.26666 . . . can be written as 0.26
.
.
If two or more digits repeat the same pattern, then dots or the overscore are
used as shown:
1. 0.454 545 . . . can be written as 0.4
.
5
.
or alternatively .
2. 0.752 137 521 3 . . . can be written as 0.7
.
5213
.
or alternatively .
Note: When using the overscore, place it over the whole pattern. The dots, however, are
placed over the rst and the last digits only of the repeating pattern.
7
5
---
1
8
---
2
9
---
7
13
------
( )
0.45
0.75213
State which of the following rational numbers can be expressed as recurring decimals.
a b
THINK WRITE
a To convert to a decimal, divide 2
by 27.
a = 0.074 074 074 . . .
Use the overscore to indicate the
repeating pattern.
=
Write your conclusion. can be written as a recurring
decimal.
b Convert to a decimal (divide 5
by 8).
b = 0.625
The resulting decimal terminates, so
state your conclusion.
cannot be written as a recurring
decimal.
2
27
------
5
8
---
1
2
27
------ 2
27
------
2
0.074
3
2
27
------
1
5
8
--- 5
8
---
2
5
8
---
3
WORKEDExample
Whole numbers and terminating decimals such as 3, 0.25 and 6.731 can easily be
expressed as rational numbers. For example:
1. we may write 3 as
2. we may write 0.25 as =
3. we may write 6.731 as 6 or .
In each of these cases, the whole number and decimals are expressed in the form .
Recurring decimals are rational numbers. Therefore they can be converted to the
form .
3
1
---
25
100
---------
1
4
---
731
1000
------------
6731
1000
------------
a
b
---
a
b
---
Express the following recurring decimals as rational numbers in their simplest form.
a 0.4
.
b 0.2
.
1
.
c
THINK WRITE
a Let x represent the recurring
decimal. This is equation [1].
a x = 0.444 444 . . . [1]
We need to multiply both sides of the
equation by a power of 10. The
number of zeros in the power of 10
should be equal to the number of
repeated digits. Since 1 digit is
repeated, multiply both sides of
equation [1] by 10. Label the new
equation [2].
10x = 4.444 444 . . . [2]
Subtract equation [1] from equation
[2]. This removes all the repeating
digits after the decimal point.
[2] [1]:
10x x = 4.444 444 . . . 0.444 444 . . .
9x = 4
Divide both sides of the equation
by 9.
=
x =
Verify the answer using a calculator
and you will obtain the original
value, 0.4
.
.
b Let x represent the recurring
decimal. This is equation [1].
b x = 0.212 121 21 . . . [1]
Since 2 digits are repeated, multiply
both sides of equation [1] by 100
and label the new equation [2].
100x = 21.212 121 21 . . . [2]
1.285
1
2
3
4
9x
9
------
4
9
---
4
9
---
5
1
2
4
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Subtract equation [1] from equation [2].
This removes all the repeating digits after
the decimal point.
[2] [1]:
100x x = 21.212 121 21 . . .
0.212 121 21 . . .
99x = 21
Divide both sides of the equation by 99. =
x =
Cancel to the simplest form; that is,
divide through by 3.
x =
Verify the answer using a calculator.
c Let x represent the recurring decimal.
This is equation [1].
c x = 1.285 285 285 . . . [1]
Since 3 digits are repeated, multiply both
sides of equation [1] by 1000 and label
the new equation [2].
1000x = 1285.285 285 285 . . . [2]
Subtract equation [1] from equation [2].
This removes all the repeating digits after
the decimal point.
[2] [1]:
1000x x = 1285.285 285 285 . . .
1.285 285 285 . . .
999x = 1284
Divide both sides of the equation by
999.
=
x =
Cancel to the simplest form; that is,
divide through by 3.
x =
Verify the answer using a calculator.
3
4
99x
99
---------
21
99
------
21
99
------
5
7
33
------
6
1
2
3
4
999x
999
------------
1284
999
------------
1284
999
------------
5
428
333
---------
6
1. Rational numbers can be converted to decimals by dividing the numerator by
the denominator. The resulting decimal can be either terminating or recurring.
2. Terminating decimals contain a specic number of digits.
3. Recurring decimals contain a repeating digit or a repeating pattern of digits.
4. Recurring decimals are represented by placing dots over the rst and the last
digits of the repeating pattern. Alternatively, an overscore can be placed over
the whole pattern that repeats.
5. Recurring decimals are rational numbers and may be expressed as a ratio of
two integers.
remember
Recurring decimals
1 State which of the following rational numbers can be expressed as recurring decimals.
2 Express the following recurring decimals as rational numbers in their simplest form.
3
The recurring decimal 0.7
.
8
.
can be expressed as:
4
.
2
.
can be expressed as:
5
Which statement regarding the fractions , , , , is correct?
A , and are the only fractions which represent terminating decimals.
B and are the only fractions which represent terminating decimals.
C , and are fractions which represent recurring decimals.
D and are the only fractions which represent recurring decimals.
E and are fractions which represent recurring decimals.
6
.
69
.
can be expressed in its simplest form as the following fraction:
7 Irene and Bella are arguing about the correct way of writing the recurring decimal
0.020 20 . . . . Irene says it should be written as 0.020, while Bella thinks it is 0.020.
Which of the girls is right?
a b c d e
f g h i j
k l m n o
p q r s t
u v w x y
a 0.2
.
b 0.7
.
c 0.8
.
d 0.5
.
e 0.4
.
f 0.16
.
g 0.37
.
h 0.42
.
i 0.68
.
j 0.71
.
k 2.62
.
l 0.5
.
3
.
m 0.1
.
2
.
n 1.3
.
4
.
o 3.74
.
1
.
p 0.3
.
61
.
q 0.4
.
27
.
r 0.52
.
13
.
s 0.3
.
23
.
t 3.4
.
56
.
u 0.72
.
v 0.523
.
w 0.624
.
7
.
x 0.6234
.
y 0.1
.
53846
.
A B C D E
A B C D E
A B C D E
1B
WORKED
Example
3
1
8
---
1
2
---
1
3
---
6
19
------
1
17
------
4
11
------
5
9
---
7
16
------
9
25
------
5
7
---
2
3
---
1
6
---
3
4
---
3
13
------
5
21
------
2
31
------
2
9
---
41
333
---------
5
8
---
17
18
------
8
17
------
7
23
------
7
15
------
3
22
------
7
33
------
WORKED
Example
4
multiple choice
71
90
------
78
90
------
77
99
------
71
99
------
78
99
------
multiple choice
266
495
---------
479
900
---------
532
999
---------
527
990
---------
532
990
---------
multiple choice
1
2
---
3
7
---
11
13
------
1
3
---
4
5
---
1
2
---
3
7
---
11
13
------
3
7
---
1
3
---
3
7
---
11
13
------
1
3
---
11
13
------
1
3
---
1
2
---
4
5
---
multiple choice
369
999
---------
3663
9900
------------
123
333
---------
407
1100
------------
41
111
---------
2
9
---
7
9
---
8
9
---
5
9
---
4
9
---
1
6
---
17
45
------
19
45
------
31
45
------
32
45
------

2
28
45
------
53
99
------
4
33
------

1
34
99
------

3
367
495
---------
361
999
---------
427
999
---------
868
1665
------------
323
999
---------

3
152
333
---------
13
18
------
157
300
---------
1237
1980
------------
5611
9000
------------
2
13
------

Irene. It can also be written as 0.02.

1 c f g j k l n
o q r t w x y
Real number investigations
A real number can be dened as a number that can be plotted on a number line.
Even if the position of the number on the line is only an approximate value, as long
as a number can be represented by one point on a line it can be regarded as real.
This is not so with the numbers you will deal with in Chapter 2.
The following steps will enable you to plot irrational numbers such as surds (for
example and ) on a number line.
Materials needed: ruler, a set of compasses, set square.
Step 1 Draw a number line approximately 10 cm long, with unit
divisions of 2 cm. How can we draw a line segment
exactly units long? Using Pythagoras Theorem we
can obtain the triangle shown at right which shows us
that = .
Step 2 Use a set square to construct a right-angled triangle as shown below:
Step 3 Use a set of compasses to transfer the length of the hypotenuse to the
number line.
Step 4 If a second right-angled triangle (of height 1 cm) were constructed on this
hypotenuse, what would be the length of its hypotenuse?
Step 5 Continue constructing in this way to plot on the original number line.
Use your number line to give an approximate value for .
2 5
2
2 1 1 + 1
1
2
1
1 0 1 2 3
2
1 0 1 2 3
1
2
2
1 0 1 2 3
3
1
2
3 2
7
7
Other number systems
Introduction
Throughout early civilisations, numbers have been represented and recorded in a
variety of ways.
Our numeration system uses the 10 digits
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and combinations of
these. It is called the decimal or base 10 system
(possibly inuenced by the fact that we have
10 ngers).
Past civilisations have used base 5 and base 20
systems (again inuenced by the ngers on
one hand and the total number of digits).
Mesopotamians used a base 60 system, which is
still used today for units of time (60 seconds in
1 minute and 60 minutes in 1 hour). Numeration
systems that are used today include a binary or
base 2 system and a modular or base 12 system.
Place value
The place value system was introduced as a means of recording numbers.
Look at the number 285. In our numeration system the base 10 (decimal)
system we interpret the number 285 (base 10) or 285
10
as:
plus 2 lots of 100 or 2 10
2
1
0
Notice how we need to use zeros to hold each place value.
1 Investigate the following points relating to non-base 10 numbers, giving
examples in each case:
a How could numbers of different bases be compared to each other?
b How are numbers of the same (non-base 10) system added and subtracted?
c How are numbers of the same (non-base 10) system multiplied and divided?
d How are fractions and decimals of a non-base 10 system represented?
Using the base 5 system
Numbers in the base 5 system use the
digits 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 only. The number
285 (base 10) can be written as a base
5 number in the following way:
2 lots of 125 or 2 5
3
plus 1 lot of 25 or 1 5
2
1
0
So 285
10
= 2120
5
Using the base 2 system
Numbers in the base 2 system use the
digits 0 and 1 only. The number 285
(base 10) can be written as a base 2
number in the following way:
1 lot of 256 or 1 2
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
So 285
10
= 100 011 101
2

See Solutions Manual.
Surds
A surd is an irrational number which can only be represented exactly using a root
sign or radical, for example: , ,
Examples of surds include: , , ,
Examples that are not surds include:
, , ,
Numbers that are not surds can be simplied to rational numbers, that is:
, , ,
Binary systems
As the name suggests, this
numeration system is based on 2.
In this system, 0 and 1 are the only
two digits used. The binary system
is used in computers.
2 Investigate how the binary
system is used in computers,
circuits or compact discs.
Devise a situation which calls
for the use of a binary system.
Modular arithmetic
Modular arithmetic involves
clock arithmetic where, instead of
saying that the time is 14 oclock,
we say it is 2 oclock. This is called
modular (mod 12) arithmetic. Any
integer can be converted to modular
(mod 12) arithmetic by subtracting
12 or any multiple of 12 from the
integer. The remainder is called the
residue.
For example:
32 = 2 12 + 8 68 = 5 13 + 3 29 = 4 6 + 5
8 (mod 12) 3 (mod 13) 5 (mod 6)
The remainders or residues in this case are 8, 3 and 5 respectively.
3 Investigate the purpose, usefulness and limitations of modular arithmetic.
Include illustrations of how numbers of modular arithmetic are represented via a
clock pattern.
3 4
7 5 11
3
15
4
9 16 125
3
81
4
9 3 = 16 4 = 125
3
5 = 81
4
3 =
Proof that a number is irrational
As part of your Mathematics C course you are required to study a variety of types of
proofs. One such method is called Proof by contradiction.
This method is so named because the logical argument of the proof is based on
an assumption that leads to contradiction within the proof. Therefore the original
assumption must be false.
An irrational number is one that cannot be expressed in the form (where a and b
are integers). The next worked example sets out to prove that is irrational.
Which of the following numbers are surds?
a b c d e f
THINK WRITE
a Evaluate .
The answer is rational (since it is a
whole number), so state your
conclusion.
a = 5
is not a surd.
b Evaluate .
The answer is irrational (since it is a
non-recurring and non-terminating
decimal), so state your conclusion.
b = 3.162 277 660 17 . . .
is a surd.
c Evaluate .
The answer is rational (a fraction);
state your conclusion.
c =
is not a surd.
d Evaluate .
The answer is irrational (a non-
terminating and non-recurring
decimal), so state your conclusion.
d = 2.223 980 090 57 . . .
is a surd.
e Evaluate .
The answer is irrational, so classify
accordingly.
e = 2.771 488 002 48 . . .
is a surd.
f Evaluate .
The answer is rational; state your
conclusion.
f = 7
is not a surd.
So b, d and e are surds.
25 10
1
4
--- 11
3
59
4
343
3
1
25
2
25
25
1
10
2
10
10
1
1
4
---
2
1
4
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
11
3
2
11
3
11
3
1
59
4
2
59
4
59
4
59
4
1
343
3
2
343
3
343
3
5
WORKEDExample
a
b
---
2
The dialogue included in the worked example should be present in all proofs and is an
essential part of the communication that is needed in all your solutions.
Note: An irrational number written in surd form gives an exact value of the number;
whereas the same number written in decimal form (for example, to 4 decimal places)
gives an approximate value.
Prove that is irrational.
THINK WRITE
Assume that is rational; that is, it
can be written as in simplest form.
We need to show that a and b have no
common factors.
= where b 0
Square both sides of the equation. 2 =
Rearrange the equation to make a
2
the
subject of the formula.
a
2
= 2b
2
[1]
If x is an even number then x = 2n. a
2
is an even number and a must also
be even; that is, a has a factor of 2.
Since a is even it can be written as
a = 2r.
a = 2r
Square both sides. a
2
= 4r
2
[2]
But a
2
= 2b
2
from [1]
Equating [1] and [2] 2b
2
= 4r
2
b
2
=
= 2r
2
b
2
is an even number and b must also be
even; that is, b has a factor of 2.
State your conclusion. Both a and b have a common factor of 2.
This contradicts the original assumption that
= where a and b have no common factor.
is not rational.
It must be irrational.
2
1
2
a
b
---
2
a
b
---
2
a
2
b
2
-----
3
4
5
6
7
4r
2
2
--------
8
2
a
b
---
2
6
WORKEDExample
A number is a surd if:
1. it is an irrational number (equals a non-terminating, non-recurring decimal)
2. it can be written exactly only by using a radical (or root sign).
remember

SLE 8: Use a proof by contradiction to show that is irrational. 2
Surds
1 Which of the numbers below are surds?
2
The correct statement regarding the set of numbers
{
, , , ,
}
is:
A and are the only rational numbers of the set.
B is the only surd of the set.
C and are the only surds of the set.
D and are the only surds of the set.
E All of the numbers of the set are surds.
3 Prove that the following numbers are irrational, using a proof by contradiction:
a b c
4
Which of the numbers of the set
{
, , , , } are surds?
5
Which statement regarding the set of numbers
{
, , , ,
}
is not true?
E when simplied is a rational number.
6
Which statement regarding the set of numbers
{
, , , , ,
}
is
not true?
a b c d e
f g h i j
k l m n o
p q r 2 s t
u v w x y
A B only C only D and E and only
A is a surd. B and are surds.
C is irrational but not a surd. D and are not rational.
A when simplied is an integer. B and are not surds.
C is smaller than . D is smaller than .
E , , and are surds.
1C
WORKED
Example
5 81 48 16 1.6 0.16
11
3
4
---
3
27
------
3
1000 1.44
4 100 2 10 + 32
3
361 100
3
125
3
6 6 + 169
3
7
8
---
16
4
7 ( )
2
33
3
0.0001 32
5
multiple choice
6
9
--- 20 54 27
3
9
27
3
9
6
9
---
6
9
--- 20
20 54
WORKED
Example
6
3 5 7
multiple choice
1
4
---
1
27
------
3
1
8
--- 21 8
3
1
27
------
3
21
1
8
---
1
8
--- 8
3
1
8
--- 21
multiple choice
1
49
------ 12 16 3 1 +
12 12 16
12 3 1 +
1
49
------
multiple choice
6 7
144
16
--------- 7 6 9 2 18 25
144
16
---------
144
16
--------- 25
7 6 9 2 9 2 6 7
6 7 7 6 9 2 18

1 b d f g h i l
m o q s t w
7 If a is a multiple of 4, nd the smallest, non-zero rational value of .
8 Find the smallest value of m, where m is a positive integer, so that is not a surd.
Simplifying surds
To simplify a surd means to make a number (or an expression) under the radical ( )
as small as possible. To simplify a surd (if it is possible), it should be rewritten as a
product of two factors, one of which is a perfect square, that is, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64,
81, 100 and so on.
We must always aim to obtain the largest perfect square when simplifying surds so
that there are fewer steps involved in obtaining the answer. For example, could be
written as = 2 ; however, can be further simplied to , so
= 2 2 ; that is = 4 . If, however, the largest perfect square had been
selected and had been written as = = 4 , the same answer
would be obtained in fewer steps.
a
6
16m
3
32
4 8 8 8 2 2
32 2 32 2
32 16 2 16 2 2
Simplify the following surds. Assume that x and y are positive real numbers.
a b c d
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a Express 384 as a product of two
factors where one factor is the
largest possible perfect square.
a =
Express as the product of
two surds.
=
Simplify the square root from the
perfect square (that is, = 8).
=
b Express 405 as a product of two
factors, one of which is the largest
possible perfect square.
b =
Express as a product of two
surds.
=
Simplify .
=
Multiply together the whole numbers
outside the root (3 and 9).
=
384 3 405
1
8
--- 175 5 180x
3
y
5
1 384 64 6
2
64 6 64 6
3
64
8 6
1 3 405 3 81 5
2
81 5
3 81 5
3 81 3 9 5
4 27 5
7
WORKEDExample
2 (when

a

=

64)

m

=

4
Simplifying surds
1 Simplify the following surds.
a b c d e
f g h i j
k l m n o
p q r s t
u v w x y
THINK WRITE
c Express 175 as a product of two factors
where one factor is the largest possible
perfect square.
c =
Express as a product of 2
surds.
=
Simplify . =
Multiply together the numbers outside
the square root sign.
=
d Express each of 180, x
3
and y
5
as a
product of two factors where one factor
is the largest possible perfect square.
d =
Separate all perfect squares into one
surd and all other factors into the other
surd.
=
Simplify .
=
Multiply together numbers and the
pronumerals outside the square root
sign.
=
1
1
8
--- 175
1
8
--- 25 7
2
25 7
1
8
--- 25 7
3
25
1
8
--- 5 7
4
5
8
--- 7
1 5 180x
3
y
5
5 36 5 x
2
x y
4
y
2 5 36x
2
y
4
5xy
3
36x
2
y
4
5 6 x y
2
5xy
4 30xy
2
5xy
1. To simplify a surd means to make a number (or an expression) under the radical
as small as possible. For example, is equal to, but simpler than, .
2. To simplify a surd, write it as a product of two factors, one of which is the
largest possible perfect square.
2 5 20
remember
1D
WORKED
Example
7a
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital docs:
SkillSHEET 1.1
Simplifying surds
EXCEL Spreadsheet
Simplifying surds
12 18 24 56 27
75 125 99 54 60
112 98 68 150 180
338 88 135 162 200
245 320 448 735 405
2 3 3 2 2 6 2 14 3 3
5 3 5 5
3 11 3 6 2 15
4 7 7 2 2 17 5 6 6 5
13 2 2 22 3 15 9 2 10 2
7 5 8 5 8 7 7 15 9 5
2 Simplify the following surds.
3 Simplify the following surds. Assume that a, b, c, d, e, f, x and y are positive real numbers.
4
When expressed in its simplest form, is equal to:
A B C D E
5
A B C D E
6
A B C D E 11
7
Assuming that x and y are positive real numbers, when expressed in its
simplest form is equal to:
A B C
D E
a b c d e
f g h i j
k l m n o
p q r s t
u v w x y
a b c
d e f
g h i
j
k
l
m n o
p q r
s t
u
v w x
y z
WORKED
Example
7b, c
2 8 3 50 8 90 6 112 9 80
5 68 7 54 10 32 6 75 3 252
7 80 9 120 16 48
1
3
--- 90
1
7
--- 392
1
5
--- 625
1
9
--- 162
2
3
--- 54
1
4
--- 192
1
6
--- 288
1
9
--- 135
5
2
--- 320
3
10
------ 175
7
8
--- 176
4
3
--- 108
WORKED
Example
7d
16a
2
81a
2
b
2
72a
2
54a
2
b
2
90a
2
b 48a
3
b
338a
4
150a
4
b
2
338a
3
b
3
12a
5
b
7
68a
3
b
5
80x
6
y
125x
6
y
4
3 64x
2
y 5 80x
3
y
2
2 343x
3
y
3
6 162c
7
d
5
3 126c
4
d
5
2 405c
7
d
9
4 294c
10
d
10
1
2
--- 88ef
1
3
--- 120e
4
f
6
1
2
--- 392e
11
f
11
3
20
------ 175e
12
f
5
1
27
------ 54x
3
y
9
1
18
------ 108x
10
y
12
multiple choice
45
3 15 5 9 5 3 9 5 3 5
multiple choice
3 128
6 32 12 8 24 2 16 2 32 3
multiple choice
1
7
--- 539
49 11 7 11 77 11
multiple choice
1
15
------ 325x
4
y
3
1
3
--- xy 13x
2
y
1
15
------ x
2
y 13y
1
3
--- x
2
y 13y
3x
2
y 13y 3xy 13x
2
y
4 2 15 2 24 10
24 7
36 5
10 17 21 6 40 2
30 3
18 7
28 5
18 30
64 3 10
2 2
2
2 6
2 3 2 2
1
3
--- 15
20 5
3
2
--- 7
7
2
--- 11

8 3

5
4

a

9

ab 6a 2
3ab 6 3a 10b 4a 3ab
13a
2
2
5a
2
b 6
13ab 2ab
2a
2
b
3
3ab
2ab
2
17ab 4x
3
5y
5x
3
y
2
5 24x y 20xy 5x
14xy 7xy 54c
3
d
2
2cd 9c
2
d
2
14d
18c
3
d
4
5cd 28c
5
d
5
6
22ef
2
3
--- e
2
f
3
30 7e
5
f
5
2ef
3
4
--- e
6
f
2
7 f
1
9
--- xy
4
6xy
1
3
--- x
5
y
6
3
Addition and subtraction of surds
Surds may be added or subtracted only if they are alike.
Examples of like surds include , and . Examples of unlike surds
include , , and .
In some cases surds will need to be simplied before you decide whether they are
like or unlike, and then addition and subtraction can take place. The concept of adding
and subtracting surds is similar to adding and subtracting like terms in algebra.
7 3 7 5 7
11 5 2 13 2 3
Simplify each of the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are
positive real numbers.
a
b
c
THINK WRITE
a All 3 terms are alike, since they
contain the same surd , so
group like terms together and
simplify.
a =
=
b Simplify surds where
possible.
b
=
=
=
Add like terms to obtain the
simplied answer.
=
c Simplify surds where
possible.
c
=
=
=
Add like terms to obtain the
simplied answer.
=
3 6 17 6 2 6 +
5 3 2 12 5 2 3 8 + +
1
2
---
100a
3
b
2
ab 36a 5 4a
2
b +
6 ( )
3 6 17 6 2 6 + 3 17 2 + ( ) 6
18 6
1
5 3 2 12 5 2 3 8 + +
5 3 2 4 3 5 2 3 4 2 + +
5 3 2 2 3 5 2 3 2 2 + +
5 3 4 3 5 2 6 2 + +
2
9 3 2 +
1
1
2
--- 100a
3
b
2
ab 36a 5 4a
2
b +
1
2
--- 10 a
2
a b
2
ab 6 a 5 2 a b +
1
2
--- 10 a b a ab 6 a 5 2 a b +
5ab a 6ab a 10a b +
2
11ab a 10a b
8
WORKEDExample
Addition and subtraction
of surds
1 Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that x and y are positive
real numbers.
a b
c d
e f
Determine the perimeter of a rectangle whose length is m and width is
m.
THINK WRITE
Write down the rule for the
perimeter of a rectangle where l is
the length and w is the width.
P = 2l + 2w
Substitute the values of l and w
into the rule.
P =
Expand and simplify where
possible.
=
Simplify surds where possible. =
=
=
Collect like terms. =
State the answer, including the
appropriate unit.
P = m
17 2 50 ( )
5 32 + ( )
1
2
2(17 2 50 ) 2(5 32 + ) +
3
34 4 50 10 2 32 + +
4
34 4 25 2 10 + 2 16 2 +
34 4 5 2 10 2 4 2 + +
34 20 2 10 8 2 + +
5
44 12 2
6
(44 12 2 )
9
WORKEDExample
1. Only like surds may be added and subtracted.
Examples of like surds: , 3 and 5 .
Examples of unlike surds: , and 2 .
2. Surds may need to be simplied before adding and subtracting.
7 7 7
3 5 13
remember
1E
WORKED
Example
8a
3 5 4 5 + 6 2 11 2 +
2 3 5 3 3 + + 6 7 8 7 5 7 + +
8 5 3 3 7 5 2 3 + + + 2 6 9 2 6 2 5 6 + + +
7 5 17 2
8 3 19 7
15 2 7 6 + 15 5 5 3 +
2 Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are positive
real numbers.
3 Simplify the following expressions containing surds. Assume that a and b are positive
real numbers.
g h
i j
k l
m n
o p
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
k l
m n
o p
q r
s
t
u v
w x
a b
c d
e
f
g h
i j
k l
6 11 2 11 12 13 5 13 2 13
7 2 9 2 3 2 + 3 7 2 5 7 7 9 5 +
9 6 12 6 17 6 7 6 + 5 2 12 2 3 6 8 6 +
12 3 8 7 5 3 10 7 + xy 7 xy 3 xy +
2 x 5 y 6 x 2 y + + 3 x 4 y 7 xy 2 x 9 y + +
WORKED
Example
8b
200 300 18 50 72 +
125 150 600 + 96 5 24 12 +
27 3 75 + 8 18 50 + +
2 20 3 5 45 + 45 20 +
6 12 3 27 7 3 18 + + 44 99 121 3 11 +
150 24 96 108 + + 98 2 50 5 32 +
3 90 5 60 3 40 100 + + 2 99 44 176
5 11 7 44 9 99 2 121 + + 5 3 8 27 4 3 2 147 + +
2 30 5 120 60 6 135 + + 20 50 80 120 60 +
6 ab 12ab 2 9ab 3 27ab + +
1
5
--- 50
2
7
--- 98
3
4
--- 32 +
1
2
--- 98
1
3
--- 48
1
3
--- 12 + +
1
16
------ 512
5
8
--- 128
1
6
--- 72 +
1
8
--- 32
7
6
--- 18 3 72 +
1
8
--- 27
7
16
------ 12
5
32
------ 48 +
WORKED
Example
8c
7 a 8a 9 9a 32a + 10 a 15 27a 8 12a 14 9a + +
150ab 96ab 54ab + 16 4a
2
24a 4 8a
2
96a + +
8a
3
72a
3
98a
3
+
1
2
--- 36a
1
4
--- 128a
1
6
--- 144a +
9a
3
3a
5
+ 6 a
5
b a
3
b 5 a
5
b +
ab ab 3ab a
2
b 9a
3
b
3
+ + a
3
b 5 ab 2 ab 5 a
3
b + +
32a
3
b
2
5ab 8a 48a
5
b
6
+ 4a
2
b 5 a
2
b 3 9a
2
b +
4 11 5 13
13 2 10 7 11 5
3 6 7 2 5 6 +
17 3 18 7 5 xy
x 5 y 7 xy +
10 2 3 ( ) 2 2
5 5 6 + ( ) 6 6 2 3 +
7 3 10 2
4 5
5 5
14 3 3 2 + 11 4 11
3 6 6 3 + 17 2

0

+

10

10 15 10 15
8 11 22 + 39 3
12 30 16 15
2 5 5 2 2 30 2 15 +
12 ab 7 3ab +
7
2
--- 2 2 3 +
0
3 2
15 2
5
8
--- 3
34 a 6 2a
52 a 29 3a
6 6ab
32a 2 6a 8a 2 + +
a 2a
a 2 2a +
3a a a
2
3a +
a
2
a + ( ) ab
4ab ab 3a
2
b b + 3 ab 2a 1 + ( )
6ab 2a 4a
2
b
3
3a + 2a b
8 x 3 y +
4
When expressed in its simplest surd form, is equal to:
5
6
A B C 5a D E
7
8
9 Find the perimeter of the following shapes, giving answers in the simplest surd form.
Specify the units.
Multiplication of surds
To multiply surds, multiply together the expressions under the radicals. For example,
, where a and b are positive real numbers.
When multiplying surds it is best to rst simplify them (if possible). Once this has
been done and a mixed surd has been obtained, the coefcients are multiplied with each
other and then the surds are multiplied together. For example,
A B 5 C 1 D E none of these
A B C
D E
A B C
D E
A B C D E
a b c
d
e
f
multiple choice
112 63
5 7 7
multiple choice
2 40a 6 72ab
2
32b 12a 32b 8a 4 10a 12b 18a

4b 32a 4 10a 36b 2a
multiple choice
7
10
------ 100a
2
2
5
--- 25a
2
1
6
--- 72b
2
+
5a b 2 + 5 2b + 9a 2b + 9a a 2 b +
multiple choice
243a
3
b
6
27a
6ab
3
3a 3ab
3
3a 6ab
3
3ab
3
3 3a 3ab
3
1 ( )
multiple choice
150c
2
d
2
cd 96 c 54d
2
6cd 6 2cd 6 4cd 6 2cd 6cd 6

eBookplus eBookplus
Digital docs:
SkillSHEET 1.2
Substitution using
surds 1
WorkSHEET 1.1
WORKED
Example
9
18 cm
24 + 3 cm
27 + 54 cm
6 cm
48 cm
7 3 cm
5 + 2 cm
45 m
5 + 2 2 m
5 2 5 m
2 44 m
3 44 99 m
4 44 + 2 99 m
a b ab =
m a n b mn ab =
a cm
b cm
c cm
d m
e m
f m
12 2
6 6 8 3 + ( )
18 2 3 2 5 + ( )
3 5
18 2 2 5 + ( )
21 11
9
Multiply the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that x and
y are positive real numbers.
a b c
d e f
THINK WRITE
a Multiply surds together, using
(that is, multiply
expressions under the roots).
Note: This expression cannot be simplied
any further.
a =
=
b Multiply the coefcients and then multiply
the surds.
b =
=
=
c Multiply the surds. c =
=
Simplify the product surd if possible. =
=
d Simplify . d =
=
=
Multiply the coefcients and multiply
the surds.
=
Simplify the product surd. =
=
=
e Multiply the coefcients and multiply
the surds.
e =
=
Simplify the product surd. =
=
Simplify by dividing both 10 and 20 by
10 (cross-cancel).
= or
11 7 5 3 8 5 5 10
6 12 2 6
3
5
---
70
1
4
---
10 15x
5
y
2
12x
2
y
a b ab =
11 7 11 7
77
5 3 8 5 5 8 3 5
40 3 5
40 15
1 5 10 5 10
50
2 25 2
5 2
1
12 6 12 2 6 6 4 3 2 6
6 2 3 2 6
12 3 2 6
2 24 18
3 24 9 2
24 3 2
72 2
1
3
5
--- 70
1
4
--- 10
3
5
---
1
4
--- 70 10
3
20
------ 700
2
3
20
------ 100 7
3
20
------ 10 7
3
3
2
--- 7
3 7
2
----------
10
WORKEDExample
When working with surds, we sometimes need to multiply surds by themselves; that is,
square them. Consider the following examples:
= 2 = 5
We observe that squaring a surd produces the number under the radical. This is not
surprising, since squaring and taking the square root are inverse operations and, when
applied together, leave the original unchanged.
When a surd is squared, the result is the number (or expression) under the
radical; that is, , where a is a positive real number.
THINK WRITE
f Simplify each of the surds.
f
=
= x
2
y 2 x
= x
2
y 2x
Multiply the coefcients and multiply
the surds.
= x
2
y 2x
= 2x
3
y
Simplify the product surd. = 2x
3
y
= 2x
3
y 3
= 6x
3
y
1 15x
5
y
2
12x
2
y
15 x
4
x y
2
4 3 x
2
y
15 x 3 y
15x 3y
2 15x 3y
45xy
3 9 5xy
5xy
5xy
(
2
)
2
2 2 = (
5
)
2
5 5 =
= 4 = 25
( a)
2
a =
Evaluate the area of a square of length m, expressing the answer in the
simplest form.
THINK WRITE
Write the rule for the area of a square.
A = l
2
Substitute the value for l into the rule. A =
Simplify, using . =
= 28xy
= 7xy
Write the answer, including an
appropriate unit.
A = 7xy m
2
(
1
2
---
28xy
)
1
2 (
1
2
---
28xy
)
2
3
(
a
)
2
a = (
1
2
---
)
2
(
28xy
)
2
1
4
---
4
11
WORKEDExample
Multiplication of surds
1 Multiply the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form.
2 Simplify the following expressions with surds. Assume that a, b, x and y are positive
real numbers.
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m n o
p q r
s t
u
v w x
y z
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
1. When multiplying surds, simplify the surd if possible, then apply the following
rules:
(a)
(b) , where a and b are positive real numbers.
2. When a surd is squared, the result is a number (or an expression) under the
radical: , where a is a positive real number.
a b ab =
m a n b mn ab =
( a)
2
a =
remember
1F
WORKED
Example
10ae
2 7 5 11 6 7
2 12 8 6 12 6
10 10 5 75 21 3
2 8 5 27 3 3 45 60
5 3 2 11 6 2 4 48 10 15 6 3
9 2 7 2 4 20 3 5 6 18 2 8
10 6 3 8 9 20 4 15
1
4
--- 48 2 2
1
2
--- 72
1
3
--- 3
1
9
--- 48 2 3
2
3
--- 4
1
5
--- 125
1
10
------ 60
1
5
--- 40
3
4
--- 30
2
5
--- 10
WORKED
Example
10f
xy x
3
y
2
x
3
y
4
x
2
y
2
3a
4
b
2
6a
5
b
3
5a
2
b
3
10ac
5
12a
7
b 6a
3
b
4
18a
4
b
3
2a
2
b
5
15x
3
y
2
6x
2
y
3
3 10x
7
y 5x
5
y
3
1
2
--- 15a
3
b
3
3 3a
2
b
6
1
3
--- 12a
4
b
2
1
4
--- 6a
3
b
3
126
14 55 42
6 2
3 7
30 3
180 5
144
2 6
4
3
--- 5
3 3
2
2
3
---
360 3
2 6
10
4 10
10 33
120 3
6
2
5
--- 6
4 3
5 15
27
96 6
120
x
2
y y
3a
4
b
2
2ab
6a
5
b
2
2b
3x
2
y
2
10xy
9
2
--- a
2
b
4
5ab
x
2
y
3
x
5abc
2
2abc
6a
3
b
4
15x
6
y
2
2
1
2
--- a
3
b
2
2ab
3 Find the area of the following shapes. Answers must be expressed in the simplest surd
form and the appropriate units specied.
4
The product of expressed in its simplest form is:
5
6
7
The area of the triangle expressed in its simplest form is:
8 The height of a square-based pyramid is units and the length of the side of its
base is units. Find the volume of the pyramid, expressing the answer in the
simplest surd form. (Volume = area of base height)
a b c
d e f
A B 90 C D E
A B C D E
A B C D E
A m
2
B m
2
C m
2
D m
2
E m
2
WORKED
Example
11
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SkillSHEET 1.3
Substitution using
surds 2
7 2 cm
5 3 cm
2 4 m
5 11 m
3 3 m
2 8 m
6 5 m
8 8 m
3 6 m
3 6 m
2 10 m
5 10 m
multiple choice
3 30 5 6
15 36 15 180 45 20 90 5
multiple choice
8x
5
y
2
5x
6
y
3
2x
2
y
5
10xy 40x
11
y
5
2x
5
y
2
10xy 13x
11
y
5
x
5
y
2
13xy
multiple choice
3
8
--- x
7
y
2
1
2
--- x
4
y
3
3
16
------ x
5
y
7
3
16
------ x
7
y
5
3
64
------ x
3
y
2
xy
3
16
------ x
5
y
2
xy
3
16
------ x
2
y
3
xy
multiple choice
5 3 m
4 6 m
30 2 60 2 24 12 48 3 20 18
20 8
12 8
1
3
--- 15 360 2

a

98 cm

2

b

75

cm

2

c

m

2

d

m

2

e

m

2

f

m

2
20 11
6 6
45 96 10 + ( )
72 15

3
The Distributive Law
The Distributive Law states that a(b + c) = ab + ac.
When multiplication of surds involving brackets is required, the Distributive Law is
applied as in the case with algebraic terms. That is:
If there is a negative number outside the bracket, then every term inside the bracket
will undergo a sign change since it has been multiplied by the negative number.
When expanding two binomial brackets the FOIL method is applied; that is, 4 pairs of
terms must be multiplied in the order First, Outer, Inner and Last.
a ( b c) + ab ac + =
Expand and simplify the following where possible.
a b c
THINK WRITE
a Write the expression.
a
Apply the Distributive Law:
Multiply the term outside the bracket
with the rst term inside the bracket,
then multiply the term outside the
bracket with the second term inside
the bracket.
=
Simplify. =
b Write the expression.
b
Simplify . =
Apply the Distributive Law to
remove the brackets.
=
Simplify.
=
c Write the expression.
c
(a) Expand the brackets, using the
Distributive Law.
(b) Be sure to multiply through with
the negative.
=
=
Simplify. =
=
5 ( 6 11) + 7 ( 18 3) 2 3 ( 10 5 3)
1 5 ( 6 11) +
2
5 6 5 + 11
3
30 11 5 +
1 7 ( 18 3)
2
18 7 (3 2 3)
3
7 3 2 7 3 +
4
3 14 3 7
1
2 3 ( 10 5 3)
2
2 3 10 2 3 5 3
2 30 10 9 +
3
2 30 10 3 +
2 30 30 +
12
WORKEDExample
Recall the perfect square identities:
(a + b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
(a b)
2
= a
2
2ab + b
2
The perfect square identities can be applied to surds as follows:
Note that the expansion of in the previous example could also be done by
writing it as a product of two repeated factors, , and applying
FOIL. Naturally, the result would be the same, but the solution would take longer.
Expand . Write your answer in its simplest form.
THINK WRITE
Write the expression.
Apply FOIL.
Multiply the rst terms of each bracket.
Multiply the outer terms of each bracket.
Multiply the inner terms of each bracket.
Multiply the last terms of each bracket.
=
+
Simplify. =
=
=
( 5 3 6 + )(2 3 2)
1
F
L
O
I
( ) ( ) 5 + 3 6 2 3 2
2
5 2 3 5 2 3 6 2 3 + +
3 6 2
3 2 15 10 6 18 3 12 +
2 15 10 6 3 2 3 2 3 +
2 15 10 18 2 6 3 +
13
WORKEDExample
( a b)
2
+ ( a)
2
2 a b ( b)
2
+ + =
a 2 ab b + + =
( a b)
2
( a)
2
2 a b ( b)
2
+ =
a 2 ab b + =
Expand . Write your answer in its simplest form.
THINK WRITE
Apply the perfect square identity. =
Simplify. =
=
( 19 6)
2
1 ( 19 6)
2
2
( 19)
2
2 19 6 ( 6)
2
+
3 19 2 114 6 +
25 2 114
14
WORKEDExample
( 19 6 )
2
( 19 6 )( 19 6 )
Recall the difference of two squares (DOTS) identity:
(a b)(a + b) = a
2
b
2
The DOTS identity can be applied to surds as follows:
=
= a - b
In the above example the binomial factors which were multiplied together are a conju-
gate pair (that is, one bracket contains a sum and the other a difference of the same
terms). Although the terms of the factors are irrational, the answer is not a surd, but an
expression with rational terms.
The product of a conjugate pair of surds (irrational numbers) yields a rational
number.
Note that to nd the product of a conjugate pair (as in Worked example 15), FOIL
could be used as an alternative to the DOTS identity. The latter, however, leads to the
answer much more quickly.
( a b )( a b) + ( a)
2
( b)
2
Expand .
THINK WRITE
Use DOTS identity for expansion. =
Simplify. =
=
( 5 y 3 2x )( 5 y 3 2x + )
1
( 5y 3 2x )( 5y 3 2x + )
2
( 5y)
2
(3 2x)
2
3
5y 9 2x
5y 18x
15
WORKEDExample
1. When expanding brackets, the Distributive Law is applied:
2. When expanding binomial brackets, FOIL is applied:
3. Perfect square identities:
=
= a + 2 + b
=
=
4. DOTS identity:
=
= a b
5. The product of a conjugate pair of surds is rational.
a( b c + ) ab ac + =
( a b + )( c d + ) ac ad bc bd + + + =
( a b + )
2
( a)
2
2 a b ( b)
2
+ +
ab
( a b )
2
( a)
2
2 a b ( b)
2
+
a 2 ab b +
( a b )( a b + ) ( a)
2
( b)
2
remember
The Distributive Law
1 Expand and simplify the following, where possible.
2 Expand and simplify where possible.
3 Expand and simplify where possible.
4 Expand and simplify the following where possible.
a b c
d e f
g h i
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
a b c
d e f
g h i
j
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
k l
m n
o p
q r
s t
u v
w x
y z
1G
WORKED
Example
12
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Digital doc:
SkillSHEET 1.4
Algebraic
expansion
3( 7 6 + ) 5( 18 7 ) 5(2 2 )
2( 3 5 + ) 7(3 72 12 ) 6(5 14 4 )
2 2(6 18 7 15 + ) 5 12(3 5 4 8 ) 2 3(4 6 2 3 )
WORKED
Example
13
( 18 5) ( 5 3 + ) ( 7 5 + )(2 5 3 7 )
(4 8 2 6 + )( 8 3 6 ) (3 6 2 5 )(4 2 3 20 )
(7 8 6 3 + )(4 2 5 6 ) ( 11 2 3 )(2 5 8 )
(2 7 3 2 (5 5 7 2 + ) (5 18 3 3 )(2 18 6 )
(5 x 2 y + )(3 x 4 y + ) ( 8x 10y )( 2x 10y + )
WORKED
Example
14 ( 2 5 + )
2
( 6 10 + )
2
( 3 15 + )
2
( 3 5 2 + )
2
( 8 3 3 + )
2
(2 2 3 5 + )
2
(3 6 5 2 + )
2
( 5 3 )
2
( 7 3 )
2
(2 8 5 )
2
WORKED
Example
15
( 3 7 + )( 3 7 ) ( 19 1 + )( 19 1 )
(2 5 3 + )(2 5 3 ) (3 11 7 + )(3 11 7 )
( 8 2 + )( 8 2 ) ( 10 12 + )( 10 12 )
( 13 3 )( 13 3 + ) ( 7 12 )( 7 12 + )
(2 3 5 )(2 3 5 + ) (3 7 12 + )(3 7 12 )
(2 10 14 + )(2 10 14 ) ( 18 19 )( 18 19 + )
( 13 6 )( 13 6 + ) (3 5 2 7 + )(3 5 2 7 )
(6 3 3 5 )(6 3 3 5 + ) (5 2 6 )(5 2 6 + )
(7 2 3 5 )(7 2 3 5 + ) (11 3 2 5 + )(11 3 2 5 )
(6 3 2 8 + )(6 3 2 8 ) (7 2 3 9 )(7 2 3 9 + )
( x y )( x y + ) ( 2x 3y )( 2x 3y + )
(3 x 4 y )(3 x 4 y + ) (2x x 5 y + )(2x x 5 y )
(7x y 3y x )(7x y 3y x + ) (9 x
2
y 5 xy
2
)(9 x
2
y 5 xy
2
+ )
21 6 3 +
3 10 7 5
24 2 12 +
3 10 9 2 5 5 15 +
24 3 18 30 8 10 60 +
2 55 2 22 4 15 4 6 +
126 2 14 3
10 21 4 6
2 5 10
180 30 3 18 6 9 2 +
35 11
112 140 3 24 6 90 2 + 10 35 14 14 15 10 42 +
72 14 30 +
6 10 +
4 40 3
30 15 80 6 +
15x 26 xy 8y + + 4x 2 5xy 10y +
27 10 2 + 16 4 15 +
53 10 6 +
18 6 5 +
35 12 6 + 53 12 10 +
104 60 3 + 14 6 5 10 2 21
37 8 10

46 18
11
50
6

2
10

5
7 51
26

1
7 17
63 44
53 343
76 17

x

y

2

x

3

y

9

x

16

y

4

x

3

25

y
xy

(49

x

9

y

)

xy

(81

x

25

y

)
5
6
A
B
C
D
E
7
8
A
B
C
D
E
9 Given that , nd:
a
b
Division of surds
To divide surds, divide the expressions under the radicals;
that is, , where a and b are positive real numbers.
When dividing surds it is best to simplify them (if possible) rst. Once this has been
done, the coefcients are divided next and then the surds are divided.
A B C
D E
A B 245 C
D 269 E
multiple choice
15( 5 3 )
5 3 3 5 5 5 3 3 75 45
30 2 2
multiple choice
(5 8 2 7 + )(6 5 3 3 )
30 40 15 24 12 35 6 21 +
60 10 15 24 12 35 6 21 +
60 10 30 6 12 35 6 21 +
30 40 30 6 12 35 6 21 +
60 10 30 6 12 21 +
multiple choice
(7 5 2 3 )
2
49 25 4 9 257 28 15 +
257 28 15
multiple choice
(15 x
2
y 4 xy + )(15 x
2
y 4 xy )
225x
2
y 120 xy 16xy +
15x
2
y 4xy
225 x
4
y
2
16 x
2
y
2
225x
2
y 16xy
225x
2
y 120xy x 16xy +
x 3 5 2 3 =
x
2
x
2
3x 2 + +
a
b
-------
a
b
--- =
59 12 15 9 5 6 3 +
57 12 15
Divide the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that x and y
are positive real numbers.
a b c d
THINK WRITE
a Rewrite the fraction, using . a =
Divide numerator by the denominator
(that is, 55 by 5).
=
Check if the surd can be simplied any
further.
b Rewrite the fraction, using . b =
Divide 48 by 3. =
Evaluate . = 4
c Rewrite the surds, using . c =
Simplify the fraction under the radical
by dividing both numerator and
denominator by 11.
=
Simplify the surds. =
Multiply the whole numbers in the
numerator together and those in the
denominator together.
=
Cancel the common factor of 18. =
d Simplify each surd. d =
=
Cancel any common factors in this
case .
=
55
5
----------
48
3
----------
9 88
6 99
-------------
36xy
25x
9
y
11
------------------------
1
a
b
-------
a
b
--- =
55
5
----------
55
5
------
2
11
3
1
a
b
-------
a
b
--- =
48
3
----------
48
3
------
2
16
3
16
1
a
b
-------
a
b
--- =
9 88
6 99
-------------
9
6
---
88
99
------
2
9
6
---
8
9
---
3
9 2 2
6 3
-------------------
4
18 2
18
-------------
5
2
1
36xy
25x
9
y
11
-----------------------
6 xy
5 x
8
x y
10
y
--------------------------------------------
6 xy
5x
4
y
5
xy
------------------------
2
xy
6
5x
4
y
5
--------------
16
WORKEDExample
Division of surds
1 Simplify the following surds, expressing answers in the simplest form. Assume that x
and y are positive real numbers.
a b c d
e f g h
i j k l
Find the perpendicular height of a triangle, given that its area is cm
2
and its base
length is cm. The answer must be expressed in the simplest surd form and the
appropriate unit specied.
THINK WRITE
Write the rule for the area of a triangle. A = bh
Substitute the values for A and b into
the rule.
Cancel the 2 and the 6.
Transpose the equation to make h the
subject.
Divide numerator and denominator by
(cancel down).
Simplify and write the answer, using
the appropriate unit.
cm
27 15
6 3
1
1
2
---
2
27 15
1
2
--- 6 3 h =
3
27 15 3 3 h =
4
h
27 15
3 3
---------------- =
5
3
9 5 3
3
------------------------ =
6
h 9 5 =
17
WORKEDExample
When dividing surds, simplify the surd if possible, then apply the following rule:
= =
where a and b are positive real numbers.
a b
a
b
-------
a
b
---
remember
1H
WORKED
Example
16
15
3
----------
14
2
----------
8
2
-------
72
6
----------
60
10
----------
90
6
----------
128
8
-------------
45
125
-------------
18
4 6
----------
2 24
3 3
-------------
65
2 13
-------------
5 72
12
-------------
5 7

2 2 3
3
5
---

4 15
6
3
4
-------
4 2
3
----------
5
2
------- 5 6
2 Simplify the following. Assume that all pronumerals are positive real numbers.
3
Expressed in its simplest form, is:
4
5
6
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
a b c
d e f
A B C
D
E
A B C D E
A B C D E
A
B
C
D
E
96
8
----------
2 63
5 7
-------------
7 44
14 11
----------------
336
14
-------------
9 63
15 7
-------------
540
20
-------------
2040
30
----------------
12 99
15 11
----------------
x
4
y
3
x
2
y
5
---------------
x
6
y
11
x
12
y
15
-------------------
16xy
8x
7
y
9
------------------
72x
4
y
3
2xy
2
---------------------
xy
x
5
y
7
---------------
12x
8
y
12
x
2
y
3
-----------------------
6x
2
y
3
27x
4
y
4
---------------------
3x
7
y
2
3xy
3
------------------
2 2a
2
b
4
5a
3
b
6
----------------------
10a
9
b
3
3 a
7
b
---------------------
3ab
5
2a
6
b
2
------------------
6a
7
b
3
2a
5
b
--------------
2mn
3
6m
5
n
2
--------------------
3m
4
n
6
8mn
3
--------------------
5 3m
3
n
2 6m
3
n
2
-----------------------
2m
5
n
8
6 mn
5
--------------------
multiple choice
75
5
----------
70 15 13
5 3
5
----------
17
multiple choice
9 18
21 3
-------------
9 6
21
----------
54
7
----------
9 2
7 3
----------
9 6
7
----------
3 6
7
----------
multiple choice
10x
5
y
8
20x
3
y
2
---------------------
xy
3
2
2
----------------
xy
3
10
20
-------------------
x
3
y 2
2
----------------
x
2
y
4
10
xy 20x
---------------------
x
2
y
6
2
---------------
multiple choice
2x
4
y
9xy
----------------
6x
7
y
3
4x
3
y
5
------------------
y
3
y
x 3
------------
x
12
x
y 3
--------------
x
3
3x
3y
----------------
x
7
y 3
----------
2x
3
3x
6y
-------------------
2 3

1
1
5
---

1 2 6

1
4
5
---
3 3
2 17

2
2
5
---
x
y
--
1
x
3
y
2
----------
2
x
3
y
4
---------- 6x xy
2xy 3y
4 a
3
----------
2x
2
3y
------------
3b
2
2b
2a a
-------------------
15
2m
2
n
2
---------------
2 2
3m
3
n m
----------------------
7 Find the length of the unknown side in each of the following. Answers must be
expressed in the simplest surd form and the appropriate units specied.
8 Velocity v of the object can be found using the formula , where E is the kinetic
energy of the object and m is the mass of the object. Express v as the simplest surd, if:
a E = 80 J, m = 2 kg
b E = 250 J, m = 60 kg
c E = 480 J, m = 120 kg
9 A rectangular sh tank has a base cm by cm and the height h. When of
the tank is lled, the volume of water is 84 L. Find:
a the height of the tank (give the answer as the simplest surd)
b the full capacity of the tank in litres.
(Remember that 1 cubic centimetre holds 1 mL of water.)
Rationalising denominators
If the denominator of a fraction is a surd, it can be changed into a rational number.
In other words, it can be rationalised.
As we discussed earlier in this chapter, squaring a surd (that is, multiplying it by
itself) results in a rational number. This fact can be used to rationalise denominators as
follows.
, (where = 1)
If both numerator and denominator of a fraction are multiplied by the surd contained
in the denominator, the denominator becomes a rational number. The fraction takes on
a different appearance, but its numerical value is unchanged, because multiplying the
numerator and denominator by the same number is equivalent to multiplying by 1.
a b c
d e
f
WORKED
Example
17
7 3 m
A = 28 39 m
2
w
A = 12 30 cm
2
b
3 5 cm
h
6 5 m
A = 21 55 m
2
h
5 2 m
3 6 m
V = 90 21 m
3
h
3 7 cm
V = 315 13 cm
3
h
Area of base = 24 15 cm
2
V = 60 75 cm
3
v
2E
m
------- =
20 3 30 6
2
3
---
a
b
-------
b
b
-------
ab
b
----------
=
b
b
-------
4 5
2 2
5
3
-------

cm 35 2

126 L

a

m

b

cm

c

m

d

m

e

cm

f

cm
4 13
4 6
7 11
3 7
5 13
15
2
------ 5

7
Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
a b c
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a Write the fraction. a
Multiply both the numerator and denominator by
the surd contained in the denominator (in this
case ). This has the same effect as multiplying
the fraction by 1, since .
=
=
b Write the fraction. b
Simplify the surds. (This avoids dealing with large
numbers.)
=
=
=
Multiply both the numerator and denominator by .
=
(This has the same effect as multiplying the fraction by
1 since .)
Note: We need to multiply only by the surd part of the
denominator (that is, by , rather than by ).
=
Simplify . =
=
=
Divide numerator and denominator by 6
(cancel down).
=
6
13
----------
2 12
3 54
-------------
17 3 14
7
-----------------------------
1
6
13
----------
2
13
13
13
---------- 1 =
6
13
----------
13
13
----------
78
13
----------
1
2 12
3 54
-------------
2
2 12
3 54
-------------
2 4 3
3 9 6
-------------------
2 2 3
3 3 6
-------------------
4 3
9 6
----------
3
6
4 3
9 6
----------
6
6
-------
6
6
------- 1 =
6 9 6
4 18
9 6
-------------
4
18
4 9 2
9 6
-------------------
4 3 2
54
-------------------
12 2
54
-------------
5
2 2
9
----------
18
WORKEDExample
1 Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
a b c d
e
f g h i j
k l m n o
THINK WRITE
c Write the fraction. c
Multiply both the numerator and denominator by .
Use brackets so you realise the whole numerator must
be multiplied by .
=
Apply the Distributive Law in the numerator.
a(b + c) = ab + ac
=
=
Simplify . =
=
=
1
17 3 14
7
-----------------------------
2
7
7
(
17 3 14
)
7
------------------------------------
7
7
-------
3
17 7 3 14 7
7 7
----------------------------------------------------------
119 3 98
49
--------------------------------
4
98
119 3 49 2
7
------------------------------------------
119 3 7 2
7
---------------------------------------
119 21 2
7
--------------------------------
To rationalise the surd denominator, multiply the numerator and denominator by
the surd contained in the denominator. This has the effect of multiplying the
fraction by 1 and thus the numerical value of the fraction remains unchanged,
while the denominator becomes rational:
a
b
-------
a
b
-------
b
b
-------
ab
b
---------- = =
remember
1I
WORKED
Example
18a, b
5
2
-------
7
3
-------
4
11
----------
8
6
-------
12
7
----------
15
6
----------
2 3
5
----------
3 7
5
----------
5 2
2 3
----------
4 3
3 5
----------
5 14
7 8
-------------
16 3
6 5
-------------
8 3
7 7
----------
8 60
28
-------------
2 35
3 14
-------------
5 2
2
----------
7 3
3
----------
5 6
6
----------
8 21
49
-------------
2 21
7
-------------
10
2
----------
4 11
11
-------------
8 105
7
----------------
2 15
5
-------------
4 6
3
----------
10
3
----------
3 35
5
-------------
4 15
15
-------------
5 7
14
----------
8 15
15
-------------
2 Express the following in their simplest form with a rational denominator.
3
4
5
A B C
D E none of these
6
7 Solve for x, giving the answers as the simplest surds with rational denominators:
a x
2
= b 3x
2
= 5 c 6x
2
4 = 12
a b c d
e f g h
i j k
A
B
C 48
D
E
A
B C D
E
A
B
C
D E
WORKED
Example
18c
6 12 +
3
-----------------------
15 22
6
--------------------------
6 2 15
10
--------------------------
2 18 3 2 +
5
------------------------------
3 5 6 7 +
8
---------------------------
4 2 3 8 +
2 3
---------------------------
3 11 4 5
18
------------------------------
2 7 2 5
12
---------------------------
7 12 5 6
6 3
------------------------------
6 2 5
4 8
-----------------------
6 3 5 5
7 20
---------------------------
multiple choice
12
3
-------
4 3
3
----------
4 3
12 3
3
-------------
6 3
multiple choice
8 5
9 12
-------------
40
108
---------
16 15
108
----------------
4 5
9
----------
4 15
27
-------------
320
972
---------
multiple choice
7 5 6 7
12
---------------------------
6
6
------- 7 15 21
7 15 6 21
6
---------------------------------
7 60 6 84
12
---------------------------------
multiple choice
5 5 3 3
8 8
---------------------------
5 10 3 6
32
------------------------------
10 10 6 6
80 10 48 6
64
------------------------------------
40 40 24 24
64
---------------------------------------
10 10 6 6
8
---------------------------------
3
7
---
3 10 2 33
6
---------------------------------
12 5 5 6
10
------------------------------
9 10
5
-------------
3 10 6 14 +
4
---------------------------------
5 6
3
----------
3 22 4 10
6
---------------------------------
21 15
3
--------------------------
14 5 2
6
----------------------
12 10
16
----------------------
6 15 25
70
-------------------------
21
7
----------
15
3
----------
2 6
3
----------
2 2 +
Rationalising denominators using
conjugate surds
As shown earlier in the chapter, the product of pairs of conjugate surds results in a
rational number. (Examples of pairs of conjugate surds include and ,
and , and .)
This fact is used to rationalise denominators containing a sum or a difference of surds.
To rationalise the denominator which contains a sum or a difference of surds, we
multiply both numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
Two examples are given below:
1. To rationalise the denominator of the fraction , multiply it by .
A quick way to simplify the denominator is to use the DOTS identity:
=
= a b
6 11 + 6 11
a b + a b 2 5 7 2 5 7 +
1
a b +
--------------------
a b
a b
--------------------
1
a b
--------------------
a b +
a b +
--------------------
( a b )( a b + ) ( a)
2
( b)
2
Rationalise the denominator and simplify the following.

a b
THINK WRITE
a Write the fraction. a
Multiply the numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the denominator.
(Note that .)
=
Apply the Distributive Law in the numerator
and the DOTS identity in the denominator.
=
Simplify. =
=
1
4 3
----------------
6 3 2 +
3 3 +
------------------------
1
1
4 3
----------------
2
4 3 +
4 3 +
----------------

1 =
1
4 3 ( )
---------------------
4 3 + ( )
4 3 + ( )
---------------------
3
4 3 +
4 ( )
2
3 ( )
2
------------------------------
4
4 3 +
16 3
----------------
4 3 +
13
----------------
19
WORKEDExample
You might wish to use a calculator to check if the nal answer is correct. To do that,
evaluate the original fraction and the nal one (the one with the rational denominator)
and check whether they both equal the same number.
THINK WRITE
b Write the fraction. b
Multiply the numerator and
denominator by the conjugate of
the denominator.
(Note that .)
=
Apply FOIL in the numerator and
DOTS in the denominator.
=
Simplify.
=
=
=
=
=
=
1
6 3 2 +
3 3 +
------------------------
2
3 3
3 3
----------------

1 =
6 3 2 + ( )
3 3 + ( )
-----------------------------
3 3 ( )
3 3 ( )
---------------------
3
6 3 6 + 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 + +
3 ( )
2
3 ( )
2
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4
3 6 18 9 2 3 6 +
9 3
------------------------------------------------------------
18 9 2 +
6
-------------------------------
9 2 9 2 +
6
-------------------------------------
3 2 9 2 +
6
-------------------------------
6 2
6
----------
2
Rationalise the denominators and simplify the following.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
We will rationalise the denominator of
each term and then add them.
Write the rst fraction.
Multiply the numerator and denominator by
the conjugate of the denominator.
=
1
2 6 3
-----------------------
1
3 6 2 3 +
--------------------------- +
1
1
2 6 3
-----------------------
2
1
2 6 3 ( )
----------------------------
2 6 3 + ( )
2 6 3 + ( )
-----------------------------
20
WORKEDExample
The following worked example demonstrates the rationalisation of the denominator
when it is a trinomial (has three terms).
THINK WRITE
Apply the Distributive Law in the numerator
and DOTS in the denominator. (Note that
when squaring , we need to square both 2
and .)
=
Simplify the denominator.
=
Write the second fraction.
by the conjugate of the denominator.
=
Apply the Distributive Law in the
numerator and DOTS in the denominator.
=
Simplify the denominator.
=
Add the two fractions together.
Bring them to the lowest common
denominator rst.
=
=
Add the numerators.
=
Simplify where appropriate.
=
3
2 6
6
2 6 3 +
2 ( )
2
6 3
----------------------------
4
2 6 3 +
21
------------------------
5
1
3 6 2 3 +
---------------------------
6
1
3 6 2 3 + ( )
--------------------------------
3 6 2 3 ( )
3 6 2 3 ( )
-------------------------------
7
3 6 2 3
3
2
6 2
2
3
-----------------------------------
8
3 6 2 3
42
---------------------------
9
2 6 3 +
21
------------------------
3 6 2 3
42
--------------------------- +
2 6 3 +
21
------------------------
2
2
---

3 6 2 3
42
--------------------------- +
4 6 2 3 +
42
---------------------------
3 6 2 3
42
--------------------------- +
10
7 6
42
----------
11
6
6
-------
Simplify .
THINK WRITE
Use a set of brackets to group the
trinomial into a binomial.
1
2 2 3 +
-----------------------------
1
1
2 2 + ( ) 3
----------------------------------
21
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
by the conjugate of the denominator; that
is, (2 + ) + . Use brackets around
both factors so that you will recognise
that all terms need to be multiplied.
=
Use FOIL to expand the denominator. =
Expand the squared terms of the
denominator.
=
Group and simplify the denominator. =
Rationalise the denominator as shown
previously. Use brackets as in step 2.
=
Expand the numerator, making sure that
every term in the rst set of brackets is
multiplied by every term in the second set.
=
Group like terms and simplify. =
=
Multiply numerator and denominator
by 1 to eliminate the negative
denominator.
=
2
2 3
1
2 2 + ( ) 3
----------------------------------
2 2 + ( ) 3 + [ ]
2 2 + ( ) 3 +
---------------------------------------
3
2 2 + ( ) 3 +
2 2 + ( )
2
3
-----------------------------------
4
2 2 + ( ) 3 +
4 4 2 2 3 + +
--------------------------------------
5
2 2 3 + +
3 4 2 +
------------------------------
6
2 2 3 + + ( )
3 4 2 + ( )
-----------------------------------
3 4 2 ( )
3 4 2 ( )
------------------------
7
6 8 2 3 2 4 4 3 3 4 6 + +
9 16 2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8
6 8 8 2 3 2 3 3 4 6 + +
9 32
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 5 2 3 3 4 6 +
23
--------------------------------------------------------
9
2 5 2 3 3 4 6 + +
23
-----------------------------------------------------
1. To rationalise the denominator containing a sum or a difference of surds,
multiply both the numerator and denominator of the fraction by the conjugate
of the denominator. This eliminates the middle terms and leaves a rational
number.
2. To simplify the denominator quickly, use the DOTS identity:
( a b )( a b) + ( a)
2
( b)
2
a b = =
1
a b +
--------------------
a b
a b
--------------------
1
a b
--------------------
a b +
a b +
--------------------
remember
using conjugate surds
1 Rationalise the denominator and simplify.
a b c d
e f g h
i j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y z
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
1J
WORKED
Example
19
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital docs:
SkillSHEET 1.5
Conjugate pairs
SkillSHEET 1.6
Applying DOTS to
expressions
with surds
1
5 2 +
----------------
1
3 6
----------------
1
8 5
--------------------
1
2 6 7
-----------------------
4
2 11 13
-----------------------------
7
2 12 2 5 +
------------------------------
5 3
3 5 4 2 +
---------------------------
9 3
2 33 12
-----------------------------
2 5
5 7 20
--------------------------
8 3
8 3 +
----------------
12 7
12 7 +
-----------------------
11 7 +
22 14
--------------------------
5 3
4 10 3 18 +
---------------------------------
2 8 3 2
3 24 2 6
------------------------------
3 6 2 12 +
4 18 3 8 +
------------------------------
5 2 3 3 +
2 6 3 12
------------------------------
4 5 10 +
6 15 20 +
------------------------------
4 15 2 3
2 30 5 2
------------------------------
2 7 5 3 +
5 7 3 3
---------------------------
2 11 3 3
2 11 3 3 +
------------------------------
4 12 3 8
3 6 5 2
------------------------------
3 8 6 3 +
7 2 3
---------------------------
3 11 2 7
3 14 4 11 +
---------------------------------
4 15 2 5 +
3 5 15
------------------------------
3 7 5 2
35 2 2 +
---------------------------
3 6 15
6 2 3 +
--------------------------
WORKED
Example
20
1
8 2
----------------
1
2 8 2
------------------- +
1
2 7 2 3 +
---------------------------
1
3 7 3 +
------------------------
3 7
3 5 3
-----------------------
4 8
5 3 3 +
------------------------
2 3
6 2 3
-----------------------
4 6 3 +
2 6 3 3 +
---------------------------
3 5
7 2 +
--------------------
7 2 2
5 2 +
-----------------------
2 2 3 +
2 2 3
------------------------
2 2 3 +
12 2 6 3 +
------------------------------
7 8 +
3 7 3 8
---------------------------
2 8 2 7
3 8 3 7 +
--------------------------- +
3 7 2 +
2 7 11
--------------------------
5 7 2
7 2 11 +
--------------------------- +
13 5 +
13 5
-----------------------
11 2 +
11 2
-------------------
5 6 +
4 5 4 6
---------------------------
2 6 2 5
3 6 3 5
---------------------------
5 2
3 6 +
3
----------------
2 2 5 +
3
------------------------
2 6 7 +
17
------------------------
9 11 9 +
20
----------------------
12 2 17
9 2 154 +
4
------------------------------
71 12 33
17
----------------------------
7 3 9 +
3
-------------------
3
12
-------
6 6 2 10 2 5 + +
2
---------------------------------------------------------
9 2 8 +
14
-------------------
16 210 12 14
77
------------------------------------------
45 15 14 9 10 6 35 + + + ( )
5
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
9 7 13 3
120
------------------------------
6 7 2
66 24 6 +
5
-------------------------
5 4 14
959 281 77 182 7 6 11 + + +
629
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 7 65 16 11 +
28
---------------------------------------------
41 6 30 + ( )
12
---------------------------------

e
f
g
k
o
s
u
v
8 11 4 13 +
31
---------------------------------
2 21 35
14
-----------------------------
15 15 20 6
13
------------------------------------
19 4 21
5
-------------------------
3 3 2 6 +
18
---------------------------
115 31 21 +
148
-------------------------------
18 2 10 6 9 3 15 +
102 48 6 +
95
----------------------------
21 5 6 14 5 70 20
27
------------------------------------------------------------------

1
i
m
5 14 2 10 25 7 10 5 +
155
------------------------------------------------------------------------
20 2 9 10 4 30 + + 9 6
2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
9 154 132 42 2 8 77 + +
50
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

q
r
12 3 4 3 6 2 +
52
----------------------------------------------------
60 2 10 30 6 10 5 6 +
35
------------------------------------------------------------------------

p
1
0
3
1
5
6
9
2
2
7
+
+
+
(
)
4
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

1
1
1
4
If x = + , then x + when simplied with a rational denominator is equal to:
A B C
D E
5 Given that nd each of the following, giving the answer in surd form
with a rational denominator:
6 Given that nd each of the following, giving the answer in surd form
with a rational denominator:
7 Is a solution for the equation ? Show all working.
8 Solve for x giving answers in surd form with rational denominators.
Further properties of real
numbers modulus
The modulus or absolute value of a number is the magnitude of that number. It rep-
resents the distance of the number from the origin (that is, 0 on a number line). The
modulus of x is denoted by | x| and is always positive.
Note: Do not confuse the modulus of a number with modular arithmetic (see page 17).
For example,
|2| = 2
|2| = 2
|0| = 0
a b
a b c
a b c
d
e f
g h
a b
WORKED
Example
21
2 3 5 +
3 2 3 2 5 + +
------------------------------------
5 3 2
5 3 2 + +
----------------------------------
multiple choice
7 11
1
x
---
3 7 5 11 +
4
------------------------------
5 7 3 11 +
4
------------------------------
5 7 3 11 +
4
------------------------------
3 7 5 11 +
4
------------------------------
3 7 3 11 +
4
------------------------------
x
7 3 5
7 3 5 +
------------------------ =
x
1
x
--- + x
1
x
--- x
2 1
x
2
-----
x 5 2 3 =
x
1
x
--- + x
1
x
--- x
2
1
x
2
----- +
x
2
1
x
2
-----
x
2
6x 3 + + x
2
12x 8 +
x
2
3x +
x 2
-----------------
x
2
3x
x 2 +
-----------------
x 5 3 2 + = x
2
10x 7 + 0 =
11x 7 + 8 5x + = 3 5x 10 2 7x 4 + =
6 2 15 3 10 5 6 + +
6
--------------------------------------------------------------
230 257 3 137 5 80 15 +
431
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

2
14
19
------
6 35
19
-------------
312 35
361
-------------------

Yes
210 2 120
41
-------------------------------
200 2 126
41
-------------------------------
99 238 50 400 2
1681
---------------------------------------------
99 120 50 460 2
1681
---------------------------------------------

44
103 90 2
7 2 4 +
295 2 382
49
-------------------------------
11 5 +
6
-----------------------
42 5 28 7 +
17
---------------------------------
Further properties of real
numbers modulus
1 Evaluate the following where a, b, c, d 0:
a b c
d e f
g
h
i
j
k
l
Evaluate the following where a, b, c, d 0.
a b c d
THINK WRITE
a Write the expression.
a
The modulus sign indicates that we want only the
magnitude of a number and not the sign of it. So the
negative in front of the number should be omitted.
= 50
b Write the expression. b
Evaluate each modulus separately and then simplify.
= 6 3
= 18
c Write the expression. c
Evaluate each modulus separately, then simplify. =
=
d Write the expression. d
Evaluate each modulus separately, then simplify. =
=
=
50 6 3 6a
2
b 2a
3
b
4cd 6cd
12
----------------------------------------
1 50
2
1 6 3
2
1 6a
2
b 2a
3
b
2
6a
2
b 2a
3
b
12a
5
b
2
1
4cd 6cd
12
----------------------------------------
2
4cd 6cd
12
----------------------------
24c
2
d
2
12
--------------------
2c
2
d
2
22
WORKEDExample
1. The modulus (or absolute value) of a number is the magnitude of that number.
It tells us how far the number is from zero, and is always positive.
2. The modulus of x is denoted by | x|.
remember
1K
WORKED
Example
22 19
1
4
---
0.75
15 8 2a
3 4
1
2
---
3.21
0
2
3
---
7 3

19
1
4
---

0.75
15

8 2

a

12
1
2
---

3.21
0

2
3
---

4
2
When simplied, becomes:
3
4
5
6 a Fill in the table below for the function y = 2x 4.
b Use the table to plot (on the same set of axes) the graph of y = 2x 4 and
.
c State the range of each of the two functions.
d Compare the ranges of the two functions and their graphs. Explain the difference.
Solving equations using absolute values
If | x | = 3 then, by denition of absolute values, there are 2 values of x that satisfy this
equation that states that x is three units from 0.
That is, x = 3 or x = 3
m n o
p q r
s t u
v w x
y z
A B 6 C 6 D E 5
A B C D E
A 8 B 14 C 18 D 14 E 8
A B C D E
x 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y
| y|
2 8 + 2 8 a
2
b
2
21 37 3 9 5 3
12 6 18 3 7 14
24 3 6 3 20 9 10 3
2a 6b 4 b 4cd 3cd 2 cd
multiple choice
2 3
6 1
multiple choice
ab
2
a
3
b a
2
b
4

a
2
b
-----
a
4
b
3
a
2
b
4
-----------
a
b
2
-----
a
b
2
-----
a
2
b
-----
multiple choice
8 2 5 3 +
multiple choice
6 2 2 5 8
15
8
------
9
2
---
15
8
------
9
2
---
9
8
---
y 2x 4 =
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
3 units 3 units
10 10

a

2

b

2

16
27 15

72

54
1
2
---

11
30

3

a

6

cd
R

and

y

0

8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
8 6 4 2
0
2
4 6
8

b
y = |2x 4| y = 2x 4
y
x
2
4
4
Therefore, two separate cases need to be considered when solving equations
involving absolute values.
In general:
Case 1: | x | = x when x > 0 (that is, when x is positive)
Case 2: | x | = x when x < 0 (that is, when x is negative)
(Note: There is also a trivial case of | x | = 0 when x = 0.)
So for | x | = 3, the two cases to consider are x = 3 and x = 3 giving a solution of x = 3
or x = 3.
Solve: a | 4x | = 16 b | 4 - 3x | = 3.
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation. a | 4x | = 16
Remove the absolute value symbols
and write the positive (+ve) and
negative (ve) cases to be
considered.
Case 1: Case 2:
4x = 16 or 4x = 16
4x = 16
Work the two cases side by side. x = 4 x = 4
Verify your solution by substituting
into the original expression. Start
with the left-hand side (LHS) and
ensure that it equals the right-hand
side (RHS).
Check:
Using x = 4 Using x = 4
LHS = | 4 4| LHS = | 4 4|
= | 16| = | 16|
= 16 = 16
= RHS = RHS
Solutions are correct for both cases.
State the solution. x can equal either
4 or 4, written 4.
The solution is x = 4.
b Write the equation. b | 4 3x | = 3
Remove the absolute value symbols
and write the +ve and ve cases.
Case 1: Case 2:
4 3x = 3 or (4 3x) = 3
Solve for x in both cases. 4 3 = 3x 4 + 3x = 3
1 = 3x 3x = 7
x = x = 2
Verify your solution by substituting
into the original expression. Start
with the LHS and ensure that it
equals the RHS.
Check:
Using x = Using x = 2
LHS = | 4 3 | LHS = | 4 3 |
= |4 1| = |4 7|
= 3 = |3|
= RHS = 3
= RHS
Solutions are correct for both cases.
State the solution. The solution is x = or x = 2 .
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
1
3
---
1
3
---
4
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
7
3
---
5
1
3
---
1
3
---
23
WORKEDExample
Solve | x - 3 | = 3x + 8.
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. | x 3 | = 3x + 8
Remove the absolute value
symbols and write the +ve and
ve cases. Use brackets for the
LHS of the ve case.
Case 1: Case 2:
x 3 = 3x + 8 or (x 3) = 3x + 8
Solve for x. 3 8 = 3x x x + 3 = 3x + 8
11 = 2x 3 8 = 3x + x
x = 5 5 = 4x
x = 1
Verify your solution for both
cases by substituting into the
original equation. As the RHS
should always be +ve, the
solution x = 5 is not suitable
and should be ignored.
Notice how important this
verication step is. We have
followed all the correct steps but
logically arrived at an answer that
is not possible.
Verify all results for these
questions.
Check:
Using x = 5
LHS = | 5 3 | RHS = 3 + 8
= | 8 | = + 8
= 8 = 16 + 8
= 8
(Not the correct solution since LHS RHS)
Using x = 1
LHS = | 1 3 | RHS = 3 + 8
= | 4 | = + 8
= 4 = 3 + 8
= 4
(Correct solution since LHS = RHS)
State the solution. The solution is x = 1 .
1
2
3
1
2
---
1
4
---
4
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
11
2
---------
1
2
---
33
2
---------
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
5
4
------
1
4
---
15
4
---------
1
4
---
3
4
---
1
4
---
5
1
4
---
24
WORKEDExample
Solve | x 1 | = | 2x + 3 |.
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. | x 1 | = | 2x + 3 |
Remove all absolute value symbols
and write the +ve and ve cases.
Reassure yourself that there are only
two possible cases.
(x 1) = (2x + 3) is the same as
(x 1) = (2x + 3) and
(x 1) = (2x + 3) is the same as
(x 1) = (2x + 3)
Case 1: Case 2:
x 1 = 2x + 3 or x 1 = (2x + 3)
1
2
25
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
Solving equations using
absolute values
1 Solve for x.
a | 2x | = 10 b | x + 1 | = 5 c | 2x 1 | = 2
d | 3x + 2 | = 4 e | 1 + 2x | = 0 f = 3
2 Solve for x.
a | x + 1 | = 2x 1 b | 3x + 5 | = x 3
c | 2x + 3 | = x 5 d | x 2 | = 2x 7
3 Solve the following for x.
a | 2x 5 | = | x + 1 | b | 3x 6 | = | 2x + 4 |
c | 3x 1 | = | 2x + 2 | d | x 5 | = | 3x 8 |
THINK WRITE
Solve for x for both cases. 1 3 = 2x x x 1 = 2x 3
4 = x x + 2x = 3 + 1
x = 4 3x = 2
x =
Verify the solutions with respect to
the original equation.
Check:
Using x = 4
LHS = | 4 1 | RHS = | 2(4) + 3 |
= | 5 | = | 8 + 3 |
= 5 = | 5 |
= 5
Using x =
LHS = RHS =
= | 1 | = | 1 + 3 |
= 1 = | 1 |
= 1
State the solution.
Therefore x = 4 and x = are both suitable
solutions.
3
2
3
---
4
2
3
---
2
3
--- 1 2
2
3
--- 3 +
2
3
---
1
3
---
2
3
---
2
3
---
2
3
---
5
2
3
---
To solve equations with absolute values:
1. remove the absolute value symbols and state the equation as positive and
negative cases
2. verify your solutions by substituting your answer into the original equation.
remember
1L
WORKED
Example
23
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Digital doc:
SkillSHEET 1.7
Solving equations
x
3
---
WORKED
Example
24
WORKED
Example
25

x

=

5

x

=

4 or

x

=

6

x

=

1 or

x

=
1
2
---
1
2
---

x

=

or

x

=

2
2
3
---

x

=

1
2
---

x

=

9

x

=

2 No solutions
No solutions

x

=

5

x

=

6 or

x

=

1
1
3
---

x

=

10 or

x

=
2
5
---

x

=

3 or

x

=

1
5
---

x

=

1 or

x

=

3
1
2
---
1
4
---
Solving inequations
You have graphed inequations on a number line in your junior mathematics studies.
These examples require more care and you will notice that the verication step is
essential to test the values you obtain.
Solve and graph (x - 1)(x + 2) > 0.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Write the inequation. (x 1)(x + 2) > 0
If a b > 0 then either a and b
are both positive (+ve) or a
and b are both negative (ve).
This gives rise to 2 cases.
Rewrite the terms of the
inequation.
Note: > 0 means +ve, and
Note: < 0 means ve
Solve each inequation.
Case 1:
If a and b > 0
(x 1) > 0 and (x + 2) > 0
x > 1 x > 2
Graph both these inequations
and decide which part of the
graph satises both
inequations.
Note that the region graphed in
the last graph (x > 1) satises
both parts of case 1.
Repeat steps 2 and 3 for case
2.
Graph both these inequations
and decide which part of the
graph satises both
inequations.
Note that the region graphed
in the last graph (x < 2)
satises both parts of case 2.
Case 2:
If a and b < 0
(x 1) < 0 and (x + 2) < 0
x < 1 x < 2
Either case 1 is true or case 2
is true at the one time but not
both, as they are contradictory.
Combine both cases on one
number line so that either x > 1
(from case 1) or x < 2 (from
case 2).
Either x > 1 or x < 2
1
2
3
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
4
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
5
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Graphed Graphed Not graphed
26
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Use a tabular form to verify
this solution.
Note how the number line is
divided into 3 regions.
When completing this table
choose a number that falls in
each region and work out the
sign only of each expression.
Because the original product
was greater than 0 (or positive)
the table has veried the results
on the graph. We do not want to
include those values between 2
and 1.
The solution is either x > 1 or x < 2.
x < 2
(let x = 3)
2 < x < 1
(let x = 0)
x > 1
(let x = 2)
x 1
x + 2
(x 1)(x + 2)
+
graphed
OK
not
graphed
OK
+
+
+
graphed
OK
Solve and graph:
a < 6 where x 0 b < 0 where x 1.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Write the inequation. a < 6
x can be either +ve or ve. When x is
ve and multiplied across the
inequality sign, the sign must be
reversed.
Case 1: Case 2:
If x > 0, < 6 If x < 0, < 6
3 < 6x 3 > 6x
< x > x
or x > or x <
Draw separate graphs for both
these inequalities, but remember
that in case 2, x < 0 so the only part
that should be graphed is where
x < 0.
Combine these graphs on the one
number line and state your answer.
Remember that an initial condition
of the problem was that x 0 so that
has been satised also.
x < 0 and x >
3
x
---
x 2
x 1 +
------------
1
3
x
---
2
3
x
---
3
x
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
1
2
1 0 1 0 1 2
4
1
2
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
2
---
27
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE/DRAW
b Write the inequation. b < 0
Remember that < 0 means ve. If < 0
then either a < 0 or b < 0, but not both at
the one time.
Case 1:
If x 2 < 0 and x + 1 > 0
x < 2 x > 1
Graph both these inequalities.
Since both results from case 1 occur
at the one time combine the two
different graphs that satisfy both parts.
Repeat steps 2 to 4 for case 2. Case 2:
If x 2 > 0 and x + 1 < 0
x > 2 x < 1
Since both results of case 2 occur at
the one time think about how to
combine the two different graphs
that satisfy both results.
Note that x cant be greater than 2
and less than 1 at the same time.
Therefore this solution is impossible.
Reject this solution.
Graph and state the nal solution
(that was obtained in step 4 above).
The solution is 1 < x < 2.
1
x 2
x 1 +
------------
2
a
b
---
3
2 1 0 0 1 2
4
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
5
6
2 1 0 1 2 3
Case 1 Case 2
7
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Solve and graph | 2x 3 | < 2.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Write the inequality. | 2x 3 | < 2
Consider the positive and negative
cases of the absolute value.
Case 1: Case 2:
2x 3 < 2 or (2x 3) < 2
Solve for x. In case 2, note that
multiplying both sides of an inequality
by a negative number reverses the
inequality sign.
2x 3 < 2 or 2x 3 > 2
2x < 5 or 2x > 1
x < or x >
x < 2
Graph both solutions on separate
number lines.
1
2
3
5
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
4
0 1 2 1 2 3
Case 1 Case 2
1
2 2
1
2
28
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Graph this combined solution and state
the solution.
The solution is < x < 2 .
Verify the 3 regions of this solution. Check:
For x < (let x = 0)
| 2 0 3 | < 2 (Not valid and not graphed)
For < x < 2 (let x = 2)
| 2 2 3 | < 2
| 1 | < 2 (Valid and graphed)
For x > 2 (let x = 3)
| 2 3 3 | < 2
| 3 | < 2 (Not valid and not graphed)
5
1
2
1
2 2 1 0 1 2 2 3
1
2
---
1
2
---
6
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
Solve and graph < 2.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Write the inequality. < 2
As with Worked example 28, state the
two cases that are possible.
Solve for case 1.
Draw the graph for this solution.
Case 1: Case 2:
< 2 or < 2
For case 1
if x 3 > 0 (x > 3)
1 < 2(x 3)
1 < 2x 6
7 < 2x
< x
x > 3
Since x > 3 (initial condition) x > 3
satises this condition.
Solve for case 2.
Reverse the inequality sign when you
multiply by a negative.
Case 2
> 2
If x 3 < 0 (x < 3)
1 < 2(x 3)
1 < 2x + 6
5 < 2x
1
x 3
-----------------
1
1
x 3
-----------------
2
1
x 3
--------------
1
x 3 ( )
-------------------
7
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5
3
1
x 3
--------------
29
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Reverse the inequality sign when you
divide by a negative.
Remember to always check with the
initial condition.
2 > x
x < 3 from the initial condition; therefore
x < 2 satises this condition.
Draw the graph for this solution.
Draw the combined graph for these two
solutions and state the answer.
The solution is x < 2 or x > 3 .
Verify the results for the three regions
on the graph.
Check:
For x < 2 (let x = 0)
< 2
< 2 ( Valid and graphed)
For 2 < x < 3
(let x = 3 ; remember x 3)
< 2
< 2
| 4 | < 2 (Not valid and not graphed)
For x > 3 (let x = 4)
< 2
< 2 (Valid and graphed)
All solutions have been veried. Even
though this verication is a fairly
lengthy step it gives you condence
that your solutions are more than likely
going to be correct.
1
2
---
1
2
---
0 1 2 3 4
1
2 2
4
1 0 1 2 3 4
1
2 2
1
2 3
1
2
---
1
2
---
5
1
2
---
1
0 3
-----------------
1
3
------------
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
3
1
4
--- 3
--------------------
1
1
4
---
-------
1
2
---
1
4 3
-----------------
1
1
--------
Solve and graph < 2 where x 3.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Write the inequality. < 2
x 2
x 3 +
------------
1
x 2
x 3 +
------------
30
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Remember x has the same value in the
numerator and denominator at any one
time. Separate the solution into the
+ve and ve cases for the absolute
value.
Case 1: Case 2:
< 2 or < 2
> 2
If the denominator is ve, then the sign
must be reversed when it is multiplied
across. Therefore, we will have to make
2 sub-cases for each of case 1 and
case 2.
Graph this rst solution.
Case 1 (+ve): If x + 3 > 0 (that is, x > 3)
x 2 < 2(x + 3)
x 2 < 2x + 6
8 < x
x > 8
But the initial condition is that x > 3, therefore
x > 3 is a valid solution.
Reverse the sign due to the ve
denominator.
Graph this solution.
Case 1 (ve): If x + 3 < 0 (that is, x < 3)
< 2
x 2 > 2(x + 3)
x 2 > 2x + 6
8 > x
x < 8
But the initial condition is that x < 3, therefore
x < 8 is a valid solution.
Determine case 2 as for case 1.
> 2
Case 2 (+ve): If x + 3 > 0 (that is, x > 3)
x 2 > 2(x + 3)
x 2 > 2x 6
3x > 6 + 2
x >
But x > 3 from initial condition so x > 1 .
2
x 2
x 3 +
------------
x 2
x 3 +
------------

x 2
x 3 +
------------
3
4 3 2 1 0 1
x 2
x 3 +
------------
9 8 7 6 5
4
x 2
x 3 +
------------
4
3
------
1
3
---
2 1 0 1 2
This type of problem demonstrates higher level reasoning for this study of numbers. All
possibilities need to be carefully considered and examined in a thoughtful, methodical
manner.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Determine case 2 for the ve
denominator.
Remember to reverse the sign when
you multiply by the ve denominator.
Case 2 (ve): If x + 3 < 0 (that is, x < 3)
> 2
x 2 < 2(x + 3)
x 2 < 2x 6
3x < 6 + 2
x <
But x < 3 from the initial condition, so
x < 3.
Since the denominator must be either
positive or negative at any one time it is
case 1 (+ve) and case 2 (+ve) that we
need to combine as well as case 1 (ve)
and case 2 (ve) to produce the nal
graph.
Combining case 1 (+ve) and case 2 (+ve) gives:
Combining case 1 (ve) and case 2 (ve) gives:
Combine the two solutions.
The solution is x < 8 or x > 1 .
Verify the solutions by testing within
the 3 regions, using the original
inequality.
Check:
For x < 8 (let x = 9)
< 2
For 8 < x < 1 (let x = 2)
< 2
< 2 (Not valid and not graphed)
For x > 1 (let x = 0)
< 2
x 2
x 3 +
------------
4
3
---
5 4 3 2 1 0
5
4 3 2 1 0 1
10 9 8 7 6 5
6
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2
1
3
---
7
9 2
9 3 +
----------------
11
6
---------
1
3
---
2 2
2 3 +
----------------
4
1
------
1
3
---
0 2
0 3 +
------------
2
3
------
Solving inequations
1 Solve and graph the following inequations.
a (x 1)(x 2) < 0 b (x 2)(x + 2) > 0
c (2x 3)(x 2) < 0 d 3x
2
10x + 4 < 2x
2
5x 2
2 Solve and graph the following inequations.
a < 2 (where x 0)) b < 3 (where x 1)
c < 2 (where x 3) d < 3 (where x 2)
3 Solve and graph the following.
a | x | < 4 b | x + 4 | < 1
c | 2x 5 | < 1 d < 2
4 Solve and graph the following.
a < 3 (where x 1) b < 2 (where x 1 )
c < (where x 6) d < 2 (where x 1)
e > 2 (where x 3) f > 4 (where x 4)
1. When solving inequations reverse the inequality sign when you multiply or
divide by a negative expression.
2. In any equation if the product of a and b (that is a b) is positive then a and b
are either both positive or both negative.
3. If a product a b is negative then either a or b is negative.
4. If x a is positive then x a > 0 and x > a.
5. If x a is negative, then x a < 0 and x < a.
remember
1M
WORKED
Example
26
WORKED
Example
27
4
x
---
1
x 1
-----------
3
x 3
-----------
x 1
x 2
-----------
WORKED
Example
28
x 1
5
-----------------
WORKED
Example
29, 30
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 1.2
1
x 1 +
-----------------
1
2x 3
--------------------
1
2
---
1
x 6
-----------------
1
3
---
x 1
x 1 +
------------
x 1 +
x 3
------------
x
x 4
-----------
SLE 2: Solve simple inequality

statements such as |

z

-

a

| >

b

in
the real system, and be able to
give a verbal description of the
meaning of the mathematical
symbolism.

a

1 <

x

< 2

b

x

> 2 or

x

<

2

c

1 <

x

< 2

d

2 <

x

< 3
0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
2
---
0 1 1 2 3 4
1
2
1
0 1 2 3 4

1
2
a

x

<

0

o
r

x

>

2

b

x

<

1

o
r

x

>

1

c

x

<

3

o
r

x

>

4

d

x

>

2

o
r

x

<

2
0
1
1
2
3
4
1 3-
--
0
1
2
3
1 3
1
1 2-
--
1
2
3
4
5
1 2
4
1 2-
--
0
1
2
3
4
1 2
2

4 <

x

< 4
0 4 5 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 5

5 <

x

<

3
0 4 5 6 3 1 2

2 <

x

< 3
5 2 1 0 3 4

9 <

x

< 11
10 0 5 10 5

1 <

x

< 7,

x

3
2
3
---
5 3 1 2 4 0 6 7 8
2
3
1

3 <

x

< 5 ,

x

4
1
5
---
1
3
---
6 4 5 3 7
1
3
5
1
5
3

x

<

3

o
r

x

>

1 3-
--
1
2
0
4
2
1 3
_

x

< 3 or

x

> 9
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2

x

<

1 or

x

>

1
3
---
2
3
---
0 1 2 3 1 2
1
3
1
2

x

<

1

o
r

x

>

1
1 4-
--
3 4-
--
2
1
0
3
1 4
1
3 4
1
Approximations for p
Research the following historical approximations for and present your ndings in
concise form.
1 3000 BC Egypt: The pyramids are built. The sides and heights of the pyramids
of Cheops and Sneferu at Giza are constructed in the ratio of 11:7. Hence the
ratio of one perimeter to 2 heights is 22:7. The value of is approximately .
2 2000 BC Egypt: The Rhind Papyrus, the oldest mathematical text in existence,
gives the following rule for constructing a square having the same area as a
given circle:
Cut one-ninth off the circles diameter and construct a square on the
remainder. Using this method, is found to equal ( )
2
.
3 240 BC Greece: Archimedes, engineer, architect, physicist and mathematician,
constructs polygons of 96 sides to show that 3 < < 3 .
4 20 BC Italy: Vituvius, architect and engineer, measures distances using a
wheel and determines that is equal to 3 .
5 AD 125 Greece: Ptolemy writes his famous work on astronomy, Syntaxis
Mathematica. He nds that is equal to 3 + + .
6 AD 480 China: Tsu Chung-chih, expert in mechanics and interested in
machinery, gives the value of as .
7 AD 1150 India: Bhaskara writes on astronomy and mathematics and gives
several values of , the most accurate is .
8 AD 1579 France: Vieta nds correct to nine decimal places by considering
polygons of 6.5
16
= 393 216 sides. He also discovers that
= .
In this and the next two series, examine how the approximation improves as the
number of terms is increased.
9 AD 1650 England: John Wallis uses a complicated and difcult method to
obtain from =
10 AD 1699 England: Sharp calculates to 72 decimal places by evaluating the
series = +
11 AD 1913 India: The mathematician Ramanujan presents the following as an
approximation for : = .
22
7
------
16
9
------
10
71
------
1
7
---
1
8
---
8
60
------
30
60
2
--------
355
113
---------
3927
1250
------------
2
---
2
2
-------
2 2 +
2
--------------------
2 2 2 + +
2
----------------------------------
4
---
3 3 5 5 7 7 9 9
2 4 4 6 6 8 8
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
6
---
1
3
-------
1
3
-------

3
3
---------------
1
3
-------

5
5
---------------
1
3
-------

7
7
---------------
9
2
19
2
22
--------- +
4

SLE 9: Investigate some of

the approximations to

p

which have been used.
Real numbers application
and modelling
1 Solve the following inequality and graph the solution on a number line
< 1.
2 Rationalise the denominator for .
3 Solve the inequation > 0.
4 By noting the expansion of ( + )
2
and the fact that
12 + 2 = 7 + 5 + 2 , determine .
Hence, determine .
5 If the integer points, n, and the points midway between them, n + , are
mapped on a number line, how far away from the nearest of these points can
any point on the number line be?
Find an integer m such that | m| < and an integer k such that
| k | < .
Explain the signicance of these results with respect to the topic of
approximation of irrationals to rationals. (Your response should not rely on
calculator computations.)
6 The most common way students learn to nd the greatest common divisor of
two integers is to factorise both numbers into their prime factors and take the
common prime factors. For example, to nd the greatest common divisor of
45 024 and 5712 we can write:
45 024 = 2
5
3 7 67
5712 = 2
4
3 7 17
So the greatest common divisor is 2
4
3 7 = 336.
However, nding the prime factors is not always that straightforward and
Euclid developed an algorithm that produces the greatest common divisor. To
apply it we divide the smaller integer into the larger integer.
Consider the integers 45 024 and 5712 again. When 45 024 is divided by
5712 the result is 7 with a reminder of 5040. Thus
45 024 = 7 5712 + 5040
Now divide the remainder (5040) into the divisor (5712)
5712 = 1 5040 + 672
and the new remainder into the previous remainder, and so on:
5040 = 7 672 + 336
672 = 2 336 + 0
The last non-zero remainder is the greatest common divisor, because it divides
both 45 024 and 5712 and every divisor of both 45 024 and 5712 must also
divide it.
2x 1 +
x 2
----------------
a b
a b +
----------------
2x 5
2x 7 +
---------------
a b
35 7 5 12 2 35 +
17 6 8 +
1
2
---
2
1
2
---
1
4
---
5
1
2
---
1
4
---

g.c.d.

=

225 7
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
1
13
------ +
------------ +
---------------------- +
-------------------------------- +
----------------------------------------- +

<

x

<

2 2
a b ( ) a
2
b
a
2
b
----------------------------------------

x

R

,

x

3 ,

x

2
1
2
---
1
2
---

+

, 3

+

2 7 5 2

,

m

=

3,

k

=

4
1
4
---

2
0 1
2.4
2 3 1 2
We can rewrite the previous equations as
= 7 + = 1 + = 7 + = 2
which can be combined as a continued fraction as = 7 + and can
also be written as 7, 1, 7, 2 (whole numbers obtained at each division step).
Express the quotient 327 600 42 075 as a continued fraction and hence state the
greatest common divisor of these two integers.
7 Show that + < 2 (Do not use your calculator.)
8 Show that = 1 + and hence deduce that
= 1 + = 1 +
Now write the next two terms in such a sequence.
9 Diophantus of Alexandria, born between AD 75 and AD 250, was the author of
Arithmetica and wrote many papers investigating only whole numbers. Diophantine
equations are involved in many real-life situations, due to their whole number
solutions. The solutions are often found by trial and error. The following problem,
which you might like to try, is based on Diophantine equations. (The answer is given
at the end of the problem.)
Five men and a monkey were shipwrecked on an island and they set out to collect
as many coconuts as they could on their rst day so that they would have provisions
until they were rescued. After many hours collecting coconuts they piled them all
together and went to sleep.
Later that night, while the others slept one man woke up, and started to worry
about whether the coconuts would be divided fairly. He decided to take his one-fth
share of the nuts and gave the one remaining coconut to the monkey.
Throughout the night all of the men did likewise; they took their fth share of
what was left of the nuts and gave the one remaining nut to the monkey. In the
morning they met to divide the nuts into ve equal shares. Each man knew that
there were some nuts missing but none admitted he had some extras, of his own,
hidden away.
How many nuts were there to start with? (Solution)
The Diophantine equations that lead to the solution of this problem simplify to
1024x 8404 = 15 625y where x is the original amount collected and y is the
number each is given in the morning.
The smallest possible value for x is 3121 with other values at intervals of 15 625.
45 024
5712
----------------
1
5712
5040
------------
---------------
5712
5040
------------
1
5040
672
------------
---------------
5040
672
------------
1
672
336
---------
---------------
672
336
---------
45 024
5712
----------------
1
1
1
7
1
2
--- +
------------ +
----------------------
2 2 + 2 2 2
2
1
1 2 +
----------------
2
1
2
1
1 2 +
---------------- +
--------------------------
1
2
1
2
1
1 2 +
---------------- +
-------------------------- +
-----------------------------------
2 1 +
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 2 +
---------------- +
-------------------------- +
----------------------------------- +
--------------------------------------------- =
2 1+
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 2 +
---------------- +
-------------------------- +
----------------------------------- +
--------------------------------------------- +
------------------------------------------------------ =

and
The next 2 terms would be
The Real Number System
The set of real numbers (R) is divided into two main sets: rational and irrational
numbers. These sets may be further divided into smaller subsets as illustrated on
the chart and Venn diagram below.
Rational numbers (Q) can be expressed in
the form , where a and b are integers
with no common divisors and b 0. They
may also be expressed as whole numbers,
terminating decimals and recurring
decimals.
Irrational numbers (I) cannot be expressed
in the form . They can be expressed only
as non-terminating and non-recurring
decimals and include surds and numbers such as and e.
Recurring decimals are rational numbers which may be expressed as a ratio of two
integers.
Surds are irrational numbers which can only be represented exactly using a root
symbol (or radical), that is:
, , and so on.
and e are examples of irrational numbers which may be converted to non-
terminating and non-recurring decimals; however, they are not surds.
Set notation
Set notation is used when dening the Real Number System.
The following symbols are useful when working with sets:
{ }set
is an element of
is not an element of
is a subset of
summary
Real numbers R
Irrational numbers I
(surds, non-terminating
and non-recurring
decimals, ,e)
Rational numbers Q
Integers
Z
Non-integer rationals
(terminating and
recurring decimals)
Zero
(neither positive
nor negative)
Positive
(Natural
numbers N)
Z
+
Negative
Z
(Irrational
numbers)
Q (Rational numbers)
(Integers)
(Natural
numbers)
= R
I
N
Z
a
b
---
a
b
---
3 4
Working with surds
To simplify a surd, it should be written as a product of two factors, one of which is
the largest perfect square.
Like surds may be added and subtracted; surds may need to be simplied before
adding and subtracting.
Surds may be multiplied according to the rules:
When a surd is multiplied by itself (squared), the result is the number under the
radical:
Multiplication involving brackets:
1. The Distributive Law:
2. FOIL:
3. Perfect squares:
4. Difference of two squares DOTS:
The product of a conjugate pair of surds is rational.
Surds may be divided according to the rule:
Rationalising denominators:
1. If the denominator contains a surd, multiply both numerator and denominator by
the surd part of the denominator:
2. If the denominator is a sum or difference of surds, multiply both the numerator
and the denominator by the conjugate of the denominator:
a b ab =
m a n b mn ab =
( a)
2
a =
a( b c + ) ab ac + =
( a b + )( c d + ) ac ad bc bd + + + =
( a b + )
2
a 2 ab b + + =
( a b )
2
a 2 ab b + =
( a b + )( a b ) a b =
a b
a
b
------- =
a
b
--- =
a
b
-------
a
b
-------
b
b
------- =
ab
b
---------- =
1
a b
--------------------
1
a b
--------------------
a b +
a b +
-------------------- =
a b +
a b
-------------------- =
Modulus
The modulus (or absolute value) of a number is the magnitude of that number and
is always positive.
The modulus of x is denoted by | x |.
| x | = x if x < 0
= 0 if x = 0
= x if x > 0
Solving equations using absolute values
First remove the absolute value symbols and state the equation as positive and
negative alternative cases.
Verify your solutions for all these questions by substituting your answer into the
original equation.
Solving inequations
Remember that if x > 0 then x is positive, and if x < 0 then x is negative.
If a product of two factors is greater than 0 then both factors must be either positive
or negative.
Likewise, if a product of two factors is less than 0 then only one of the factors must
be positive and the other must be negative,
Organise your solution into two cases that will develop arguments for all possible
values.
The two values that result for each case are values that should occur at the one time.
The graph you draw must be a combination of these two solutions for each case.
Verify your solutions by choosing values that fall in each of the regions of your
graph.
When you multiply or divide by a negative factor across an inequality sign,
remember to reverse the sign.
1
Which of the given numbers, , , 5, 3.26, 0.5
.
, , are rational?
2 For each of the following, state whether the number is rational or irrational and give the
reason for your answer:
3
Which of the following statements is not correct?
4
Which of the following statements regarding the given set of numbers,
{5, 0.7
.
, , 21, , }, is correct?
A 5, , , Z
+
B , cannot be expressed as rational numbers.
C 5, 0.7
.
and 21 are the only rational numbers of the set.
D , and cannot be expressed as rational numbers.
E None of the above.
5 Classify each of the following into the smallest subset in which they belong using Q, I, Z,
Z
+
and Z
. (Simplify rst where possible.)

6
Which of the following fractions, , , , , , cannot be expressed as recurring
decimals?
7
.
2
.
can be expressed as a fraction in its simplest form as:
A , 5, 3.26, 0.5
.
and
B and
C , and D 5, 3.26 and
E 5
a b c d 0.6
.
e
A Q B Q C Z
+
D Z
E (5)
2
Z
+
a b c d
A , , B , , C , D E , ,
A B C D E
CHAPTER
review
1A
multiple choice
6
12
------ 0.81
5
---
3
12
------
0.81
3
12
------
6
12
------
5
---
6
12
------ 0.81
3
12
------
6
12
------
1A
12 121
2
9
--- 0.08
3
1A
multiple choice
9
81
------
8
4
---
0
4
--- 125
3
1A
multiple choice
64 8 20
64 20
8 20
64 8 20
1A
4
1
125
---------
3
0.2
4
2 0.01
------------------
15
8
------
15
2
------
8
9
---
2
25
------ +
1B
multiple choice
1
17
------
3
13
------
5
12
------
1
5
---
2
3
---
1
17
------
1
5
---
2
3
---
3
13
------
5
12
------
2
3
---
3
13
------
5
12
------
1
5
---
1
17
------
1
5
---
3
13
------
1B
multiple choice
18
25
------
73
100
---------
73
99
------
4
5
---
8
11
------

a

Irrational, since equal to non-recurring
and non-terminating decimal

b

Rational, since can be expressed as a
whole number

c

Rational, since given in a rational form

d

Rational, since it is a recurring decimal

e

Irrational, since equal to non-recurring
and non-terminating decimal

2

Z

Z
+
Q I
8 Express the following recurring decimals as fractions in the simplest form.
a 0.6
.
2
.
b 0.374
.
c 0.95
.
1
.
9
Which of the following numbers of the given set,
{ , , , , , }, are surds?
A All of these
B ,
C and only
D , and only
E , , and
10 Which of , , , , , are surds
a if m = 4?
b if m = 8?
11
The expression may be simplied to:
12
The expression may be simplied to:
13 Simplify the following surds. Give the answers in the simplest form.
a
b
14
15 Simplify the following, giving answers in the simplest form.
a
b
A B C D E
A B C D E
A B C D E None of these
1B
1C
multiple choice
3 2 5 7 9 4 6 10 7 12 12 64
9 4 12 64
3 2 7 12
3 2 5 7 6 10
3 2 5 7 6 10 7 12
1C
2m 25m
m
16
------
20
m
------ m
3
8m
3
1D
multiple choice
250
25 10 5 10 10 5 10 25 5 50
1D
multiple choice
392x
8
y
7
196x
4
y
3
2y 2x
4
y
3
14y 14x
4
y
3
2y 14x
4
y
3
2 14x
4
y
3
2xy
1D
4 648x
7
y
9
2
5
---
25
64
------ x
5
y
11
1E
multiple choice
2 98 3 72
4 2 4 2 4 4 2
1E
7 12 8 147 15 27 +
1
2
--- 64a
3
b
3
3
4
---ab 16ab
1
5ab
--------- 100a
5
b
5
+
62
99
------
337
900
---------
157
165
---------
a , , ,
b , ,
2m
20
m
------ m
3
8m
3
25m
m
16
------
20
m
------
10
72x
3
y
4
2xy
1
4
--- x
2
y
5
xy
25 3
3ab ab
16 Determine the length of the unknown side, giving the answer in the simplest form and
specifying the appropriate unit.
17
18 Simplify the following, giving answers in the simplest form.
a
b
19
When expanded and expressed in its simplest form, is equal to:
20
21
22
a b
c d
A B C D E
A B C D E
A B C D E
A B C D 39 E
A B C D E
1E
1F
P = 80 m
l
10 cm
P = 44 8 6 cm
x
6 + 2 3 m
P = 64 + 4 3 8 2 m
y
c
11 3 cm
11 cm
1F
multiple choice
9 12 3 5
27 60 15 54 18 5 54 15 6 15
1F
1
5
--- 675 27
10 24 6 12
1G
multiple choice
12( 8 6 )
4 6 6 2 96 72 4 3 6 24 2 6 3 2
1G
multiple choice
9 x
2
y 7x ( ) 9 x
2
y 7x + ( )
9x
2
y 7x
2
32y 32x
2
y 7x
2
81x
2
y 49x
2
2x
2
y
1G
multiple choice
(2 8 7 )
2
39 16 14 39 8 14 25 8 14 25 16 14
1H
multiple choice
8x
3
32
--------
x x
2
----------
x
3
4
---------
x
3
2
---------
x x
4
----------
x
3
4
-----
a

m

b

cm

c

m

d

22

cm
5
17 4 6 ( )
26 4 2 ( )

27
720 2

16
23
24 Determine the length of the unknown side of a rectangle, given its area is cm
2
and its width is cm.
25
When expressed in its simplest form with a rational denominator, is equal to:
26 Express the following with a rational denominator, giving the answer in the simplest form.
27 Express the following with a rational denominator, giving answers in the simplest form.
Assume that a, b, x and y are positive real numbers.
28
When expressed in its simplest form with a rational denominator, is equal to:
29
If then is equal to:
30 Given that nd:
31 Express the following with a rational denominator, giving the answer in the simplest form.
A B C D E
A B
C D
E
a b c
A B C D E
A B C D E 23
a b
c
1H
multiple choice
6x
2
y
3
12x
4
y
5
-----------------
8xy
10x
2
y
--------------
10x
25x
2
y
--------------
10 x
5x
2
y
-------------
x 10
5x
2
y
-------------
x
5xy
---------
10x
5x
2
y
-------------
1H
7 18 2 3
2 3 +
1I
multiple choice
18
63
------
2
7
-------
2
7
---
14
7
----------
7
14
-------
2
1I
7 56 3 126
32
------------------------------------
1I
5x
3
y
2 x
----------------
20x
5
y
3
10xy
---------------------
9a
2
b
b
----------------
1J
multiple choice
1
3 8 5 +
------------------------
3 8 5
77
-----------------------
6 2 5
77
-----------------------
3 8 5
67
-----------------------
3 3
67
----------
6 2 5
67
-----------------------
1J
multiple choice
x 11 = 3 x
2
8x 5 + +
1 6 11 2 11 22 + 2 11 1 + 22 5 11
1J
x 2 7 = 3 2
x
2
1
x
2
----- + x
2
1
x
2
-----
x
2
9x 5 +
1J
1
2 7 2 3
---------------------------
1
3 3 7
-----------------------

( ) cm 23 6 48
5 7
4
----------
x 5y
2
------------- x
2
y 2

3

a

a
b
c
2323 594 14
50
-------------------------------------
2277 606 14
50
-------------------------------------
51 12 14 18 7 27 2 +

30
3 7 3
40
-----------------------
32 Determine the area of the triangle at right, expressing the
answer with a rational denominator in the simplest surd form.
Measurements are in metres.
33
When expressed in its simplest form with a rational denominator, is
equal to:
34 Simplify the following.
35
Which of the given values of x solve the equation | 3 2x| = 2?
A x = B x = C x = , D x = 2, E x = 2
36
Which of the given values of x solve the equation | x + 3 | = 2x + 7?
A x = 4, 3 B x = 4, 1 C x = 3 D x = 1, 4 E x = 2
37
Which of the following values of x solve the equation | x 3 | = | 2x 1 |?
A x = 2, B x = 2, 1 C x = 2, 1 D x = , 1 E x =
38
Which values of x are a solution for the equation (x + 1)(x 2) < 0?
A 1 < x < 2 B x < 1 or x > 2 C 1 < x < 0 D 1 < x < 1 E x > 2
39
Which values of x are a solution for < 4?
A 0 < x < B 0 < x < C x < 0 or x > 3 D x < 0 or x > E x > 1
40
Which of the following values of x are a solution for < 3?
A < x < 2 B x < or x > 2 C 1 < x < 2 D x < 1, x > 2 E x > 1
A B C D E
a
b
6 + 15
2
1
5
+
1J
1K
multiple choice
2 3 7 3
3 6
--------------------------------------------
7 2 2 7
14
2
------- 7 2
7 18
3
-------------
1K
7 4
3 5 4
6 6 +
------------------------------------
8
1L
multiple choice
1
2
---
5
2
---
1
2
---
5
2
---
2
5
---
1L
multiple choice
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
1L
multiple choice
2
3
---
1
3
---
2
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
1M
multiple choice
1M
multiple choice
2
x
---
1
4
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1M
multiple choice
x 1 +
x 1
------------
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---

m

2
3
2
-------

11

3
Modelling and problem solving
1 The electrical current I in amps, delivering electrical power P, through resistor R, is given by
the rule . Express the current as a surd in the simplest form when:
a P = 500, R = 18
b P = 425, R = 6
c P = 729, R = 0.38
d P = 1700, R = 8
2 An ice-cream cone with measurements as shown is completely lled with ice-cream, and has
a hemisphere of ice-cream on top.
a Determine the height of the ice-cream cone in simplest surd form.
b Determine the volume of the ice-cream in the cone.
c Determine the volume of the ice-cream in the hemisphere.
d Hence, nd the total volume of ice-cream.
3 A gold bar with dimensions of , and cm is to be melted down into a
cylinder of height cm.
a Find the volume of the gold, expressing the answer in the simplest surd form and
b Find the radius of the cylinder, expressing the answer in the simplest surd form and
c If the height of the cylinder was cm, what would be the new radius? Express your
answer in the simplest surd form.
I
P
R
--- =
175 cm
27 cm
5 20 3 12 2 6
4 10
3 40
Digital doc:
Test Yourself
Chapter 1
eBookplus eBookplus

amps
5 10
3
-------------

amps
amps
5 102
6
----------------
135 38
19
-------------------

amps
5 34
2
-------------

cm 2 37

cm

3
18 37

cm

3
54 3

cm

3
18 37 3 3 + ( )

cm
2 15
-----------------

cm
3 10
-----------------

cm

3
360 10
In this
chapter
2A Introduction to complex
numbers
2B Basic operations using
complex numbers
2C Conjugates and division
of complex numbers
2D Radians and coterminal
angles
2E Complex numbers in polar
form
2F Basic operations on complex
numbers in polar form
syllabus
reference
Core topic:
Real and complex number
systems
2
Number
systems:
complex
numbers
Introduction to complex numbers
In 1545, the Italian mathematician Girolamo Cardano proposed (what was then) a start-
ling mathematical expression:
This was a valid expression, yet it included the square root of a negative number,
which seemed impossible.
What is a number such as or and how does it relate to a real number, and
what does it signify in mathematics?
Back in Chapter 1, you may recall that our denition of real numbers included
whole numbers, fractions, irrational and rational numbers as subsets of the real
number set. Whenever the square root of a negative number was encountered was
this classied as real? Where did we sometimes encounter such numbers in calcu-
lations? Solution of quadratic equations sometimes brought these numbers to the
foreground. What was the difference between these two situations: x
2
+ 3x 6 = 0
and x
2
+ 3x + 1 = 0? How did the solutions to these equations relate to properties
of the associated parabolas?
In terms of the mathematics that you have studied so far, these square roots of nega-
tive numbers have some signicance.
But why did the square roots of negative numbers become central to the study of a
new set of numbers called the complex numbers? It was partly curiosity and partly
because mathematicians such as Diophantus (the Greek mathematician) and Leibniz
(the German mathematician) found that real numbers could not solve all equations.
Eventually scientists and engineers discovered their uses. Complex numbers are now
used extensively in the elds of physics and engineering in areas such as electric cir-
cuits and electromagnetic waves. Combined with calculus theory, complex numbers
form an important part of the study of mathematics known as complex analysis.
Square root of a negative number
The quadratic equation x
2
+ 1 = 0 has no solutions for x in the Real Number System R
because the equation yields and there is no real number which, when
squared, gives 1 as the result. If, however, we dene an imaginary number denoted
by i such that i
2
= 1, then becomes x = = i. For the general case
x
2
+ a
2
= 0, with a R, we can write:
x =
=
=
= ai
Powers of i will produce i or 1. We have i
2
= 1, i
3
= i
2
i = 1 i = i,
i
4
= i
2
i
2
= 1 1 = 1, i
6
= (i
2
)
3
= (1)
3
= 1 and so on. The pattern is quite obviously
that even powers of i result in 1 or 1 and odd powers of i result in i or i.
Denition of a complex number
A complex number (generally denoted by the letter z) is dened as a quantity
consisting of a real number added to a multiple of the imaginary unit i. For real
numbers x and y, x + yi is a complex number. This is referred to as the standard or
Cartesian form.
40 (5 15 + )(5 15 ) =
1 15
x 1 =
x 1 = i
2
a
2

1 a
2

i
2
a
2

denition of complex numbers
including standard and
trigonometrical (modulus-
argument) form

algebraic representation of
complex numbers in
Cartesian, trigonometric and
polar form

geometric representation of
complex numbers Argand
diagrams

operations with complex
numbers including addition,
subtraction, scalar
multiplication, multiplication
of complex numbers,
conjugation

simple, purely mathematical
applications of complex
numbers
C h a p t e r 2 N u m b e r s y s t e m s : c o m p l e x n u m b e r s 77
C = {z: z = x + yi where x, y R} denes the set of complex numbers.
The real part of z is x and is written as Re (z). That is, Re (z) = x.
The imaginary part of z is y and is written as Im (z). That is, Im (z) = y.
Note: Every real number x can be written as x + 0i and so the set of real numbers is a
subset of the set of complex numbers. That is, R C.
Using the imaginary number i, write a simplied expression for:
a b .
THINK WRITE
a Express the square root of 16 as the product of
the square root of 16 and the square root of 1.
a =
Substitute i
2
for 1. =
Take the square root of 16 and i
2
. = 4i
b Express the square root of 5 as the product of
the square root of 5 and the square root of 1.
b =
Substitute i
2
for 1. =
Simplify. =
16 5
1
16 16 1
2
16 i
2
3
1
5 5 1
2
5 i
2
3
i 5
1
WORKEDExample
Write down the real and imaginary parts of the following complex numbers, z.
a z = 3 + 2i b z = i
THINK WRITE
a The real part is the non-i term.
a Re (z) = 3
The imaginary part is the coefcient of
the i term.
Im (z) = 2
b The real part is the non-i term.
b Re (z) = 0
The imaginary part is the coefcient of
the i term.
Im (z) =
1
2
---
1
2
1
2
1
2
---
2
WORKEDExample
Write i
8
+ i
5
in the form x + yi where x and y are real numbers.
THINK WRITE
Simplify both i
8
and i
5
using the lowest
possible power of i.
i
8
= (i
2
)
4
= (1)
4
= 1
i
5
= i
4
i = (i
2
)
2
i = (1)
2
i = 1 i = i
Add the two answers.
i
8
+ i
5
= 1 + i
1
2
3
WORKEDExample
Simplify z = i
4
2i
2
+ 1 and w = i
6
3i
4
+ 3i
2
1 and show that z + w = 4.
THINK WRITE
Replace terms with the lowest possible
powers of i (remember i
2
= 1).
i
4
2i
2
+ 1 = (i
2
)
2
2 1 + 1
= (1)
2
+ 2 + 1
= 4
i
6
3i
4
+ 3i
2
1 = (i
2
)
3
3(i
2
)
2
+ 3 1 1
= (1)
3
3(1)
2
3 1
= 1 3 3 1
= 8
Add the two answers. z + w = i
4
2i
2
+ 1 + i
6
3i
4
+ 3i
2
1
z + w = 4 8
z + w = 4
1
2
4
WORKEDExample
Evaluate each of the following.
a Re (7 + 6i) b Im (10) c Re (2 + i 3i
3
) d Im
THINK WRITE
a The real part of the complex number
7 + 6i is 7.
a Re (7 + 6i) = 7
b The number 10 can be expressed in
complex form as 10 + 0i and so the
imaginary part is 0.
b Im (10) = Im (10 + 0i)
= 0
c Simplify 2 + i 3i
3
. c Re (2 + i 3i
3
) = Re (2 + i 3i i
2
)
= Re (2 + i + 3i)
= Re (2 + 4i)
The real part is 2.
= 2
d Simplify the numerator of
.
d Im = Im
= Im
Simplify by dividing the numerator by 2.
= Im
= Im (1 i)
The imaginary part is 1.
= 1
1 3i i
2
i
3
2
----------------------------------

1
2
1
1 3i i
2
i
3
2
----------------------------------

1 3i i
2
i
3
2
----------------------------------

1 3i 1 i + +
2
-------------------------------

2 2i
2
--------------

2 2 1 i ( )
2
------------------
3
5
WORKEDExample
Introduction to
complex numbers
1 Using the imaginary number i, write down expressions for:
2 Write down the real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the following complex
numbers, z.
3 Write each of the following in the form x + yi, where x and y are real numbers.
4 Simplify z = i
6
+ 3i
7
2i
10
3 and w = 4i
8
3i
11
+ 3 and show that z + w = 5.
5 Evaluate each of the following.
6 Write in the form x + yi, where x and y are real numbers.
7
a The value of Re (i + i
3
+ i
5
) is:
b The value of Im [i(2i
4
3i
2
+ 5i)] is:
c The expression i + i
2
i
3
+ i
4
i
5
+ i
6
simplies to:
d If which one of the statements below is true?
8 If n is an even natural number show that .
a b c d
e f g h
a 9 + 5i b 5 4i c 3 8i d 11i 6
e 27 f 2i g 5 + i h 17i
a i
9
+ i
10
b i
9
i
10
c i
12
+ i
15
d i
7
i
11
e i
5
+ i
6
i
7
f i(i
13
+ i
16
) g 2i i
2
+ 2i
3
h 3i + i
4
5i
5
a Re (5 + 4i) b Re (15 8i) c Re (12i )
d Im (1 6i) e Im (3 + 2i) f Im (8)
g Re (i
5
3i
4
+ 6i
6
) h Im
A 2 B 1 C 3 D 1 E 0
A 0 B 5 C 5 D 10 E 4
A i B 0 C i 1 D i + 2 E i
A f(i) = 2 + i B Re [f (i)] = 5 C Im [f (i)] =
D f(i) = 1 i E f(i) = 0
1. The imaginary number i has the property that i
2
= 1.
2. A complex number z is of the form z = x + yi where x, y R.
3. The real part of z is x and is written as Re (z).
4. The imaginary part of z is y and is written as Im (z).
remember
2A
WORKED
Example
1
9 25 49 3
11 7
4
9
---
36
25
------
WORKED
Example
2
WORKED
Example
3
WORKED
Example
4
WORKED
Example
5
4i
9
5i
14
2i
7
3
------------------------------------

3
i
3
i 2 +
i
2
i
4
---------------------
multiple choice
f i ( )
1 i i
2
i
11
+ + + +
4
---------------------------------------------- =
1
4
---
1 ( )
n
2
---
i
n
=

3

i

5

i

7

i 3i

i
6
5
--- 11i 7i

i
2
3
---

9, 5 5,

3,

6, 11
27, 0
0, 2

5, 1 0,

17

1

+

i

1

+

i

1

i

0

+

0

i

1

+

2

i

1

+

i

1

+

0

i

1

2

i
z

=

2

3

i

,

w

=

7

+

3

i

5 15 0

6 2 0

9 2
4

i

Check with your teacher.
Basic operations using complex
numbers
Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided. In general, the
solutions obtained when performing these operations are presented in the standard form
z = x + yi.
Argand diagrams
We know that an ordered pair of real numbers (x, y) can be represented on the Cartesian
plane. Similarly, if we regard the complex number x + yi as consisting of the ordered
pair of real numbers (x, y), then the complex number z = x + yi can be plotted as a point
(x, y) on the complex number plane.
This is also referred to as the Argand plane or an Argand diagram in recognition of
the work done in this area by the Swiss mathematician Jean-Robert Argand.
Complex numbers in
quadratic equations
In your junior mathematics studies you graphed quadratics and found the real roots
of the expressions using the formula for the solution of a general quadratic
equation of the form ax
2
+ bx + c. Sometimes the values for a, b and c meant that
the value under the radical sign was negative; that is, it had a negative discriminant
(for example, ). You might have been told that this meant there were no real
roots for this quadratic. That was correct, but only half the answer. Follow the
steps below and you will hopefully develop a better understanding of the results
you obtain.
The following formulas are included for your assistance:
x = , turning point occurs where x =
Step 1 Use the formula for the solution of a quadratic equation to nd the roots
of:
y = x
2
2x 3 ....................(A)
Interpret this result.
Step 2 Use the formula for the x-coordinate of the turning point and substitute
this into the original quadratic to nd the y-coordinate of this turning
point.
Step 3 Graph this quadratic equation using the information from steps 1 and 2.
Repeat steps 13 with the following quadratic equations. Note the effect of the
negative discriminant in equation (C).
y = x
2
2x + 1 .................................. (B)
y = x
2
2x + 2 .................................. (C)
Graphically, we can see that there are no real values of x that satisfy the equation
x
2
2x + 2 = 0.
16
b b
2
4ac
2a
-------------------------------------
b
2a
------

Equation A:

y

=

x

2

2

x

3
Roots are

1 and 3, hence
there are two

x

-intercepts
at

x

=

1 and

x

=

3. The
discriminant is positive
(

b

2

4

ac

=

16).
(1,

4)
1
3
1 3
0
y
y = x
2
2x 3
(1, 4)
1
1
0
x
y
y = x
2
2x + 1

3
2
1

Equation B:

y

=

x

2

2

x

+

1
Root is 1, hence there is
one

x

-intercept at

x = 1.
Discriminant is 0
(b
2
4ac = 0).
(1, 0)
3
2
1
Equation C: y = x
2
2x + 2
No real roots, hence there
are no x-intercepts.
Discriminant is negative
(b
2
4ac = 4).
(1, 1)
3
2
1
In the complex system,
x
2
2x + 2 = 0 has roots
1 + i and 1 i.
(1, 1)
1
1
2
0
x
y
y = x
2
2x + 2
SLE 1: Solve quadratic
equations whose discriminant
is negative.
The horizontal axis is referred to as the Real axis
and the vertical axis is referred to as the Imaginary
axis.
The points A, B, C, D and E shown on the
Argand diagram at right represent the complex
numbers 3 + 0i, 0 + 2i, 4 + 5i, 3 4i and 2 2i
respectively.
This method of representation is a useful way of
illustrating the properties of complex numbers
under the operations of addition, subtraction and
multiplication.
Addition of complex numbers
Addition is performed by adding the real and imaginary parts separately.
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i
where Re (z + w) = Re (z) + Re (w) and Im (z + w) = Im (z) + Im (w).
Geometric representation
If z
1
= x
1
+ y
1
i and z
2
= x
2
+ y
2
i then z
2
+ z
1
= (x
2
+ x
1
) + (y
2
+ y
1
)i. If a directed line
segment connects the origin (0 + 0i) to each of the points z
1
, z
2
and z
1
+ z
2
, then the
addition of two complex numbers can be associated with standard methods of addition
of the directed line segments.
The gure at right illustrates the situation for z
2
+ z
1
,
with, say, positive values for x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
and x
1
< x
2
and
y
1
< y
2
.
Note: The origin, z
1
, z
2
and z
2
+ z
1
form a parallelogram.
You will use this concept later in this course when you
study vector addition.
Subtraction of complex numbers
If we write z w as z + w we can use the rule for addition of complex numbers to
obtain z + w = (a + bi) + (c + di)
= a + bi c di
= (a c) + (b d)i
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z w = (a c) + (b d)i.
Geometric representation
If z
1
= x
1
+ y
1
i and z
2
= x
2
+ y
2
i then z
2
z
1
= (x
2
x
1
)
+ (y
2
y
1
)i. If a directed line segment connects the
origin (0 + 0i) to each of the points z
1
, z
2
and z
2
z
1
then the subtraction of two complex numbers can also
be associated with standard methods of the addition of
directed line segments. The gure at right illustrates
the situation for z
2
z
1
, again with positive values for
x
1
, x
2
, y
1
, y
2
and x
1
< x
2
and y
1
< y
2
.
4 321 4 3 2 1
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
Im(z) (Imaginary axis)
(Real axis)
Re (z)
C
D
E
A
B
x
1
x
2
(y
1
+ y
2
)
(x
1
+ x
2
)
y
2
y
1
z
1 z
2
z
1
+ z
2
0
Im(z)
Re (z)
x
1
x
2
(y
2
y
1
)
(x
2
x
1
)
y
2
y
1
z
1 z
2
z
1
z
2
0
Im(z)
Re (z)
SLE 4: Use geometry to
demonstrate the effect of
addition, subtraction and
multiplication of complex
numbers.
Multiplication by a constant (or scalar)
If z = x + yi and kR
then kz = k(x + yi)
= kx + kyi
For k > 1, the product kz can be illustrated as shown at
right. The ratio of corresponding sides of the two triangles
is k:1.
A similar situation exists for k < 1.
So when a complex number is multiplied by a constant, this produces a directed line
segment in the same direction (or at 180 degrees if k < 0) which is larger in length if
k > 1 or smaller if 0 < k < 1. Geometrically this is called a transformation or dilation,
which means magnifying or decreasing by a constant factor.
For z = 8 + 7i, w = 12 + 5i and u = 1 + 2i, calculate:
a z + w b w z c u w + z.
THINK WRITE
a Use the addition rule for complex numbers. a z + w = (8 + 7i) + (12 + 5i)
= (8 12) + (7 + 5)i
= 4 + 12i
b Use the subtraction rule for complex
numbers.
b w z = (12 + 5i) (8 + 7i)
= (12 8) + (5 7)i
= 20 2i
c Use both the addition rule and the
subtraction rule.
c u w + z = (1 + 2i) (12 + 5i) + (8 + 7i)
= (1 + 12 + 8) + (2 5 + 7)i
= 21 + 4i
6
WORKEDExample
x kx
z
kz ky
y
0
Im(z)
Re (z)
If z = 3 + 5i, w = 4 2i and v = 6 + 10i, evaluate:
a 3z + w b 2z v c 4z 3w + 2v.
THINK WRITE
a Calculate 3z + w by substituting values
for z and w.
a 3z + w = 3(3 + 5i) + (4 2i)
= (9 + 15i) + (4 2i)
Use the rule for adding complex numbers. = (9 + 4) + (15 2)i
= 13 + 13i
b Calculate 2z v by substituting values for
z and v.
b 2z v = 2(3 + 5i) (6 + 10i)
Use the rule for subtraction of complex numbers. = 6 + 10i 6 10i
= 0 + 0i
= 0
c Calculate 4z 3w + 2v by substituting
values for z, w and v.
c 4z 3w + 2v
= 4(3 + 5i) 3(4 2i) + 2(6 + 10i)
Use the addition rule and the subtraction
rule to simplify.
= 12 + 20i 12 + 6i + 12 + 20i
= 12 + 46i
1
2
1
2
1
2
7
WORKEDExample
Multiplication of two complex numbers
So far we have shown that complex numbers can be plotted on an Argand diagram;
adding and subtracting them is geometrically equivalent to adding and subtracting
directed line segments and multiplication by a positive constant is equivalent to
extending or shrinking the directed line segment without altering the direction.
What geometrical interpretation, if any, can be given to multiplication of two (or
more) complex numbers?
The multiplication of two complex numbers also results in a complex number.
If z = a + bi and w = c + di
then z w = (a + bi)(c + di)
= ac + adi + bci + bdi
2
= (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i (since i
2
= 1)
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z w = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i.
If z = 6 2i and w = 3 + 4i express zw in standard form.
THINK WRITE
Expand the brackets. zw = (6 2i)(3 + 4i)
= 18 + 24i 6i 8i
2
Express in the form x + yi by substituting 1 for i
2
and simplifying the expression using the addition
and subtraction rules.
= 18 + 24i 6i + 8
= 26 + 18i
1
2
8
WORKEDExample
Simplify (2 3i)(2 + 3i).
THINK WRITE
Expand the brackets. (2 3i)(2 + 3i) = 4 + 6i 6i 9i
2
Substitute 1 for i
2
and simplify the expression. = 4 9 1
= 13
1
2
9
WORKEDExample
Determine Re (z
2
w) + Im (zw
2
) for z = 4 + i and w = 3 i.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Express z
2
w in the form x + yi. z
2
w = (4 + i)
2
(3 i)
= (16 + 8i + i
2
)(3 i)
= (16 + 8i 1)(3 i)
= (15 + 8i)(3 i)
= 45 15i + 24i 8i
2
= 53 + 9i
The real part, Re (z
2
w) is 53. Re (z
2
w) = 53
1
2
10
WORKEDExample
Equality of two complex numbers
If z = a + bi and w = c + di then z = w if and only if a = c and b = d.
The condition if and only if (sometimes written in short form as iff ) means that both
of the following situations must apply.
1. If z = w then a = c and b = d.
2. If a = c and b = d then z = w.
Plotting complex numbers
You will need 1 cm square grid paper, a ruler and a protractor.
For z = 3 + 2i and w = 5 + i
1 Accurately plot z and w on an Argand diagram.
2 Find zw and plot this on the same diagram.
3 Measure each length and angle from the positive end on the Real axis. Do you
notice any pattern between the numbers you started with and your result?
4 Try this with some other complex numbers. Plot your original complex
numbers accurately and plot the product. Test your original hypothesis.
THINK WRITE
Express zw
2
in the form x + yi. zw
2
= (4 + i)(3 i)
2
= (4 + i)(9 6i + i
2
)
= (4 + i)(8 6i)
= 32 24i + 8i 6i
2
= 38 16i
The imaginary part, Im (zw
2
), is 16. Im (zw
2
) = 16
Calculate the value of
Re (z
2
w) + Im (zw
2
).
Re (z
2
w) + Im (zw
2
) = 53 16
= 37
3
4
5
Find the values of x and y that satisfy (3 + 4i)(x + yi) = 29 + 22i.
THINK WRITE
Write the left-hand side of the equation. LHS = (3 + 4i)(x + yi)
Expand the left-hand side of the equation. LHS = 3x + 3yi + 4xi + 4yi
2
Express the left-hand side in the form a + bi. LHS = (3x 4y) + (4x + 3y)i
1
2
3
11
WORKEDExample
Im (z)
0
Re (z)
zw = 17 + 7i
w = 5 + i
z = 3 + 2i

zw

=

17

+

7

i

(see gure at left)
Length of

z

=

, length of

w

=

,
length of

zw

=

=

11.31,

=

146.31,

=

157.62
Length of

zw

=

length of

z

length of

w

;

13 26
338

1
2
3
Multiplication by i
Let us examine the effect on z = x + yi after
multiplication by i, i
2
, i
3
and i
4
.
z = x + yi
iz = i(x + yi) = y + xi
i
2
z = 1z = x yi = z
i
3
z = i(i
2
z) = y xi = iz
i
4
z = i(i
3
z) = x + yi = z
The ve points are shown on the complex plane
at right.
It is observed that multiplying z by i
n
, n N
produces an anticlockwise rotation of 90n degrees.
THINK WRITE
Equate the real parts and imaginary parts to
create a pair of simultaneous equations.
3x 4y = 29 [1]
4x + 3y = 22 [2]
Simultaneously solve [1] and [2] for x and y. 9x 12y = 87 [3]
Multiply equation [1] by 3 and equation [2]
by 4 so that y can be eliminated.
16x + 12y = 88 [4]
Add the two new equations and solve for x. Adding equations [3] and [4]:
25x = 175
x = 7
Substitute x = 7 into equation [1] and solve
for y.
Substituting x = 7 into equation [1]:
3(7) 4y = 29
21 4y = 29
4y = 8
y = 2
State the solution. Therefore x = 7 and y = 2.
Check the solution by substituting these values
into equation [2].
Check: 4 7 + 3 2 = 22.
4
5
6
7
8
9
x iz
z or i
4
z
i
3
z
i
2
z
x x y y
Im(z)
Re (z)
If z = a + bi and w = c + di for a, b, c, dR then:
1. z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i
2. z w = (a c) + (b d)i
3. kz = ka + kbi, for kR
4. z w = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
5. z = w if and only if a = c and b = d.
(Note: If and only if can be written as iff.)
remember
Basic operations using
complex numbers
1 Represent each of the following complex numbers on an Argand diagram.
2 For z = 5 + 3i, w = 1 4i, u = 6 11i and v = 2i 3 calculate:
3 If z = 3 + 2i, w = 4 + i and u = 8 5i, evaluate:
4 Using z, w, u and v from question 2 express each of the following in the form x + yi.
5 Simplify the following.
6 For z = 1 3i and w = 2 5i calculate z
2
w.
7 Determine Re (z
2
) Im (zw) for z = 1 + i and w = 4 i.
8 For z = 3 + 5i, w = 2 3i and u = 1 4i determine:
9 Find the values of x and y that satisfy each of the following.
10
If z = 8 7i and w = 3 + 4i, then:
a Re (zw) is equal to:
b Im (w
2
) + Re (z
2
) is equal to:
c 3z 2w is equal to:
11 If z = 2 + i and w = 4 3i then represent each of the following on an Argand diagram.
12 If z = 3 + 2i, represent each of the following on the same Argand diagram.
z, iz, i
2
z, i
3
z, i
4
z, i
5
z, iz, i
2
z
a 3 + i b 4 5i c 2 6i
d 3i + 7
e f
a z + w b u z c w + v
d u v e w z u f v + w z
a 3w b 2u + z c 4z 3u
d 3z + u + 2w e 2z 7w + 9u f 3(z + 2u) 4w
a zw b uv c wu
d zu
e u
2
f u(wv)
a (10 + 7i)(9 3i) b (3 4i)(5 + 4i) c (8 2i)(4 5i)
d (5 + 6i)(5 6i) e (2i 7)(2i + 7)
f (9 7i)
2
a Im (u
2
) b Re (w
2
)
c Re (uw) + Im (zw)
d Re (zu) Im (w
2
)
e Re (z
2
) Re (zw) Im (uz) f Re (u
2
w) + Im (zw
2
)
a (2 + 3i)(x + yi) = 16 + 11i b (5 4i)(x + yi) = 1 4i
c (3i 8)(x + yi) = 23 37i d (7 + 6i)(x + yi) = 4 33i
A 4 B 4 C 5 D 11 E 52
A 76 B 39 C 105 D 56 E 32
A 30 13i B 30 29i C 18 29i D 24 13i E 18
a z
2
b zw c z + w d w z
e 3z + w f 2w 4z
g (z + w)
2
h (w z)
3
2B
5 2i 8 i 3 +
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
SkillSHEET 2.1
Operations with
complex numbers
WORKED
Example
6
WORKED
Example
7
WORKED
Example
8
WORKED
Example
9
WORKED
Example
10
WORKED
Example
11
multiple choice

4

i

1

14

i

2

i

9

13

i

12

+

4

i

9

5

i

12

+

3

i

19

8

i

12

+

23

i

25

+

3

i

50

48

i

41

28

i

7

23

i

4

+

45

i

50

13

i

63

37

i

85

132

i

176

61

i

111

+

33

i

31

8

i

22

48

i

61

53 32

126

i

14

+

52

i

9 35

30

115

x

=

5,

y

=

2
,

x
21
41
------ = y
16
41
------ =

x

=

1

, y

=

5

x

=

2,

y

=

3
321 3 2 1
3
2
1
1
0
2
3
i
2
z
iz, i
5
z
i
3
z, iz
z, i
4
z, i
2
z
Im (z)
Re (z)

a Im (z)
1 2 3
0
1 3 + i
Re (z)

f
0
2
1
8
8 + i 3
Im (z)
Re (z)

a
0
4
3
3 + 4i
Im (z)
Re (z)

e
0
10
Im (z)
Re (z)
Conjugates and division of
complex numbers
The conjugate of a complex number
The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign of the imaginary
component.
If z = x + yi, the conjugate of z is dened as = x yi.
Conjugates are useful because the multiplication (or addition) of a complex number
and its conjugate results in a real number.
Multiplication: zz
= (x + yi)(x yi)
= x
2
+ y
2
where x, y R, and x yi and x + yi are conjugates. You will use this result when
dividing complex numbers.
Note: Compare this expression with the formula for the difference of two squares
(a b)(a + b) = a
2
b
2
Addition: z + z
= x + yi + x yi
= 2x
Graphing complex conjugates
As seen earlier, z and its conjugate can be written as
z = x + yi and z
= x yi
The geometrical representation of z and z
is
shown at right.
Notice that the conjugate z
appears as
a reection of z in the Real axis.
Other properties of conjugates include:
1. z
= z
2. z
1
z
2
= z
1
z
2
3. z
1
z
2
= z
1
z
2
4. = where z
2
0.
z z
x
z = x + yi
z = x yi
y
y
Re (z)
Im(z)
z
1
z
2
-------

z
1
z
2
--------
Write the conjugate of each of the following complex numbers.
a 8 + 5i b 2 3i c
THINK WRITE
a Change the sign of the imaginary component. a 8 5i
b Change the sign of the imaginary component. b 2 + 3i
c Change the sign of the imaginary component. c
4 i 5 +
4 i 5
12
WORKEDExample
Division of complex numbers
The application of conjugates to division of complex numbers will now be investigated.
Consider the complex numbers z = a + bi and w = c + di. To nd in the form x + yi
we must multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of w to make
the denominator a real number only.
(You might need to review rationalisation of the denominator which was discussed in
Chapter 1.)
=
= Multiply by the conjugate of c + di.
= Simplify the expressions in the numerator
and in the denominator.
= Express in the form x + yi.
Thus we can state:
If z and w are complex numbers in the form x + yi, then can also be expressed
in the form x + yi by simplifying:
If z = 5 2i and w = 7 i, show that .

THINK WRITE
Add the conjugates z
and . z
Add z to w.
Write down the conjugate of z + w.
The conjugate of z + w equals z
. = z
z w + z w + =
1
w w + 5 2i + ( ) 7 i + ( ) + 12 3i + = =
2 z w + 5 2i ( ) 7 i ( ) + 12 3i = =
3 z w + 12 3i + =
4
z w +
z w + w +
13
WORKEDExample
z
w
----
z
w
----
a bi +
c di +
--------------
a bi +
c di +
--------------
c di
c di
-------------
ac bd + ( ) bc ad ( )i +
c
2
d
2
+
-------------------------------------------------------
ac bd +
c
2
d
2
+
------------------
bc ad ( )i
c
2
d
2
+
------------------------- +
z
w
----
z
w
----
w
w
----
Express in standard form.
THINK WRITE
Multiply both the numerator and
denominator by the conjugate of 2 i
to make the denominator real.
=
2 i +
2 i
-----------
1
2 i +
2 i
----------
(2 i) +
(2 i)
---------------
(2 i) +
(2 i) +
---------------
14
WORKEDExample
Multiplicative inverse of a complex number
Given a non-zero complex number z, there exists a complex number w such that zw = 1,
with w being the multiplicative inverse of z denoted by .
This example shows that if z = a + bi then .
Complex numbers can be used to generate fractal patterns such as the Julia Set shown.
THINK WRITE
Expand the expressions obtained in the
numerator and denominator.
=
Substitute 1 for i
2
and simplify the
expression.
=
=
=
2
4 4i i
2
+ +
4 i
2
------------------------
3
4 4i 1 +
4 1 +
-----------------------
3 4i +
5
--------------
3
5
---
4i
5
----- +
w z
1
1
z
--- = =
If z = 3 + 4i, determine z
1
.
THINK WRITE
Write z
1
as a rational expression: z
1
=
Multiply both the numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of 3 + 4i.
=
=
Write the expression in the form x + yi.
=
1
z
1
1
z
--- =
1
z
---
1
3 4i +
-------------- =
2
1
(3 4i) +
-------------------
(3 4i)
(3 4i)
------------------
3 4i
25
--------------
3
3
25
------
4i
25
------
15
WORKEDExample
z
1
a bi
a
2
b
2
+
----------------- =
If z = 3 + i and , determine Im (4z w).
THINK WRITE
Substitute for z and w in 4z w.
Express 4z w with a common
denominator.
4z w =
=
=
=
Remove i from the denominator by
multiplying the numerator and
denominator by the conjugate of 4 i.
=
=
Simplify the expression so that it is in
the form x + yi.
=
State the imaginary component of
4z w.
Im (4z w) =
w
2
4 i
---------- =
1
2
4 3 i + ( )
2
4 i
----------
4 3 i + ( ) 4 i ( ) 2
4 i
--------------------------------------------
4 13 i + ( ) 2
4 i
-------------------------------
50 4i +
4 i
-----------------
3 (50 4i) +
(4 i)
----------------------
(4 i) +
(4 i) +
---------------
196 66i +
17
-----------------------
4
196
17
---------
66i
17
-------- +
5
66
17
------
16
WORKEDExample
Prove that z
1
z
2
= z
1
z
2
.
THINK WRITE
When asked to Prove you should not
use actual values for the pronumerals.
State the general values of z
1
, z
2
,
z
1
and z
2
.
Let z
1
= a + bi
z
1
= a bi
Let z
2
= c + di and z
2
= c di
Generally, in a proof do not work both
sides of the equation at once. Calculate
the LHS rst.
LHS = (a + bi) (c + di)
LHS = ac + adi + bci + bdi
2
LHS = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i
LHS = (ac bd) (ad + bc)i
Calculate the RHS and show that it
equals the LHS.
RHS = (a bi)(c di)
RHS = ac adi bci + bdi
2
RHS = (ac bd) (ad + bc)i
RHS = LHS
Hence z
1
z
2
= z
1
z
2
1
2
3
17
WORKEDExample
Conjugates and division
of complex numbers
1 Write down the conjugate of each of the following complex numbers.
2 Graph the following complex numbers and their conjugates on an Argand diagram.
a 3 i b 1 + 3i c 4 5i
3 If z = 6 + 3i and w = 3 4i, show that = z
.
4 Express in the form x + yi.
5 Express each of the following in the form x + yi.
6 Determine z
1
if z is equal to:
7 If 676z = 10 24i, express z
1
in the form x + yi.
8 If z = 2 i and w = determine each of the following:
9 Write in the form x + yi.
10 Simplify .
11 Determine the conjugate of (5 6i)(3 8i).
a 7 + 10i b 5 9i c 3 + 12i
d e 2i + 5 f 6
a b c
d e f
a 2 i b 3 + i c 4 3i
d 5 + 4i e 2i 3 f
a Re (z + w) b Im (w z) c Re (z
1
+ w
1
)
d Im (3z + 2w) e Re (4w 2z)
If z = a + bi and w = c + di, for a, b, c, d R, then:
1. The conjugate of z is z
= a bi.
2. .
3. The multiplicative inverse of z is z
1
= = .
z
w
----
ac bd +
c
2
d
2
+
------------------
bc ad ( )i
c
2
d
2
+
------------------------- + =
1
z
---
a
a
2
b
2
+
-----------------
b
a
2
b
2
+
-----------------i
remember
2C
WORKED
Example
12
7 3i i 11
WORKED
Example
13
z w w
WORKED
Example
14
2 i +
3 i
----------
1 i
1 i +
----------
3 2i
2 3i +
--------------
2 5i +
4 3i
--------------
4 3i
5 2i +
--------------
4 5i
2 7i
--------------
2 i 3 +
5 i 2
----------------------
WORKED
Example
15
3 i 2
WORKED
Example
16
1
3 i +
----------
2 i +
1 i +
----------
9 2i
2 i
--------------
7 i +
1 i
---------- + +
2 5i + ( )
2
5i 2 ( )
3 4 7i + ( ) 2 5 8i + ( )
---------------------------------------------------
7

10

i

5

+

9

i

3

12

i
7 3i +

5

2

i 6 11 i +


+

i
1
2
---
1
2
---

0

i

0

i

+

i
7
25
------
26
25
------

i
14
29
------
23
29
------

+

i
43
53
------
18
53
------
2 5 6
7
-----------------------
2 2 15 +
7
---------------------------i +

a
c
2 i +
5
-----------
4 3i +
25
--------------
3 2i
13
------------------
3 2i +
5
----------------------

10

+

24

i
23
10
------
9
10
------
17
5
------

16
5
------

14
5
------

+

i
17
2
------
9
2
---

29

33

+

58

i

b
3 i
10
----------
5 4i
41
--------------

6
= 4 5i
= 4 + 5i
Im (z)
z
z
Re (z)

a
b
Im (z)
Re (z)
= 3 i
= 3 + i z
z
= 1 + 3i
= 1 3i
Im (z)
z
z
Re (z)

2
12
If z = 5 12i, w = 9 i and u = 15 6i, then:
a Re (z
1
) is:
b Im is equal to:
c The expression is equal to:
13 If z = 6 + 8i and w = 10 3i:
a show that =
b generalise the result by letting z = a + bi and w = c + di.
14 Use the result = to prove that
n
= ( )
n
.
15 If z = 4 + i and w = 1 + 3i
a show that
b generalise the result by letting z = a + bi and w = c + di.
16 If z = 5 4i and w = 2i, calculate Re (z + w).
17 If z
1
= 2 + 3i, z
2
= 4 i and z
3
= 5 i nd:
18 If z
1
= a + bi and z
2
= c + di show that (z
1
z
2
)
1
= z
1
1
z
2
1
.
19 a If z = 1 + i, nd z
4
, z
8
and z
12
.
b Deduce from your results in a that z
4n
= (2i)
2n
, n N.
20 If z = x + yi, nd the values of x and y such that .
21 Find values for a and b so that z = a + bi satises .
22 If z = x + yi, determine the values of x and y such that .
23 If z = 2 3i and w = 1 2i
a nd i zz
ii ww
b show that iii = +

iii = z
iii =
c nd i ii d z
2
+ w
2
e z + zw f z
1
w
1
A 5 B 12 C D E
A 33 B 103 C 113 D 70 E 0
A 26 7i B 64 + 41i C 46 29i D 34 41i E 64 19i
a 2z
1
z
2
4z
3
b z
1 2
+ z
2 3
c
1 2 3
multiple choice
12
169
---------
5
169
---------
12i
169
---------
zw ( )
2z w 3u +
zw z
w
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
SkillSHEET 2.2
Complex numbers and
their conjugates
zw z
w
z z
z
w
----

z
w
---- =
w
z
z z z
1
z
2
z
3
z z z
z 1
z 1 +
----------- z 2 + =
z i +
z 2 +
----------- i =
z 3 4i + =
WORKED
Example
17
z w +
z w
zw w
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 2.1
z
w
----

z
w
----
1
z
---

1
w
----


16

12

+

11

i

30

19

i

0
4, 16, 64

x

=

1,

y

=

2

a

=

,

b

=

1
2
---
1
2
---

x

=

2,

y

=

1;

x

=

2,

y

=

1
13 5

i
2
13
------
3
13
------

i
1
5
---
2
5
---

8

+

16

i

2

+

10

i
4 7i +
65
------------------

Operations with complex numbers, nding the real and imaginary parts of a complex
number and nding the complex conjugate can be achieved with a graphics calculator.
You may not need to use a graphics calculator with simple complex numbers but it can
be useful in more complicated questions.
Operations with complex numbers
1. Press to display the MAIN MENU. Use the
cursor keys to highlight RUN-MAT. Select it by
pressing .
To perform simple algebra on complex numbers, use
the standard keys to enter the expression. To enter i,
press [i ]. (The i is located above the zero
key.) Press to obtain the answer. For example:
(a) Input (2 2i)(1 + 3i) and then press .
(b) Input (2 2i) (1 + 3i) and then press .
(c) Input (2 2i)^3 and then press .
Notice that we include a multiplication symbol when entering 2i and 3i in these
examples. The calculator will generally assume that 2i means 2 i. However, with
some terms, the calculator may not read it as you intend so it is good practice to
press the multiplication key each time the multiplication operation is needed. Try
calculating with and without including a multiplication sign for .
2. A complex number can be stored and then retrieved
if a number of operations need to be performed on it.
Input 2 2i and then press followed by
[Z] to store this expression as the variable z. Press
.
Input 1 + 3i and then press followed by
[W] to store this expression as the variable w. Press
.
3. We can now calculate expressions involving z and/or
w; for example, z w, z w and z^3. Press to
obtain each answer.
Features of a complex number
1. To nd the complex conjugate, the real part or the
imaginary part of a complex number or expression,
rst press then (CPLX). You will see a
row of complex number options. There is also a
second row of options available. Press ( ) to
move between the two rows.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Simple algebra of
complex numbers
MENU
EXE
SHIFT
EXE
EXE
EXE
EXE
1 2i ( )
2
2i
ALPHA
EXE
ALPHA
EXE
EXE
OPTN F3
F6
s
2. You may then select (Conj) for the complex
conjugate or ( ) followed by (ReP) for the
real part or ( ) followed by (ImP) for the
imaginary part as required. Type the complex
number within brackets and press .
3. Alternatively, you can enter an expression, for
example (2 2i)(1 + 3i), and then press
followed by [A] to store the output as the
variable A. Press .
4. To access the complex number options, rst press
then (CPLX). Remember that you can
move between the two rows of complex number
options by pressing ( ).
(a) To nd , press (Conj). Key
in the variable assigned to the stored data (A in
this case) and press .
(b) To nd Re [ ], press ( ) to access the second row of options
and then press (ReP). Key in the variable assigned to the stored data and
press .
(c) To nd Im [ ], press ( ) to access the second row of options
and then press (ImP). Key in the variable assigned to the stored data and
press .
1. Open a new Calculator document.
To perform simple algebra on complex numbers, use
the standard keys to enter the expression. Use the j
button located on the left of the calculator. Press
to obtain the answer. For example:
(a) input and then press .
(b) input and then press .
(c) input (2 2i)^3 and then press .
Notice that a multiplication symbol (a dot) appears on the screen for any
multiplication operations in these examples. The calculator has assumed that 2i
means 2 i. However, if there were two or more variables in a term, the calculator
may not read it as you intend so it is good practice to press the multiplication key
each time the multiplication operation is needed.
Input 2 2i and then press /hand Zto store
this expression as the variable z. Press .
Input 1 + 3i and then press /hand Wto store
this expression as the variable w. Press .
We can now calculate expressions involving z and/or
w; for example, z w, z w and z^3. Press to
obtain each answer.
F4
F6
s
F1
F6
s
F2
EXE
ALPHA
EXE
OPTN F3
F6
s
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( ) F4
EXE
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( ) F6
s
F1
EXE
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( ) F6
s
F2
EXE
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( )
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( )
press band select 2: Number, then 8: Complex
Number Tools. A list of complex number options
will be displayed.
2. You may then select 1: Complex Conjugate or
2: Real Part or 3: Imaginary Part as required.
Type in the complex number, close the brackets
and press .
example, (2 2i)(1 + 3i), and then press /hand
Ato store the output as the variable a. Press .
(a) To nd , press band select
2: Number, then 8: Complex Number Tools and
1: Complex Conjugate. Key in the variable
assigned to the stored data (Ain this case) and
close the brackets. Press .
(b) To nd Re [ ], press band select 2: Number, then 8: Complex
Number Tools and 2: Real Part. Key in the variable assigned to the stored data
and close the brackets. Press .
(c) To nd Im [ ], press band select 2: Number, then 8: Complex
Number Tools and 3: Imaginary Part. Key in the variable assigned to the stored
data and close the brackets. Press .
Radians and coterminal angles
When a complex number is expressed in a geometrical representation, we use a
directed line segment which has length (modulus) and which lies in a certain direction
with respect to the positive Real axis. This angle formed with the positive Real axis is
called the argument. The argument of a complex number z is written as arg (z) and arg
(z) = .
Before we look at complex numbers in polar form (in the next section), a new unit of
measuring angles is needed, the radian.
Radian measure
A radian is the angle subtended by an arc the length of the radius of
a circle, as shown in the diagram on the right.
Because the circumference of a circle is given by c = 2r, there are
2 radians in one complete circle. Taken in an anticlockwise
rotation from the positive end of the x-axis as shown, the common
angles have radian equivalents.
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( )
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( )
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( )
r
r
r
1 radian
Therefore, if 2 radians = 360, 1 radian = g 57.3.
So an arc of 2r subtends an angle of 2 radians.
Coterminal angles
Consider the angle 420. This angle is made up of a full
revolution, 360 plus 60. When using degrees as our unit
of angle measure, 420 and 60 are said to be coterminal
angles; that is, angles which differ by a multiple of 360.
1 Draw a circle with a set of axes through its centre. Mark the following on the circum-
ference of the circle.
a 0, , , , 2 b , , , c , ,
2 Convert the following common angle measures to radians.
a 45 b 60 c 135 d 270 e 150
3 Convert the following radian measures to degrees.
a b c d
4 Draw the following sets of coterminal angles:
a 30, 390 b 60, 420 c 135, 495
d , e , f ,
Complex numbers in polar form
The modulus of z
The magnitude (or modulus or absolute value) of the
complex number z = x + yi is the length of the line segment
joining the origin to the point z. It is denoted by
z, x + yi or mod z.
The modulus of z is calculated using Pythagoras theorem.
z = so that we have .
360
2
-----------
2
0
2D
2
---
3
2
------
4
---
3
4
------
5
4
------
7
4
------
6
---
5
6
------
7
6
------
7
6
------
5
4
------
4
3
------
5
3
------
6
---
13
6
---------
11
6
---------
23
6
---------
5
4
------
13
4
---------
Im(z)
0
Re (z)
P(x, y)
z = x + yi
y
y
x
x
z= x
2
+ y
2
x
2
y
2
+ zz z
2
=
Find the modulus of the complex number z = 8 6i.
THINK WRITE
Calculate the modulus by rule.
Because it forms the hypotenuse of a right-
angled triangle, the modulus is always
greater than or equal to Re (z) or Im (z).
z =
=
= 10
8
2
6 ( )
2
+
100
18
WORKEDExample
2
0
Im (z)
Re (z)
5
6
------
4
---
3
---
3
4
------
3
2
------

210 225 240 300
(b)
(a) (d)
(e)
(f)
(c)
Im (z)
Re (z)
The argument of z
The argument of z, arg (z), is the angle measure-
ment anticlockwise of the positive Real axis.
In the gure at right, arg (z) = , where
sin = and cos = or tan =
As seen in the previous section, for non-zero z
an innite number of arguments of z exist since,
for a given z {: = 2n, n N} also represents
the position of point P in the gure at right
because a clockwise or anticlockwise rotation
consisting of multiples of 2 radians (or 360)
merely moves P to its original position.
If z = 4 + 2i and w = 7 + 6i, represent the position of w z on an Argand diagram and
calculate w z.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Calculate w z.
w z = 7 + 6i (4 + 2i)
= 3 + 4i
Represent it on an Argand
diagram as a directed line
segment OP.
Use Pythagoras theorem to
determine the length of OP.
So w z = 5
1
2
w
w z
z
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Im(z)
P
Re (z) O
3 OP
2
3
2
4
2
+ 25 = =
OP 5 =
19
WORKEDExample
Represent z
1
= 2 + 3i, z
2
= 5 2i and z
3
= 4 2i on the complex number plane and
calculate the area of the shape formed when the three points are connected by straight
line segments.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Show the connected points on the complex
number plane.
Calculate the area of the triangle obtained.
The length of the base and height can be
found by inspection (base = 9, height = 5).
Area of triangle = 9 5
Area of triangle = 22.5 square units.
1
432 4 5 3 2 1
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
Im(z)
Re (z)
z
1
z
2
z
3
2
1
2
---
20
WORKEDExample
y
z
--------
x
z
--------
y
x
--
Im(z)
0
Re (z)
P(x, y)
z = x + yi
y
y
x
x
z
To ensure that there is only one value of corresponding to
z we refer to the principal value of and denote it by Arg (z).
Note the capital A.
Arg (z) is the angle in the range < or (, ].
Exact values
cos = , sin = , tan = 1
cos = , sin = , tan =
cos = , sin = , tan =
Some useful triangles
It will be easier if you remember these 2 triangles only not the ratios shown above.
Draw a quick sketch and work out each trigonometric ratio when you need to.
4
---
1
2
-------
4
---
1
2
-------
4
---
3
---
1
2
---
3
---
3
2
-------
3
--- 3
6
---
3
2
-------
6
---
1
2
---
6
---
1
3
-------
1
2 3
3
1
1 2
4
Find the Argument of z for each of the following in the interval (, ].
a z = 4 + 4i b z = 1
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Plot z.
Sketch the triangle that has sides in this
1:1 ratio.
a
From the diagram
=
Arg (z) =
This result can be veried using an
inverse trigonometric ratio, = tan
1
.
Check:
= tan
1
=
3i
1
2
1
1
2
4
4
Im(z)
Re (z)
4
---
4
---
3
y
x
--
4
4
---
4
---
21
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE/DRAW
b Plot z.
Sketch the triangle that has sides in this
ratio.
b
From the diagram
=
Arg (z) =
This result can be veried using an
inverse trigonometric ratio, = tan
1
.
Check:
= tan
1
=
1
2
1
2
3
3
Im(z)
Re (z)
3
---
3
---
3
y
x
--
3
1
----------
3
---
Convert each of the following into Arguments. a b
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Sketch the angle. a
Since the given angle is positive,
subtract multiples of 2 until it lies in
the range (, ].
Arg (z) =
=
b Sketch the angle. b
Since the given angle is negative, add
multiples of 2 until it lies in the range
(, ].
Arg (z) =
=
7
4
------
5
2
------
1 Im(z)
Re (z)
2
7
4
------ 2
4
---
1 Im(z)
Re (z)
2
5
2
------ 2 +
2
---
22
WORKEDExample
Find the modulus and Argument for each of the following complex numbers.
a b
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Plot z.
This triangle has sides
in the same ratio as
a
z = 2
Arg (z) =
These results can be veried by
calculating the modulus and Argument
by rule.
Check:
z =
=
= 2
= tan
1
=
b Plot z. b
Find the modulus.
z =
z =
z =
The triangle in the third quadrant will
be used to nd but the answer will be
nally expressed as and Arg (z).
= tan
1
= tan
1

= 0.955
= + 0.955
Remember Arg (z)
can be thought of as
the quickest way to
get to z.
Arg (z) = 2.187
3 i + 1 2i
1
2
1
3
Im(z)
Re (z)
6
---
3
3 ( )
2
1
2
+
4
1
3
-------
6
---
1
1
2
Im(z)
Re (z)
2
1 ( )
2
2 ( )
2
+
1 2 +
3
3
y
x
--
2
1
----------
4
23
WORKEDExample
1
2
3
Arg (z)
z
Your graphics calculator is also able to calculate the modulus and Argument of a
complex number. Consider and from Worked example 23.
Modulus (or absolute value) of a complex number
1. Press to display the MAIN MENU and select
RUN-MAT. Press then (CPLX) to display
the complex number options. To select the modulus
or absolute value option, press (Abs).
2. (a) Enter ( ) and press . (Press
[ ] and type in 3 for .)
(b) The modulus of is also shown in the
screen at right.
(c) The modulus of a stored complex number can
also be calculated. For example, using the
expression from the previous graphics calculator
tip where we assigned the variable A to
, we can obtain the value as
shown in the screen at right.
Argument of a complex number
1. Decide whether you want the angle to be shown in radians or degrees. See the
instructions below for changing the system settings for Angle.
2. As before, press then (CPLX) to display the complex number options. To
select the Argument option, press (Arg).
3. Enter the required complex number within
brackets and press to obtain the answer. If the
calculator is set to radians, the answer will be shown
as the decimal equivalent to . If the calculator is set
to degrees, the answer will be shown as 30 for 30.
4. (a) The Argument of is shown in degrees
as a decimal in the screen at right.
(b) To convert this angle to degrees, minutes and
seconds, we can rst press [Ans] and
to display the decimal answer again. (This
step is optional and used to show both answers on
the screen.) Press and then ( ) for
more options. Press (ANGL) followed by
( ) to obtain the answer in degrees,
minutes and seconds.
(c) The Argument of a stored complex number can also be calculated. See the screen
above for the Argument of the variable A where A is assigned to
. The calculator is set to degrees for this example.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Modulus and
Argument
3 i + 1 2i
MENU
OPTN F3
F2
3 i + EXE SHIFT
3
1 2i
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( )
OPTN F3
F3
3 i +
EXE
6
---
1 2i
SHIFT
EXE
OPTN F6
s
F5
F5
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( )
Changing the system settings for Angle
To change the settings for Angle, press [SET
UP] and use the down arrow to highlight Angle. Press
(Deg) to set degrees or press (Rad) to set
radians.
Modulus (or magnitude) of a complex number
1. Press band select 2: Number, then 8: Complex
Number Tools and 5: Magnitude. A pair of modulus
signs appears with a box to enter the required
complex number.
2. (a) To enter , press /then qand type in 3
for . Use the right arrow of the NavPad to move
the cursor out from under the square root sign.
Press +and j to complete the expression.
Again use the right arrow of the NavPad to move
the cursor to the right of the second modulus sign.
Press to obtain the answer.
(b) The modulus of is also shown in the
screen at right.
(c) The modulus of a stored complex number can also be calculated. For example,
using the expression from the previous graphics calculator tip where we assigned
the variable a to , we can obtain the magnitude as shown in the
screen above.
1. Decide whether you want the angle to be shown in radians or degrees. See the
instructions below for changing the system settings for Angle.
Number Tools and 4: Polar Angle.
3. Enter the required complex number , close the
brackets and press to obtain the answer. If the
calculator is set to radians, the answer will be shown
as . If the calculator is set to degrees, the answer
will be shown as 30 for 30.
4. (a) The Argument of is shown as an exact
answer in radians in the screen at right.
(b) For an approximate answer, press /then .
The answer is now shown as a decimal in radians.
(c) To convert this angle in radians to degrees,
minutes and seconds, rst press /then vand
select DMS in the catalog (press k, select 1,
scroll down to DMS and press ).
Now that you are back in the calculator screen, press to obtain the answer.
Note: You can convert degrees to radians by selecting Rad in the catalog.
SHIFT
F1 F2
3 i +
3
1 2i
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( )
3 i +
6
---
1 2i
5. (a) The Argument of a stored complex number can
also be calculated. See the screen at right for the
Argument of the variable a where a is assigned to
. The exact answer is shown.
(b) For the approximate answer, press /then .
The calculator is set to degrees for this example.
1. To change the settings for Angle, press the home key
(c) and select 8: System information and then
2: System Settings. Use the tab key (e) to move
down to Angle and then use the down arrow to select
Degree or Radian as required.
2. Press to accept your selection. Tab to OK and
press . A message will appear asking whether to
apply these system settings to current document
settings. Select Yes and press .
Note that you can also change the settings for
Angle by accessing the setup menu (press /[#])
and selecting 1: File and then 6: Document
Settings.
Expressing complex numbers in polar form
Suppose z = x + yi is represented by the point P(x, y)
on the complex plane using Cartesian coordinates.
Using the trigonometric properties of a right-
angled triangle, z can also be expressed in polar
coordinates as follows. We have:
cos = or x = r cos
sin = or y = r sin
where z = r = and = Arg (z).
The point P(x, y) in polar form is shown at right.
Now z = x + yi in Cartesian form becomes
z = r cos + r sin i (after substitution of x = r cos ,
y = r sin )
= r (cos + i sin )
= r cis , where cis is the abbreviated form of
cos + i sin .
(Note: The acronym cis is pronounced sis.)
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( )
Im(z)
0
Re (z)
P(x, y)
y
y
x
r = z
x
r
--
y
r
--
x
2
y
2
+
Im(z)
0
O
Re (z)
y
r sin
rcos
rsin ) P(rcos ,
r
Express each of the following in polar form, r cis q, where q = Arg (z).
a z = 1 + i b z = 1
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Plot z. a
The ratio of the sides of
this triangle matches the
following special
triangle:
From the diagram
z =
=
These results can be veried by rule:
Check:
(a) Find the value of r using
.
r =
=
(b) Determine tan from tan and
hence nd .
tan =
= 1
The angle is in the range (, ], which is
required.
=
Substitute the values of r and in
z = r cos + r sin i = r cis .
z =
z =
b Sketch z. b
The ratio of the sides of
this triangle is the same
as that in the following
special triangle:
From the diagram
r = 2
=
Arg (z) =
3i
1
1
1
Im(z)
Re (z)
2
2
4
---
3
r z x
2
y
2
+ = =
1
2
1
2
+
2
y
x
-- =
1
1
---
4
4
---
5
2 cos
4
--- 2 sin
4
---i +
2 cis
4
---
1
1
3
Im(z)
Re (z)
2
3
---
3
---
24
WORKEDExample
1
1
2
1
2
3
Complex numbers in Cartesian form (also known as rectangular form) can be written in
polar form if we know the modulus and the Argument. Consider 1 + i and
from Worked example 24.
1. Press to display the MAIN MENU and
select RUN-MAT. Press then (CPLX)
to display the complex number options. To access
the second row of complex number options, press
( ).
2. Enter the complex number in Cartesian form. To
convert the number to polar form, press
( r ). Press to show the modulus and
Argument.
For 1 + i, we can see that the modulus is
1.41421 (which is the decimal equivalent to
) and the Argument is 45 (as the calculator is
set to degrees). For , the modulus is 2 and
the Argument is 60.
3. If the calculator is set to radians, the Argument
will be displayed in radians as a decimal.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
These results can be veried by rule: Check:
(a) Calculate the value of r. r =
r = 2
(b) Determine the appropriate value of . tan =
=
=
Substitute for r and in
z = r cos + r sin i and write in the form
r cis .
z =
=
3
1 ( 3)
2
+

3
1
-------
3
3
---
4
2 cos
3
---

2 sin
3
---

i +
2 cis
3
---

Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Expressing complex
1 3i
MENU
OPTN F3
F6
s
F3
q EXE
2
1 3i
1. From the home screen, select 1: Calculator. Enter
the complex number in Cartesian form. Press b
and select 2: Number, then 8: Complex Number
Tools followed by 6: Convert to Polar. Press to
show the modulus and Argument. For 1 + i, we can
see that the modulus is and the Argument is 45
(as the calculator is set to degrees). For , the
modulus is 2 and the Argument is 60.
2. If the calculator is set to radians, the answer is
shown in a different format but we can still see
the modulus and Argument. Another way of
expressing cis (the polar form of 1 + i) is .
(This is beyond the scope of this course.)
Expressing complex numbers in Cartesian form
Complex numbers in polar form can be written in Cartesian form by entering both the
modulus and the Argument into the calculator. Consider 3 cis from Worked
example 25.
The modulus is 3 and the Argument is or 45.
2
1 3i
2
4
--- 2e
i
4
-----
Express 3 cis in Cartesian (or standard a + ib) form.
THINK WRITE
Sketch z.
Express 3 cis in Cartesian form.
Simplify using exact values from the
following triangle:
3 cis =
= 3 + 3 i
=
=
4
---
1
3
4
Im(z)
Re (z)
2
4
---
3
4
--- 3 cos
4
--- 3 sin
4
---i +
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
3
2
-------
3
2
-------

i +
3
2
------- 1 i + ( )
25
WORKEDExample
1
1
2
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Expressing complex numbers in
Cartesian form
4
---
4
---
1. Press to display the MAIN MENU and select
RUN-MAT. Press then (CPLX) to display
the complex number options. Access the second row
of complex number options by pressing ( ).
2. Enter the modulus (3 in this case) and then press
[] and enter the Argument in radians ( in
this case) or degrees (45) as appropriate to the
calculator setting. The screen at right shows the
angle in radians. To convert to Cartesian form
(a + bi form), press ( a + bi). Press to
show the complex number.
3. If the calculator is set to degrees with the Argument
entered as 45, the same result is obtained.
1. Open a new Calculator document. Enter the
modulus (3 in this case) then access the symbol
palette (press / then k) and highlight the angle
symbol .
2. Press . Complete the entry line by entering the
angle in radians ( in this case) or degrees (45) as
appropriate to the calculator setting. The screen at
right shows the angle in radians. Press )to close
the set of brackets.
Number Tools followed by 7: Convert to
Rectangular. Press .
The fraction is equivalent to
(shown with a rational denominator).
MENU
OPTN F3
F6
s
SHIFT
4
---
F4
EXE
4
---
3
2
-------
3 2
2
----------
History
of mathematics
ABRAHAM DE MOIVRE
(26 May 1667 27 November 1754)
During his lifetime. . .
Christopher Wren nishes
St Pauls Cathedral.
Blackbeard the pirate is
killed.
The rst successful
appendectomy is performed.
People are put to death, as
witches, in Salem.
Abraham De Moivre was born in the
French town of Vitry but from the age of
eighteen he lived in England. The son of a
doctor, he was educated at the Protestant
Academy at Sedan and then attended college
in Paris. In 1685 his family emigrated to
England to escape the growing tensions
between Catholics and Protestants in
France.
De Moivre contributed to the development
of analytic geometry and to the theory of
probability. One of his most famous books,
The Doctrine of Chances, was published in
1718 and contained major advances in
probability theory. In 1725, after investigating
mortality statistics, he published Annuities on
Lives. Insurance companies of the day used
his work to calculate the probabilities of
various events. He is best known to students
for his formula (r cis )
n
= r
n
cis n which
can be used to work out the powers of
complex numbers.
It is said that De Moivre was inspired to
further research by reading Isaac Newtons
book Principia. He had little spare time so
he tore out pages and carried them around
with him, studying them in any free moment.
Later in life he became involved in the
controversy about whether Newton or Leibniz
had been the rst to discover
calculus. He was appointed by the
Royal Society to the commission
set up to investigate the rival
claims.
De Moivre always had
difculty earning money, but
was able to eke out a living by
working as a private tutor and by
writing books. Unlike many other
mathematicians of the time, he could
not nd a rich patron to support him
because he was a foreigner. Even though he
was made a fellow of the Royal Society in
1697 and had famous friends such as Newton
and Halley, he was always poor and
eventually died in poverty.
Apparently, De Moivre predicted the time
of his own death. Near the end of his life he
noticed that he needed to sleep for an extra
15 minutes each night. He calculated the date
when the cumulative result of this would
mean that he was asleep for 24 hours. He died
in his sleep on that day.
Questions
1. What was the subject of De Moivres
book The Doctrine of Chances?
2. Why couldnt De Moivre nd a
patron?
3. How did De Moivre make a living?
4. Which famous mathematician played a
major role in his life?
5. What was unusual about the date he
died?
Research
Investigate how insurance companies use
probability to work out how much each
insurance policy costs you.
Probability
He was a foreigner.
Tutoring students
and writing books
Newton
De Moivre predicted it.
Complex numbers in polar
form
In the following questions give arg (z) or Arg (z) correct to 3 decimal places where the
angle cannot be easily expressed as a common multiple of .
1 a Represent z = 4 + 8i on an Argand diagram.
b Calculate the exact distance of z from the origin. (Do not use your calculator.)
2 Find the modulus of each of the following.
3 If z = 3 + i, w = 4 3i and u = 2 + 5i then:
i represent each of the following on an Argand diagram
ii calculate the magnitude in each case.
4 a Show the points z
1
= 3 + 0i, z
2
= 2 + 5i, z
3
= 7 + 5i and z
4
= 9 + 0i on the complex
number plane.
b Calculate the area of the shape formed when the four points are connected by
straight line segments in the order z
1
to z
2
to z
3
to z
4
.
5 a Show the points z = 1 + 3i, u = 3 and w = 3 + 12i on the complex number plane.
b Calculate the area of the triangle produced by joining the three points with straight
line segments.
6 Find the Argument of z for each of the following in the interval (, ]. (Give exact
answers where possible.)
a z = 5 + 12i
b z =
c z = 4 + 7i
d z = 3 6i
e z = f z = (2 + i)
2
a z w b u + z c w u
d w + z e z + w u
f z
2
a z = 3 + 2i
b z =
c z = 5 5i d z = 4 + 8i
e z = 2
f z = 6 10i g z = 3i
h z =
i z = 6i j z = 55
1. The magnitude (or modulus or absolute value) of z = x + yi is the length of the
line segment from (0, 0) to z and is denoted by z, x + yi or mod z.
2. z = and z = .
3. arg (z) = where tan = . = tan
1
.
4. z i
n
, n N produces an anticlockwise rotation of 90n degrees.
5. z = r cos + r sin i = r cis in polar form.
6. Arg (z) is the angle in the range < .
x
2
y
2
+ z z
2
y
x
--
y
x
--
remember
2E
WORKED
Example
18 5 2i
3 2i +
WORKED
Example
19
WORKED
Example
20
WORKED
Example
21
3 i +
2 3i 7

1 a
4
8
0
z = 4 + 8i
Im (z)
Re (z)
z 4 5 =

13
3
65
3 5
5

5

3
a i
0
4
1
z w
Im (z)
Re (z)

ii 17

ii 37

ii

10

ii 53

ii 130

ii

10

b i
0
6
1
u + z
Im (z)
Re (z)

c i
0
8
6
w u
Im (z)
Re (z)

3 d i
0
2
7
w + z
Im (z)
Re (z)

4 a
4 2 10 2 4 6 8
4
6
z
3
z
2
z
4
z
1
2
Im (z)
Re (z)

42.5 square units

5 a
4 2 2 4 6 8
2
0
4
6
8
10
12
z
w
u
Im (z)
Re (z)

24 square units
0.588
6
---
4
---

2.034
2
3
------

1.030
2
---

2
---

0

3 e i
f i
0
7
9
z + w u
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
6
8
z
2
Im (z)
Re (z)
7 Convert each of the following into Arguments.
8 Find the modulus and Argument of each of the following complex numbers.
9 Express each of the following in the polar form, z = r cis , where = Arg (z).
10 Express each of the following complex numbers in Cartesian (or standard a + ib) form.
11
If z = 3 50i and w = 5 + 65i, the value of z + w is:
12
The perimeter of the triangle formed by the line segments connecting the points
2 4i, 14 4i and 2 + i is:
13
The Argument of is:
14
In polar form, 5i is:
15
The Cartesian form of cis is:
a b c d
e f g h
a 3 3i b 5 + 5i
c 1 d
e 7 10i f 6i 2
g
a z = 1 + i
b z = c z = d z =
e z =
f z =
a 2 cis b 3 cis c d 4 cis
e f 8 cis
g cis
A 64 B 15 C 17 D 225 E 289
A 13 B 30 C 10 D 17 E 25
A B C D E
A cis B cis 5 C cis D 5 cis 5 E 5 cis
A B C D E
WORKED
Example
22
3
2
------
11
6
---------
15
8
---------
5
4
------
19
6
---------
20
7
---------
18
5
---------
13
12
---------
WORKED
Example
23 3i 4 3 4i +
3 i + ( )
2
WORKED
Example
24 6 2i + 5 5i 5 15i
1
2
---
3
2
-------i
1
4
---
1
4
---i +
WORKED
Example
25
2
3
------
4
--- 5 cis
5
6
------
3
---

7 cis
7
4
------

2
---
3
multiple choice
multiple choice
multiple choice
4 3 4i
6
---
3
---
5
6
------
6
---
3
---
multiple choice
2
---
5
2
------
2
---
multiple choice
3
7
6
------

1
2
---
3
2
-------i +
1
2
---
3
2
-------i +
3
2
-------
1
2
---i +
3
2
---
3
2
-------i +
3
2
-------
1
2
---i
2
---
6
---
8
---
3
4
------
5
6
------
6
7
------
2
5
------
11
12
---------
3 2
4
--- , 5 2
3
4
------ ,
2
2
3
------ , 8
6
--- ,
149 2.182 , 2 10 1.893 ,
4
3
--- ,

10
a
b

(1

+

i

)

c
d
e

(1

+

i

)

f

8

i

g
1 3i +
3 2
2
----------
5
2
------- 3 i + ( )
2 2 3 i
14
2
----------
3
2 5 cis
3
---

cis
2
3
------

2
4
------- cis
3
4
------

e
a 2 cis
3
4
------

b 2 2 cis
6
---

c 10 cis
3
4
------

Basic operations on complex numbers
in polar form
Addition and subtraction
In general there is no simple way to add or subtract complex numbers given in the polar
form r cis . For addition or subtraction, the complex numbers need to be expressed in
Cartesian form rst.
Multiplication in polar form
In earlier sections we performed multiplication and division on complex numbers
in standard form. This is quite a lengthy process for both these operations.
However, as is the case in many aspects of mathematics, patterns exist that make
the job so much easier. Work through the following investigation that will form the
basis of future work.
1 Given that z = 1 + i and w = 2 + 2i:
a nd zw in standard form
b express the product from part a in polar form
c verify that | zw| = | z || w|
d verify that arg (zw) = arg (z) + arg (w).
2 Given that z = 1 i and w = 2 2 i:
b express the product from part a in polar form
c verify that | zw| = | z || w|
d verify that arg (zw) = arg (z) + arg (w)
3 Given that z = a + bi and w = c + di
b verify that | zw| = | z || w|
c For z = r
1
cis = r
1
(cos + i sin ) and w = r
2
cis = r
2
(cos + i sin ),
show that zw = r
1
r
2
[(cos cos sin sin ) + i(cos sin + sin cos )]
4 Using the trigonometric identities:
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B
sin (A + B) = cos A sin B + sin A cos B
verify that zw = r
1
r
2
[cos( + ) + i sin ( + )]
= r
1
r
2
cis ( + )
This investigation illustrates the following useful facts concerning multiplication
of complex numbers in polar form:
If z and w are two complex numbers, then
| zw| = | z || w| and arg (zw) = arg (z) + arg (w)
Similarly, for division of complex numbers:
= and arg = arg (z) arg (w)
The proofs required to establish these rules are outside the Mathematics C
syllabus and will not be included in this chapter on complex numbers.
3
3
z
w
----
z
w
--------
z
w
----

2

2

+

2(

+

1)

i 3 3

4 cis 2
7
12
------

2

2(

+

1)

i 3 3

4 cis 2
7
12
------

SLE 3: Use polar forms to
demonstrate multiplication
and division of complex
numbers.
Express 5 cis in the form r cis where (, ].
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Simplify using the multiplication rule
zw = r
1
r
2
cis ( + ) (see part 4 on
page 111).
=
= 10 cis
Sketch this number.
Subtract 2 from to express the
answer in the required form.
10 cis = 10 cis
4
---
2 cis
5
6
------
1
5 cis
4
--- 2 cis
5
6
------ 5 2 ( ) cis
4
---
5
6
------ +

13
12
---------

2
Im(z)
Re (z)
11
12
13
12
3
13
12
---------

11
12
---------

26
WORKEDExample
Express z
1
z
2
in Cartesian form if and .
THINK WRITE
Use z
1
z
2
= r
1
r
2
cis (
1
+
2
).
Write the result in standard form.
z
1
z
2
=
=
=
= 2 cos + 2 sin i
= 2 0 + 2 1i
=
z
1
2 cis
5
6
------
= z
2
6 cis
3
---

=
1
2
2 cis
5
6
------ 6 cis
3
---

( 2 6) cis
5
6
------
3
---

2 3 cis
2
---
3
2
--- 3
2
---
3 3
2 3i
27
WORKEDExample
If and , express the product zw in polar form.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Sketch z.
z 5 3 5i + = w 3 3 3i + =
1
5
3 5
Im(z)
Re (z)
28
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Write z in polar form. Use the special
triangle below:
The ratio of sides in z is 5 times that of
the sides in this triangle.
Let z = r
1
cis
1
.
r
1
= 5 2 = 10
1
=
Verify this by rule if you wish. Alternatively:
= tan
1
, so
Therefore z =
Sketch w.
The ratio of sides in w is 3 times that of
the sides in the special triangle shown
in step 2.
Write w in polar form. Let w = r
2
cis
2
r
2
= 3 2 = 6
2
=
Verify this by rule if you wish. Alternatively:
tan , so
Therefore
Determine zw using
z
1
z
2
= r
1
r
2
cis (
1
+
2
).
zw =
=
=
2
1
2
3
6
---
3
r
1
(5 3)
2
5
2
+ 10 = =
5
5 3
----------
1
6
--- =
10 cis
6
---
4
3
33
Im(z)
Re (z)
5
3
---
6
r
2
3
2
(3 3)
2
+ 6 = =
2
3 3
3
---------- 3 = =
2
3
--- =
w 6 cis
3
--- =
7
10 cis
6
--- 6 cis
3
---
60 cis
6
---
3
--- +

60 cis
2
---
Powers of complex numbers
Whole powers of z
As with real numbers, powers of complex numbers can be written as:
z
n
= z z z z z to n factors.
Since z = a + bi is a binomial (containing two terms) we can express z
n
using Pascals
Triangle to generate the coefcients of each term.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
5th row 1 5 10 10 5 1 and so on.
(a + bi)
5
can therefore be expanded using the elements of the fth row of Pascals
Triangle:
(a + bi)
5
= 1a
5
+ 5a
4
(bi)
1
+ 10a
3
(bi)
2
+ 10a
2
(bi)
3
+ 5a(bi)
4
+ (bi)
5
(a + bi)
5
= 1a
5
+ 5a
4
bi + 10a
3
b
2
i
2
+ 10a
2
b
3
i
3
+ 5ab
4
i
4
+ b
5
i
5
(a + bi)
5
= 1a
5
+ 5a
4
bi 10a
3
b
2
10a
2
b
3
i + 5ab
4
+ b
5
i
(a + bi)
5
= 1a
5
10a
3
b
2
+ 5ab
4
+ 5a
4
bi 10a
2
b
3
i + b
5
i
(a + bi)
5
= 1a
5
10a
3
b
2
+ 5ab
4
+ (5a
4
b 10a
2
b
3
+ b
5
)i grouped into standard form.
Re [(a + bi)
5
] = 1a
5
10a
3
b
2
+ 5ab
4
Im [(a + bi)
5
] = 5a
4
b 10a
2
b
3
+ b
5
Express 10 cis cis in the form r cis where (, ].
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Simplify using the division rule. (See
part 4 on page 111.)
=
=
Sketch this number.
State , the principal Argument.
Arg (z) =
State the result in polar form.
Arg ()z = 2 cis
3
---

5
5
6
------
1
10 cis
3
---

5 cis
5
6
------ 2 cis
3
---
5
6
------

2 cis
7
6
------

2
7
6
5
6
2
Im(z)
Re (z)
3
5
6
------
4
5
6
------
29
WORKEDExample
The coefcients of each term of the expansion of (a + bi)
n
can be found using your
graphics calculator. For example, the coefcients of the expansion of (a + bi)
5
can also
be written as:
5
C
0
a
5
+
5
C
1
a
4
(bi)
1
+
5
C
2
a
3
(bi)
2
. . .
5
C
5
(bi)
5
where
5
C
0
,
5
C
1
, . . .,
5
C
5
represent the coefcients.
The following steps show how to calculate
5
C
3
using a graphics calculator.
1. Press and select RUN-MAT. Press and
then ( ) for more options.
2. Press (PROB) and you will see the function nCr.
Enter 5 (for n), then press (nCr) and enter 3
(for r). Press to display the value.
1. Press kto access the catalog and press 1for the
list of functions. Scroll down to select nCr(. You can
do this more quickly by rst pressing N.
2. Press and then complete the entry line to obtain
nCr(5,3). Press to display the value.
Note that with this calculator, we can obtain the actual
expansion of (a + bi)
5
.
1. Open a new Calculator document.
2. Press band select 1: Actions and then 4: Clear
a-z. This sets the variables az to their default values
and makes them ready for use. Accept OK by
pressing .
3. Enter (a + bi)^5 and press . You will see a
small arrow at the end of the answer line
indicating that there are more terms. Use the
arrows on the NavPad to see more of the
expansion. The full expansion is shown as
a(a
4
10a
2
b
2
+ 5b
4
) + (5a
4
10a
2
b
2
+ b
4
)bi.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Pascals Triangle coefficients
MENU OPTN
F6
s
F3
F3
EXE
Negative powers of z
Your earlier studies have shown that z
1
= . Similarly, z
3
= .
Fractional powers of z
Fractional powers of complex numbers generally follow the same rules as with real
numbers.
=
Our discussion here will deal only with the square root of z, where .
Use Pascals Triangle to expand (2 - 3i)
3
.
THINK WRITE
Use the third row of Pascals Triangle
to expand (1 3 3 1).
Use brackets to keep the negative sign of
the second term.
(2 3i)
3
= 1(2
3
) + 3(2)
2
(3i) + 3(2)(3i)
2
+ (3i)
3
Simplify the expression. = 8 36i + 54i
2
27i
3
= 8 36i 54 + 27i
= 46 9i
1
2
30
WORKEDExample
1
z
---
1
z
3
----
Evaluate (3 - i)
-4
.
THINK WRITE
First nd the expansion with a positive
power. Use the fourth row of Pascals
Triangle to expand (1 4 6 4 1).
(3 i)
4
= 3
4
+ 4(3)
3
(i) + 6(3)
2
(i)
2
+ 4(3)(i)
3
+ (i)
4
(Use brackets to keep the negative sign
with the second term.)
= 81 108i 54 + 12i + 1
Simplify to obtain the standard form. = 28 96i
Express this as the denominator then
multiply by the complex conjugate.
(3 i)
4
=
(3 i)
4
=
(3 i)
4
=
Write the nal expression in standard
form.
(3 i)
4
= + i
1
2
3
1
28 96i ( )
------------------------
28 96i + ( )
28 96i + ( )
-------------------------
28 96i +
784 9216 +
---------------------------
28 96i +
10 000
--------------------
4
7
2500
------------
6
625
---------
31
WORKEDExample
z
p
q
---
z
p
q
z z
1
2
---
=
Express in standard form.
THINK WRITE
Let be a complex number such
as (a + bi), where a, b R.
Let = a + bi
All dialogue given in the write
column should appear as
communication in your working.
Square both sides:
3 + 4i = (a + bi)
2
3 + 4i = a
2
+ 2abi b
2
Equating real and imaginary terms:
3 = a
2
b
2
[1]
4 = 2ab [2]
a = = from [2] [3]
Substitute for a into [1]
3 = b
2
3 = b
2
3b
2
= 4 b
4
b
4
+ 3b
2
4 = 0
(b
2
1)(b
2
+ 4) = 0
Therefore, b
2
= 1, b = 1
or b
2
= 4, b = 2i
Since a and b are real numbers discard b = 2i.
Substitute for b = 1 into [3]
When b = 1, a = = 2
When b = 1, a = = 2
State the nal result in standard form. Therefore = 2 + i or 2 i
= (2 + i)
Verify this result. Check:
[(2 + i)]
2
= 4 + 4i 1 = 3 + 4i
Alternatively, you can use a graphics
calculator (such as a TI-Nspire CAS
calculator) to verify this result.
3 4i +
1
3 4i + 3 4i +
2
4
2b
------
2
b
---
2
b
---

2
4
b
2
-----
2
1
---
2
1
------
3
3 4i +
4
5
32
WORKEDExample
History
of mathematics
WI LLI AM ROWAN HAMI LTON ( 1 8 0 5 1 8 6 5 )
During his life . . .
Charles Darwin developed his theory
of evolution.
Charles Babbage developed the
rst automatic digital computer.
Gregor Mendel laid the
mathematical foundation for the
science of genetics.
Sometimes considered the second
greatest mathematician of the English-
speaking world, after Sir Isaac Newton,
William Hamilton was born in Dublin, Ireland,
on 3 August 1805. Even the fact that Hamilton
did not attend school before he entered college
did not deter his thirst for knowledge. By the
age of three he was skilled at reading and
arithmetic, by the age of ve he read and
translated Latin, Hebrew and Greek, and by the
age of 14 he could speak 14 languages.
By the age of 21 he published a paper entitled
ATheory of Systems of Rays, introducing and
developing concepts that created the eld of
mathematical optics. Propelled by the success of
this work, at 22 he was unanimously voted into
the chair of the professor of astronomy at Trinity
College (Dublin), even though he was still an
undergraduate and had not applied for the
position.
In 1833 Hamilton further
developed his work on complex
numbers and in 1843 he released
what he considered to be his
greatest discovery the algebra
of quaternions. With these
ordered sets of four numbers,
magnitude and direction in
3-dimensional space could be
determined. The fact that
multiplication of quaternions is
not commutative led to the
development of the rst ring in which
the commutative property does not hold.
This inspiration came to him while he was
crossing the Brougham Bridge in Dublin and
he left the inscription i
2
= j
2
= k
2
= ijk = 1
in a stone in the bridge. A stamp featuring
these quaternions was issued in Ireland in
1983.
His work also led to the development of the
concepts of vectors, scalars and tensors, which
you will encounter later in your studies.
Plagued throughout his life with alcoholism,
he died in 1865.
Research
1. Find out more about quaternions.
2. Research the notion of rings.
1. If z
1
= r
1
cis
1
and z
2
= r
2
cis
2
, then:
z
1
z
2
= r
1
r
2
cis (
1
+
2
)
cis (
1

2
).
2. A complex number z
n
= (a + bi)
n
can be expanded using Pascals Triangle to
generate the coefcients of each term.
3. Negative powers of z: z
n
=
4. Fractional powers of complex numbers:
z
1
z
2
----
r
1
r
2
---- =
1
z
n
----
z
p
q
---
z
p
q
=
remember
Basic operations on complex
1 Express each of the following in the form r cis where (, ].
a 2 cis cis
b 5 cis cis
c 6 cis cis
d cis cis
e cis cis
2 Express the resultant complex numbers in question 1 in standard form.
3 Express the following products in polar form.
a (2 + 2i)( + i)
b ( 3i)(2 2i)
c (4 + i)(1 i)
4 Express each of the following in the form r cis where (, ].
a 12 cis
b 36 cis
c
d
e
5 If z = and w = 2 cis then express each of the following in:
i polar form ii standard form.
6 If z = 1 i and w = , write the following in standard form.
a z
3
b w
4
c z
4
d w
5
a z
4
b w
3
c z
3
d w
5
e f z
2
w
3
2F
WORKED
Example
26
4
--- 3
2
---
2
3
------ 4
3
---

3
4
------ 5
3
5
6
------

2
2
---

7
7
12
------

2
5
12
------
WORKED
Example
27
WORKED
Example
28 3
3 3
4 3
WORKED
Example
29
5
6
------ 4 cis
3
---
3
4
------ 9 cis
6
---

20 cis
2
---

5 cis
5
---

4 3 cis
4
7
------ 6 cis
11
14
---------
3 5 cis
7
12
------

2 10 cis
5
6
------
WORKED
Example
30
3 cis
3
4
------
4
---

WORKED
Example
31
3 i +
z
3
w
4
------
6 cis
3
4
------
20 cis
3
---
6 5 cis
4
---

6 cis
2
3
------
2 7 cis
6
---

2 a
b
c
d
e
3 2 3 2 i +
10 10 3 i +
3 10 3 10 i
6
2
-------
3 2
2
---------- i +
21 7 i
4 2 cis
5
12
------
8 3 cis
2
---

8 2 cis
12
------

3 cis
2
---
4 cis
11
12
---------
2 cis
3
10
------

2 2 cis
3
14
------

3 2
4
---------- cis
7
12
------

5 a i

ii
b i

16 cis

ii

16

c i

9 cis

ii

9

d i ii
3 3 cis
4
---
3 6
2
----------
3 6
2
----------i +
32 cis
3
4
------ 16 2 + 16 2i

1
4
---

i
1
8
---

+

i
1
4
---
1
4
---
3
64
-------
1
64
------i

0.171 0.046

i

16
7 Determine in standard form.
8 Write in the form x + yi.
9
a is equal to:
b If then is:
c If and w = 2 + 2i then is equal to:
10 If and , nd the modulus and the argument of .
11 If z = 4 + i and w = 3 2i, determine (z + w)
9
.
12 Find z
6
+ w
4
, if and w = 2 2i.
13 If , and , nd the modulus and
the argument of .
14 Express each of the following in standard form:
A B C D 6i E
A 1 + i B C (1 i) D E
A 4 + 4i B C 2 D 4i E 8
a b
c d
Complex numbers: applications
1 Choose a complex number that falls in the rst quadrant of the complex plane.
Calculate the rst 8 powers of this number and investigate any pattern that
exists between the modulus of each of the powers. Plot each power on an
Argand diagram. What do you notice?
2 Let z = r cis , a complex number. Find, in terms of r and :
a iii z
2
= z.z ii z
3
= z.z
2
iii z
4
= z.z
3
iv z
5
= z.z
4
v z
6
= z.z
5
vi z
7
= z.z
6
b Write the moduli of the powers of z as a sequence.
c What do you notice about the sequence given in part b?
2 2i + ( )
2
1 3i ( )
4
3 i ( )
6
2 2 3i ( )
3
----------------------------
multiple choice
5 cis
3
---

8 cis
6
---

6 2i 2 10i 6 3 6 6
z ( 6 2) + ( 6 2 )i + = 2z
3
2i
1
64
------ 2 i + 1 2i
z 1 3i =
w
4
z
3
------
2 3
z 2 cis
3
4
------ = w 3 cis
6
--- =
z
6
w
4
------
z 2 2i =
z
1
5 cis
2
5
------

= z
2
2 cis
3
8
------ = z
3
10 cis
12
------ =
z
1
2
z
2
3
z
3
4
-------------------
WORKED
Example
32
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 2.2
5 12i + 5 12i
2 2i + 3 4i

2 a iii

z

2

=

r

2

cis 2

iii

z

3

=

r

3

cis 3

iii

z

4

=

r

4

cis 4

iv

z

5

=

r

5

cis 5

iv

z

6

=

r

6

cis 6

vi

z

7

=

r

7

cis 7

GP,

a

=

r r

=

r

T

n

=

ar

n

1

Geometric progression
64 3 64i

1
8
9
---
6
--- ,

16

16

i

64

+

64

i
2
5
---
120
--------- ,

(3

+

2

i

)

(3

2i)
1 2 + 1 2 + i + ( ) (2 i)
3 As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter the equation z
2
= 1 has two
solutions, z = 1, whereas the equation z = 1 has only one solution, z = 1. The
equation z
3
= 1 has 3 solutions, z = 1, cis and cis .
Graph these solutions on an Argand diagram. Express all solutions in both
rectangular and modarg form.
4 Let z = x + yi. Therefore | z | = , and | z |
2
= x
2
+ y
2
, where this is the
general equation of a circle, of radius | z |, about the origin. Graph this circle and
fully label the path of the rotating z as it moves about the origin. Therefore,
what is the meaning of the statement | z | < x + yi? Sketch | z | < 4 and | z | > 1.
5 Research the life of William Rowan Hamilton and his contribution to the study
of complex numbers.
6 Research the area of mathematics called fractals. You will investigate this
fascinating area in more detail later in your studies.
7 In Chapter 1, you were introduced to the term transcendental numbers
irrational numbers that are not algebraic, that is, cannot be produced by the
algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and
by taking roots. Pi () is one such transcendental number and e is another,
where e = e
1
= 1
0
+ + + + . . .
(and 3! = 3 2 1, and so on. The symbol 3! is referred to as factorial 3.)
The function e
x
is referred to as the exponential function.
e
x
= x
0
+ + + + . . .
The graph of the function e
x
is especially interesting because the slope of the
curve at any point equals the value of the curve, at that point. That is, the slope
of a tangent to the curve at x = e
2
is e
2
.
Euler discovered a special relationship between e and i,
where e
i
= i
0
+ + + + . . .
Write four expressions for e
i
, with increasing numbers of terms and simplify
them where possible. The alternating positive and negative signs suggest that
the expression is approaching a particular value as the number of terms in the
series increases. You might nd it more methodical to list the results as each
new term is added as you creep closer to the value. Can you suggest what that
value might be? What is the modulus of this number? Use a graphics calculator
to evaluate e
i
.
2
3
------
2
3
------

x
2
y
2
+
1
1
1!
-----
1
2
2!
-----
1
3
3!
-----
1
4
4!
-----
x
1
1!
-----
x
2
2!
-----
x
3
3!
-----
x
4
4!
-----
i
1
1!
-----
i
2
2!
-----
i
3
3!
-----
i
4
4!
-----
3

z

1

=

1

=

cis 0

z

2

=

1

+

i

=

cis

z

3

=

i

=

cis
0 z
1
z
3
z
2
2
3
2
3
Im (z)
Re (z)
3
2
3
------
3
2
3
------

Introduction to complex numbers
We dene the imaginary number i as having the property that i
2
= 1.
A complex number z = x + yi with x, y R and C = {z: z = x + yi, x, y R} denes
the set of complex numbers.
The real part of z is x and is written as Re (z).
The imaginary part of z is y and is written as Im (z).
Basic operations using complex numbers
If z and w are two complex numbers such that z = a + bi and w = c + di for a, b, c,
d R then:
1. z = w if and only if (i.e. iff) a = c and b = d
2. z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i
3. z w = (a c) + (b d)i
4. kz = ka + kbi, for k R
5. z w = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i.
Conjugates and division of complex numbers
If z = a + bi and w = c + di for a, b, c, d R then:
1. The conjugate of z is = a bi.
2. z. = a
2
+ b
2
.
3. = +
A radian is the angle subtended by an arc of the radius of a circle. That is, an arc of
2r subtends an angle of 2 radians.
2 radians = 360. 1 radian 57.3.
Coterminal angles differ by a multiple of 360.
The polar form of complex numbers
The magnitude (modulus or absolute value) of z = x + yi is the length of the line
segment from (0, 0) to z. It is denoted by z, x + yi or mod z.
z = and z = .
The argument of z, arg (z), is the angle measurement anticlockwise of the positive
Real axis and arg (z) = where = tan
1
.
z = x + yi can be expressed in polar form as z = r cos + r sin i = r cis .
Arg (z) is the angle in the range < and is called the principal argument.
Basic operations on complex numbers in polar form
If z
1
= r
1
cis
1
and z
2
= r
2
cis
2
, then:
1. z
1
z
2
= r
1
r
2
cis(
1
+
2
)
2. cis(
1

2
)
A complex number z
n
= (a + bi)
n
can be expanded using Pascals Triangle to
generate the coefcient of each term.
z
n
=
summary
z z
z
z
w
----
ac bd +
c
2
d
2
+
------------------
bc ad ( )i
c
2
d
2
+
------------------------
x
2
y
2
+ z z
2
y
x
--
z
1
z
2
----
r
1
r
2
---- =
1
z
n
----
Questions 1 and 2 refer to the complex number .
1
The real and imaginary parts of z respectively are:
2
The Argand diagram which correctly represents z is:
3 Simplify i
6
i
3
(i
2
1).
Questions 4 and 5 refer to the complex numbers u = 5 i and v = 4 + 3i.
4
The expression 2u v is equal to:
5
The expression uv is equal to:
6
If z = 5 12i, decide which statement is true concerning iz.
A iz =
B iz = 12 5i
C The point z is rotated 90 clockwise.
D Re (iz) = 0
E Im (iz) = i
A and 4 B and 4 C 4 and D 4 and E and 4i
A B C
D E
A 1 4i B 3 7i C 6 5i D 5 + 8i E 14 + i
A 9 + 2i B 20 3i C 20 + 3i D 15 4i E 23 + 11i
CHAPTER
review
z 2 5 4i =
multiple choice
2A
2 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 2 5
multiple choice
2A
Im(z)
0
4
Re (z)
5 2
z
Im(z)
0
4
Re (z)
5 2
z
Re (z)
0
4
Im(z)
5 2
z
Re (z)
0
4
Im (z)
5 2
z
Im (z)
0
4
Re (z)
5 2
z
2A
2B
multiple choice
multiple choice
2B
multiple choice
2B
13

2

i
7 If z = 3 8i, then nd:
8 If z = 2 5i, u = 3 + i and w = 1 + 2i evaluate:
9
Im is equal to:
10
If z = 3i and w = 4 i then z is equal to:
11
The expresion simplies to:
12 If z = 6 2i and w = 5 + 3i, express in the form a + bi, a, b R.
13 Convert the following common angle measures to radians.
14 Convert the following radian measures to degrees.
15
Of the following pairs of angles, the pair that is coterminal is:
16
Arg (2 2i) is equal to:
17
The polar form of 3 + 3i is:
18 If z = 7 7i, express z in polar form.
a Im (z
2
) b a and b if z
3
= a + bi.
a z 2u + 3w b z c uz + w
A 2 B C D E 2
A 12 + 3i B 12 i C 7 + 3i D 12 3i E z = 4 2i
A B 3 + 7i C D 4 2i E 3 i
a 30 b 180
a b
A 40, 220 B , C 135, 435 D , E 180, 360
A B C D E 2
A B C
D
E
2B
2B,C
multiple choice
2C
1 2i +
1 i
--------------

1
2
---
3
2
---
2
3
---
multiple choice
2C
w
2C
multiple choice
2i
1 i +
-----------
3
2 i
----------
1
5
---
2
5
---i +
1
4
---
3
4
---i
2C
z
w
----
2D
2D
3
4
------
7
6
------
multiple choice
2D
4
---
9
4
------
3
2
------
5
2
------
multiple choice
2E
4
---
3
4
------
4
---
2E
multiple choice
3 2 cis
4
--- 3 2 cis
3
4
------ 3 cis
3
4
------
3 cis
4
---

3 2 cis
5
4
------
2E

48

a

=

549,

b

=

296
11

i
29 6 5
1
17
------ 12 14i ( )
6
---

135

210

7 2 cis
3
4
------

19
How many degrees apart are two consecutive roots of z
8
= 1 on the unit circle?
20
If z
1
= 10 cis and z
2
= 5 cis then z
1
z
2
in polar form is:
21
In standard form, is equal to:
22 If z = 3 4i, write the following in standard form.
1 Let z = 2 cis and w = 2 cis .
a Express in the form r cos + r sin i.
b Express z and w in Cartesian form.
c Express in Cartesian form.
d Using the results of parts a and c, nd the exact values for:
i cos
ii sin
iii tan .
e By letting z = 2 cis and w = 2 cis and following parts a to c for zw instead of ,
deduce that tan .
2 Let u = 1 i.
a i Find u .
ii Find Arg u + Arg(2 ).
b Let z = x + yi, x, y R, and |z | = |z 2u|.
Find the value of x when y = 0.
A 180 B 90 C 135 D 225 E 45
A 50 cis B 15 cis C 2 cis D 15 cis E 2 cis
A 4 + 4i B 4 4i C 4 4i D 4 + 4i E 36 36i
a z
4
b z
3
c
multiple choice
2E
multiple choice
2F
4
---
6
---

12
------
5
12
------
12
------
12
------

5
12
------

multiple choice
2F
12 2 cis
3
4
------ 3 cis
2
---

2F
z
3
---
4
---
z
w
----
z
w
----
12
------
12
------
12
------
4
---
6
---
z
w
----
5
12
------ 2 3 + =
u
u
u

527336

i
i
117
15 625
----------------
44
15 625
---------------- +

(1

2

i

)
cos

+

sin

i
12
------
12
------
2 6 6 2 ( )i + +
4
------------------------------------------------------
6 2 +
4
--------------------
6 2
4
--------------------
2 3


x

=

3
2
0

z

= 1 +

i

,

w

=

+

i 3 2 2
3 Consider the complex number z such that z = 3 + 2i.
a Find the value for iz, i
2
z, i
3
z and i
4
z. (Give answers in standard x + yi form.)
b Comment on the value of i
4
z.
c Plot each number from part a on the same Argand diagram.
d Use a pair of compasses to draw a circle whose centre is at the origin and which passes
through each point on the diagram.
e Find the radius of the circle, giving your answer in exact (surd) form.
f Carefully study the ve points on your diagram. What transformation is required to
transform:
i point z into point iz?
ii point iz into point i
2
z?
iii point i
2
z into point i
3
z?
g On the Argand diagram, what transformation takes place when a complex number is
multiplied by i?
h For a complex number z such that z = x + yi, describe the curve that all points representing
numbers of the form zi
n
(that is, z, zi, zi
2
, zi
3
, and so on) would lie on an Argand diagram.
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Chapter 2
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iz

=

2

+

3

i

,

i

2

z

=

3

2

i

,

i

3

z

=

2

3

i

,

i

4

z

=

3

+

2

i
i

4

z

=

z

3 c d
Re z
Im z
3
4
1
2
2
1
3
4
i
4
z
i
3
z i
2
z
iz
2 3 4 2 3 4 1 1
0
Re z
Im z
3
4
1
2
2
1
3
4
i
4
z
i
3
z
i
2
z
iz
2 3 4 2 3 4 1 1
0
13

i

,

ii

and

iii

One-quarter turn
(rotation by 90

) in an
anticlockwise direction.
One-quarter turn in an anticlockwise direction
Circle with centre at the origin and radius
r x
2
y
2
+ =
Re z
Im z
z = x + yi
r
y
x
zi
3
zi
2
zi
syllabus
reference
Core topic:
Matrices and applications
In this
chapter
3A Operations with matrices
3B Multiplying matrices
3C Powers of a matrix
3D Multiplicative inverse and
solving matrix equations
3E The transpose of a matrix
3F Applications of matrices
3G Dominance matrices
3
Matrices
Introduction to matrices
Four towns are connected by roads as shown in the gure. There is one road connecting
A and B, two roads connecting A and C and so on. This information may be rep-
resented as shown in the table.
If the headings at the top and side of this display are removed, an array of numbers
only is left:
This array of numbers is called a matrix (plural, matrices).
The arrangement of numbers in matrices is an extension of our number system and,
as we will see, the rules that govern matrix calculations have many similarities with the
arithmetic of numbers. Matrices are particularly useful in solving complex problems in
linear programming.
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns.
The numbers in the matrix are called the elements of the matrix.
The matrix above is a 4 4 matrix as it has 4 rows and 4 columns. We say the order
of the matrix is 4 by 4.
The matrix is a 3 2 matrix because it has 3 rows and 2 columns. Note the
square brackets used to enclose the array.
A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m n matrix. We say the order
of the matrix is m n. The dimensions of a matrix are always given as the number
of rows multiplied by the number of columns.
The elements of the matrix are referred to by the row and then by the column pos-
ition. In the 3 2 matrix above, the row 1, column 1 element is 2, the row 3, column 1
element is 1 and the row 1, column 2 element is 0.
To
A B C D
From
A 0 1 2 0
B 1 0 0 1
C 2 0 0 3
D 0 1 3 0
A
B
C
D
0 1 2 0
1 0 0 1
2 0 0 3
0 1 3 0
2 0
1 4
1 2

denition of a matrix as
data storage and as a
mathematical tool

dimension of a matrix

matrix operations addition
and subtraction, transpose,
multiplication by a scalar,
multiplication by a matrix

inverse of a matrix

solution of simple matrix
equations

denition and properties of
the identity matrix

singular and non-singular
matrices

applications of matrices in
both life-related and purely
mathematical situations
C h a p t e r 3 M a t r i c e s 129
We often use capital letters as symbols for matrices. Thus we may write
A =
In general, the elements of a matrix A are referred to as a
i j
where i refers to the
row position and j refers to the column position.
That is, A = , depending on the order of the matrix
where A is an m n matrix.
The row 1, column 1 element is a
11
.
The row 3, column 1 element is a
31
and so on.
2 0
1 4
1 2
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
14
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
24
a
2n
a
31
a
32
a
33
a
34
a
3n

a
m1
a
m2
a
m3
a
m4
a
mn
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
For each of the following give the order of the matrix, if it exists, and where possible write
down the elements in row 2, column 1 and row 1, column 3.
A = B = C = D =
THINK WRITE
A has 3 rows of numbers and 2 columns
of numbers.
A is a 3 2 matrix.
B has 2 rows and 3 columns. B is a 2 3 matrix.
C has 3 rows and 1 column. C is a 3 1 matrix.
D is not a rectangular array of numbers
as it does not have all positions lled.
D is not a matrix.
The row 2, column 1 element is the
number in the second row and the rst
column.
The row 1, column 3 element is the
number in the rst row and the third
column.
In A and C there is no row 1, column 3
element since there is no third column
in either matrix.
2 5
3 6
4 7
1 2 3
1 2 3
1
2
3
5 0 2
6
1
2
3
4
5
Matrix
Row 2,
column 1
element
Row 1,
column 3
element
A 3
B 1 3
C 2
6
7
1
WORKEDExample
Operations with matrices
Addition
The sports coordinator at Mathglen State High School kept records of the number of
rst, second and third ribbons awarded to competitors in each house at the swimming
and athletics carnivals and sports events.
The results were:
To nd the total number of rst, second and third places for each house, the swimming,
athletics and sports results may be added. The elements in corresponding positions are
added to give the total number of rst, second and third places for each house:
Adding the elements for each event results in the following matrix:
Addition of matrices is performed by adding corresponding elements.
House
Swimming
House
Athletics and sports
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Hamilton 25 28 24 Hamilton 35 35 27
Leslie 38 30 35 Leslie 33 34 39
Barnes 34 36 35 Barnes 30 33 36
Cunningham 35 38 38 Cunningham 34 34 30
House 1st 2nd 3rd
Hamilton
Leslie
Barnes
Cunningham
25 + 35 = 60
38 + 33 = 71
34 + 30 = 64
35 + 34 = 69
28 + 35 = 63
30 + 34 = 64
36 + 33 = 69
38 + 34 = 72
24 + 27 = 51
35 + 39 = 74
35 + 36 = 71
38 + 30 = 68
60 63 51
71 64 74
64 69 71
69 72 68
Subtraction
The subtraction of matrices is also performed by the usual rules of arithmetic on
corresponding elements of the matrices. It follows that:
1. Subtraction of matrices is performed by subtracting corresponding elements.
2. Addition and subtraction of matrices can be performed only if the matrices are
of the same order; that is, they have the same number of rows and columns.
Furthermore, addition of matrices is commutative. That is, for two matrices A and B of
the same order:
A + B = B + A
Multiplication by a scalar
Consider the matrix B =
To nd 3B we could use repeated addition: 3B = B + B + B
=
=
3B could have been calculated more efciently by multiplying each element of B by 3.
If A = B = C =
nd, if possible:
a A + B b A B c B C.
THINK WRITE
a Add the numbers in the corresponding
positions of each matrix.
a A + B =
=
b Subtract the numbers in the corresponding
positions of each matrix.
b A B =
=
c Subtraction cannot be performed since the order
of B is 2 2 and the order of C is 2 3.
c B C cannot be calculated because B
and C are of different orders.
1 2
3 4
1 4
2 3
2 2 0
2 2 0
1 2
3 4
1 4
2 3
+
2 6
5 7
1 2
3 4
1 4
2 3
0 2
1 1
2
WORKEDExample
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
+ +
3 12
6 9
Thus 3B = 3 = =
The number 3 in the term 3B is called a scalar because it is a real number. Terms
such as 3B refer to scalar multiplication of matrices.
When a matrix is multiplied by a scalar, each element of the matrix is multiplied
by the scalar.
1 4
2 3
3 1 3 4
3 2 3 3
3 12
6 9
If and nd:
a 2A b 5B c 2A + 5B d 4(A + B) e 2(B A).
THINK WRITE
a Multiply each element of A by 2. a 2 =
=
b Multiply each element of B by 5. b 5 =
=
c Add the two matrices found in parts a
and b.
c 2 + 5 =
=
d Add A and B inside the brackets. d 4( + ) =
= 4
Multiply each element of the resulting
matrix by 4.
=
e Subtract A from B (inside the brackets). e 2( ) =
= 2
Multiply each element of the resulting
matrix by 2.
=
A
2 3
4 1
= B
3 3
3 2
=
2
2 3
4 1
4 6
8 2
5
3 3
3 2
15 15
15 10
4 6
8 2
15 15
15 10
+
19 9
7 8
1
4
2 3
4 1
3 3
3 2
+

5 0
1 1
2
20 0
4 4
1
2
3 3
3 2
2 3
4 1

1 6
7 3
2
2 12
14 6
3
WORKEDExample
There are some obvious but important features of scalar multiplication. If A and B
are matrices of the same order and a, b are real numbers, then:
1. aA + bA = (a + b)A
2. aA + aB = a(A + B)
3. (ab)A = a(bA)
Operations 1 and 2 are similar to the Distributive Law of Multiplication over Addition.
Operation 3 is similar to the Associative Law of Multiplication.
If aA = 0, then a = 0 or A is a zero matrix. A zero matrix is a matrix which has all
elements equal to zero.
Equality of matrices
This leads to an important principle about the equality of matrices.
Two matrices are equal if they are of the same order and all corresponding
elements are equal; that is, if A = and B = then A = B.
Simple matrix equations
We know that to solve an algebraic equation such as 2x + 5 = 11, we:
1. subtract 5 from both sides to obtain 2x = 11 5 which gives 2x = 6
2. then, divide both sides by 2 (or multiply by ) to obtain x = 6 or x = 3.
Simple matrix equations which require the addition or subtraction of a matrix or
multiplication of a scalar can be solved in similar ways to those employed with
algebraic equations.
a b
c d
a b
c d
1
2
---
1
2
---
Solve the following matrix equations.
a b c
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a To get A by itself multiply both
sides by .
a 5 =
=
Simplify the matrix A. =
5A
50 35
15 20
= P
3 2
1 5
+
6 9
2 4
= 2B
1 2 3
2 0 1
3 4 7
2 6 5
=
1
1
5
---
50 35
15 20
1
5
---
50 35
15 20
2
10 7
3 4
4
WORKEDExample
Matrix operations can also be performed using a graphics calculator. However, tips on
how to do this appear later in the chapter and in Chapter 5, as you should have rst
practised performing these operations manually.
THINK WRITE
b To get P by itself subtract from
both sides.
b
Simplify the matrix P.
c First get 2B by itself by adding
to both sides.
c
Simplify the right-hand side.
Multiply both sides by to get B by itself. =
Simplify the matrix B. =
1
3 2
1 5
P
3 2
1 5
+
6 9
2 4
=
P
6 9
2 4
=
3 2
1 5
2 P
3 7
3 1
=
1
1 2 3
2 0 1
2B
1 2 3
2 0 1
3 4 7
2 6 5
=
2B
3 4 7
2 6 5
1 2 3
2 0 1
+ =
2
4 6 4
0 6 4
=
3
1
2
---
1
2
---
4 6 4
0 6 4
4
2 3 2
0 3 2
1. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns.
2. An m n matrix has m rows and n columns.
3. The numbers in the matrix are called the elements of the matrix.
4. Elements are referred to by the row and column position. For example, a
i j
refers to the ith row and the jth column of matrix A.
5. Addition of matrices is performed by adding corresponding elements.
6. Subtraction of matrices is performed by subtracting corresponding elements.
7. Addition and subtraction of matrices can be performed only if the matrices are
of the same order.
8. When a matrix is multiplied by a scalar, each element of the matrix is
multiplied by that scalar.
9. Two matrices are equal if they are of the same order and all corresponding
elements are equal.
remember
1 Using a table format, give the order of each of the following matrices and where
possible write down the row 2, column 1 and row 1, column 3 elements of each.
, , , ,
2 If , and , calculate:
3 Using the matrices A, B and C from question 2 nd:
4
Use , , , and
to answer questions a to e.
a The order of D is:
b Which one of the following cannot be calculated?
c 2A + 3E is equal to:
d 3C 4B is equal to:
e The element e
3 2
is equal to:
5 If and , calculate:
a A + B b A B c B + C d C A
a 2A b 2A B c 2A + 3B d 3(A + B) e 2A + 3B 4C
A 3 2 B 4 2 C 2 4 D 3 3 E 2 2
A A + E B B + C C 4D D A + B E 6(E A)
A B C D E
A B C D E
A 9 B 4 C 3 D 7 E 1
a C + D b C D c 2C d 2C + D e 2(C + D) f D
3A
WORKED
Example
1
A
5 2
8 4
= B
6
5
7
= C
1 8 10 20
= D
4 4 4
4 4 4
= E
5 0 2
1 1 8
0 5 3
=
WORKED
Example
2
A
2 3
4 7
= B
5 0
4 2
= C
1 3
2 6
=
WORKED
Example
3
multiple choice
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Operations
with matrices
A
1 2 3
2 1 4
6 3 0
= B
5 4
1 3
= C
4 3
2 7
= D
2 3 4 1
0 2 7 5
=
E
0 5 1
2 3 9
6 4 2
=
3 16 7
2 3 30
30 17 6
1 7 2
0 2 13
12 7 2
4 15 2
6 3 8
9 7 2
2 16 3
2 7 35
30 18 6
2 19 3
2 7 35
30 18 6
32 25
2 9
8 7
10 33
31 0
5 19
1 0
0 1
32 7
5 9
C
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
= D
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
=
M
a
t
r
i
x
O
r
d
e
r
2
,

1

e
l
e
m
e
n
t
1
,

3

e
l
e
m
e
n
t

A

2

2
8

B

3

1
5

C

1

1
0

D

2

3
4
4

E

3

3
1
2

1
3 3
0 9
7 3
8 5
6 3
2 8
3 6
2 1
4 6
8 14
9 6
12 12
11 6
4 20
9 9
0 27
7 18
12 4

a
b
c
d
e
f
2 0 14
4 0 0
6 0 18
0 8 0
0 10 16
0 12 0
2 8 14
4 10 16
6 12 18
3 4 21
6 5 8
9 6 27
4 0 28
8 0 0
12 0 36
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9

5
6 Solve the following matrix equations.
a b
c d
7 Explain why the following matrix equation has no solution.
8 Write down the matrix representing the following maps in the form:
Use alphabetical order for the sequencing of rows and columns.
9 A mathematically inclined student has decided to keep a record of her test results in
matrix form. Her results so far are Maths B tests: 82%, 75% and 91%; Maths C tests:
54%, 68% and 82%.
Write these results in a 3 2 matrix.
10 Place the following sporting results in a suitable matrix format.
a Brisbane Lions 15 goals 14 behinds 104 points defeated Geelong 7 goals 10
behinds 52 points.
b Adelaide Crows have played 13 games for 7 wins, 5 draws and 1 loss; they have
scored 31 goals for and 18 against; their points score is 26. Fremantle have played
12 games for 444; their goals are 1715 and their points score is 16.
11 Adelaide Crows defeat Fremantle 4 goals to 1. Update the matrix in question 10b
(note that 3 points are awarded for a win and 0 for a loss).
12 Write down any 2 2 matrices called A, B and C. Check if the following are true.
a A + B = B + A
b (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
c A B = B A
d 2A + 2C = 2(A + C)
WORKED
Example
4
3P
6 0
9 3
= Q
4 0
1 4
+
2 0
5 6
=
3M
2 0 3
4 6 1
1 0 0
2 3 2
=
2 2
6 6
3 3
N
0 4
7 6
5 2
=
2A
4 8
4 0
+
5 1 3
2 5 2
=

Number of
routes to
Number
of routes
from
b
a
A
B
C
D
J
L
M
K
2 0
3 1
2 0
6 2
1 0 1
2 3 1
2 6
1 12
2 1

Different orders
0 1 3 1
1 0 2 2
3 2 0 1
1 2 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 2
1 1 0 3
1 2 3 0
82 54
75 68
91 82
15 14 104
7 10 52
13 7 5 1 31 18 26
12 4 4 4 17 15 16
14 8 5 1 35 19 29
13 4 4 5 18 19 16

True
True
True
False
Multiplying matrices
The sports results at Mathglen State High School were:
To calculate the total points for each house, this matrix is multiplied by since 5
points are awarded for rst, 3 for second and 1 for third.
The result can be obtained using the following operations.
Hamilton: 60 5 + 63 3 + 51 1 = 540
Leslie: 71 5 + 64 3 + 74 1 = 621
Barnes: 64 5 + 69 3 + 71 1 = 598
Cunningham: 69 5 + 72 3 + 68 1 = 629
We can also write A B = C, where , and
The order of A is 4 3, B is 3 1 and C is 4 1.
Therefore, a 4 3 matrix multiplied by a 3 1 matrix gives a 4 1 matrix. Two
matrices can be multiplied only if the number of columns of the rst matrix equals the
number of rows of the second matrix.
In general, if A is of order m n and B is of order n p then A B exists and its
order is m p. Such a matrix is said to be conformable where m n multiplied by
n p results in a matrix of order m p.
The order of AB should be established before multiplying.
The procedure for multiplying two 3 3 matrices is outlined below.
If and
then
House
Position
1st 2nd 3rd
Hamilton 60 63 51
Leslie 71 64 74
Barnes 64 69 71
Cunningham 69 72 68
Position Points
1st
2nd
3rd
5
3
1
5
3
1
A
60 63 51
71 64 74
64 69 71
69 72 68

= B
5
3
1
= C
540
621
598
629
=
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
= B
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
21
b
22
b
23
b
31
b
32
b
33
=
The rows of the rst matrix are multiplied by the columns of the second matrix.
The sum of the products of the elements of row 1 multiplied by column 1 results in the
row 1, column 1 element.
The sum of the products of the elements of row 3 multiplied by column 2 results in the
row 3, column 2 element.
AB =
a
11
b
11
a
12
b
21
a
13
b
31
+ + a
11
b
12
a
12
b
22
a
13
b
32
+ + a
11
b
13
a
12
b
23
a
13
b
33
+ +
a
21
b
11
a
22
b
21
a
23
b
31
+ + a
21
b
12
a
22
b
22
a
23
b
32
+ + a
21
b
13
a
22
b
23
a
23
b
33
+ +
a
31
b
11
a
32
b
21
a
33
b
31
+ + a
31
b
12
a
32
b
22
a
33
b
32
+ + a
31
b
13
a
32
b
23
a
33
b
33
+ +
,
a Write down the order of the two matrices.
b Which of these products exist? i AB ii BA
c Write down the order for the products which exist.
d Calculate the products which exist.
THINK WRITE
a Matrix A has 2 rows and 3
columns.
a A is a 2 3 matrix.
Matrix B has 3 rows and 2
columns.
B is a 3 2 matrix.
b i AB is the product of a 2 3
and a 3 2 matrix so it exists.
A and B are conformable.
b i AB exists since a 2 3 matrix multiplied by a
3 2 matrix results in a 2 2 matrix.
ii BA is the product of a 3 2
and a 2 3 matrix so it also
exists.
ii BA exists since a 3 2 matrix multiplied by a
2 3 matrix results in a 3 3 matrix.
c i The product of AB is a 2 2
matrix.
c i AB is a 2 2 matrix.
ii The product of BA is a 3 3
matrix.
ii BA is a 3 3 matrix.
d i Multiply the rows of matrix
A by the columns of matrix
B.
d i AB =
AB =
Simplify AB.
AB =
A
1 2 3
4 5 6
= B
2 1
0 4
5 3
=
1
2
1
1 2 3
4 5 6
2 1
0 4
5 3
1 2 + 2 0 + 3 5 1 1 + 2 4 + 3 3
4 2 + 5 0 + 6 5 4 1 + 5 4 + 6 3
2
17 16
38 34
5
WORKEDExample
Note: In Worked example 5, AB is a 2 2 matrix but BA is a 3 3 matrix. In general,
matrix multiplication is not commutative.
That is, for two matrices A and B, AB BA.
For the product AB we say that A is post-multiplied by B and B is pre-multiplied by A.
The identity matrix
There is one circumstance in which matrix multiplication is commutative. Look at the
following example.
This example demonstrates the only case in which matrix multiplication is always com-
mutative that is, when AI = IA = A. Here, I is called the multiplicative identity matrix.
THINK WRITE
ii Multiply the rows of B by the
columns of A.
ii BA =
ii BA =
Simplify BA. ii BA =
1
2 1
0 4
5 3
1 2 3
4 5 6
2 1 1 4 + 2 2 + 1 5 2 3 + 1 6
0 1 4 4 + 0 2 4 5 + 0 3 4 6 +
5 1 3 4 + 5 2 3 5 + 5 3 3 6 +
2
2 1 0
16 20 24
17 25 33
If and , calculate AI and IA.
THINK WRITE
A and I are both 2 2 matrices so both
the products AI and IA exist and are of
order 2 2.
A 2 2 matrix multiplied by a 2 2 matrix
results in a 2 2 matrix.
Find AI using the procedure for
multiplying matrices.
Find IA using the procedure for
multiplying matrices.
A
2 3
5 4
= I
1 0
0 1
=
1
2
AI
2 3
5 4
1 0
0 1
=
2 3
5 4
=
3
IA
1 0
0 1
2 3
5 4
=
2 3
5 4
=
6
WORKEDExample
The multiplicative identity matrix, I, acts in a similar fashion to the number 1 when
numbers are multiplied, where I is the multiplicative identity matrix.
An identity matrix can be dened only for square matrices; that is, for matrices of
order 1 1, 2 2, 3 3. The other feature of an identity matrix is that it has the
number 1 for all elements on the leading diagonal and 0 for all other elements.
AI = IA = A where A is a square matrix and I is the multiplicative identity matrix.
If A is not square (say it is 3 2), then A I = A means I would have to be a 2 2
matrix because a 3 2 matrix multiplied by a 2 2 matrix results in a 3 2 matrix.
But I A = A means that I would be a 3 3 matrix because a 3 3 matrix multiplied
by a 3 2 matrix results in a 3 2 matrix. However, I cannot be a 2 2 and a 3 3
matrix at the same time. Therefore I can be dened only for square matrices.
1 , , , , ,
a Write down the order of the six matrices.
b Which of the following products exist?
c Write down the order of the products which exist.
d Calculate those products which exist.
2 a If and , calculate MN and NM.
b Is matrix multiplication commutative? That is, does MN = NM?
3 , , , , and
Calculate the following products.
a AB b AC c DO d DI e IB f BC g CD h CA i OI j ID
i AC ii CA iii DB iv BD v AE vi AI
vii IA viii IB ix EB x E
2
xi A
2
xii EC
Leading diagonal
0
0
0
0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0 1 0 0
1. In general, if A is of order m n and B is of order n p then A B exists and
its order is m p; that is, A and B are conformable.
2. In general, for two matrices A and B, AB BA.
3. AI = IA = A where A is a square matrix and I is the multiplicative identity matrix.
remember
3B
WORKED
Example
5
A
2 3
4 5
= B
1 1
1 0
= C
2 4
6 8
0 1
= D
2 4
= E
2 3 1
0 4 2
= I
1 0
0 1
=
M
2 4
1 3
= N
5 2
0 4
=
WORKED
Example
6
A
2 1
0 3
= B
2 0
0 3
= C
5 2
8 3
= D
3 2
8 5
= I
1 0
0 1
= O
0 0
0 0
=

A

(2

2),

B

(2

2),

C

(3

2),

D

(1

2),

E

(2

3),

I

(2

2)

CA

,

DB

,

AE

,

AI

,

IA

,

IB

,

A

2

,

EC

(3

2), (1

2), (2

3), (2

2),
(2

2), (2

2), (2

2), (2

2)
2
0
1
4
4
4
2
2
4
5
2
2
1
8
8
6
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
1
1
1
0
8
2
1
2
8
1
3
1
4
1
5
2
4
3
0
10 20
5 10
8 26
4 12

No

4 3
0 9
2 7
24 9
0 0
0 0
3 2
8 5
2 0
0 3
10 4
24 9
31 0
0 31
10 11
16 1
0 0
0 0
3 2
8 5

d
4 a Calculate the following products.
i ii iii
b What do you notice about all of the answers?
c What term could be given to these matrices?
5
Use the matrices below to answer questions a to d.
A = , B = , C = , D = , E = , F =
a Which one of the following products does not exist?
b The order of the matrix BD is:
c Which one of the following products gives a matrix of order 2 2?
d Which one of the following represents the matrix CE:
6 The matrix below shows the number of wins, draws and losses for two soccer teams,
the Sharks and the Dolphins.
Thus the Sharks have 10 wins, 2 draws and 5 losses. If 3 points are awarded for a win,
1 for a draw and 0 for a loss:
a write down a 3 1 matrix for the points awarded
b use matrix multiplication to nd the total points for the two teams.
7 In Australian Rules Football, 6 points are awarded for a goal and 1 point for a behind.
The scores in two games were:
Southport 1812 defeated Broadbeach 1415 and Lions 1014 defeated Eagles 916.
A AD B AB C BC D FC E CE
A 2 2 B 3 3 C 2 3 D 5 3 E 4 3
A BF B AB C DC D BC E FD
A B C Does not
exist.
D E
4 3
5 4
4 3
5 4
2 3
5 8
8 3
5 2
1 2
2 5
5 2
2 1
multiple choice
3 2
0 1
2 2 4
1 3 6
2 5
1 3
0 4
1 2 3
2 0 2
4 1 3
5 2
1 3
3 2 4
20 17
1 8
8 12
5 11
8 11
4 12
5 8 4
11 11 12
20 1 8
17 8 12
10 2 5
8 7 2
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1

All are

I

Multiplicative inverses
Sharks have a total of
32 points. Dolphins have
a total of 31 points.
32
31
3
1
0
The rst number is for goals scored and the second is for behinds.
a Write the results in a 4 2 matrix.
b Write down the 2 1 matrix for the points.
c Use matrix multiplication to nd the total number of points scored by each team.
8 Two shops, A and B, are supplied with boxes of different brands of chocolates
Yummy, Scrummy and Creamy as shown in this table:
The cost of the boxes are Yummy $10, Scrummy $25 and Creamy $12.
a Write down the costs in a 3 1 matrix.
b Use matrix multiplication to nd the total cost for each shop.
Yummy Scrummy Creamy
Shop A 20 20 10
Shop B 10 5 10
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 3.1
History
of mathematics
OLGA TAUSSKY- TODD
( 3 0 Aug us t 1 9 0 6 7 Oc t o be r 1 9 9 5 )
During her life
Mt Everest is nally climbed.
The Richter scale for measuring the strength of
earthquakes is devised.
Morse code is used by the Titanic when it sinks.
Gandhi struggles to free India from British Rule.
Olga Taussky-Todd worked in the elds of
matrix theory and number theory.
She was born in Olmtz, now part of the
Czech Republic, but when she was three the
family moved to Vienna and later to Linz.
Her father died early so it became difcult for
her to continue her studies. Her father, an
industrial chemist, had encouraged her
studies in mathematics.
Olga went to the University of Vienna
where she studied mathematics and chemistry.
She completed a doctorate in 1930 with
research into algebraic number elds. After
completing her studies she was employed at
the university of Gttingen as an assistant and
worked with Helmut Ulm by editing his book
on number theory. By 1932 Olga had been
promoted to the position of tutor.
In 1935 Olga moved to Cambridge where
she undertook a research fellowship before
moving to London in 1937 to take up a
teaching position. In London she met and
later married Jack Todd.
After the Second World War, the couple
moved to America where Olga began work on
the design of computers. In 1943, she moved
to the Ministry of Aircraft where she
conducted research into stability in matrices.
This work encouraged her to look in more
detail at matrix theory.
Olga was awarded the Austrian Cross of
Honour, which is Austrias highest award; in
1964, she was named woman of the year by
the Los Angeles Times. In 1970 she was
awarded the Ford Prize for her publication on
The Sums of Squares. In 1971 she was
named Professor Emeritus at CalTech.
Questions
1. What eld of mathematics was Olgas
speciality?
2. What did Olga work on when she
moved to America?
3. What award did Olga receive from the
Austrian Government?
4. Where was Olga a professor?
Research
Find out about the uses of matrices,
especially in dynamic programming.
18 12
14 15
10 14
9 16
6
1

Southport 120, Broadbeach 99,
Lions 74, Eagles 70
10
25
12

Shop A

=

$820, Shop B

=

$345
Matrix theory and number theory
Computer development
Cross of Honour
Caltech
Powers of a matrix
A logical extension of matrix multiplication is using the power of a matrix, where
A
1
= A
A
2
= AA
A
3
= A
2
A, and so on.
In general form, A
n
= A
n 1
A, where n is a positive integer.
But what dimension can matrix A have?
Matrix powers
Investigate powers of matrices by completing the following steps. (Remember to
use pronumerals for the elements of A, not constant values.)
1 a Let matrix A be any 3 2 matrix.
b Find A
2
.
c What do you notice?
b Find A
2
.
b Find A
2
.
c What do you notice?
4 a What general conclusion can you make concerning the order of a matrix
that is to be raised to a power?
b Justify your conclusion by referring to the dimensions of matrices involved
in a product.
From the above investigations we can conclude that A A must be conformable;
that is, the number of columns of the rst factor in the product should be the same
as the number of rows in the second factor.
That is, A must be a square matrix where n n is multiplied by n n to get A
2
.
Hence powers of matrices are only dened for square matrices.
If A = , nd: a A
2
b A
3
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a Write the power as a product. a A
2
= A A
A
2
=
A
2
=
1 3
1 2
1 3
1 2
1 3
1 2
2 9
3 1
7

WORKEDExample

Cannot multiply

A

A

if

A

is a 3

2 matrix
Cannot multiply

A

A

if

A

is a
If a matrix is to be raised to a power it must be a square matrix.

2
a
b
A =
x y
z w
A
2
=
A
2
=
x y
z w
x y
z w
x
2
yz + xy yw +
zx zw + zy w
2
+
3 a
b
A =
x y z
w p q
A
2
=
Not conformable
x y z
w p q
x y z
w p q
1 a
b

A

2

=

Not conformable
A =
x y
z w
p q
x y
z w
p q
x y
z w
p q
2

3 matrix
Powers of a matrix
1 If A

= , nd:
a A
2
b A
3
c A
4
2 If A

= , nd:
a A
2
b A
3
c A
n
3 If A

= , nd:
a A
2
b A
3
4 If A

= :
a nd A
2
b conrm that A
2
A

= AA
2
THINK WRITE
b Write the power as the product of lesser
powers.
b A
3
= A
2
A
A
2
=
A
2
=
2 9
3 1
1 3
1 2
11 12
4 7
1. The power, n, of matrix A, in general form, is A
n
= A
n 1
A, where n is a positive
integer.
2. Powers of matrices are only dened for square matrices; that is, A has to be a
square matrix to obtain A
n
.
remember
3C
WORKED
Example
7
2 1
0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
2 3 0
0 1 1
1 1 0
2 2 1
1 1 0

1 1 1
1 1 2
1 1 1
1 0 0
26 27 0
10 13 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
16 8
0 0
8 4
0 0
4 2
0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
8 9 0
2 4 1
Applications of matrices
1 A garden supplier provides live plants for displays
in 5 penthouse patios, 7 ofce foyers, 3 banks and
4 hotels. The plants in each different type of display
are listed below.
The patio displays consist of 2 ferns, 1 camellia,
1 geranium and 2 hanging baskets.
The ofce foyer displays have 1 palm, 1 geranium,
3 hanging baskets and 2 indoor plants.
The bank displays have 1 palm, 3 camellias and
5 indoor plants.
The hotel displays have 2 palms, 3 ferns,
2 camellias, 2 hanging baskets and 5 indoor plants.
The wholesale cost of each plant bought by the supplier is:
ferns $22, palms $18, geraniums $8, camellias $15,
hanging baskets $12 and a variety of indoor plants that
cost $10 on average.
The supplier needs to be able to use this information to calculate costs of
displays, number of plants required and prots, but in this form, the information is
difcult to handle.
a Develop matrices to display the following information (labels outside the
matrices will help clarify the meaning of the elements):
iii the number of displays supplied to each type of venue
iii the number and variety of plants used in each display
iii the cost of each type of plant.
b Use matrix operations to determine the following:
iii the quantities of each plant needed to ll the orders
iii the suppliers total outlay to provide the displays
iii the charge for each type of display if the supplier adds 80% prot to the
(iii) cost.
2 A home builder advertised three
designs of Ownit Homes to entice
people to buy rather than rent their
home the Taps for $155 per week,
the Avalon for $203 per week and the
Torana for $238 per week. The weekly
payments were based on nance
available from a public nance company.
Ownit Homes received orders for 10 Taps homes, 8 Avalon homes and
12 Torana homes. The materials (given in units as stated in their building guide)
required for each home are listed below:
The Taps home requires 9 units of steel, 11 of timber, 6 of glass, 7 of paint and
20 of labour.
The Avalon home requires 12 units of steel, 14 of timber, 15 of glass, 12 of
paint and 25 of labour.
The Torana home requires 14 units of steel, 12 of timber, 12 of glass, 16 of
paint and 24 of labour.

Patio Ofce Bank Hotel

Venue:

V

=

[ 5 7 3 4 ]
T
y
p
e

a
n
d

n
u
m
b
e
r
:

H
a
n
g
i
n
g
I
n
d
o
o
r
F
e
r
n
C
a
m
e
l
l
i
a
G
e
r
a
n
i
u
m
b
a
s
k
e
t
p
l
a
n
t
P
a
l
m

T

=

2
1
1
2
0
0
0
0
1
3
2
1
0
3
0
0
5
1
3
2
0
2
5
2

P
a
t
i
o
O
f
f
i
c
e
B
a
n
k
H
o
t
e
l

C
o
s
t
:

C

=

2
2

1
5
8
1
2
1
0
1
8

F
e
r
n
C
a
m
e
l
l
i
a
G
e
r
a
n
i
u
m
H
a
n
g
i
n
g

b
a
s
k
e
t
I
n
d
o
o
r

p
l
a
n
t
P
a
l
m

Quantity:

Hanging Indoor
Fern Camellia Geramium basket plant Palm

Q

=

[ 22 22 12 39 49 18 ]

TC = $2192
CD

=

163.80
147.60
203.40
370.80
Patio
Office
Bank
Hotel

i
i
i
i
i
iii
Multiplicative inverse and solving
matrix equations
In question 4 of exercise 3B, you should have found that the product of the matrices
was I. This means that one matrix is the multiplicative inverse of the other. We use the
symbol A

1
for the multiplicative inverse of A.
If AA

-1

= A

-1
A

= I, then A

1
is called the multiplicative inverse of A.
In working with numbers, a similar result would be 7

= 1 or

= 1. Numbers
such as these are called reciprocals or multiplicative inverses of each other.
To reduce costs all materials are purchased from one supplier. The prices per unit
are steel $660, timber $1140, glass $1020, paint $660 and labour is priced at $1128
per unit.
Use matrix methods to obtain the following information:
a the amount of money the bank would receive per week from the repayments on
these homes
b the total cost of raw materials for all the constructions.
3 A small bakery sells 5 main items:
sugar rolls, bread, cakes, pastry and buns.
The major ingredients (given in applicable
units) required to make one of each item
are listed below.
Sugar rolls (1 dozen) require 1 egg,
4 units of our, 0.25 of sugar, 0.25 of
shortening and 1 of milk.
Bread (1 loaf) requires 3 units of our,
0.25 of shortening.
Cake (1) requires 4 eggs, 3 units of
our, 2 of sugar, 1 of shortening and 1 of milk.
Pastry (1) requires 1 egg, 1 unit of our, 0.33 of shortening.
Buns ( 1 dozen) require 2 units of our, 3 of sugar, 1 of shortening and 1 of milk.
Two suppliers (Supplier 1 and Supplier 2) provide quotes for the ingredients, given
as ordered pairs with prices given in dollars:
eggs (1, 1.20), our (0.8, 1), sugar (1, 1.20), shortening (1.20, 1.50) and milk
(1.20, 1.20).
For one ofce function the following orders were received:
15 dozen sugar rolls, 150 loaves of bread, 45 cakes, 65 pastries and 35 dozen buns.
a Represent all the above information in matrix form taking into account
ingredients, orders, suppliers quotes.
b Use these matrices to provide a list of the amounts of the ingredients required
to ll the orders for the function.
c Which supplier provides the cheapest total quote? What savings are made by
using this supplier?
d Provide a list of selling prices (to the nearest 5 cents) if a 90% markup on the
cost prices is used to x the price.
e Calculate the total takings based on this information from part d.
1
7
---
4
5
---
5
4
---

$5018
$1 661 420

S
u
g
a
r

r
o
l
l
s
B
r
e
a
d

l
o
a
v
e
s
C
a
k
e
s
P
a
s
t
r
i
e
s
B
u
n
s
E
g
g
s
F
l
o
u
r
S
u
g
a
r
S
h
o
r
t
e
n
i
n
g
M
i
l
k

1
4
0
.
2
5
0
.
2
5
1
0
3
0
.
2
5
0
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
0
.
3
3
0
0
2
3
1
1

A

=
1
1
.
2
0
0
.
8
0
1
1
1
.
2
0
1
.
2
0
1
.
5
0
1
.
2
0
1
.
2
0

S

1
S

2

Q

=

Sugar rolls $11.30,
Bread loaves $5.15,
Cakes $20.50,
Pastries $4.15,
Buns $13.30
$2599.75

N

=

260 eggs, 780 units of
our, 198.75 units of sugar,
142.7 units of shortening
and 95 units of milk
Supplier 1 is cheaper by $290.56.

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B
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s

[
1
5

1
5
0
4
5
6
5
3
5
]
Inverse of a matrix
Consider matrix A, a 2

2 matrix, such that A

= . If a multiplicative inverse of A
exists, then A

A
1
= I.
If A
1
exists, let A
1
=
That is,
AA
1
= I
LHS =
LHS =
LHS = RHS
LHS =
If and , nd AB and hence write down the multiplicative inverse
of A.
THINK WRITE
AB will be a 2 2 matrix since A and B are both
2 2 matrices.
since 6 is a common factor
of each element.
AB = 6I
To produce I we need to multiply both sides by .
Since , the inverse of A is B.
So A
1
= B
=
=
A
4 1
6 3
= B
3 1
6 4
=
1 AB
4 1
6 3
3 1
6 4
=
6 0
0 6
=
2
6 0
0 6
6
1 0
0 1
6I = =
3
1
6
--- A
1
6
--- B ( ) I =
4
A
1
6
--- B ( ) I =
1
6
---
1
6
---
3
6
---
1
6
---
6
6
---
4
6
---
1
2
---
1
6
---
1
2
3
---
8
WORKEDExample
a b
c d
x y
u v
a b
c d
x y
u v
ax bu + ay bv +
cx du + cy dv +
1 0
0 1
Equating terms of the two matrices:
ax

+ bu

= 1 [1]
cx

+ du

= 0 [2]
ay

+ bv

= 0 [3]
cy

+ dv

= 1 [4]
Solving this system of simultaneous equations:
Use [1] and [2] to eliminate x by multiplying equation [1] by c and equation [2] by a.
acx

+ bcu

= c [5]
acx

+ adu

= 0 [6]
Equation [6] minus equation [5] gives:
adu

bcu =

c
u(ad

bc) =

c
u = This will replace u in A
1
.
Continue in a similar fashion to arrive at:
y = x = and v =
Therefore A
1
=
= where ad

bc

0
If ad bc

= 0 then this scalar is undened, therefore A
1
does not exist. That is, there is
no matrix that, when multiplied by A will yield I, the identity matrix. If A has no
inverse then it is said to be singular.
There is a relationship between A and A

1
which is outlined below. If A is the matrix
, proceed as follows.
1. Swap the elements on the main diagonal of A and multiply the elements
on the other diagonal by 1 . This gives the matrix .
2. Evaluate ad bc.
3. Divide each element by (ad bc) (or multiply by ).
These steps demonstrate a clear method for nding the multiplicative inverse of a
matrix.
The inverse of is .
The number (ad bc) is called the determinant of the matrix A and is written as
det A or |A|.
c
ad bc
------------------
b
ad bc
------------------
d
ad bc
------------------
a
ad bc
------------------
d
ad bc
------------------
b
ad bc
------------------
c
ad bc
------------------
a
ad bc
------------------
1
ad bc
------------------
d b
c a
a b
c d
d b
c a
1
ad bc ( )
-----------------------
A
a b
c d
= A
1
1
ad bc
------------------
d b
c a
=
Note: Only square matrices have inverses.
We will be concerned only with the inverse of 2

2 matrices at this stage in this course.
We can check that and .
C
1
is the multiplicative inverse of C if C

=

C

= I.
Singular matrices
Matrices for which the determinant equals 0 do not have an inverse, since is
undened. Such matrices are called singular matrices.
If det A

= 0 then A is singular and an inverse does not exist.
There are two special types of singular matrices: nilpotent and idempotent.
A square matrix A is nilpotent if A
2

= O where O is the zero matrix. The zero
matrix is a square matrix with all elements equal to zero. For example, the 2

2
zero matrix is .
If nd C
1
.
THINK WRITE
Write the general form of C and the
general form of its inverse.
C = C
1
=
Swap the elements on the main
diagonal of C.
Multiply the elements on the other
diagonal of C by 1.
C
1
=
=
Write down the inverse of C.
C
1
=
C
2 3
1 5
=
1
a b
c d
1
ad bc
------------------
d b
c a
2
5
2
3
1
1
2 5 ( ) 3 1 ( )
-------------------------------------------
5 3
1 2
1
10 3 ( )
-----------------------
5 3
1 2
3
1
13
------
5 3
1 2
9
WORKEDExample
CC
1
I = C
1
C I =
C
1
C
1
CC
1
1
13
------
2 3
1 5
5 3
1 2
=
1
13
------
13 0
0 13
=
I =
C
1
C
1
13
------
5 3
1 2
2 3
1 5
=
1
13
------
13 0
0 13
=
I =
1
0
---
0 0
0 0
A square matrix A is idempotent if A
2
= A. The only non-singular idempotent matrix is
the identity matrix.
Further matrix equations
Matrix equations of the type AX = B may be solved by using the properties of
multiplicative inverses.
A matrix equation AX = B is similar to the equation 3x = 7. To solve this we would
divide both sides of the equation by 3 (or multiply by ). To solve the matrix equation
we multiply both sides by A
1
. Since the order of multiplying matrices is important we
must be careful in which position we multiply by the inverse.
1. For AX = B
Pre-multiply by A
1
: A
1
AX = A
1
B
or IX = A
1
B since A
1
A = I
X = A
1
B since IX = X
2. For XA = B
Post-multiply by A
1
: XAA
1
= BA
1
or XI = BA
1
since AA
1
= I
X = BA
1
since XI = X
1. If AX = B, then X = A
1
B.
2. If XA = B, then X = BA
1
.
Show that
a is nilpotent
b is idempotent.
THINK WRITE
a Nilpotent means that A
2
= O.
Find A
2
.
a A
2
=
=
State your conclusion. A
2
= 0; therefore A is nilpotent.
b Idempotent means that A
2
= A.
Find A
2
.
b A
2
=
=
State your conclusion. A
2
= A; therefore A is idempotent.
6 3
12 6
5 2
10 4
1
6 3
12 6
6 3
12 6
0 0
0 0
2
1
5 2
10 4
5 2
10 4
5 2
10 4
2
10
WORKEDExample
1
3
---
Note: A
1
cannot be inserted between 2 matrices. It can either pre- or post-multiply A
on one side of a matrix equation.
In part a of Worked example 11 both sides of the equation were pre-multiplied by A
1
;
in part b both sides were post-multiplied by A
1
. Remember that the matrix and its
inverse must be next to each other so that AA
1
= I.
Fractional scalars should be left outside the matrix unless they give whole numbers
when multiplied by each element.
and
Find X if:
a AX = B
b XA = B.
THINK WRITE
a We require A
1
so rst calculate det A. a A =
det A = 3 0 = 3
Write down A
1
. A
1
=
Write the equation. AX = B
Pre-multiply both sides of the equation
by A
1
.
A
1
AX = A
1
B
Remember A
1
A = I and IX = X.
Calculate the product of A
1
and B. X =
=
b Write the equation. b XA = B
Post-multiply both sides of the equation
by A
1
.
X = BA
1
Calculate the product of B and A
1
using A
1
which was found in part a.
=
=
A
1 2
0 3
= B
2 5
2 1
=
1
1 2
0 3
2
1
3
---
3 2
0 1
3
4
5
6
1
3
---
3 2
0 1
2 5
2 1
1
3
---
10 13
2 1
1
2
3
1
3
---
2 5
2 1
3 2
0 1
1
3
---
6 1
6 5
11
WORKEDExample
Multiplicative inverse and
solving matrix equations
1 If and , nd AB and hence write down:
a the inverse of A b the inverse of B.
2 If and , nd MN. Hence write down M
1
and N
1
.
3 Calculate the determinants of the following matrices.
4 Write down the inverses of each matrix in question 3.
5
Using the matrices below, select the correct answer in questions a to d.
, and
a Det P is equal to:
b R
1
is equal to:
a b c
d e f
A 10 B 2 C 10 D 2 E 8
A B C
D E
1. If AA
1
= A
1
A = I, then A
1
is called the multiplicative inverse of A.
2. The inverse of A = is A
1
=
The number (ad bc) is called the determinant of the matrix A and is written
as det A or | A|.
3. If det A = 0 then A is singular and an inverse does not exist.
4. (a) If AX = B, then X = A
1
B.
(b) If XA = B, then X = BA
1
.
a b
c d
1
ad bc
------------------
d b
c a
remember
3D
WORKED
Example
8
A
4 1
2 1
= B
1 1
2 4
=
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
SkillSHEET 3.2
Inverse of a
2 2 matrix
M
2 6
0 1
= N
1 6
0 2
=
A
2 3
5 10
= B
2 3
4 0
= C
2 6
0 1
=
D
4 3
4 1
= E
2 1
3 5
= F
2 1
6 4
=
WORKED
Example
9
multiple choice
P
4 3
2 1
= Q
2 3
1 0
= R
8 6
4 2
=
1
8
---
2 6
4 8
1
8
---
8 6
4 2
1
40
------
8 6
4 2
1
40
------
2 6
4 8
1
40
------
2 6
4 8
1
a
b
AB 6
1 0
0 1
=
A
1
1
6
---B =
B
1
1
6
--- A =

2

,
MN 2
1 0
0 1
, =
M
1 1
2
--- N =
N
1 1
2
--- M =

5 12

2
14 7

8

4 a
b
c
d
e
f
1
5
---
10 3
5 2
1
12
------
0 3
4 2
1
2
---
1 6
0 2
1
8
---
1 3
4 4
1
7
---
5 1
3 2
1
14
------
4 1
6 2
c Det (PQ) is equal to:
d If QX = R, then X is equal to:
6 Write down a 2 2 matrix which is singular.
7 ,
Find:
8 Explain why these matrices do not have an inverse.
9 If and , nd:
10 Show that the following matrices are nilpotent.
11 Show that the following matrices are idempotent.
12 Let , , . Find X if:
13 , and X = .
Solve these matrix equations.
A 30 B 10 C 10 D 30 E 20
A B C
D E
a C
1
b D
1
c CD d (CD)
1
e C
1
D
1
f D
1
C
1
a b c
a AB b (AB)
1
a b c
a b c
a AX = B b XA = B c XC = A d AX = C
e ABX = C f CX = C g XB = I h A
1
BX = C
a b
1
3
---
12 6
0 10
1
3
---
12 6
0 10
1
3
---
12 6
0 10
1
3
---
6 28
2 8
1
3
---
6 28
2 8
C
2 6
0 1
= D
0 2
2 1
=
D
2 1
4 2
= E
2 4
5 10
= F
1 4
2 5
3 6
=
A
4 0
1 1
= B
0 2
1 0
=
WORKED
Example
10a
4 2
8 4
10 20
5 10
6 9
4 6
WORKED
Example
10b
6 3
10 5
4 4
5 5
1 0
5 0
WORKED
Example
11
A
2 3
4 5
= B
5 5
2 1
= C
0 1
6 6
=
A
3 4
1 2
= B
6 1
2 1
=
x
y
AX
2
4
= BX
15
7
=

Answers will vary.

7 a
b
c
d
e
f
1
2
---
1 6
0 2
1
4
---
1 2
2 0
12 2
2 1
1
8
---
1 2
2 12
1
8
---
11 2
4 0
1
8
---
1 2
2 12

D

det

=

0

E

det

=

0

F

Not a square matrix
Check with
your teacher.

9

a

b
0 8
1 2
1
8
---
2 8
1 0

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h

or
1
2
---
31 22
24 18
1
2
---
5 5
14 8
1
6
---
6 2
6 4
1
2
---
18 23
12 16
1
30
------
78 103
24 34
1 0
0 1
1
15
------
1 5
2 5
1
15
------
132 114
186 162
1
5
---
44 38
62 54

a b
2
1
2
3

S
L
E

1
4
:

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

i
d
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m
p
o
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m
a
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w
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t
h
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m
a
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r
i
x
,

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,

i
s

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t

h
a
s

t
h
e

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

A

2

=

A

.

12

Check with
your teacher.

S
L
E

1
3
:

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

n
i
l
p
o
t
e
n
t

m
a
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w
h
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m
a
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,

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,

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s

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i
f

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t

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a
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t
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p
r
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2

=

O

,

(

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s

t
h
e

z
e
r
o

m
a
t
r
i
x
)
.
14 Find the value of x and y by solving these matrix equations.
The transpose of a matrix
The transpose of matrix A is A, where A = and A = . The transpose of
a matrix is an interchange of rows and columns (row 1 becomes column 1 and so on).
Consider the following laws that apply to the transpose of matrices A and B:
1. (A) = A
2. (A + B) = A + B
3. (kA) = kA
4. (AB) = BA
5. AA is a symmetric matrix [that is, (AA ) = AA].
The proofs of these laws are given as problems in exercise 3E.
1 Prove that for any 2 2 matrix A, (A) = A.
2 Show that for A = and B = , (A + B) = A + B.
3 Show that for k = 2 and A = , (kA) = kA.
4 Show that for A = and B = , (AB) = BA.
5 Show that for any 2 2 matrix, AA is symmetrical.
a b
c d
3 4
1 5
x
y
2
7
=
2 3
4 1
x
y
8
2
=
4 2
3 2
x
y
14
12
=
1 3
2 3
x
y
5
2
=
a b
c d
a c
b d
1. When required to prove a statement is true:
(a) do not assume it is true and use the statement in your proof
(b) work only one side of the statement at a time, not both together
(c) do not use actual constant values for the elements, use pronumerals only.
2. If you are asked to show a statement is true, you are expected to use actual
values as given.
remember
3E
1 3
0 2
0 1
1 2
3 1
0 1
3 4
1 2
0 1
1 0

x

=

2,

y

=

1

x

=

1

, y

=

2

x

=

7,

y

=

4

x

=

2,

y

=

3
Application 1: Simultaneous equations
As we saw in questions 13 and 14 from exercise 3D, matrices may be used to solve
linear simultaneous equations. The pair of equations may be written in the form AX = B
where A is the matrix of the coefcients of x and y in the equations, X = and B is
the matrix of the numbers on the right-hand side of the simultaneous equations.
A is called the coefcient matrix.
For example, the simultaneous equations:
ax + by = u
cx + dy = v
can be expressed as the matrix equation:
=
which is of the form AX = B. Here is called the coefcient matrix, the
variable matrix and the constant matrix.
As we have seen, this equation can be solved by using:
A
1
AX = A
1
B
X = A
1
B
x
y
a b
c d
x
y
u
v
a b
c d
x
y
u
v
Solve 3x y = 16 and 2x + 5y = 5 by matrix methods.
THINK WRITE
Write the simultaneous equations under
each other making sure the variables
are in corresponding positions.
3x y = 16
2x + 5y = 5
Write the matrix equation. AX = B
=
Rearrange the equation in general form
so that X is the subject.
A
1
AX = A
1
B
IX = A
1
B
X = A
1
B
1
2
3 1
2 5
x
y
16
5
3

12
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
Most graphics calculators provide a facility for calculating inverses of matrices. To
solve the equations in Worked example 12, follow these steps.
For operations on matrices, press to display the MAIN MENU. Use the arrow
keys to highlight RUN-MAT. Select it by pressing .
1. Set up the dimensions for matrix A.
(a) Press ( MAT) to enter the matrix editing
screen.
(b) Highlight Mat A and press or (DIM).
(c) Specify the number of rows, 2 in this case, and
then press .
(d) Specify the number of columns, 2 in this case,
and then press .
2. Press again to display the 2

2 array for
matrix A.
3. Enter the values for the elements of matrix A,
pressing after each number.
THINK WRITE
Calculate A
1
. A
1
=
Multiply A
1
by B. X =
=
Write the answers in the form x = . . .
and y = . . .
Note: The solution should be veried
by substituting x = 5 and y = 1 into the
original equations.
x = 5 and y = 1
4
1
17
------
5 1
2 3
5
1
17
------
5 1
2 3
16
5
1
17
------
85
17
x
y
5
1
=
6
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Solving matrix equations
MENU
EXE
F1
EXE F3
EXE
EXE
EXE
EXE
4. Exit the Matrix input screen by pressing .
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 to create matrix B.
6. Press again to return to the MAT screen.
7. Pre-multiply matrix B by the inverse of matrix A.
(a) Press then (MAT) to bring up the
matrix menu.
(b) Press (Mat) then [A] and then
[x
1
] to specify the matrix A
1
.
Press (Mat) then [B] to specify
matrix B.
8. Press to obtain the answer screen. (Press
to leave.)
1. Open a new Calculator document (press / N
and select 1: Add Calculator). Press kto access
the catalog. Select Option 5 (by pressing 5) then
highlight the 2-by-2 matrix symbol.
2. Press . Use the arrow keys to move from one
element to the next to ll in the 2 2 matrix.
3. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor outside the
matrix, to the right. Press the power key (l) and
type in the index (1).
EXIT
EXIT
OPTN F2
F1 ALPHA
SHIFT
F1 ALPHA
EXE
EXIT
4. Press the right arrow to bring the cursor to the base
then press the multiplication key (r). The
multiplication symbol appears as a dot on the
screen.
5. Press kto access the catalog. Select Option 5
and highlight the 2-by-1 matrix symbol.
6. Press . Fill in the values for the 2 1 matrix.
7. Move the cursor outside the matrix, then press
to obtain the answer.
Application 2: Summarising information
We have already seen how matrices may be used to summarise information such as
townroad connections. Information which can be summarised in tabular form may
also be presented as a matrix.
In a large country town, there are three major supermarkets. Customers switch from one
to another due to advertising, better service, prices and for other reasons. A survey of 1000
customers has revealed the following information for the past month.
Best Buys started with 40% of the market; 90% of its customers remained loyal to Best
Buys but 5% changed to Great Groceries and 5% to Super Store.
Great Groceries started with a 36% market share; 85% remained loyal, 10%
transferred to Best Buys and 5% to Super Store.
Super Store started with 24% of the customers; it lost 15% to Best Buys and 5% to
great Groceries, but 80% remained.
Summarise the information in matrix form and calculate the new market shares.
13
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
The information may be
summarised in a 3 3 matrix with
the rows representing retention
rates and gains and the columns
representing retention rates and
losses. This may be called a
transition matrix.
Row 1 shows that Best Buys
retains 90% of its customers,
gains 10% of Great Groceries
customers and gains 15% of
Super Stores customers.
Column 1 indicates that Best
Buys retains 90% of its
customers, loses 5% to Great
Groceries and loses 5% to Super
Store. Note that each column
totals 100%.
Write the initial market shares as
a 3 1 matrix. This information is
found as the market share at the
beginning of the month.
Note: The values total 1.
The initial market share matrix is
The new market share will be the
transition matrix, converted to
decimal numbers, multiplied by
the market share matrix.
Express the new market shares as
percentages. Check the values add
up to 100%.
The new market shares are Best Buys 43.2%, Great
Groceries 33.8% and Super Store 23.0%.
1
Retention rates and losses
(%)
Best
Buys
Great
Groceries
Super
Store
Best
Buys
90 10 15
Great
Groceries
5 85 5
Super
Store
5 5 80
R
e
t
e
n
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e
s

a
n
d

g
a
i
n
s

(
%
)
2
0.40
0.36
0.24
3
0.90 0.10 0.15
0.05 0.85 0.05
0.05 0.05 0.80
0.40
0.36
0.24
0.432
0.338
0.230
=
4
1. Matrices may be used to solve simultaneous equations:
ax + by = u
cx + dy = v
The pair of equations may be written in the form AX = B,
where A = , X = and B = .
2. Matrices can also be used to summarise information which is in table form
and solve related problems; however, care must be taken in setting up the
matrices.
a b
c d
x
y
u
v
remember
In the following exercise solve all problems manually then use a graphics calculator wher-
ever appropriate to check your solutions.
1 Solve these simultaneous equations by matrix methods.
2 Consider these two pairs of simultaneous equations:
a Show by algebraic means that the simultaneous equations in i have no solution.
b Show that the simultaneous equations in ii have an innite number of solutions.
c Write the equations in matrix form and explain how these facts are related to the
determinant of the matrix of the coefcients.
d Draw, on two sets of axes, graphs of the two lines in each of i and ii.
e Explain how the graphs are related to parts a and b.
3
Consider the simultaneous equations: 3x

2y

= 5
y

+ 2x

= 8
a The coefcient matrix is:
b The solution to the simultaneous equations is:
4
In an alternative Australian Rules Football game, a team gains x points for a goal and y
points for a behind. In one game Cairns obtained 66 points by scoring 10 goals and 8
behinds and Townsville obtained 70 points from 12 goals and 5 behinds.
a This information is represented by which of the following matrix equations?
b The value of x

y is:
a 2x

3y = 13 and x + 2y = 3 b 3x + y = 9 and 2x + 5y = 6
c x + 4y = 2 and x 5y = 0 d 6x + 7y = 0 and 4x 3y = 0
e 4x + y = 20 and x y = 0 f 3x 2y = 0 and x y = 1
i 3x 2y = 4
6x 4y = 12
ii 3x 2y = 6
6x 4y = 12
A B C D E
A x = 2, y = 3 B x = 3, y = 2 C x = , y =
D x = 2, y = 2 E x = , y =
A B C
D E
A 5 B 4 C 6 D 3 E 2
3F
WORKED
Example
12
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
SkillSHEET 3.3
Using matrices to
solve linear equations
multiple choice
3 2
1 2
5
8
3 2
2 1
3 1
2 2
3 2
2 1
13
4
------
19
8
------
4
3
---
7
3
---
multiple choice
8 10
5 12
x
y
66
70
=
10 12
8 5
x
y
66
70
=
10 8
12 5
x
y
66
70
=
8 5
10 12
x
y
66
70
=
12 10
5 8
x
y
70
66
=

(5,

1)
(10, 2)
(4, 4)
(3, 0)
(0, 0)
(

2,

3)

a

and

b

Answers will vary.
det

=

0

d i
ii
x
y
0
2 3
3
2
1
4
3
Both lines
x
y
0 2
3

In

i

there are parallel lines;
in

ii

there is only one line.
5 The sum of two numbers is 20 and their difference is 12. Find the numbers by setting
up simultaneous equations and solving by matrix methods.
6 In a factory, two types of components are processed on two separate machines. The
respective processing times on the rst machine are 18 minutes and 21 minutes, while
for the second machine the times are 4 minutes and 42 minutes. How many of each
type of component, per machine, should be processed in an 8-hour shift so that both
machines are fully occupied and the output of each machine is the same?
7 In a swimming competition, 5 points are awarded for rst place, 3 for second, 2 for
third and 1 point for an unplaced result. The top competitors results were:
Place the results and points in suitable matrices and use matrix multiplication to nd
the highest points scorer.
8 Cyrils circus arrived in town last week and
during the week the number of adults, children
and pensioners attending the circus was
recorded for the rst ve shows (see table
below).
The entry cost is $20 for adults, $6 for children
and $5 for pensioners.
Set up the information in suitable matrices to
nd the total takings for the rst ve shows.
Name
Number of races
competed in
First
placings
Second
placings
Third
placings
Rania 6 2 2
Patricia 4 4
Anh 5 3 2
Mayssa 6 1 3 2
Rachel 6 2 3
Adults Children Pensioners
Monday 400 200 20
Tuesday 450 350 50
Wednesday 370 410 45
Thursday 290 380 70
Friday 420 530 65
WORKED
Example
13
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 3.2
16, 4
15, 10
Anh
$51 070
Matrix multiplication
using a graphics calculator
Worked example 13 may be solved using a graphics calculator as follows.
1. Enter the 3 3 transition matrix as matrix A.
(For more details, see the previous graphics
calculator tip on page 156.)
(a) Press ( MAT) to enter the matrix
editing screen.
(b) Set the dimensions of A to 3 3 and press
.
(c) Enter the values of A.
2. Press .
3. Enter the 3 1 market share matrix as matrix B.
(a) Scroll down to Mat B and press .
(b) Set the dimensions to 3 1 and press
.
(c) Enter the values of B.
Press again to return to the MAT screen.
5. Multiply the matrices A and B (and store as
matrix C).
(a) Press then (MAT) to bring up
the matrix menu.
(b) Press (Mat) then [A] to specify
matrix A. Press (Mat) then [B]
to specify matrix B. Press to obtain the
answer screen. Alternatively, press
[{], then then (Mat) and [C]
[}] to store as matrix C.
6. Press to obtain the answer screen. (Press
to leave.)
1. Open a new Calculator document (press /N
and select 1: Add Calculator). Press kto
access the catalog. Select Option 5 then
highlight the m-by-n matrix symbol.
F1
EXE
EXIT
EXE
EXE
EXIT
EXIT
OPTN F2
F1 ALPHA
F1 ALPHA
EXE
SHIFT
F1 ALPHA
SHIFT
EXE
EXIT
2. Press . Create the matrix with Number of
rows: 3 and Number of columns: 3, pressing
eto move from one box to the next. Press e
until OK is hightlighted.
3. Press to display the matrix template. Fill in
the values in the matrix using the arrow keys or
the tab key to move from one element to the
next.
4. Move the cursor to the right of the matrix and
press the multiplication (r) key. Press kto
access the catalog and highlight the m-by-n
matrix symbol.
5. Press then select Number of rows: 3 and
Number of columns: 1.
6. Highlight OK and press . Fill in the values in
the 3 1 matrix.
7. Move the cursor outside the matrix and press
Dominance
matrices
Have you ever wondered how
tennis players are seeded or
ranked? It obviously has
something to do with their
performance against past
opponents. In a knock-out
competition, one loss and you
are out of the competition.
Only the winners continue to
play. Dominance matrices are
often used to determine player
rankings.
The following investigation
will explain how matrices are
used to establish the seedings
or rankings of players in
round-robin situations where
each player plays every other
player, thereby creating a
more just system of ranking.
Questions
Use a graphics calculator to nd A B for each of the following:
1 A = , B =
2 A = , B =
3 A = , B =
1 3 3
5 0 2
6 2 8
9
2
5
2.5 6.1
9.2 0.3
6.6 0.7
3.7 4.6
3.7 0.4 9.4
5.1 5.9 2.2
2 3 0 2 7
0 1 1 4 7
5 3 9 2 6
5 1 1 9 6
4 4 4 4 4
3 8
5 11
4 7
1 2
9 2

SLE 10: Investigate the use of
matrices in dominance problems
such as in predicting the next
round results (rankings) for the
national netball competition.
AB
30
55
98
=
AB
40.36 36.99 36.92
35.57 5.45 87.14
27.99 6.77 63.58
37.15 28.62 44.9
=
AB
74 67
66 4
62 40
69 42
56 48
=
Dominance matrices another
application of matrices
Consider 4 players Alan, Brian, Carlo and Denis (A, B, C, D), who on past
performances have shown that A defeats D and B, D defeats B, C defeats A and D,
and B defeats C.
This situation can be represented on a digraph a network diagram that has
arrows on the edges, where A B indicates that A defeats B.
The information from the digraph can be converted into matrix form (a dominance
matrix) as below:
M =
where 1s are used to indicate defeats and 0s to indicate otherwise. Obviously A
cant defeat A so a 0 is used along the leading diagonal.
Notice also that:
(1) there are as many 1s as there are paths
(2) corresponding elements occur on either side of the leading diagonal. That is, if
A defeats B (1), then a 0 will be stored in the B defeats A element on the
opposite side of the leading diagonal.
When the elements of each of the rows are added they yield a dominance vector,
showing how many players each has defeated.
V =
This result can be readily checked from the original digraph by counting the
number of arrows out of each node.
Note, from now on the row/column labels will be omitted.
It can be seen from this information that A and C are ranked equally, and B and D
are ranked equally; this can be written as
A
B C
D
defeats A B C D
A 0 1 0 1
B 0 0 1 0
C 1 0 0 1
D 0 1 0 0
A
B
C
D
2
1
2
1
A
C

B
D

So we still need to distinguish between A and C, and B and D to establish the
ranking.
We assume in most ranking situations that if A defeats B and B defeats C then A
will defeat C. This relationship is described as being transitive, where if variable
a < b and b < c, then a < c.
In our example, A defeats B who defeats C, and A defeats D who defeats B. This
means that A has second-order inuence over C and B but not D. (A doesnt defeat
anyone who defeats D). The matrix M
2
can be used to investigate second-order
inuence.
M
2

=
M
2

=
Notice that the leading diagonal is still 0. It is impossible for a player to have
second-order inuence over themselves. Row 1 represents the second-order
inuence of player A over the other players. The element 2 in row 3 occurs because
C defeats 2 players (A and D) who defeat B.
We can nd the second-order dominance vector, V
2

= , but how much
importance should it be given?
If we assign equal importance, we calculate
M

+ M
2

=

+

=
This gives a dominance vector

= V
1

+ V
2
and allows us to rank the competitors
in the order C, A, B, D.
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 2 0 1
0 0 1 0
2
2
3
1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 2 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 2 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 2 0 2
0 1 1 0
4
3
5
2
Multiplying a square matrix by a column vector with the same number of rows and all
entries shown as 1 has the effect of adding the elements in each row of the matrix. In
the example above, the dominance vector V
1
could have been obtained using the
following steps. (The main advantage is if the dominance matrix is 5 5 or larger. You
dont need to arrow across the screen to see the elements when you are adding them.)
1. Enter the 4 4 dominance matrix M. (Refer to the
graphics calculator tip on page 156 if you are unsure
how to do this.)
2. Enter the 4 1 vector N with 1 shown for every
element.
If we wanted to investigate third-order inuence, we could calculate M
3
(= M
2
M).
M
2
M = = giving V
3
=
At this stage, notice that the leading diagonal is no longer 0. If there were
more players in the tournament, we could continue nding powers of M, but with
4 players, we stop at M
3
. In general, if there are m players, we stop at M
m 1
.
In most scenarios, it is probably unfair to assign equal importance to rst-,
second- and third-order inuence. We can allocate arbitrary constants to weight the
inuence; that is, M+ xM
2
+ yM
3
. The resulting dominance vector can be found by
calculating V
1
+ xV
2
+ yV
3
.
If we choose x = 0.5 and y = 0.25, the dominance vector would be
V
1
+ 0.5V
2
+ 0.25V
3
= + 0.5 + 0.25 =
This would rank the four players as C, A, B, D.
When you compare the nal seeding with the initial information, we can see that
A and C both won 2 games, but the wins by A were against the lower ranked B and
D. Players B and D both won 1 game but B managed to defeat the higher placed C.
This justies the seeding as produced.
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 2 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
0 2 0 1
0 1 2 0
1 0 0 1
3
3
3
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
3
1
3
3
3
2
3.75
2.75
4.25
2
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Alternative method for adding
the elements in each row in a
dominance matrix
3. Evaluate M N. Notice that this gives V
1
.
1. Enter the 4 4 dominance matrix M. (Refer to the
graphics calculator tip on page 157 if you are unsure
how to do this.)
2. Move the cursor to the right of the matrix. Press the
multiplication (r) key.
3. Enter the 4 1 vector N with 1 shown for every
element.
4. Move the cursor outside the matrix and press to
obtain the answer to M N. Notice that this gives V
1
.
1. Dominance matrices are often used to determine player rankings in round-robin
situations.
2. Information from a digraph that indicates the winloss outcome of matches
played in a tournament (for example, A defeats B, D defeats C, and so on) can
be converted into matrix form. This matrix is called a dominance matrix.
3. A dominance vector shows how many players each has defeated. It is obtained
by adding the elements of each of the rows of the dominance matrix. This
allows you to rank the players.
4. For a dominance matrix, M, we can calculate the second-order inuence of
players by calculating M
2
(third-order inuence by calculating M
3
and so on)
and nding the resulting dominance vector, V
2
(V
3
and so on).
5. Arbitrary constants can also be allocated to weight the inuence; for example,
when considering four players, we calculate M + xM
2
+ yM
3
where x and y
are constants. The resulting dominance vector can be found by calculating
V
1
+ xV
2
+ yV
3
. This renes the ranking process.
remember
Dominance matrices
1 We want to seed 4 chess players, Breanna, Kayley, Teagan and Cameron. In past
matches, Cameron defeated Breanna and Teagan, both Breanna and Teagan defeated
Kayley, Kayley defeated Cameron, and Breanna defeated Teagan.
a Draw a digraph to represent this information.
b By giving equal importance to rst- and second-order inuence, use dominance
matrices to rank the players.
2 Three friends have noticed that when they played chess, Mair defeated Ann and Janine,
and Ann defeated Janine. Use dominance matrices to rank these players.
3 A round-robin netball match was arranged for house competitions where Barnes lost to
all but Cunningham, Cunningham lost to Leslie but defeated Hamilton. No teams went
undefeated.
a If it is decided to give equal importance to rst- and second-order inuence, use
dominance matrices to rank the students houses.
b If house points are allocated as 20, 15, 10, 5 for the overall ranking, how many
points did each house receive?
4 Five schools are debating in a round-robin tournament the following table shows the
results.
Clifton lose against Warwick and Ipswich and so on.
a Construct a dominance matrix of this information.
b A total of 15 points is divided in the ratio 5:4:3:2:1 and awarded according to the
ranking of the schools at the end of the tournament. If this division of points is
allocated according to the gures produced by the dominance matrix sum
M + 0.8M
2
+ 0.5M
3
, list the number of points each school wins.
Clifton Warwick Goondiwindi Stanthorpe Ipswich
Clifton L W W L
Warwick W W L
Goondiwindi L W
Stanthorpe W
3G
B
C
K T

Cameron, Breanna, Kayley, Teagan
Mair, Ann, Janine
Hamilton, Leslie, Cunningham, Barnes
0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0

M

=

5 points to Warwick, 4 points to Ipswich, 3 points to Stanthorpe,
2 points to Clifton, 1 point to Goondiwindi
20 points to Hamilton, 15 to Leslie, 10 to Cunningham, 5 to Barnes
Cameron, Breanna, Kayley, Teagan
A matrix (plural: matrices) is a collection of numbers arranged in rows and
columns.
An m n matrix has m rows and n columns.
The numbers in the matrix are called the elements of the matrix. Elements are
referred to by the row and column position.
Addition and subtraction of matrices is performed by adding or subtracting
elements in corresponding positions. These operations can be performed only if the
matrices have the same order.
Scalar multiplication of a matrix is performed by multiplying each element of the
matrix by a number. Thus kA means each element in matrix A is multiplied by the
number k.
Matrices are multiplied in the following way:
If and
then
The orders are related as follows:
(m n) (n p) = (m p).
Matrix multiplication is usually not commutative. That is, AB BA.
Powers of a matrix
The power, n, of matrix A, in general form, is A
n
= A
n 1
A, where n is a positive
integer.
Powers of matrices are only dened for square matrices; that is, A has to be a
square matrix to obtain A
n
.
A matrix A is nilpotent if A
2
= O where O is the zero matrix. The zero matrix is a
square matrix with all elements equal to zero. For example, the 2 2 zero matrix is
.
A matrix A is idempotent if A
2
= A.
summary
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
= B
b
11
b
12
b
13
b
21
b
22
b
23
b
31
b
32
b
33
=
AB =
a
11
b
11
a
12
b
21
a
13
b
31
+ + a
11
b
12
a
12
b
22
a
13
b
32
+ + a
11
b
13
a
12
b
23
a
13
b
33
+ +
a
21
b
11
a
22
b
21
a
23
b
31
+ + a
21
b
12
a
22
b
22
a
23
b
32
+ + a
21
b
13
a
22
b
23
a
23
b
33
+ +
a
31
b
11
a
32
b
21
a
33
b
31
+ + a
31
b
12
a
32
b
22
a
33
b
32
+ + a
31
b
13
a
32
b
23
a
33
b
33
+ +
0 0
0 0
Multiplicative inverse and solving matrix equations
An identity matrix, I, is dened for square matrices such that AI = IA.
The multiplicative inverse of matrix A is A
1
such that AA
1
= A
1
A = I.
If , then .
The number ad bc is called the determinant of A and has the symbols det A or | A|.
If det A = 0, then A
1
does not exist (A does not have an inverse) and A is said to be
singular.
The transpose of a matrix is an interchange of rows and columns.
The transpose of a matrix A is A where A = and A = .
Applications of matrices: solving simultaneous equations and
summarising information
Matrices may be used to solve simultaneous equations:
ax + by = u
cx + dy = v.
The pair of equations may be written in the form AX = B, where A = ,
X = and B = .
Matrices can also be used to summarise information which is in table form and
solve related problems but care must be taken in setting up the matrices.
Dominance matrices can be used to determine player rankings in sports
competitions.
A
a b
c d
= A
1
1
ad bc
------------------
d b
c a
=
a b
c d
a c
b d
a b
c d
x
y
u
v
1
The solution to is given by A equals:
2 A is a 3 2 matrix, B is 2 2 and C is 3 2. Which of the following may be
calculated?
3
If A is a 3 2 matrix and B is 2 1, then the order of AB is:
4
The product of is:
5 Using the same matrices as in question 2, which of the following may be calculated?
6 If A = , nd
7 If A = , nd
A
B
C D E
a A + B b A + C c B + C
A 2 2 B 3 2 C 3 1 D 1 3 E 2 1
A B C D E
a AB b AC c BA
d BC e CA f CB
g A + CB h A + BC i AB
1
a A
2
b A
3
c A
4
a A
2
b A
3
c A
4
CHAPTER
review
3A
multiple choice
2 0
2 0
2A
4 2
0 2
=
3 1
1 1
12 4
4 4
4 0
4 8
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
3A
3B
multiple choice
3B
multiple choice
1 2 3
4 5 6
1
0
1
4 10
4
10
1 0 3
4 0 6
14
1 0 3
0 0 0
4 0 6
3B
3C
1 2
2 0
3C
1 0 0
0 2 1
1 0 0
3 2
2 4
7 6
6 4
5 14
14 12
1 0 0
1 4 2
1 0 0
1 0 0
3 8 4
1 0 0
1 0 0
7 16 8
1 0 0
8
Consider the following matrices.
A = B = C =
a Which of the following are idempotent?
b Which of the following are nilpotent?
9
The determinant of is:
10
If AB = 4I then B
1
is:
11
Which of the following matrices is singular?
12
If AX = B then X is given by:
13 Find matrix A if A .
14
Using matrices, the solution to: 4x y = 7
y x = 2 is:
15 a Write down the inverse of
b Hence solve 3x + y = 14 and 4x 2y = 22.
A A B C and D C E A and C
A B C and D C E A and C
A 0 B 11 C 2 D 10 E 10
A 4A B A C A D B E 4B
A
B C
D E
A A
1
B B BA
1
C D AB
1
E IA
1
A (2, 3) B (3, 5) C (3, 4) D (1, 1) E (5, 3)
3D
multiple choice
1 0
0 1
6 3
12 6
3 2
3 2
3D
multiple choice
2 0
1 5
3D
multiple choice
1
4
---
1
4
---
3D
multiple choice
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
4 2
6 3
4 2
2 1
10 2
5 0
3D
multiple choice
B
A
---
3D
0 1
2 1
6 6
0 6
=
3E
multiple choice
3D,E
4 2
3 1

9 3
6 0
1
10
------
1 2
3 4
(5,

1)
16 In a township, 25% of households own no pets,
40% of households own one pet, 20% have two
pets and 15% own more than two pets.
a Set up a 1 4 matrix to represent the
percentage ownership of pets.
b Write an equation that will enable you to
calculate the number of households for each
category, given that there are 800 households
in the town.
c Evaluate the number of households for each
category as a 1 4 matrix.
17 The matrix below represents the prices (in dollars)
of some mobile phone options. The rst column
displays the costs of two types of pre-paid mobile
phones and the second column represents two types
of 12-month-plan mobile phones.
The company wants to increase the price of
the pre-paid mobile phones by 12% and
decrease the cost of the 12-month-plan
mobile phones by 5%.
a Show the matrix used to represent the
price changes (a 2 2 matrix).
b Use matrix multiplication to calculate
the new prices.
18 In a backgammon competition, four players
Glen, James, Cameron and William
competed with the following results:
Glens only win was against James.
James defeated both Cameron and
William. Cameron also defeated
William.
Using dominance matrices and
assigning a weighting of 1
to rst-order inuence
and 0.5 to second-order
inuence, rank the
players.
3F
3F
249 29
680 49
3G

[0.25 0.40 0.20 0.15]

A

=

800

B

[200 320 160 120]
1.12
0
0 0.95
278.88 27.55
761.60 46.55
James, Cameron, Glen, William
1 A company has two plants manufacturing components for different models of car. The time
spent in hours per car is given in the following matrix.
The wage rates ($ per hour) at the two sites are given by:
a In the rst matrix, write down the 2, 3 element and explain what it refers to.
b In the second matrix, write down the 2, 1 element and explain what it refers to.
c Write down the order of each matrix and the order of the matrix found by multiplying the
rst matrix by the second matrix.
d Find the product of the two matrices.
e Explain what the rst row of the product matrix represents.
f Explain what the rst column of the product matrix represents.
g Write down the cost of producing the Deluxe model at:
ii Plant 1
ii Plant 2.
Assembly Packaging Despatch
Standard model 25 1 0.5
Deluxe model 30 1.5 1
4-wheel drive 35 1.5 0.5
Plant 1 Plant 2
Assembly 16.50 16.00
Packaging 14.00 14.00
Despatch 13.50 13.00

1: Despatch for Deluxe
model takes 1 hour.
14: Packaging at Plant 1
has a wage rate of
$14 per hour.
3

3, 3

2, 3

2
433.25 420.50
529.50 514.00
605.25 587.50
The assembly costs for each
model at Plant 1
$529.50
$514.00
The total costs for the Standard
model at Plants 1 and 2
2 Tickets for a one-way trip on a Brisbane-to-Sydney passenger train can be purchased as either
Adult, Child (under 15 years old) or Pensioner. The table below shows the number of
passengers and the total takings for three trips.
a Let x = the cost of an adults ticket.
Let y = the cost of a childs ticket.
Let z = the cost of a pensioners ticket.
Construct three equations in terms of x, y and z.
b Using matrices, express the equations in the form AX = B.
c Use your graphics calculator to nd A
1
.
d Use your graphics calculator to determine the costs of a train ticket for an adult, a child
and a pensioner.
3 Use a and b to complete A where A = so that it is nilpotent (that is, A
2
= O).
4 Use a and b to complete A where A = so that it is idempotent.
5 Prove that if a square idempotent matrix A is non-singular, then A must be the identity matrix.
6 Prove that if A is idempotent
a I A is idempotent
b A(I A) = O.
Number of adult
passengers
Number of child
passengers
Number of
pensioner
passengers Total takings ($)
145 103 121 20 260
130 110 90 18 400
142 115 80 19 200
a b
a b
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Test Yourself
Chapter 3
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145

x

+

103

y

+

121

z

=

20 260
130

x

+

110

y

+

90

z

=

18 400
142

x

+

115

y

+

80

z

=

19 200
145 103 121
130 110 90
142 115 80

x
y
z

20 260
18 400
19 200
=
0.025 544 0.093 523 0.066 579
0.039 222 0.091 991 0.044 166
0.011 042 0.033 767 0.042 189
The cost of an adults ticket is $75, a childs ticket is $50 and a pensioners ticket is $35.

a b
a

2

b

-----

a

A

=

a b
a a

2

b

-------------- 1

a

A

=

A

1

=
syllabus
reference
Core topic:
Introduction to groups
In this
chapter
4A Modulo arithmetic
4B The terminology of groups
4C Properties of groups
4D Cyclic groups and
subgroups
4E Further examples of groups
transformations
4
An introduction
to groups
Introduction
Through your study of mathematics, you have developed an understanding of the rules
that apply to numbers. You know that if you add two integers, the result is also an
integer. However, if you divide two integers, you dont always get an integer as the
answer. You know that addition is associative; for example, 7 + (6 + 2) = (7 + 6) + 2;
but subtraction is not; for example, 7 (6 2) (7 6) 2.
Towards the end of the 19th century, mathematicians began to talk about the concept
of groups. Essentially, a group is a set of elements, such as integers or matrices, that
can be combined using an operation, like addition or multiplication, and which satisfy
certain conditions. For example, integers form a group under addition but not under
division (because dividing integers does not always result in an integer).
Historically, group theory came from the study of number theory and the theory of
algebraic equations at the end of the 18th century and the study of geometry at the
beginning of the 19th century. Today, group theory is applied to many areas of science
such as genetics, quantum theory, molecular orbits, crystallography and the theory of
relativity.
But rst a new tool to help you deal with some notions used in groups.
Algebraic structures
In algebra, symbols that can be manipulated are elements of some set and the
manipulation is done by performing certain operations on elements of that set. The
set involved is referred to as an algebraic structure.
Research the topic of algebraic structures examining early algebraic systems that
developed in ancient civilisations such as the Indian, Arabic, Babylonian, Egyptian
and Greek. Highlight differences and similarities among the various forms.

Concepts of:

closure

associativity

identity

inverse

denition of a group
C h a p t e r 4 A n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o g r o u p s 179
Modulo arithmetic
Not to be confused with the modulus of a number (see Chapter 1 on real numbers, R,
where the modulus of 4, written | 4 | = 4), modulo arithmetic uses a nite number
system with a nite number of elements. This is sometimes referred to as clock
arithmetic because of the similarities with reading the time on an analog clock.
Consider reading the time shown on the clock face to the right.
Whether it is 2 am or 2 pm we would say it is 2 oclock,
but in 24-hour time the 2 pm would be 1400 hours. In effect
we have subtracted 12 hours from the 1400 (14 hours) to give
an answer of 2. In this case we say that 2 is the residue, or
what is left over when 12 hours is subtracted from the 14.
In modulo 12 arithmetic the same principle is used except
that the 12 is replaced by a 0.
5 + 6 11
5 + 7 0
5 + 8 1 and so on.
In our normal decimal system 5 + 8 = 13, but in modulo 12
arithmetic the residue of 1 differs from 13 by 12 (or a mul-
tiple of 12) and 1 and 13 are said to be congruent. That is, in
modulo 5 arithmetic, the numbers 3, 8 and 13 are congruent
and in modulo 12 arithmetic, 2, 14, and 26 are congruent
numbers. The symbol for congruency, , is used.
Using more precise terminology, addition modulo 10 is written
3 + 9 2 mod 10, 5 + 5 0 mod 10, and so on.
(Note the abbreviation of modulo to mod.)
In mod 12, the numbers 0 to 11 are referred to as residues, as with 0 to 5 in mod 6.
This information can be stored in a table, known as a Cayley Table.
12
1
2
4
5 7
8
10
11
6
3 9
0
1
2
4
5 7
8
10
11
6
3 9
Draw up a Cayley Table that shows the residues using addition modulo 4.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Draw an empty table with 0, 1, 2, 3 in
the rst row and column and put a +
sign in the top corner.
Start working across the rst row.
0 + 0 = 0 etc. and do likewise with the
rst column.
1 + 0 1 2 3
0
1
2
3
2 + 0 1 2 3
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
1 2 3
1
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
Modulo arithmetic
1 List 4 numbers congruent to:
a 4 in mod 8
b 4 in mod 6.
2 List the residues in:
a mod 3 b mod 9 c mod 11.
3 Draw up a Cayley Table that shows the residues for each of the following:
a addition mod 6
b multiplication mod 4
c multiplication mod 5.
The terminology of groups
In Chapter 1 you dealt with different sets of numbers within the Real Number System.
Throughout your student life you have used the operations of addition, multiplication,
subtraction and division, nding a square root, reciprocals, and so on. These are
examples of operations performed on numbers that are part of a certain set.
Operations (such as addition) that involve 2 input values, for example 2 + 3, are called
binary operations. Those that involve only one input value, such as nding the square
root of a number (for example ) are called unary operations. Others that involve 3
input values are called ternary; for example, the principal, interest and term of a loan
are the 3 input values involved in calculating the amount of interest due on a loan.
(Strictly speaking the multiplication involved is still carried out on pairs of values.)
Denition of terms
Groups that we will deal with consist of a system that involves a set of elements (often
numbers) and a binary operation. Lower case letters, a, b, c , are used to refer to
elements of the set and the symbol
denotes whatever operation is involved.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
The residues are the numbers left over
when 4 is taken from the answer (if the
answer is 4 or greater). As you
complete the table note that the answers
are less than 4. So, for 2 + 2 the residue
is 0.
3 + 0 1 2 3
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
1
2
3
0
2
3
0
1
3
0
1
2
1. Modulo arithmetic is like clock arithmetic where 5 + 9 4 in mod 10.
2. The residues of modulo x are all the whole numbers less than x.
3. Congruent numbers in mod x all differ by multiples of x.
remember
4A
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SkillSHEET 4.1
Modulo arithmetic
WORKED
Example
1
8

4, 12, 20, 28, 36

4, 10, 16, 22
0, 1, 2 0, 1, 2,

8 0, 1,

10

3
a
+
0
1
2
3
4
5
012345
012345
123450
234501
345012
450123
501234

b
0
1
2
3
0123
0000
0123
0202
0321

c
0
1
2
3
4
01234
00000
01234
02413
03142
04321
For a non-empty set of elements S = {a, b, c, } involved in the binary operation
to be a group, G = [S,
], the following properties must hold.

1 Closure
An operation is closed if the result of that operation is an element of the same set
as the two inputs. That is, a
b must be in S.
For example, consider 2 + 3 = 5 where S = {Real numbers} (or R) and
is the oper-
ation of addition. The operation is closed because 5 R.
But consider 2 3 = 1 where S = {Natural numbers} (or N) and
is the operation
of subtraction. Because the result (1) is not a member of the set of natural numbers
this operation is not closed. That is, the answer is not part of the initial set of natural
numbers.
2 Associativity
If an operation is associative, the order in which operations are performed does
not affect the answer. That is, (a
b)
c = a
(b
c).
Often brackets are employed to determine the order of operations.
For example, consider (2 3) 4 and 2 (3 4):
(2 3) 4 = 6 4 2 (3 4) = 2 12
= 24 = 24
In this case, both answers are the same. Note that only the position of the brackets
changes and the order of the numbers remains the same.
But consider the operation of division:
(20 2) 4 and 20 (2 4)
= 10 4 = 20 0.5
= 2.5 = 40
Here the answers are not the same.
Division, like subtraction, is not associative. You would have realised this in your
earlier junior mathematics studies.
3 Identity
For all elements of a set, if a unique element exists in the set such that
a
u = u
a = a then u is the identity element (IE) for that operation.

That means that there is only one element that leaves every element unchanged when
the operation
has been applied.

For example, 3 + 0 = 3, so 0 is the identity element for addition (IE+) for real
numbers.
However, 3 0 = 0 so 0 is not the identity element for real numbers under the oper-
ation of multiplication.
Note: The one identity element must work for all elements of the set so 5 + 0 = 5
and 8 + 0 = 8. It must also work from both the left and right sides of the oper-
ation. For example, 6 + 0 = 6 and 0 + 6 = 6. That is, 6 + 0 = 0 + 6 = 6.
4 Inverse
For each element of a set there is a unique element a
1
such that
a
a
1
= a
1
a = u where u is the identity element for that operation.

Unique means that every element has only one inverse.
2 = 2 = 1 where 1 is the identity element for multiplication (IE)
Therefore is the multiplicative inverse of 2.
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
Now consider 2 + 2 = 2 + 2 = 0 where 0 is IE+; in this case 2 is the additive
inverse of 2. However, note that the set involved here would have to be integers (that is,
both positive and negative) not just whole numbers because 2 {Whole numbers}.
We can now restate the denition of a group.
If the following 4 properties hold for a set of elements under a certain operation
:
1. closure
2. associativity
3. existence of an identity element
4. existence of an inverse
then the system under investigation [S,
] is a group. If a fth property,

commutativity, also holds, then the group is an Abelian group.
Commutativity
If the order of the elements involved has no effect on the outcome, then the operation is
commutative. That is, a
b = b
a.
For example, 2 5 = 10 and 5 2 = 10.
Hence multiplication with real numbers is commutative. Note the stated condition,
with real numbers, because you have already worked with matrices where multi-
plication is not commutative.
However, consider 10 2 = 5 and 2 10 = 0.2.
So division is not commutative. You would be familiar with other operations as well
that are not commutative.
Find a the identity element and b the inverse for the operation dened as a
b = a + b + 2.
THINK WRITE
a An identity element (IE) is an
element that, when involved in an
operation with another element, does
not change the value of that element.
a Let a
b = a (where b = IE)
therefore a + b + 2 = a
b = 2
so IE = 2
State the identity element. The identity element is 2.
b An inverse is an element that, when
involved in an operation with
another element, results in the IE for
that operation.
b Let a
b = 2 (where b is the inverse of a

and 2 = IE from part a)
therefore a + b + 2 = 2
a + b = 4
b = 4 a
The inverse must work from the left
as well as from the right of the
operation.
Check b
a where b = 4 a
b
a = b + a + 2
= 4 a + a + 2
= 2
= IE
Therefore, a
a
1
= a
1
a = 2
when a
1
= 4 a.
State the inverse. The inverse is 4 a.
1
2
1
2
3
2
WORKEDExample
Find the identity element for the operation dened as a
b = where a and b are

non-negative real numbers.
THINK WRITE
An identity element (IE) is an element
that, when involved in an operation
with another element, does not change
the value of that element.
Let a
b = a (where b = IE)
Therefore = a
Squaring both sides:
a
2
+ b
2
= a
2
b
2
= 0
b = 0
Check that the identity element works
from both sides of the operation.
Check b
a where b = 0
0
a =
= a
Therefore, 0
a = a
0 = a. Thus, IE = 0.
State the identity element. The identity element is 0.
a
2
b
2
+
1
a
2
b
2
+
2
0
2
a
2
+
3
3
WORKEDExample
History
of mathematics
NI ELS HENRI K ABEL ( 1 8 0 2 1 8 2 9 )
Lord Byron, the
English poet, writes
Don Juan.
Napoleon
Bonaparte
becomes emperor
of France.
Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck, the
French biologist,
proposes that
acquired traits are
inherited by individuals
in a population.
Niels Abel was one of the most productive
mathematicians of the 19th century. Born in
Norway on 5 August 1802, by the age of 16 he
had started his private study of the
mathematics of Newton, Euler, Gauss and
Lagrange. As the sole supporting male of his
family, at 18 he tutored private pupils while
continuing his own mathematical research. By
the age of 19 he had proved that there was no
nite formula for the solution of the general
fth degree polynomial.
He died of tuberculosis on 6 April 1829,
two days before the announcement of his
posting as professor to the Berlin university.
His life in poverty stands in contrast to the
regard with which he is held in his eld; the
term Abelian group is used in honour of Abel.
His studies on group theory were central to
the development of abstract algebra.
Questions:
1. How did Abel nancially support his
family?
2. Which property do groups bearing his
name exhibit?
He tutored students.
Abelian groups are those that have the property
of commutativity.
1 Show that a
b = is not closed with respect to whole numbers. (Remember you

only have to nd one example where the operation is not closed to disprove a state-
ment.)
2 If an operation a
b is dened as determine whether this is closed if a and b

are whole numbers.
3 Find a the identity element and b the inverse for the operation
on real numbers
where a
b = a + b 1.
4 What is the identity element of the operation a
b = a + b ab if a and b are real

numbers?
5 The operation a
b = 4ab
2
is dened for positive real numbers a and b. Does the
identity element for this operation exist?
6 Develop a proof to show that a
b = has no identity.
7 An operation is dened with respect to an ordered pair of integers as
(a, b)
(c, d) = (ad + bc, bd). Show that (0, 1) is the identity element for the operation.
8 Show that a
b = (a + b)
2
has no identity for real numbers.
Properties of groups
In the previous section, we looked at the conditions under which a set forms a group.
To check whether a set S forms a group under the operation
, that is, [S,
], there are
four properties to be tested.
1. Closure: the result of the operation is an element of S; that is, a
b S.
2. Associativity: the order in which the operation is performed has no effect on the
result; that is, (a
b) c = a
(b
c).
A set S forms a group under the operation
if and only if (iff) all of the

following are true:
1. it is closed under
; that is, the result is an element of S

2. the order in which operations are performed has no effect on the results; that is,
it is associative
3. there is only one identity element (IE), u, such that a
u = u
a = a
4. there is a unique inverse a
1
for every element such that a
a
1
= a
1
a = u,
where u = IE.
5. If the property of commutativity also holds, then it is an Abelian group.
remember
4B
a b +
2
------------
a
2
b
2
+
WORKED
Example
2
WORKED
Example
3
a b +
ab
------------

a

IE

=

1

IE

=

0

a

0

=

a

+

0

0
Assuming this operation
has an identity then
let

=

a
a

+

b

=

a

2

b
a

=

a

2

b

b

But

a

a

2

b

b

therefore the operation
has no identity.
a b +
ab
------------

Let (0, 1)

=

(

a

,

b

)

=

IE.
Therefore, (0, 1)

(

c

,

d

)

=

(0

d

+

1

c

, 0

c

+

1

d

)

=

(

c

,

d

)
and (

a

,

b

)

(0, 1)

=

(

a

1

+

b

0,

a

0

+

b

1)

=

(

a

,

b

).
Let (

a

+

b

)

2

=

a

where

b

=

IE
Take the square root of
both sides:

a

+

b

=

If

a

is negative then

R

.
Since an identity must be
applicable to all elements of
the set, there is no IE for

a

b

.
a
a

SLE 2: Determine the identity element and inverses in a group table.

=

2 and 2 is not an element of the set of whole numbers.
3 2 +
2
------------
1
2
---
1
2
---

1

3 = = Not a whole number,

not closed. 1 9 + 10

No identity. 4

a

( )

2

=

a

but

a
1
2
---
1
2
---

b

b

=

2

a
3. Existence of an identity element: there is only one identity element (IE), u, such that
a
u = u
a = a.
4. Existence of an inverse: there is a unique inverse for every element such that
a
a
1
= a
1
a = u where u = IE.
Abelian groups
If a set forms a group and the property of commutativity also holds, then it is an
Abelian group. An operation is commutative if the order of the elements involved has
no effect on the result. That is, a
b = b
a.
Note that the test for commutativity is performed last because the rst 4 properties are
necessary to state that it is a group in the rst place, before it is shown to be Abelian.
This group, G = [Z, +], is an innite group, having an unlimited set of elements. You
will also deal with nite groups which have a countable number of elements.
a Verify that the set of integers forms a group under addition.
b Is this group Abelian?
THINK WRITE
a What numbers are involved? All
positive and negative integers and 0 are
involved so state the set and operation.
While you can think of actual values for
the integers (1, 0 4 ) your answer
should use only variables, with
constants used as examples only.
a Let Z = {a, b, c, } be the set of integers;
the operation is addition.
Test each of the 4 properties in the
same order each time to help you
remember the 4 tests.
iii The sum of any 2 integers is an
integer.
iii The order in which the operation is
performed has no effect on the
result.
iii Since 0 Z, IE+ exists.
iv Since Z contains all positive and
negative whole numbers, the
inverse is a.
iii The operation is closed:
a + b = c where a, b and c Z
iii The operation is associative:
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
iii The identity element exists:
a + 0 = 0 + a = a
iv The inverse exists:
a + a = a + a = 0
State that the system forms a group
under the conditions stated.
Thus the set of integers forms a group
under addition.
b If the group is Abelian we need to show
that this operation is commutative.
b Commutativity
a + b = b + a
Therefore the group is Abelian.
1
2
3
4
WORKEDExample
Verify that the set of odd integers does not form a group under addition.
THINK WRITE
What numbers are involved?
The set of odd integers includes
5, 3, 1, 1, 3, 5
State the set and operation.
S = {a, b, c, } is the set of odd integers.
The operation is addition.
Test the 4 properties as shown in
Worked example 4.
Closure: a + b S
Let a = 3 and b = 5
3 + 5 = 8 and 8 S
Therefore G [S, +]
There is no need to proceed any further
with tests to verify the system is a
group as it is not closed.
The set of odd integers does not form a group
under addition.
1
2
3
5
WORKEDExample
Construct a Cayley Table for [{1, i, 1, i}, ] and determine whether this constitutes a
group.
THINK WRITE
Set up the empty table.
Complete the table. Remember from
Chapter 2 on complex numbers that
i = and i i = 1.
Test the 4 group properties closed
set, associative, identity element and
multiplicative inverse. The answers can
be obtained from the table.
(Multiplication by 1 leaves all elements
unchanged.)
1. All the results are members of the original
set {1, i , 1, i}. This is a closed set.
2. The set is associative
e.g. (1 i) i = i i = 1
and 1 (i i) = 1 1 = 1
3. The identity element, IE = 1
4. Multiplicative inverse: there is a 1 (IE) in
every row of the table so each element has a
unique inverse.
State your conclusion. Therefore, the system is a group.
1
1 i 1 i
1
i
1
i
2
1
1 i 1 i
1
i
1
i
1
i
1
i
i
1
i
1
1
i
1
i
i
1
i
1
3
4
6
WORKEDExample
Note that the Cayley Table is symmetrical about the
leading diagonal. The table could be ipped over on
the leading diagonal and remain unchanged. This
means that the order of operations will not affect the
results; that is, that the operation is commutative.
Therefore this group is also Abelian.
Note: There are 9 axioms that relate to operations and whole numbers that require no
proof: they are assumed to be true. The associativity statement in the example above
relied on one of these axioms and you can state that these axioms have been used.
1 i 1 i
1
i
1
i
1
i
1
i
i
1
i
1
1
i
1
i
i
1
i
1
Leading diagonal
Construct a Cayley Table for [{mod 5}, +] and determine whether it is an Abelian group.
THINK WRITE
Decide what numbers are present in
mod 5 and complete a Cayley Table of
residues.
Test for the 4 group properties. 1. All results are members of the original set.
So, the set is closed.
2. Addition with whole numbers is associative.
3. The identity element, IE+ = 0 exists.
4. There is a 0 entry in each row because each
element has a corresponding element that,
when added, results in 0 (IE+). So, there is
an additive inverse.
Therefore the system forms a group.
Test for commutativity. Addition mod 5 is commutative as shown by
the symmetry about the leading diagonal.
For example: 4 + 0 4 and
0 + 4 4
and 4 + 2 1 and
2 + 4 1
Therefore the group is Abelian.
1
+ 0 1 2 3 4
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
0
2
3
4
0
1
3
4
0
1
2
4
0
1
2
3
2
3
+ 0 1 2 3 4
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
0
2
3
4
0
1
3
4
0
1
2
4
0
1
2
3
7
WORKEDExample
They are given here with no explanation.
1. Closure Law of Addition
2. Commutative Law of Addition
3. Associative Law of Addition
4. Identity Law of Addition
5. Closure Law of Multiplication
6. Commutative Law of Multiplication
7. Associative Law of Multiplication
8. Identity Law of Multiplication
9. Distributive Law of Multiplication over addition, where a(b + c) = ab + ac
1 a Verify that the set of real numbers, [R, +], forms a group under addition.
b Is this group Abelian?
2 a Consider the set of even numbers (2n) where n Z.
b Does this form a group under addition? (Note: 0 {even numbers})
c Does it form a group under multiplication?
3 Does the set of powers of 1 form a group under:
a addition?
b multiplication?
4 Verify that the set of even integers does not form a group under division.
5 Construct a Cayley Table for [{mod 5 excluding 0}, ] and determine whether this
constitutes a group.
6 a Draw up a Cayley Table for the set of even powers of 2 under addition.
b Does this form a group under addition?
c Does this form a group under multiplication?
7 Construct a Cayley Table for [{mod 3}, ] and determine whether it is an Abelian
group.
1. To determine whether a set forms a group under an operation (
) test each of
the four properties; that is, test whether it is closed and associative, whether
there is an identity element and a unique inverse.
2. To determine whether the group is Abelian, show that the operation is
commutative (e.g. a
b = b
a).
remember
4C
WORKED
Example
4
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SkillSHEET 4.2
WORKED
Example
5
WORKED
Example
6
WORKED
Example
7

[

R

,

+

] It is closed, associative, IE

+ =

0, inverse

=

a

, therefore it is a group.
It is Abelian.
1

2

+

1

3

is not closed; not a group.
1

2

1

3

is closed, and associative, IE

= 1, there is an inverse; so it is a group.
Check with
your teacher.
5
Closed, associative,
IE = 1 and there is
an inverse; therefore
it is a group.
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
2
4
1
3
3
1
4
2
4
3
2
1
Under addition: not closed, associative, no IE+ since
0 2
2n
, no inverse (always +ve); not a group.
0 1 2
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
2
1
It is closed and associative, IE = 1; inverse does not exist since there are no 1s in
the rst row or column. This is not a group; therefore, it is not Abelian, even
though the commutative law does apply.
SLE 1: Determine whether the elements of a set form a group under a binary operation.
SLE 2: Determine the identity element and inverses in a group table.
SLE 3: Use a small Cayley table to determine whether a set of elements under a binary
operation forms a group.
SLE 4: Investigate when the integers modulo n form groups under addition or multiplication.
SLE 9: Investigate commutativity and abelian groups.
Closed, associative, no IE since
0 {even numbers}, there is an
inverse; therefore not a group.
Closed, associative, no IE since 1 {even
numbers}, no inverse; therefore not a group.
6 a
+ 4 16 64 256
4
16
64
256
.
.
.
8
20
68
260
.
.
.
20
32
80
272
.
.
.
68
80
128
320
.
.
.
260
272
320
512
.
.
.
Under multiplication: closed, associative, IE = 1 is not present as no 2

0
(0 {even numbers}), inverse is 2
2n
; not a group.
8 Determine whether each of the tables below forms a group.
a b
c d
9 a Construct a Cayley Table for the set
a
b = [{5, 10, 20}, lowest common multiple of a, b]

b Does this set form a group?
10 The movements of a robot are restricted to no change (N), turn left (L), turn right (R),
turn about (A): {N, L, R, A}. Construct a Cayley Table and show that this set of
movements under the operation
, meaning followed by, forms a group.

Cyclic groups and subgroups
By completing the exercises so far, you would be aware that both real numbers and
integers form a group under addition. However, the set of integers is contained within
the set of real numbers (this is called a subset). Because of this, we can say that integers
under addition is a subgroup of real numbers under addition. When identifying sub-
groups, it is not necessary to verify associativity, but the existence of closure, the
identity element and inverses needs to be conrmed.
a b c
a
b
c
c
a
b
a
b
c
b
c
a
a b c
a
b
c
a
b
c
b
a
d
c
c
a
a b c
a
b
c
a
b
c
b
b
b
c
c
a
a b c
a
b
c
b
c
a
c
a
b
a
b
c
Does the set of numbers {0, 2, 4} form a subgroup of addition modulo 6?
THINK WRITE
To check for closure, construct a
Cayley Table.
This is a closed set.
Is the identity included? IE+ = 0. Therefore the identity is included.
Do inverses exist? There is a 0 entry in each row, so the inverses
are included.
State your conclusion. The set of numbers {0, 2, 4} forms a subgroup
of addition modulo 6.
1
+ 0 2 4
0 0 2 4
2 2 4 0
4 4 0 2
2
3
4
8
WORKEDExample
Yes No, not closed
No, no inverse
for b
Yes
5 10 20
5
10
20
5
10
20
10
10
20
20
20
20
It is closed, associative, IE
= 5, no inverse; so not a group.

10
IE
= N, there is an
inverse, N appears in
every row and column.
N L R A
N
L
R
A
N
L
R
A
L
A
N
R
R
N
A
L
A
R
L
N
In modulo 6 addition, 2 + 2 = 2 2 4 mod 6, 2 + 2 + 2 = 3 2 0 mod 6,
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 4 2 2 mod 6, 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 5 2 4 mod 6. If we continue,
we get 6 2 0 mod 6, 7 2 2 mod 6 and so on. This means that all members of
the subgroup {0, 2, 4} can be a result of repeatedly adding the number 2. This sub-
group is said to be cyclic (because the answers cycle through the set) and 2 is the
generator of the cyclic subgroup. We can write this group as G = [{0, 2, 4}, + mod
6] = <2>, where <2> means that G is cyclic and 2 is the generator.
From previous sections, we know that integer multiplication modulo 5 forms a group
if zero is not included. We can write this set of numbers as Z
5
*. If we calculate powers of
3, we nd that 3
0
1 mod 5, 3
1
3 mod 5, 3
2
4 mod 5, 3
3
2 mod 5, 3
4
1 mod 5,
3
5
3 mod 5 and so on. This means that all elements in Z
5
* can be found by repeatedly
multiplying the number 3. The group is cyclic and 3 is a generator. We can write this
group as G = [Z
5
*, ] = <3>.
Writing this more mathematically, lets consider a group G = [S,
] and let a be one

element of S. If
represents addition, that is, G = [S, +], and all elements of S can be
written as na, where n is an integer, then the group is cyclic and a is the generator.
Similarly, if
represents multiplication, that is, G = [S, ], and all elements of S can

be written as a
n
, then the group is also cyclic and a is the generator.
In both cases, we can write G = <a>, meaning G is a cyclic group generated by a.
Another group we can consider as an example is integers under addition. Every
integer can be written as n1. This means that integers under addition is a cyclic group
and 1 is the generator. Every integer can also be written as n(1), therefore 1 is also a
generator. We can write this group as G = [Z, +] = <1> = <1>.
a Compute the cyclic subgroups <1>, <2>, <3>, <4>, <5> of the group addition modulo 6.
b Hence identify the generators of the group addition modulo 6.
THINK WRITE
a We need to compute na for a = 1, 2,
3, 4 and 5. For integers modulo 6,
there are 6 elements therefore n = 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 will cover all elements.
a
Each column is the subgroup for that
element. Write the subgroups.
<1> = [{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, + mod 6]
<2> = [{0, 2, 4}, + mod 6]
<3> = [{0, 3}, + mod 6]
<4> = [{0, 2, 4}, + mod 6]
<5> = [{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, + mod 6]
b Identify the generators. A generator
produces all elements of the group, that
is, {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Look for a column
that has every element.
b The generators are 1 and 5 for the cyclic
group addition modulo 6.
1 n 1n 2n 3n 4n 5n
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 3 4 5
2 2 4 0 2 4
3 3 0 3 0 3
4 4 2 0 4 2
5 5 4 3 2 1
2
9
WORKEDExample
1 Does the set of numbers {0, 3, 6, 9} form a subgroup of integer addition modulo 12?
2 The set M(2, Z) is the set of all 2 2 matrices with integers as entries. These matrices
form a group under matrix addition. Prove that the subset of M containing only diag-
onal matrices (those with 0s in the upper right-hand and lower left-hand corners) form
a subgroup.
3 a Compute the cyclic subgroups <3>, <6> and <9> of the group integer addition
modulo 12.
b Hence identify the generators of the subgroup dened in question 1.
4 Which of the following groups are cyclic? For each cyclic group, name all generators
of the group.
a [Z, +]
b [Q, +] (Q is the set of rational numbers)
c [6n where n is an integer, +]
d [3
n
where n is an integer, ]
Application of groups
permutations
A symmetry of a square (or any other shape) may be written as a permutation by
changing the positions of the vertices. For example, referring to the gure below
right, we could write:
P
2
, which means that vertex 1 goes
to the position of vertex 2, and so on.
The only other two permutations allowed here are:
P
1
and P
3
Determine whether these permutations form a group under the operation
meaning
on. P
1
P
3
means perform P
1
on P
3
.
For the group G [S,
]:
1. A subgroup exists if there is a subset of S that is closed and contains the
identity element, and if inverses for all elements exist.
2. The group is cyclic if an element a can be found that generates the group. This
can be written as G <a>.
remember
4D
WORKED
Example
8
WORKED
Example
9
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1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 1 ,

_
1
2
4
5
3
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5 ,

_
1 2 3 4 5
1 5 4 3 2 ,

_
Closed, IE

+

0, inverses exist (3

+

9

0 mod 12, 6

+

6

0 mod 12), therefore subgroup. Generators are 3 and 9.
Closed, IE

,
the inverse of
is
which is a member
of M, therefore
a subgroup.
0 0
0 0
a 0
0 b
a 0
0 b

Generators are 3 and 9.
Cyclic. Generators are 1 and

1.
Not cyclic.
Cyclic. Generators are 6 and

6.
Cyclic. Generators are 3 and .
1
3
---

SLE 6: Construct a Cayley table and use it to identify subgroups (if any)
such as the rotations of a square about its centre.
SLE 7: Find the element(s) which generate(s) the group in a group table.

<3>

[{0, 3, 6, 12},

+

mod 12]; <6>

[{0, 6},

+

mod 12]; <9>

[{0, 3, 6, 12},

+

mod 12]
Not closed

Not a group
P

2

P

2

P

2

P

3

P

3

P

2

P

3

P

3

P

1
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
2
P
3
P
1
1 2 3 4 5
3 4 5 1 2
,
_
1 2 3 4 5
5 4 3 2 1
,
_
1 2 3 4 5
2 1 5 4 3
,
_
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
,
_

2
transformations
Consider all the transformations that a shape could
undergo. Rotations about its centre and reections about
its axes of symmetry involve changes in the vertices
only. Carefully examine the diagram below. Make sure
you understand the symbols and the new positions of
the vertices.
Rotations anticlockwise: R
90
90
R
180
180
R
270
270
Reections: R
V
in the vertical axis of symmetry
R
H
in the horizontal axis of symmetry
R
R
in the top right diagonal
R
L
in the top left diagonal
R
0
no change.
Therefore the set of all transformations or symmetries is given by the set
{R
90
, R
180
, R
270
, R
V
, R
H
, R
R
, R
L
, R
0
} and the binary operation that combines any two of
these transformations is referred to as composition, where one operation follows another.
A D
C B
R
L
R
L
R
L
R
0
R
90
R
V
R
V
R
R
R
R
R
H
R
H
R
180
R
270
A B
D C
A
D
B
C
C D
B
A
C B
D A
A D
B C
D A
C B
B A
C
D
D
C
A B
B
D
C
A
All the computerised movements involved in screen animations are based on similar
compositions of transformations.
As with permutations, the operations are performed right to left.
Functions
Consider functions f (x) x, g(x) x, h(x) and k(x) (where x 0).
When these functions are involved in composition of functions such as g[h(x)], the
function h(x) is substituted as the inner function into the outer function which is g(x).
That is, g[h(x)] where (the inner function) is substituted into g(x) which is (x).
Similarly, k[g(x)] where g(x) x (the inner function) is substituted into
k(x) (the outer function). That is, k[g(x)] h(x).
Find the result of R
v
R
180
.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Draw the initial square with labelled
vertices. Consider the order in which
the operations are to be performed.
Since the expression R
v
R
180
means
that R
v
follows R
180
, then R
180
is
performed rst.
Transform the square using R
180
180 rotation anticlockwise. Locate

vertex A and move it 180 anti-
clockwise. All other vertices follow in
order around the square.
For R
V
mark a vertical axis of
symmetry in this gure (from step 2)
and reect or ip the square about this
axis.
Reposition the vertices one side at a time,
B C and A D.
This matches with a single
transformation representing R
H
.
The result is R
H
.
1
A D
B C
2
C B
D A
3
C B
D A
4
B C
A D
5
10
WORKEDExample
1
x
---
1
x
---
1
x
---
1
x
---
1
x ( )
----------
1
x
---
1
x ( )
----------
1
x
---
Show that functions f(x) x, g(x) x, h(x) and k(x) form a group under
composition.
THINK WRITE
Complete a Cayley Table
for these compositions.
Test the 4 group properties. Closure: yes all results are elements of the original set.
Associative: yes for example,
(f
g)
h g
h k
f
(g
h) f
k k
Identity element is f(x).
Inverse: yes f(x) occurs in every row and column.
State your conclusion. Composition of these functions forms a group.
1
x
---
1
x
---
1
f g h k
f
g
h
k
f
g
h
k
g
f
k
h
h
k
f
g
k
h
g
f
2
3
11
WORKEDExample
History
of mathematics
ARTHUR CAYLEY ( 1 8 2 1 1 8 9 5 )
Thomas Edison
invents the
phonograph.
Slavery is
ofcially
abolished
throughout the
western world.
Alfred Nobel
invents dynamite.
Arthur Cayley, a famous English
mathematician, was born on 16 August 1821.
His published mathematical papers are
classics and include discussions on the
concept of n-dimensional geometry. At the
age of 25 he began practising law which he
continued to do until 1863. In his spare time
he wrote more than 300 mathematical papers.
In 1863 he accepted a professorship in
mathematics at Cambridge University. One of
his most famous non-mathematical
accomplishments was his role in having
women accepted at Cambridge.
Like Niels Abel (see page 183), many of
his research topics are now used in abstract
algebra and group algebra, as well as in work
with matrices and the theory of determinants.
The Cayley Table is named after him.
He died on 26 January 1895 having
received many academic distinctions. His total
works ll 13 volumes of about 600 pages each
a testimony to his prodigious life and study
in mathematics.
Questions
1. What is one of Cayleys most signicant
non-mathematical accomplishments?
2. List four elds of mathematics which
feature in Cayleys work.

He worked towards having women
accepted at Cambridge University.
Abstract algebra, group algebra,

n

-dimensional
geometry, matrices and determinants
transformations
1 a Draw a Cayley Table for the rotation of an equilateral triangle. Label each vertex.
b Does it form a group? Is it Abelian?
2 a Draw a Cayley Table for the reections of an equilateral triangle through each of
the vertices R
0
, R
V
, R
L
, R
R
.
b Does it form a group?
3 Explain what the following diagrams represent about the group shown below.
4 Describe the symmetries of the following gures, using fully annotated diagrams.
a a non-square rectangle
b a non-square rhombus
c an ellipse
5 Consider an innitely long strip of Hs, printed on transparent paper, as shown below
..H H H H H H .
Describe the axes of symmetry of this group.
The binary operation that combines any two transformations (for example,
rotation and reection) is called composition, when one operation follows another.
remember
4E
R
R
R
V
R
L
WORKED
Example
10
R
240
R
240
F
F
3
2 3 3 1
2
3
2
1
2
1
1
2 1
3
3 2
1

IE

R

0

, Inverse exists for all elements. It is an Abelian group
because the table is symmetrical about the leading diagonal.

2 a
R
V
B C
R
L
R
R
A
R
0
R
V
R
L
R
R
R
0
R
V
R
L
R
R
R
0
R
V
R
L
R
R
R
V
R
0
R
L
R
0
R
R
R
0

Does not form a group.
Not Abelian.

H H H H

R

V

H H H H

R

H

R

180

H H H H

H H H H

R

0

H H H H

SLE 5: Investigate groups formed by geometric transformations such as the
reections of a rectangle in its axes of symmetry and rotations of an
equilateral triangle.

1
a
R
120
R
0
R
240
A
B C
B
C A
C
A B
R
0
R
120
R
240
R
0
R
120
R
240
R
0
R
120
R
240
R
120
R
240
R
0
R
240
R
0
R
120
4 3 2 1
3 4
R
V
R
H
R
180
1 2
2 1
3 4
2
3 4
1
4
1 2
3
R
0

4 a
4
c

R
V R
0
R
H
R
1
8
0
2 4
4
1
3
2 4
3
1
2
2
3
1
4 2
1
3
4
1
3
6 Locate the axes of symmetry for the following gures.
7 a Complete a Cayley Table for the composition of the following functions.
f
1
(x) x f
2
(x) f
3
(x) x 1 f
4
(x)
where f
1
f
2
f
1
[f
2
(x)]
b Does this composition form a group?
8 a Show that the set of all 2 2 matrices forms a group under matrix
addition.
b The set of all 2 2 matrices does not form a group under matrix multi-
plication but it is possible to nd a subset of 2 2 matrices that will form a multi-
plicative group.
i Apart from the identity matrix, give an example of a 2 2 matrix that would be
a member of this subset.
ii Give one example of a 2 2 matrix that would not be part of this subset.
iii Describe the largest subset of 2 2 matrices that would form a group under
matrix multiplication.
9 Show that the set of matrices forms a group
under matrix multiplication.
10 Show that the set of matrices of the form , where z is a complex number,
forms a group
a under matrix addition
b under matrix multiplication.
Assume z
1
2
+ z
2
2
0.
11 S is the set of all 2 2 matrices such that , where z is a non-zero complex
number.
a Show that is the identity element under matrix multiplication.
b Does the set form a group under matrix multiplication?
12 C , where i . The set T consists of positive powers of C such that
T C
n
where n is a positive integer.
a Find all the elements of set T.
b Does the set T form a group under matrix multiplication?
WORKED
Example
11
1
x
---
1
x 1
-----------
a b
c d
a b
c d
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
, , ,

, ,

z
1
z
2
z
2
z
1
0 0
z z
0 0
1 1
i 0
0 i
1

7 a
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
2
f
1
f
3
f
4
f
4
f
3

Not a group Closed: addition of
2

2 matrices results
in a 2 2 matrix.
Associative: matrix
addition is
associative.
Identity exists:
is the identity
element.
Inverses exist: the
inverse of A is A.
i ii
iii The set of 2 2,
non-singular
matrices.
0 0
0 0
1 2
3 4
1 2
1 2
8 a
b
Identity I. Inverse is
present as I is present in
each row and column.
Closed and associative
IE+
(Remember 0 is a
complex number.)
Inverse
0 0
0 0
z
1
z
2
z
2
z
1
IE I Inverse where the determinant is real.
The inverse exists if the determinant 0.
1
z
1
2
z
2
2
+
---------------
z
1
z
2
z
2
z
1
a
Yes.
IE, Inverse of
is
0 0
z z
0 0
1
z
---
1
z
---
b
, , ,
i 0
0 i
1 0
0 1
i 0
0 i
1 0
0 1
Yes.
6
Some applications of group theory
1 Do the residues of {0, 1} mod 2 form a group under addition?
2 A teacher of abstract algebra intended to give a typist a list of 9 integers that
form a group under multiplication modulo 91. Instead, one of the 9 integers
was omitted so that the list read: 1, 9, 16, 22, 53, 74, 79, 81. Which integer
was left out?
3 Show that {1, 2, 3} multiplication mod 4 is not a group but {1, 2, 3, 4}
multiplication mod 5 is a group.
4 Give an example of group elements a and b with the property that a
1
ba b.
5 The integers 5 and 15 are two of 12 integers that form a group under
multiplication mod 56. List all 12 integers.
6 If the following table is that of a group, ll in the blank entries.
7 Prove that if G is a group such that the square of every element is the identity,
then G is Abelian.
8 Examine whether
a rotations and b reections
as stated earlier in this section, form Abelian groups.
9 Quaternions
The concept of a set of elements called quaternions was rst developed by the
Irish mathematician William Hamilton (see page 118). Quaternions are
ordered sets of four ordinary numbers, satisfying special laws of equality,
addition and multiplication. Quaternions are useful for studying quantities
having magnitude and direction in three-dimensional space and this has
enabled great advances in quantum theory, relativity, number theory and group
theory.
The 4 numbers are 1, i, j and k and have the following properties:
1
2
1
i
2
j
2
k
2
ijk 1
1i i1
1j j1
1k k1
ij ji k
i(jk) (ij)k ijk
All real and complex numbers do commute with i, j, and k but they are not
commutative with each other.
e a b c d
e
a
b
c
b
c
d
e
a
Yes
29
1, 3, 5, 9, 13, 15, 19, 23, 25, 27, 39, 45
Yes No
e a b c d
e
a
b
c
d
e
a
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
e
b
c
d
e
a
c
d
e
a
b
d
e
a
b
c
Follow this example that shows that jk i
ijk 1 from the denitions
i ijk i 1 multiply both sides by i on the left (or pre-multiply by i)
i
2
jk i associativity
1 jk i from the denitions
1 1 jk 1 i pre-multiply both sides by 1
jk i
Because multiplication between these elements is not commutative it is
essential that all multiplication is done from a particular side of an expression
and to perform this multiplication on both sides of the equals sign. You must
respect the order of placement of terms in this system.
a Show that i jk kj ii ki j
b Show that i
1
i
c If q s + wi + vj + yk and p m + ni + oj + jk, nd the product of the two
quaternions.
10 Pauli Matrices
The ideas introduced in the section on quaternions above can be extended to
represent matrices. One 2 2 set is:
1 i j k
While the matrices for i and k might look a little daunting, they can be
simplied by replacing the elements with complex i.
The last three of these matrices are used in the study of quantum theories to
explain and predict the behaviour of electrons. They are called the Pauli Spin
Matrices and students of chemistry will appreciate the importance of the spin
of electrons in atomic bonding and the strength of different materials.
A variation of these matrices used in the study of nuclear physics is shown
below:
P Q R S
T V U W
On examination of the rst and second rows of the matrices above you will
notice that the second row is a reection of each matrix in the rst row,
multiplied by i.
a Construct a Cayley Table to display the results of matrix multiplication
using these 8 matrices. Arrange them in the order given, that is, from P to W.
b Determine whether the total set forms a group.
c Mark off the top left-hand 4 4 corner. Examine this section of the table
and show that this subset forms a group. This is an example of a subgroup,
where a subset of a group forms a complete group of its own.
11 Internet search
The real life applications of groups are quite complex. Use the internet to
research this eld of study. Include a list of distinct topics and a more detailed
report that highlights the use of group theory.
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
1
1 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
0 i
i 0
i 0
0 i
i 0
0 i
0 i
i 0
Yes
SLE 15 (Matrices and applications):
Investigate the group
properties of matrices of the
form under both
addition and multiplication;
nd interesting subsets of
this class of matrices
(known as quaternions);
in particular, show that
the eight matrices
, , ,
, , ,
, form a group
under multiplication.
z
1
z
2
--------
z
2
z
1
-----
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
i 0
0 i
i 0
0 i
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 i
i 0
0 i
i 0
1
0
a
P
Q
R
S
T
V
U
W
PQRS
PQRS
Q
SPR
RPS
Q
SRQP
TUV
W
UW
TV
VT
WU
W
VUT
TUV
W
TUV
W
VT
WU
UW
TV
W
VUT
SRQP
Q
SPR
RPS
Q
PQRS
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
i
i
0
i
0
0
i
i
0
0
i
0
i
0
History
of mathematics
CRYPTOGRAPHY
Since World War II, mathematicians have played a large part in the development
and attack on ciphers. A cipher is a way of scrambling text so it can be read only
by the people who know how to unscramble it. Had the Government Code and
Cipher School (at Bletchley Park, England) not been able to read the German
Enigma ciphers, historians estimate that World War II may have lasted another
two to three years. Until 1974, the contribution made by mathematicians to the
war effort went largely unrecognised.
Why include talk of ciphers and code breaking in a chapter on group theory? It
is because, in the late 1970s, the two topics collided. In 1969, ARPAnet (the fore-
runner to the Internet) was born. Whiteld Dife, a mathematician employed in a
series of jobs related to computer security, could see the potential of ARPAnet but
was concerned that people using email would be deprived of the right to privacy.
At that time, if two people (say, Alice and Bob) wanted to encrypt a message,
they needed to exchange a key.
For Alice to send a secure message to Bob, encryption can
be thought of as putting the message in a strong box and
locking it. The locked box can be sent securely. The problem
is that Bob needs a key to open the box. What is known as the
key distribution problem is basically How do Alice and
Bob swap keys?.
Whiteld Dife and a cryptographer called Martin
Hellman worked on the key exchange problem from Sep-
tember 1974. In 1975, they came upon the double padlock
solution. Essentially, Alice locks the box and mails it to Bob.
Bob applies his own lock (leaving Alices in place) and
returns it. Alice removes her lock and sends the box (still
locked by Bob) back to Bob. Bob can now unlock the box.
What was needed was a mathematical function that was the
equivalent of a padlock (called a one-way function). Like a
padlock, anyone could lock (encrypt), but without a key, the
lock couldnt be opened (decrypted).
Group theory provides the solution to the one-way
problem. Exponentiation (working out a
b
) is easy and, in the
real number system, it is almost as easy to reverse using log-
arithms. In the group formed by multiplication modulo [large-
prime-number], the logarithms are much harder to calculate.
In the table at right, you can see that 2 is a generator for
this group. Can you work out what modulo has been used? If
you were given a number from the group formed from 2
n
, say
10, but you knew the modulo that had been used and that 2
was the generator, could you work out the logarithm or power
(n) used? What if the modulo used was a much larger prime
number?
(continued)
n 2
n
0 1
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 13
6 7
7 14
8 9
9 18
10 17
11 15
12 11
13 3
14 6
15 12
16 5
17 10
18 1
A solution to the key distribution problem is as follows. Alice and Bob agree to
use mod 19 (in practice, it would be a massive prime number) and the generator 2
(anyone can know this information). Alice chooses her key, a (lets make it 13).
She evaluates 2
a
2
13
3 mod 19 and sends this to Bob. Bob chooses his own
key, b (lets make it 16). He evaluates 2
b
2
16
5 mod 19 and sends this to Alice.
When Bob receives 2
a
from Alice, he
evaluates (2
a
)
b
3
16
17 mod 19.
Alice, receiving 2
b
from Bob, can
evaluate (2
b
)
a
5
13
17 mod 19.
They can then use the key generated
(2
ab
) to safely send messages. If an
eavesdropper, Evan, intercepts their
messages, he cannot calculate the key
without rst being able to solve what
is called the discrete log problem.
Publicly, three researchers from
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT), computer scientists Ron Rivest
and Adi Shamir, and mathematician
Leonard Aldeman, used modular
arithmetic and properties of large
primes to create the RSA algorithm
for public key cryptography. (RSA
stands for Rivest, Shamir, Aldeman.)
If the primes used are large enough, this cipher is believed to be secure against
attack.
We now know that Dife and Hellman were not the rst people to develop the
idea of public key cryptography. That honour must go to James Ellis, an
employee of the British Government Communications Headquarters (formed
from the remnants of Bletchley Park after World War II). Like Dife and
Hellman, Ellis was unable to nd the one-way function. In 1969, he shared his
idea with his bosses but it wasnt until 1973 that a mathematician called Clifford
Cocks found the answer using group theory. The discovery made by Ellis and
Cocks was not publicly acknowledged until 1997.
Modulo arithmetic
Modulo arithmetic is like clock arithmetic where 5 + 9 = 4 in mod 10.
The residues of modulo x are all the numbers less than x.
Congruent numbers in mod x all differ by multiples of x.
For a set S = {u, a, b, c, } and an operation
, we say that
the operation is closed if a
b is an element of S
the operation is associative if (a
b)
c = a
(b
c)
u is the identity element (IE) if a
u = u
a = a.
a
1
is the inverse of a if a
a
1
= a
1
a = u where u = IE.
A set forms a group under an operation if elements of the set are closed and
associative, and there is a unique identity element and every element has a unique
inverse.
The group is an Abelian group if the operation is commutative (e.g. a
b = b
a).
For the group G = [S,
]:
a subgroup exists if there is a subset of S that is closed and contains the identity
element, and if inverses for all elements exist.
the group is cyclic if an element a can be found that generates the group. This can
be written as G = <a>.
Transformations
The set of all transformations (for example, rotations and reections) and the binary
operation that combines any two of these transformations is referred to as a
composition.
summary
1 Draw up a Cayley Table that shows the residues for each of the following:
a addition mod 5
b multiplication mod 6.
2 Determine whether the following are groups:
a {1, 1} under multiplication
b {0, 1} under addition.
a the set {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8} under multiplication modulo 9
b the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} under multiplication modulo 5
c the set {2, 4, 6, 8} under multiplication modulo 10
d the set {0, 1, 2} under addition modulo 3.
4 Determine whether each of the following form groups:
a the set of integers where p
q = p + 2q
b the set of positive rational numbers where p
q = .
c Show that the set of all integers forms an Abelian group under the operation
a
b = a + b 3.
5 There are two lights in a room, one on the ceiling and one on the wall with 4 possible states
for the two lights both on, both off, wall light on only, or ceiling light on only. There are
4 possible changes of state: no change, both change, ceiling light change and the wall light
change. These changes are denoted by N, CW, C and W respectively. Show that the set
{N, C, CW, W} forms a group with respect to the operation followed by.
6 What property of a group is displayed in a Cayley Table if:
a the elements are symmetrical about the leading diagonal
b the same element does not appear more than once in any row or column
c the identity element occurs only once in each row or column.
CHAPTER
review
4A
4B
4C
p
q
---
4C
4C
Yes
No, not closed
Yes
No, 0 does not have an inverse
Yes
Yes
No, no identity
No, not associative
There is only element

x

such that

p

x

=

q

and
Each element has a unique inverse.
Commutativity

1 a b
+ 0 1 2 3 4
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
0
2
3
4
0
1
3
4
0
1
2
4
0
1
2
3
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
2
4
0
0
4
0
3
0
3
0
3
0
4
2
0
4
2
0
5
4
3
2
1

x

q

=

p.
a the set of integers, modulo n under addition
b the set of integers, modulo n under multiplication
c the set of integers, modulo n, excluding 0, under multiplication
d the set of integers, modulo n, excluding 0, under multiplication, if n is prime.
8 Determine whether the set of all moves that can be made by a knight on a chessboard forms
a group or not. (The diagram shows three of the possible moves a knight can make on a
chessboard. The knight can move two squares horizontally and one square vertically, or two
squares vertically and one square horizontally like a letter L.)
9 Consider an operation dened by the following Cayley Table.
a Does the table dene a cyclic group?
b Does the subset {u, a, b} form a subgroup?
c Identify a subgroup and the generator of the subgroup.
10 a Verify that the set , where m 0 forms a group under matrix multiplication.
b Verify that all p q matrices form a group under matrix addition.
11 Show that the following set of matrices forms a group under multiplication.
12 Determine whether or not the following functions form a group under composition of
functions. Assume that they are associative.
f
1
(x) = x f
2
(x) = f
3
(x) = 1 + x f
4
(x) = f
5
(x) = f
6
(x) =
u a b c
u u a b c
a a e c b
b b c e a
c c b a e
4C
4C
4D
4E
m 0
0 m
4E
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
i 0
0 i
i 0
0 i
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 i
i 0
0 i
i 0
4E
1
x
---
1
1 x +
------------
x
x 1 +
------------
x 1 +
x
------------

Yes
No, 0

1

doesnt exist
No, inverses dont always exist.
Yes
No, there is no generator.
No, the operation is not closed on these elements.
<

a

>

=

{0,

a

}, <

b

>

=

{0,

b

}, <

c

>

=

{0,

c

}
C
h
e
c
k

w
i
t
h

y
o
u
r

t
e
a
c
h
e
r
.
.
1 If a group consists of 4 elements, the identity element u and a, b, c, and an operation
, then
we can start to complete a Cayley Table as follows:
a Investigate the claim The value indicated by cant be lled with a.
b If is lled with the identity element, u, the table can be completed in two possible ways
to describe a group. Find the two tables. (You need not check the associative law.)
c If is lled with b (or c), there is only one way to complete the table that results in a
group. Using b for , nd the table. (You need not check the associative law.)
d If you consider the three tables you have produced, two of them describe the same
structure. Determine which two tables these are and show how the elements in one table
would have to be renamed to produce the other.
2 Earlier in this chapter, we found that G = [Z
6
, + modulo 6] is a cyclic group with two
generators, 1 and 5. For two distinct primes p and q, investigate the number of generators for
the group [Z
pq
, + modulo pq]. (Distinct primes means that p q.)
u a b c
u u a b c
a a
b b
c c
Digital doc:
Test Yourself
Chapter 4
eBookplus eBookplus

syllabus
reference
Core topic:
In this
chapter
5A Inverse matrices and
systems of linear equations
5B Gaussian elimination
5C Introducing determinants
5D Properties of determinants
5E Inverse of a 3 3 matrix
5F Cramers Rule for solving
linear equations
5
Matrices
and their
applications
Inverse matrices and systems of
linear equations
The ideas you were introduced to in Chapter 3 on matrices provide a foundation for
using matrices to solve simultaneous equations. The following section presents a sim-
plied account of complex aspects of economies and industries and will serve to intro-
duce the idea of matrix applications in a wide eld of studies.
Inputoutput analysis
To enable government bodies and companies to plan for future needs, inputoutput
analysis models are employed. In these models the interaction between major com-
ponents of an economy is analysed so that the effect of an increase in one component
can be measured against the demand for one product in other industries.
Inputoutput models were rst developed by Nobel Prize winner, Wassily
Leontief; they are used to describe economies where demand equals supply, or con-
sumption equals production. These models can be applied to whole economies or to
segments within economies.
The model, as presented here, is based on the idea that there is a nite number of
goods that are produced, consumed or used as input for the same nite number of
industries. Each industry produces only one type of product and can use some of its
own product. Each industry and its products are interdependent. The total demand of
product is the sum of the demands throughout the entire production process as well as
the demand for the product by consumers.
Consider an economy com-
prising only 2 industries coal
and steel. One tonne of steel
requires an input of 0.5 tonne of
coal as well as 0.4 tonne of steel
(perhaps in the form of
machinery and plant). To pro-
duce 1 tonne of coal, 0.3 tonne of
steel and 0.4 tonne of coal are
required (perhaps to produce the
steel needed for machinery).
Suppose also that the nal
demand for steel is 18 tonnes and
for coal 15 tonnes.
Let x
1
and x
2
denote the total demands for coal and steel respectively. This
information can be presented on an inputoutput table.
Producer
User
Final
demand
Total
demand Coal Steel
Coal 0.4 0.3 15 x
1
Steel 0.5 0.4 18 x
2

inverse of a matrix
determinant of a matrix
solution of systems of
homogeneous and non-
homogeneous linear
equations using matrices
applications of matrices in
SLE 7: Use input-output (Leontief) matrices in economics.
C h a p t e r 5 M a t r i c e s a n d t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n s 207
This information can be represented by a system of simultaneous linear equations:
x
1
= 0.4x
1
+ 0.3x
2
+ 15
x
2
= 0.5x
1
+ 0.4x
2
+ 18
and put into matrix form:
= +
which can be represented as
X = AX + D
where X = , A = and D = .
Rearrangement of the matrices (as shown below) isolates X so it can be solved.
X AX = D
(I A) X = D
where X post-multiplies other factors and I is the identity matrix .
(I A)
1
(I A)X = (I A)
1
D
X = (I A)
1
D
We call X the output matrix as it holds variables x
1
and x
2
that will state the total
demand for steel and coal. We call A the technology matrix and D the nal demand
matrix. Because of its signicance I A is called the Leontief matrix.
To calculate X we rst need to nd I A.
I A =
I A =
Therefore =
=
=
=
Thus, in order to provide the nal demand of 18 tonnes of steel and 15 tonnes of coal
in this economy, the steel industry must produce 87.14 tonnes of steel and the coal
industry must produce 68.57 tonnes of coal.
These values can also be regarded as equilibrium values if these values are met
then the input will match the output thus eliminating both over- and under-
production.
x
1
x
2
0.4 0.3
0.5 0.4
x
1
x
2
15
18
x
1
x
2
0.4 0.3
0.5 0.4
15
18
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
0.4 0.3
0.5 0.4
0.6 0.3
0.5 0.6
x
1
x
2
0.6 0.3
0.5 0.6
1
15
18
1
0.36 0.15
---------------------------
0.6 0.3
0.5 0.6
15
18
1
0.21
----------
14.4
18.3
68.57
87.14
Inverse matrices and systems
of linear equations
1 The equilibrium state for 2 commodities is given by
2a 3b = 25
3a 2b = 60.
Find the equilibrium values for these goods.
2 Find the equilibrium values of P and Q in
P = Q + Y
Q = X + yP where Y = $6 million, X = $15 million and y = 0.5.
3 Find the equilibrium values of
x = 45 2y
x = 0.6y.
4 Consider the simplied Keynesian system
Y = C + 30
C = 50 + 0.8Y
where Y denotes national income and C denotes consumption. Find the equilibrium
values for Y and C.
5 Find the equilibrium values for the supply and demand model
x = 21 4y (demand)
x = 14 + 3y (supply).
6 The technology matrix for an economy which produces only 2 commodities is given by
A = and the nal demand matrix D = . Solve X = .
1. A pair of equations, ax + by = u and cx + dy = v, may be written in the form
AX = B where A = , X = and B = .
2. The matrix equation AX = B can be rearranged to X = A
1
B so that values for x
and y may be found. These values can also be called equilibrium values.
3. Matrices can be used for inputoutput analysis.
4. An inputoutput analysis matrix can be written as X = AX + D where:
matrix X contains the variables to be determined and is called the output matrix
matrix A contains information about the input details and is called the
technology matrix
matrix D contains information about the nal demand and is called the nal
demand matrix.
5. The matrix equation X = AX + D can be rearranged to make X the subject:
X = (I A)
1
D
a b
c d
x
y
u
v
remember
5A
0.2 0.6
0.1 0.5
25
36
x
1
x
2
26
9
42
36
10.38
17.31
400
370
17
1
100.29
92.06
7 A simple economy is shown in the table.
Find the total demand matrix.
8 A certain economy consists of 2 industries, mining ore and manufacturing. The pro-
duction of 1K dollars (K = 1000) of manufactured goods requires 0.6K dollars of
manufactured goods and 0.15K dollars of ore, while the production of 1K dollars of ore
requires 0.4K dollars of manufactured goods and 0.3K dollars of ore.
The nal demand for manufacturing and mining ore is 120K dollars and 145K
dollars respectively.
a Prepare a matrix table for this information.
b Represent the information in matrix form, using X as the output matrix, A the
technology matrix and D the demand matrix.
c Find (I A)
1
.
d Find the total demand matrix (output matrix) X.
e Verify that D = (I A) X.
Gaussian elimination
The example based on the economy with only 2 industries used in the previous section
is obviously a little unrealistic. However, if this economy were to involve more than
2 industries we have no tools to solve this type of problem, at this stage. This is because
it would involve nding the inverse of a 3 3 matrix using the example of an economy
with 3 industries, whereas we are limited to nding the inverse of a 2 2 matrix.
A variety of methods can be used to solve a system of simultaneous equations, such
as those generated in the previous section. We will concentrate at this stage on the
method known as Gaussian elimination. In future sections of this chapter we will
introduce 2 more methods, as well as graphics calculator techniques for solving
simultaneous equations.
Using the Gaussian elimination method to solve
simultaneous equations
The Gaussian elimination method is described below.
Consider a set of 2 simultaneous linear equations in 2 unknowns, x and y as given:
ax + by = u
cx + dy = v
As we saw earlier, this system can be represented as
A = B = X =
where A is the coefcient matrix, B is the constant matrix and X is the variable or
unknown matrix.
Producer
User
Final
demand Total p q
p 0.25 0.4 30 x
1
q 0.30 0.5 25 x
2
a b
c d
u
v
x
y
98.04
108.82
3.18 0.681
1.81 1.81 480.68
481.82

SLE 1: Solve linear
equations by using matrices
and Gaussian elimination;
solution of equations
involving more than three
variables will involve the
use of graphing calculators.
We can combine matrices A and B as where this is referred to as an
augmented matrix, denoted by [A| B].
The following example shows the familiar algebraic process involved in solving
simultaneous equations, only this time it is in matrix form. These steps will work
towards producing the identity matrix I on the left-hand side and then the solution will
be on the right-hand side.
[A| B] [I | X]
All the communication given to the left of each matrix should be included in your own
work as justication for how you have proceeded from one step to the other, and also
for your own reference.
a b u
c d v
Solve this system of simultaneous linear equations:
x + 2y = 3
2x + 3y = 5
THINK WRITE
Set equations in matrix form. A = B = X =
Convert to augmented matrix form. [A| B] =
Aim to produce the identity matrix on
the left-hand side of the augmented
matrix. Element a
11
is already 1. We
need to eliminate the a
21
element to
produce a 0.
Replace R
2
with R
2
2R
1
. That is,
replace row 2 with row 2 minus twice
row 1.
R
2
2R
1
:
Next we want a
22
to be 1. Multiply R
2
by 1.
R
2
:
Finally, we want to make a
12
= 0.
Replace R
1
with R
1
2R
2
.
R
1
2R
2
:
[A| B] now resembles [I | X] and X = . [I | X] =
X = , that is x = 1 and y = 1
Verify your answers by substitution into
the original equations.
Check:
1 + 2(1) = 3 (true)
2(1) + 3(1) = 5 (true)
1
1 2
2 3
3
5
x
y
2
1 2 3
2 3 5
3
1 2 3
0 1 1
4
1 2 3
0 1 1
5
1 0 1
0 1 1
6
1
1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1
1
7
1
WORKEDExample
The following procedures are used in this method (they match operations you use
when solving equations by elimination):
1. multiply a row (equation) by a constant
2. add and subtract one row (equation) to or from another
3. swap rows (equations).
The object is to have ones in the leading diagonal and zeros under the leading diagonal.
This is known as row-echelon form. Once this is achieved, the solution can be found
either algebraically or by continuing with Gaussian elimination until all elements above
the leading diagonal are zero. This is known as reduced row-echelon form.
Lets investigate these ideas by working with a 3 3 matrix.
Solve this system of linear equations.
x + 2y + z = 8
x y + z = 7
x + y + 2z = 4
THINK WRITE
Set the equations in matrix form. A = B = X =
Convert to augmented matrix
form.
[A| B] =
Element a
11
is already 1.
Eliminate a
21
(make it become 0)
by replacing R
2
with R
2
R
1
.
R
2
R
1
:
Next eliminate a
31
by replacing
R
3
with R
3
R
1
.
R
3
R
1
:
To obtain a 1 in a
22
, we could
divide R
2
by 3 (giving us in
b
21
) or swap R
2
and R
3
. Lets
swap the rows and then multiply
the new R
2
by 1.
Swap R
2
and R
3
:
R
2
:
Eliminate a
32
by replacing R
3
with R
3
+ 3R
2
.
R
3
+ 3R
2
:
1
1 2 1
1 1 1
1 1 2
8
7
4
x
y
z
2
1 2 1 8
1 1 1 7
1 1 2 4
3 1 2 1 8
0 3 0 1
1 1 2 4
4
1 2 1 8
0 3 0 1
0 1 1 4
5
1
3
---
1 2 1 8
0 1 1 4
0 3 0 1
1 2 1 8
0 1 1 4
0 3 0 1
6
1 2 1 8
0 1 1 4
0 0 3 11
2

WORKEDExample
Continued
over page

THINK WRITE
To obtain a 1 in a
33
, multiply R
3
by .
R
3
:
Row-echelon form has now been
achieved. We can solve for x, y
and z using equations or continue
to reduced row-echelon form.
Using equations
R
3
gives z.
Substituting the value for z in R
2
gives y.
Substituting the values for both y
and z in R
1
gives x.
z =
Substituting z = in y z = 4 gives y = .
Substituting y = and z = in x + 2y + z = 8 gives
x = 11.
Continuing to reduced
row-echelon form
We rst need to eliminate above
a
33
. Eliminate a
23
by replacing R
2
with R
2
+ R
3
.
Eliminate a
13
by replacing R
1
with R
1
R
3
.
Now eliminate above a
22
.
Eliminate a
12
by replacing R
1
with R
1
2R
2
.
Alternatively:
R
2
+ R
3
:
R
1
R
3
:
R
1
2R
2
:
State the solution. Therefore, X = where x = 11, y = , z = .
Verify your results by substitution
into at least one of the original
equations. In this case, substitute
values for x, y and z into the left
side of the third equation.
Check: substituting into x + y + 2z gives
11 + + 2( )
= 11 +
= 4
Solution is veried.
7
1
3
---
1
3
---
1 2 1 8
0 1 1 4
0 0 1
11
3
------
8
11
3
------
11
3
------
1
3
---
1
3
---
11
3
------
1 2 1 8
0 1 0
1
3
---
0 0 1
11
3
------
1 2 0
35
3
------
0 1 0
1
3
---
0 0 1
11
3
------
1 0 0 11
0 1 0
1
3
---
0 0 1
11
3
------
9
11
1
3
---
11
3
------
1
3
---
11
3
------
10
1
3
---
11
3
------
1
3
---
22
3
------
This method can be quite frustrating if you get lost. Work on only one row at a time
in any one step, unless the operation is quite straightforward and the line in question
isnt involved in any other procedures in that step. (For example, Step 5 in Worked
example 2 would satisfy these criteria.) Use the following steps:
1. Start with a 1 in position a
11
, by swapping rows, dividing by a suitable number or both.
2. Eliminate the elements (make them become 0) below a
11
, starting with a
21
and
working down.
3. Work to get a 1 in position a
22
by either swapping rows, dividing by a suitable
number or both.
4. Eliminate the elements below a
22
, starting with a
32
and working down.
5. Continue until there are ones in the leading diagonal and zeros below it (row-
echelon form).
6. Once you have row-echelon form, decide if you are going to work algebraically or
continue to reduced row-echelon form.
7. If you are working to reduced row-echelon form, start with the far right-hand
column and work up and to the left.
Using the Gaussian elimination method to nd an inverse
In the previous section we used an augmented matrix [A| B] to nd solutions for a
system of linear equations.
The Gaussian elimination method can also be used to nd the inverse of matrix A.
This is achieved by augmenting A with I as in [A| I] and performing row reduction
procedures to produce [I | A
1
]. This is shown in the following example.
Find the inverse of A = .
THINK WRITE
Set up the augmented matrix [A| I]. [A| I] =
Perform Gaussian elimination to obtain the
identity matrix on the left side of the
augmented matrix. Element a
11
is already 1.
Eliminate a
21
by replacing R
2
with R
2
R
1
.
R
2
R
1
:
Element a
22
is already 1. Next eliminate a
12
by replacing R
1
with R
1
R
2
.
R
1
R
2
:
This augmented matrix is now in the form
[I | A
1
].
= [I | A
1
]
A
1
=
Check this is so by verifying A
1
A = I. Check:
A
1
A = = = I
1 1
1 2
1
1 1 1 0
1 2 0 1
2
1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
3 1 0 2 1
0 1 1 1
4
1 0 2 1
0 1 1 1
2 1
1 1
5
2 1
1 1
1 1
1 2
1 0
0 1
3
WORKEDExample
Find A
1
(if it exists) for A = .
THINK WRITE
Set up the augmented matrix.
[A| I] =
Perform Gaussian elimination to
obtain the identity matrix on the
left side of the augmented matrix.
Element a
11
is already 1.
Eliminate a
21
by replacing R
2
with R
2
R
1
. Note that a
31
is
already 0.
R
2
R
1
:
We need a 1 in a
22
. The easiest
way is to swap R
2
and R
3
.
Swap R
2
and R
3
:
Eliminate a
32
by replacing R
3
with R
3
+ 2R
2
.
R
3
+ 2R
2
:
Make a
33
= 1 by dividing R
3
by 6.
R
3
:
Row-echelon form has now been
achieved. We now need to
eliminate above a
33
. Replace R
1
with R
1
R
3
and replace R
2
with
R
2
3R
3
.
R
1
R
3
:
R
2
3R
3
:
Now eliminate above a
22
.
Replace R
1
with R
1
2R
2
.
R
1
2R
2
:
1 2 1
1 0 1
0 1 3
1
1 2 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 3 0 0 1
2
1 2 1 1 0 0
0 2 0 1 1 0
0 1 3 0 0 1
3
1 2 1 1 0 0
0 1 3 0 0 1
0 2 0 1 1 0
4
1 2 1 1 0 0
0 1 3 0 0 1
0 0 6 1 1 2
5
1
6
---
1 2 1 1 0 0
0 1 3 0 0 1
0 0 1
1
6
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
6
1 2 0
7
6
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
0 1 0
1
2
---
1
2
--- 0
0 0 1
1
6
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
7
1 0 0
1
6
---
5
6
---
1
3
---
0 1 0
1
2
---
1
2
--- 0
0 0 1
1
6
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
4
WORKEDExample
Use the Gaussian method of elimination to solve the following systems of linear equations.
1 2x y = 1 2 3a + 2b = 11
3x + 2y = 5 a + 3b = 6
3 2y z = 5 4 3x + 4y z = 11
x + z = 1 x y + 2z = 1
2x y z = 6 5x + y 3z = 7
5 3x + 4y + z = 10 6 x + y z = 6
2x + y + 2z = 5 x + 2y + 2z = 0
x 2y + 2z = 0 2x y + z = 3
THINK WRITE
This is now in the form [I | A
1
].
State A
1
.
= [I | A
1
]
A
1
=
Verify that A
1
A = I. Check:
A
1
A =
=
= I
8
1 0 0
1
6
---
5
6
---
1
3
---
0 1 0
1
2
---
1
2
--- 0
0 0 1
1
6
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
1
6
---
5
6
---
1
3
---
1
2
---
1
2
--- 0
1
6
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
9
1
6
---
5
6
---
1
3
---
1
2
---
1
2
--- 0
1
6
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
1 2 1
1 0 1
0 1 3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
For a set of simultaneous equations represented by matrices A, X, B such that
AX = B, Gaussian elimination can be used to change an augmented matrix [A| X]
to [I | X] and [A| I] to [I | A
1
] where I is the identity matrix.
remember
5B
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SkillSHEET 5.1
Using Gaussian
elimination to solve
linear equations
WORKED
Example
1
WORKED
Example
2
x

=

1,

y

=

1

a

=

3,

b

=

1

x

=

2,

y

=

1,

z

=

3

x

=

1,

y

=

2,

z

=

0

x

=

2,

y

=

1,

z

=

0

x

=

3,

y

=

5 ,

z

=

3
1
4
---
3
4
---
7 Use Gaussian elimination to nd the inverses of the following matrices, if they exist.
a b
c d
8 Write each of the systems of linear equations below in the matrix form AX = B and nd
inverses to solve the equations.
a 2x + y = 6 b 3x + 2y = 9 c x + y z = 6
x + 3y = 4 x + 4y = 7 2x y + 2z = 1
2x z = 5 x + 2y = 7
WORKED
Example
3
1 2
2 3
3 1
2 2
WORKED
Example
4
1 2 2
0 1 3
1 3 2
2 1 0
0 2 0
2 2 1
1
2
---
History
of mathematics
CARL FRI EDRI CH GAUSS ( 1 7 7 7 1 8 5 5 )
During his lifetime . . .
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
jointly publish The Communist
Party Manifesto.
The Frenchman Nicphore
Niepie produces the worlds
rst photographic image.
Samuel Morse develops the
Morse Code.
You will come across the work of
Carl Gauss in many elds of
mathematics. His work is so diverse
that he is considered by many to be the
greatest mathematician of all times. Gauss was
born in Brunswick, Germany, on 20 April 1777.
From the age of three he had shown his superior
skills by performing mental calculations and by
the age of ten had progressed to algebra and
analysis. While still a teenager he had
developed the least squares method used in
statistical data, and had devised a proof that a
regular 17-sided polygon could be constructed
using a compass and ruler and his quadratic
reciprocity theorem. At the age of 22 he
received his PhD, proving the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra. The next year he
published his work on number theory,
organising previous work and introducing the
notion of modular arithmetic.
In 1801, he used the information from
three sightings of an asteroid, Ceres,
to calculate its orbit. In the
process of this work he showed
that the variation involved in
experimental data followed a
bell-shaped curve, now called
the Gaussian or normal
distribution. In 1807 Gauss
became professor of astronomy
and director of the new
observatory in Gttingen. His
work involved branches of
astronomy, mechanics, optics, geodesy
and magnetism, and in collaboration with
Weber, the rst practical telegraph. His
extensive use of complex numbers advanced the
acceptance of them by fellow mathematicians,
although he was generally not supportive of
young, aspiring scholars.
He died in Gttingen in 1855. His memorial
bears the 17-point star of his early fame.
Questions
1. Try to reproduce the 17-point star with
all angles and sides the same.
2. Research the Fundamental Theorem of
Algebra.
3. What is geodesy?
4. Find out about the quadratic reciprocity
theorem.
3 2
2 1
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
2
---
3
4
---
2
1
3
---
2
3
--- 1
1
3
---
1 0 1
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
2
---
1
4
--- 0
0
1
2
--- 0
1
1
2
--- 1

x

=

2.7,

y

=

0.6

x

=

2 ,

y

=

1 ,

z

=

1
5
---
1
5
---
3
5
---

x

=

2 ,

y

=

2 ,

z

=

1
1
7
---
3
7
---
3
7
---

Science of determining the
size and shape of the Earth

.
Performing Gaussian elimination
Matrix row operations can be performed on your graphics calculator. To demonstrate
this, we will repeat the steps of Worked example 4 to nd the inverse of
A = .
1. Enter Matrix A.
(a) Press ( MAT) to enter the matrix
editing screen.
(b) Highlight Mat A and press or
(DIM).
(c) Specify the number of rows, 3 in this case,
and press .
(d) Specify the number of columns, 3 in this
case, and press .
(e) Press again to display the 3 3 array
for matrix A.
(f) Enter the values for the elements, pressing
after each number.
Press again to return to the MAT screen.
3. Set up an augmented matrix B = [A| I]. Enter the
augmented matrix [A| I] rst and then save as
matrix B.
(a) Press then (MAT) to bring up the
matrix menu. Press (Aug), then
(Mat), then [A] followed by
then press ( ) and (Iden). Enter 3
(for a 3 3 identity matrix) and press to
close the set of brackets.
(b) Press then ( ) then (Mat) and
[B] to save the augmented matrix as
matrix B.
(c) Press . Matrix B will be displayed. You
can use the cursor keys to see more of the
augmented matrix.
1 2 1
1 0 1
0 1 3
F1
EXE F3
EXE
EXE
EXE
EXE
EXIT
EXIT
OPTN F2
F5 F1
ALPHA
,
F6
s
F1
)
F6
s
F1
ALPHA
EXE
4. To perform row operations, we need to be in the
matrix editing screen.
(a) Press three times to return to the
MAT screen as seen at right.
(b) Press ( MAT). Highlight Mat B and
press . Notice that this screen is
different from the one obtained in Step 3.
5. Replace R
2
with R
2
R
1
(or R
1
+ R
2
).
(a) Press (R-OP) for the Row Operation
menu.
(b) Press (Rw+). This allows the addition
of one row and the product of a specied
row with a scalar to be found.
(c) Input the scalar multiplier. Enter 1 for k
and press .
(d) Specify the number of the row to be
multiplied by the scalar. Enter 1 for m and
press .
(e) Specify the number of the row that the result
should be added to. Enter 2 for n and press
.
(f) Press . Compare this screen with the
matrix obtained in Step 2 of Worked
example 4.
6. Swap R
2
and R
3
.
(a) Press (SWAP).
(b) Specify the number of the rows to be
swapped. Enter 2 for m and press .
Enter 3 for n and press .
(c) Press . Compare this screen with the
example 4.
EXIT
F1
EXE
F1
F3
EXE
EXE
EXE
EXE
F1
EXE
EXE
EXE
7. Replace R
3
with R
3
+ 2R
2
.
(a) Press (Rw+). As before, this allows
addition of one row and the product of a
specied row with a scalar.
(b) Enter 2 for k (this is the scalar multiplier)
and press . Enter 2 for m (this is the
row to be multiplied) and press .
Enter 3 for n (this is the number of the row
where the result should be added) and
press .
example 4.
8. Multiply R
3
by .
(a) Press (Rw). This allows the product of
a specied row and scalar to be found.
(b) Using the fraction key, enter for k (this is
the scalar multiplier) and press . Enter
3 for m (this is the row to be multiplied) and
press .
example 4.
9. Now that we have row-echelon form, continue
performing operations until reduced row-
echelon form is achieved.
10. Use the cursor keys to scroll across to see A
1
.
Now complete the questions at the end of this
investigation.
F3
EXE
EXE
EXE
EXE
1
6
---
F2
1
6
---
EXE
EXE
EXE
1. Enter Matrix A.
(a) Open a new Calculator document. Press kto access the catalog. Select
Option 5 (by pressing 5) then highlight the m-by-n matrix symbol.
(b) Press . Create the matrix with Number of
rows: 3 and Number of columns: 3, pressing
eto move from one box to the next.
(c) Highlight OK and press . Fill in the values
in the matrix using the cursor keys to move
from one element to the next.
(d) Move the cursor to the right of the matrix.
Press /and h, then press Ato store the
matrix as matrix A. Press to display the
matrix.
2. Set up an augmented matrix B = [A| I]. Enter the
augmented matrix [A| I] rst and then save as
matrix B.
(a) Press band select 7: Matrix & Vector (by
pressing 7or highlighting 7: Matrix &
Vector and pressing ). Select 6: Create
and then select 7: Augment.
(b) Press Athen press the comma key (,). To
enter the identity matrix, press band select
7: Matrix & Vector then 6: Create and
2: Identity. Press 3(for a 3 3 identity
matrix) and press )twice to close the two
sets of brackets. Press / and h, then
press Bto save the augmented matrix as
matrix B. Press to display the matrix.
3. Replace R
2
with R
2
R
1
(or R
1
+ R
2
).
(a) To proceed to the Row Operations menu,
press bthen select 7: Matrix & Vector and
9: Row Operations. For R
1
+ R
2
, select
4: Multiply Row & Add.
(b) Input the scalar multiplier, the matrix name,
the row number to be multiplied and then the
row number for the result to be added to, each
separated by a comma. In this case, enter 1,
B, 1, 2. Press )to close the set of brackets,
then press /, hand Cto save the matrix
as matrix C. (You can continue to save the
new matrix formed as matrix B if you wish or
use a new name after each row operation.)
(c) Press . Compare this screen with the matrix
obtained in Step 2 of Worked example 4.
4. Swap R
2
and R
3
.
(a) Proceed to the Row Operations menu and
select 1: Swap Rows.
(b) Input the matrix name and the two row
numbers to be swapped, each separated by a
comma. In this case, enter c, 2, 3.
Press )to close the set of brackets then
press /, hand Dto save the matrix as
matrix D.
example 4.
5. Replace R
3
with R
3
+ 2R
2
.
(a) As before, proceed to the Row Operations
menu and select 4: Multiply Row & Add.
(b) Enter 2, D, 2, 3 to represent
2 R
2
+ R
3
in matrix D. Press )to close
the set of brackets, then press /, hand E
to save the matrix as matrix E.
example 4.
6. Multiply R
3
by .
(a) Proceed to the Row Operations menu and
select 3: Multiply Row.
(b) Enter , E, 3 to represent R
3
in matrix E.
Press )to close the set of brackets, then
press /, hand Fto save the matrix as
matrix F.
example 4.
performing operations until reduced row-echelon
form is achieved.
QUESTIONS
1 Repeat the calculations for Exercise 5B Question 7 using a graphics calculator.
2 Solve the following system of equations by performing row operations using a
graphics calculator.
x y 4z = 11
6x + 2y + z = 9
3x 2y + 2z = 3
1
6
---
1
6
---
1
6
---
x

=

1,

y

=

0,

z

=

3

1 a

x

=

2.7,

y

=

0.6

b

x

=

2 ,

y

=

1 ,

z

=

c

x

=

2 ,

y

=

2 ,

z

=

1
1
5
---
1
5
---
3
5
---
1
7
---
3
7
---
3
7
---
Introducing determinants
As mentioned in the previous section, Gaussian elimination is just one method used to
solve systems of linear equations. Other methods involving determinants of matrices
were used as early as 1100 BC by the Chinese and more recently by Gabriel Cramer
(17041752) and Augustine Cauchy (17891857).
You were introduced to determinants in Chapter 3 on matrices where a quick test to
determine whether a matrix was singular (that is, had no inverse) was to evaluate its
determinant.
For example, for A = A
1
= = .
Because the determinant of A = 0, no inverse exists such that A
1
A = I.
By denition, if A = [a], then det A = | a | for a 1 1 matrix.
Determinant of a 2 2 matrix
If A = then det A = = ad - bc.
Therefore the determinant can only be found for a square matrix A and is denoted by
straight brackets, | |, not the square brackets [ ] used for a matrix. Its value is a single
numerical answer, not a table of values like a matrix.
Determinant of a 3 3 matrix
As with the inverse of matrices, we need to be able to nd determinants of matrices
larger than 2 2.
The determinant of a 3 3 matrix involves evaluating three 2 2 determinants.
If A = , det A = a - b + c
where the 3 sub-determinants are referred to as minors.
Therefore det A= a(ei - fh) - b(di - fg) + c(dh - eg)
= aei - afh - bdi + bfg + cdh - ceg
2 2
1 1
1
2 1 2 1
------------------------------
1 2
1 2
1
0
---
1 2
1 2
a b
c d
a b
c d
Evaluate the determinant of A = .
THINK WRITE
For A = , det A = ad bc. det A = 2 2 3 1
= 4 3
= 1
2 1
3 2
a b
c d
5
WORKEDExample
a b c
d e f
g h i
e
h
f
i
d
g
f
i
d
g
e
h
Note that the coefcients of each sub-determinant are the elements of row 1 and the
minor of a
11
is formed by using elements not in row 1 or column 1. That is, mentally
cross out the rst row and rst column.
and similarly for the other minors.
The second coefcient is given a negative sign.
If det A

= 0 then the inverse of A does not exist. In this case A is said to be singular.
A special set of simultaneous equations such as
ax

+ by

= 0
cx

+ dy

= 0
is said to be homogeneous, where all the right-hand side constants are zero. The trivial
solution to this system yields x

= y

= 0.
If det A = 0 then an innite number of non-trivial solutions exist. However, if
det A

0 only the trivial solutions exist. You will encounter questions later in this
chapter that deal with this situation.
a b c
d e f
g h i
Evaluate the determinant .
THINK WRITE
Use elements of row 1 as
the coefcients of the
minors.
= 2 1 + 3
Evaluate minors. = 2(1 0 2 2) 1(1 0 2 1) + 3(1 2 1 1)
= 2(0 4) 1(0 + 2) + 3(2 1)
= 8 2 + 3
= 7
2 1 3
1 1 2
1 2 0
1
2 1 3
1 1 2
1 2 0
1 2
2 0
1 2
1 0
1 1
1 2
2
6

WORKEDExample
1. By denition, if A = [a], then det A = | a | for a 1 1 matrix.
2. If A = then det A = = ad bc.
3. If A = , det A = a b + c
a b
c d
a b
c d
a b c
d e f
g h i
e f
h i
d f
g i
d e
g h
remember
Introducing determinants
Evaluate the determinants of the following matrices:
1 2 3 4
5 Evaluate the following determinants:
a b c
d e f
g h i
j
Properties of determinants
In question 5 of the previous exercise, review parts a and b, f, g and h. Do you notice
any patterns that you think could occur in other situations? In fact there are 8 properties
of determinants that can be very useful. We have already used one of them (see prop-
erty 6 given on the next page) in using the Gaussian method to solve systems of linear
equations.
The 8 properties of determinants are given below.
Property 1 Determinant of a transpose
For every square matrix A, det A

= det A

where det A

is the determinant that results
from the transpose of A as seen in questions 5 a and b above.
Property 2 Identical rows
If 2 or more rows (or columns) of a matrix are identical or in proportion, then det A

= 0
(this can be seen in question 5 g).
5C
WORKED
Example
5
2 3
0 1
5 1
2 3
0 1
1
2
--- 3
1
2
--- 1
1
4
--- 2
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Determinants of 2 2
and 3 3 matrices
WORKED
Example
6
1 3 2
1 4 3
0 2 5
1 1 0
3 4 2
2 3 5
0 2 3
3 1 2
6 3 2
1 1 1
2 2 3
0 3 4
2 5 1
3 2 4
1 2 3
0 0 0
2 3 5
6 8 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
1 2 3
0 4 5
0 0 6
2 1 3
4 0 5
0 0 6
4 10 2
3 2 4
1 2 3
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2 13

1
2
---
3
4
---

33 81

3 61 0
0 24

24
122
Property 3 Zero rows/columns
If all the elements of a row (or column) are zero, then det A

= 0 (see question 5 f).
Property 4 Interchanging rows or columns
If 2 rows (or columns) of A are interchanged to give B, then det A

=

det B (see
questions 5 h and i).
Property 5 Multiples of rows/columns
If a row (or column) of matrix A is multiplied by a constant k (where k

0), to give
matrix B, then det B

= k det A (see questions 5 e and j).
Property 6 Adding rows/columns
If a non-zero multiple of a row or column of A is added to another row or column, then
the determinant is unchanged.
Property 7 Zero lower-triangular matrix
If all the elements below the leading diagonal are zero, then det A equals the product of
the elements on the leading diagonal (see question 5 h).
Property 8 Det I
If I is the identity matrix then det I

= 1 (this property follows from property 7).
Some of these properties are easier to identify than others. For instance, a matrix with
a zero row or column is readily identied. As well as these properties, there are other
short-cut methods that are very convenient for calculating determinants. The following
expansion is one of these.
Expansion of a 3

3 determinant using any row
or column
The initial example of expansion of a 3

3 determinant (Worked example 6 on page 223)
used the rst row as coefcients of the minors. However, any row or column can be used
with the following adaptations.
1. A minor can be obtained by blocking out all the elements of the row and column of
the coefcient.
2. Alternating signs are attached to the coefcients of each minor, as shown:
Note: The initial example (Worked example 6) used a (

) in front of the second
coefcient because the rst row elements were used as the coefcients of expansion.
+ +
+
+ +
If the elements of the second row had been used as the coefcients of expansion, then
the signs on the minors would have been

,

+,

. The same would have happened if
the second column had been used. The signed minors are called cofactors.
Follow the next worked example to see how this alternative row or column can be
used.
In the example above, any row or column could have been used, but you can see that if
column 1 is used, the coefcients will be 1 a number that is easy to multiply by.
Also, any row or column with mostly zeros allows you to complete the expansion
faster, so it is useful to use that row or column to expand by.
For square determinants greater than 3

3, this simple alternating pattern of signs is
continued.
For example, a 4

4 determinant can be evaluated using alternating signs of the
coefcients. The signs to be used in front of the coefcients are shown below.
Evaluate .
THINK WRITE
Because we can expand by any row or
column, use column 1 as it will have
coefcients of 1.
(a) With a different colour pen
write in the signs of the
elements. Dont get them
confused and think a
21
= 1.
(b) Draw an arrow to indicate the
row/column of expansion.
Write out the expansion with the
signed minors (cofactors).
= 1 1 + 1
Complete the expansion. Take care
with the minus sign and the brackets.
= 1(27 24) 1(18 4) + 1(12 3)
= 3 14 + 9
= 2
1 2 1
1 3 6
1 4 9
1
1
(+)
2 1
1
()
3 6
1
(+)
4 9
2
3 6
4 9
2 1
4 9
2 1
3 6
3
7

WORKEDExample
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
Properties of determinants
Evaluate the following determinants:
1 a b c State the property involved.
2 a b State the property involved.
All determinants have the following properties:
1. For every square matrix A, det A = det A where det A is the determinant that
results from the transpose of A.
2. If 2 or more rows (or columns) of a matrix are identical or in proportion, then
det A = 0.
3. If all the elements of a row (or column) are zero, then det A = 0.
4. If 2 rows (or columns) of A are interchanged to give B, then det A = det B.
5. If a row (or column) of matrix A is multiplied by a constant k (where k 0), to
give matrix B, then det B = k det A.
6. If a non-zero multiple of a row or column of A is added to another row or
column, then the determinant is unchanged.
7. If all the elements below the leading diagonal are zero, then det A equals the
product of the elements on the leading diagonal.
8. If I = identity matrix then det I = 1.
remember
5D
1 2
4 5
1 4
2 5
WORKED
Example
7
1 2 1
3 6 0
1 2 1
0 0 4
2 0 5
3 0 2
2 3 6
1 1 1
2 1 0
3 2 6
1 1 1
1 2 0
2 5
4 1
4 10
4 1
2 4
0 1
2 4
2 5
2 1 3
0 4 7
0 0 1

3 Property 1

0

Property 2

0

Property 3

22 22

Property 4

18 36

Property 5

2 2

Property 6

8

Property 7
9 Use any of the properties investigated in earlier sections to evaluate the following
determinants:
a b c
d e f
Inverse of a 3

3 matrix
In Chapter 3 on matrices you were introduced to the idea of an inverse matrix A
1
where AA
1

= A
1
A

= I.
For A

= the inverse matrix A
1

= , where ad

- bc

0 and
ad

- bc

= det A.
This rule is limited to 2

2 matrices. However, in its most general form it can be used
to nd the inverse of any square matrix, if the inverse exists.
The steps below demonstrate how the above formula can be used to nd the inverse
of a 3

3 matrix.
For matrix A

=
1. Matrix C, the cofactor matrix of A, is obtained by replacing each element of A with
its corresponding cofactor or signed minor.
C

=

=
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
2 3 4
1 1 1
0 1 0
4 3 1
1 6 1
2 5 1
1 1 1
0 1 1
2 1 0
1 0 0
1 0 4
3 2 1
2 1 1 3
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 2
2 0 1 3
4 2 1 0
0 2 1 1
0 0 1 3
0 0 0 5
a b
c d
1
ad bc
------------------
d b
c a
2 3 1
4 6 5
9 7 8
6 5
7 8
4 5
9 8
4 6
9 7
3 1
7 8
2 1
9 8
2 3
9 7
3 1
6 5
2 1
4 5
2 3
4 6
13 13 26
17 7 13
9 6 0

1

Property 8

4

3

8

3 40
2. The adjoint of A is the transpose of the cofactor matrix and is written adj A.
adj A

=
The adjoint matrix has the property that A(adj A)

= (det A)I and since det A is a
scalar we can divide by det A to produce
A

= I
therefore

= A
1
.
You can verify this result by showing A
1
A

= I.
In its simplest form, this is the formula that was used to nd the inverse of 2

2
matrices.
13 17 9
13 7 6
26 13 0
adj A
det A
--------------
adj A
det A
--------------
Use the cofactor/adjoint matrices to nd the inverse of A

= .
THINK WRITE
Set up the cofactor matrix using signed
minors and evaluate.
C =
C =
Write the adjoint as the transpose of C. adj A =
1 1 2
0 1 2
0 1 3
1
1 2
1 3
0 2
0 3
0 1
0 1
1 2
1 3
1 2
0 3
1 1
0 1
1 2
1 2
1 2
0 2
1 1
0 1
1 0 0
5 3 1
4 2 1
2
1 5 4
0 3 2
0 1 1
8

WORKEDExample
Continued over page
This method can now be used to solve systems of linear equations involving a 3

3
matrix.
THINK WRITE
Calculate det A. det A = 1 0 + 0 = 1 (down column 1)
Set up A
1
. A
1
=
Calculate A
1
. A
1
=
Verify this matrix is A
1
by testing
AA
1
= I.
Check:
AA
1
=
AA
1
=
AA
1
= I
3
1 2
1 3
4
adj A
det A
-------------
5
1 5 4
0 3 2
0 1 1
6
1 1 2
0 1 2
0 1 3
1 5 4
0 3 2
0 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Solve the system of linear equations given below.
x y z = 0
2x + y = 4
x + y + z = 2
THINK WRITE
Set up the matrices in the form
AX = B.
AX = B where A =
X = and B =
Rearrange to change X to be
the subject.
A
1
AX = A
1
B
X = A
1
B
1
1 1 1
2 1 0
1 1 1
x
y
z
0
4
2
2
9

WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Use the cofactor matrix to nd
A

1
.
C

=
C

=
Find the adjoint of A.
Find the determinant of A.
adj A

=
det A

= (across row 3)
det A

= 1

1

1

2

+ 1 3
det A = 2
Find the inverse. A
1
=
A
1
=
A
1
=
Solve for X and check the
values provided.
X =
X =
So x = 1, y = 2, z = 1.
3
1 0
1 1
2 0
1 1
2 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 0
1 1
2 0
1 1
2 1
1 2 1
0 2 2
1 2 3
4
5
1 0 1
2 2 2
1 2 3
1
1 1
1 0
1
1 1
2 0
+1
1 1
2 1
6
adj A
det A
-------------
1
2
---
1 0 1
2 2 2
1 2 3
1
2
--- 0
1
2
---
1 1 1
1
2
--- 1 1
1
2
---
7
1
2
--- 0
1
2
---
1 1 1
1
2
--- 1 1
1
2
---
0
4
2
1
2
1
Inverse of a 3

3 matrix
1 Find the i determinant, ii cofactor matrix iii adjoint matrix and iv inverse of each of
the following.
a b c d
2 Find the inverse of the following matrices, if they exist.
a b c d
3 Find the inverse of and use it to solve the system of linear equations given
by x

+ 2y z

= 0
3y

+ z

= 9
2x

2z

= 8
4 Solve the following systems of linear equations.
a x

+ y

z

= 9 b x

y

4z

=

11

2x

y

+ z

=

11 6x + 2y + z = 9
x + 2y + 2z = 0 3x 2y + 2z = 3
5 Find x if = 0.
1. The determinant of a 3 3 matrix can be found using signed minors. The signs
on the minors can be determined from the following:
2. A
1
= where adj A = C, the transpose of the cofactor matrix of signed
minors.
+ +
+
+ +
adj A
det A
-------------
remember
5E
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SkillSHEET 5.3
Using the cofactor/adjoint
method
WORKED
Example
8
1 1
2 3
2 5
6 9
1 2 1
2 0 4
3 2 5
1 4 0
2 3 1
1 4 3
2 1 1
3 3 2
2 0 1
4 1 3
1 1 1
0 2 0
3 5 4
2 1 3
3 2 2
1 2 2
3 6 1
2 0 5
WORKED
Example
9
1 2 1
0 3 1
2 0 2
2 x + 1
1 2 x
a i

1

ii
iii iv
b i

12

ii
iii iv
3 2
1 1
3 1
2 1
3 1
2 1
9 6
5 2
9 5
6 2
3
4
---
5
12
------
1
2
---
1
6
---

1 c i

8

ii iii iv
8 2 4
12 2 8
8 2 4
8 12 8
2 2 2
4 8 4
1 1
1
2
--- 1
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
2
--- 1
1
2
---

1 d i

33

ii
iii
iv
13 5 11
12 3 0
4 1 11
13 12 4
5 3 1
11 0 11
13
33
------
12
33
------
4
33
------
5
33
------
1
11
------
1
33
------
1
3
--- 0
1
3
---

2 a
b
c
d
3 1 5
1 0 1
6 2 9
1 3 2
0 0 0.5
1 4 2.5
0.16 0.08 0.44
0.52 0.24 0.68
0.28 0.36 0.52
1.5 0.5 0.5
0.85 0.45 0.25
0.6 0.2 0

X

=

1.5 1 1.25
0.5 0 0.25
1.5 1 0.75
19
2
15
2
3
4
1
0
3

x

= 3

1
6 Evaluate the following:
a b c d
7 Solve each of the following equations:
a

= 0 b

= 0 c

= 0
d

= 0 e

= 0 f

= 0
8 If A

= nd A
1
.
9 A

=
a Find det A.
b Find A
1
.
c Use the result from b to solve the system:
2x

+ y

z

= 2
7x

9y

+ 3z

=

5
2x + 4y + 5z = 5
10 Show that = .
11 If A
1
=
a nd A and A
b verify that (A)
1
= (A
1
).
12 Evaluate for complex i:
a b c
x y z
u 1 1
v 1 1
1 x yz
1 y x
1 z xy
1 1 1
1 1 x 1
1 1 1 y
b a a
a b a
a a b
1 a a
2
1 1 1
1 2 4
1 a a
a 1 0
a 0 1
a a
2 a 1
a 0 0
0 a 1 0
0 0 a 2
x 1 3
2 x 6
x 3 0 0
0 x 3
0 1 x 2
3 0 5
2 4 6
1 2 4
2 1 1
7 9 3
2 4 5
1
2
---
1 a 0
0 1 0
0 b 1
1
1 a 0
0 1 0
0 b 1
1 2 1
0 1 2
1 0 1
1 i
i 1 0
1 i 0
i i 1
1 i 0
1 i i 1 i +
1 i + 1 i i
i 1 i + 1 i

6 a

(

y

z

)(

v

u

)

b

xy

2

xz

x

2

y

+

yz

2

+

x

2

y

2

z

c

(1

x

)(1

y

)

+

y

+

x

1

d

2

a

3

3

a

2

b

+

b

3

a

=

1, 2

a

=

1
2
---

a

=

0, 3

a

=

0, 1, 2

x

=

3, 4

x

=

1, 3
1
3
---
5
6
--- 1
2
3
---
1
6
---
7
12
------
2
3
---
0
1
2
--- 1

189
0.3 0.05 0.03
0.15 0.06 0.07
0.24 0.03 0.13
1
2
---
1
0


A

=

0.25 0.5 0.75
0.5 0 0.5
0.25 0.5 0.25

A

=

0.25 0.5 0.25
0.5 0 0.5
0.75 0.5 0.25

1

+

i

0

7

i
13 Verify that det (AB)

= det A

det B for the following:
a A

= B

=
b A

= B

=
Cramers Rule for solving linear
equations
Determinants on their own can also be used to solve systems of linear equations. In
fact, determinants were rst studied in this context. This method of solving linear
equations is known as Cramers Rule and will be used to solve systems of 2 linear
equations.
For the equations ax

+ by

= u
and cx

+ dy

= v
x

= and y

= provided ad

- bc

0.
Note the pattern of elements in the determinant of the numerators. Mathematics isnt
referred to as the study of patterns without good reason.
The proof of this statement follows.
Let the system of linear equations be ax

+ by

= u
and cx

+ dy

= v.
Written in matrix form they appear as

= .
In matrix equation form, this is AX

= B
X

= A
1
B.

=

=
1 2 1
0 2 4
4 3 1
2 1 0
3 2 1
1 4 5
5 1 1
1 3 2
2 0 1
3 0 2
4 1 2
0 1 1
u b
v d
a b
c d
-----------------------
a u
c v
a b
c d
-----------------------
a b
c d
x
y
u
v
x
y
1
ad bc
------------------
d b
c a
u
v
1
ad bc
------------------
du bv
cu av +

Therefore, x

= and y

= where ad

bc

0.
The numerators and denominators of both these expressions can be written as
determinants:
x

= and y

= .
du bv
ad bc
------------------
cu av +
ad bc
----------------------
u b
v d
a b
c d
-----------------------
a u
c v
a b
c d
-----------------------
Use Cramers Rule to solve the following linear equations.
2x + 2y = 3
x y =
THINK WRITE
Write the general equations in matrix
form and apply Cramers Rule.
For =
x = and y =
Substitute the given values for a, b, c, d
and u, v.
=
x = and y =
= =
= 1 =
Verify these results by substitution into
the original system of equations.
Check:
2(1) + 2( ) = 3 (Veried for the 1st equation)
1 = (Veried for the 2nd equation)
1
2
---
1
a b
c d
x
y
u
v
u b
v d
a b
c d
-----------------------
a u
c v
a b
c d
-----------------------
2
2 2
1 1
x
y
3
1
2
---
3 2
1
2
--- 1
2 2
1 1
--------------------------
2 3
1
1
2
---
2 2
1 1
--------------------------
4
4
------
2
4
------
1
2
---
3
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
10

WORKEDExample
Cramers Rule can readily be extended to nd the solution of 3 equations in
3 unknowns.
Solve: 2x

+ y + z = 3
x + 2y z = 6
5x 2z = 1.
THINK WRITE
Write the system in matrix form. A = B =
Apply Cramers Rule.
Matrix B is used as column 1 for x,
column 2 for y and column 3 for z.
x = y =
z =
Evaluate the determinants, dont
forget the signed minors.
x = = 1
y = = 2
z = = 3
Verify these results by substituting
into the 3 equations.
Check:
2(1) + 2 + 3 = 3 (Verifying the 1st equation)
1 + 2(2) 3 = 6 (Verifying the 2nd equation)
5(1) 2(3) = 1 (Verifying the 3rd equation)
1
2 1 1
1 2 1
5 0 2
3
6
1
2
3 1 1
6 2 1
1 0 2
2 1 1
1 2 1
5 0 2
--------------------------------------
2 3 1
1 6 1
5 1 2
2 1 1
1 2 1
5 0 2
--------------------------------------
2 1 3
1 2 6
5 0 1
2 1 1
1 2 1
5 0 2
-----------------------------------
3
21
21
---------
42
21
---------
63
21
---------
4
11

WORKEDExample
Cramers Rule for solving
linear equations
Use Cramers Rule to solve the following:
1 2x

+ y

= 1 2 2x

+ 4y

= 14
3x

2y

= 12 3x

y

=

7
3

x y = 7 4 3x + 2y = 6
4x y = 3 2x + y = 3
5 x + y + z = 4 6 x + 2y + 5z = 1
2x + y z = 3 2x + 3y z = 7
3x + 3y + 2z = 10 x 2y 2z = 0
The graphics calculator can perform a number of matrix operations and can provide
quick and reliable answers to some of the problems that you have encountered in this
chapter. A number of operations are shown below, some of which have already been
covered in earlier graphics calculator tips.
Consider the matrix A = .
Entering a matrix
1. Select RUN-MAT from the Main Menu.
2. Press ( MAT) to enter the matrix editing screen.
3. Highlight Mat A and press or (DIM).
4. Specify the number of rows, 3 in this case, and press .
5. Specify the number of columns, 3 in this case, and press .
Cramers Rule for solving linear equations: ax + by = u
cx + dy = v
states that x = and y =
u b
v d
a b
c d
-----------------------
a u
c v
a b
c d
-----------------------
remember
5F
WORKED
Example
10
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WorkSHEET 5.2
WORKED
Example
11
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip! Matrix operations
2 3 2
0 1 4
2 1 1
F1
EXE F3
EXE
EXE

x

=

2,

y

=

3

x

=

1,

y

=

4

x

=

2,

y

=

5

x

=

0,

y

=

3

x

=

3,

y

=

1,

z = 2
x = 11 , y = 5 , z =
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
6. Press again to display the 3

3 array for
matrix A.
7. Enter the values for the elements, pressing
after each number.
(To exit the Matrix input screen, press . Press
again to return to the MAT screen.)
Inverse of A
1. Press then (MAT) to bring up the matrix
menu.
2. Press (Mat) then [A] and [x

-1
] to
specify the matrix A
1
.
3. Press to display the answer screen. (Press
to leave or press again to return to the
matrix menu screen.)
Powers of A
1. Press then (MAT) to bring up the matrix
menu. (Ignore this step if you are already in the
matrix menu screen from a previous operation.)
2. Press (Mat) then [A] to specify
matrix A.
3. To nd A
2
, press or press the power key
and type in the required index of 2. For other powers
of A, press the power key and type in the required
index. (For example, press and then to
specify A
3
.)
4. Press to display the answer screen.
Determinant of A
1. From the matrix menu screen, press (Det) then
(Mat) and [A] to specify det A.
2. Press to display the answer.
The identity matrix
1. From the matrix menu screen, press ( ) then
(Iden) to specify the identity matrix. For a 3 3
identity matrix, press .
EXE
EXE
EXIT
EXIT
OPTN F2
F1 ALPHA SHIFT
EXE
EXIT EXE
OPTN F2
F1 ALPHA
x
2
3
EXE
F3
F1 ALPHA
EXE
F6
s
F1
3
Calculate (I A)
-1
and store it as B
1. From the matrix menu screen, press then ( )
and (Iden) 3 to specify the 3 3 matrix I. Press
the subtraction key and then press ( )
followed by (Mat) and [A] to specify the
matrix A. Press to close the set of brackets and
then press [x
-1
] to nd the inverse matrix.
2. Press then (Mat) and [B] to store the
resulting matrix as matrix B.
3. Press to display the resulting matrix B.
Calculate the product A
-1
by entering
as a list
1. Enter A
1
as before. (Press (Mat) then
[A] followed by [x
-1
].)
2. For the second matrix, we enter each row of the
matrix as a set of elements enclosed in square
brackets. All of the row sets are then enclosed in
another set of square brackets. Use [ [ ] to
open a set of square brackets and [ ] ] to close
the set. The keys to be pressed can be seen in the
screen shown.
Fill cells of a matrix with a given value
1. Set the dimensions of matrix A. (Lets use 3 3.)
2. From the matrix menu screen, press ( ) then
(Fill). Enter the given value. (Lets use 5.) Press the
comma key and then press ( ) followed by
(Mat) and [A] to enter matrix A. Press
to close the set of brackets. Press .
3. To display matrix A, press twice to return to
the MAT screen. Then press ( MAT) to enter the
matrix editing screen and highlight Mat A. Press
.
EXE
(
F6
s
F1
F6
s
F1 ALPHA
)
SHIFT
F1 ALPHA
EXE
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 2
3 4
5 6
F1 ALPHA
SHIFT
SHIFT
SHIFT
EXE
F6
s
F3
,
F6
s
F1 ALPHA
)
EXE
EXIT
F1
EXE
Entering a matrix
1. Open a new Calculator document. Press kto access the catalog. Select Option 5
then highlight the m-by-n matrix symbol.
2. Press . Create the matrix with Number of rows: 3
and Number of columns: 3, pressing eto move
from one box to the next.
3. Highlight OK and press . Fill in the values in the
matrix using the cursor keys to move from one
element to the next.
4. Move the cursor to the right of the matrix. Press /,
h, then Ato store the matrix as matrix A. Press
to display the matrix.
Inverse of A
1. With matrix A entered in the calculator, press Athen
the power key land type in the index of 1 to
specify the matrix A
1
.
2. Press to display the required matrix.
Powers of A
1. With matrix A entered in the calculator, press Ato
recall matrix A to the screen.
2. To nd A
2
, press qor press the power key land
type in the required index (2). For other powers of
A, press the power key and type in the required index.
For example, press land then 3to specify A
3
.
3. Press to display the required matrix.
Determinant of A
1. Press band select 7: Matrix & Vector (press 8or
use the cursor keys to highlight 7: Matrix & Vector
and press ).
2. Select 2:Determinant.
3. Press Ato specify matrix A and press )to close the
set of brackets. Press to display the answer.
The identity matrix
1. Press band select 7: Matrix & Vector. Select
6: Create and then select 2: Identity.
2. For a 3 3 identity matrix, press 3. Press to
display the required matrix.
Calculate (I A)
-1
and store it as B
1. Press ( to open a set of brackets. Press band
select 7: Matrix & Vector then 6: Create and
2: Identity. Press 3and then )to specify the 3 3
matrix I.
2. Press the subtraction key (-) and then press Ato
specify the matrix A. Press )to close the set of
brackets and then press the power key (l) and type
in 1 as the index to specify the inverse matrix.
3. With the cursor placed after the full expression
(press the right arrow key once), press / and h,
then press Bto store the matrix as matrix B.
4. Press to display the resulting matrix B.
Alternatively, you can store the resulting matrix
after the calculation has been performed. Input
(I A)
1
and press to display the resulting
answer matrix. To store this as matrix B, press /,
hthen B.
-1
by entering
as a list
1. Enter A
1
as before. (Press Athen the power key
(l) and type in the index of 1.)
2. Press the right arrow to expand the cursor to the
baseline. Press the multiplication key (r).
3. Enter the second matrix. First press / and ( to
set up a set of square brackets. Enter each row of the
matrix. Each element in a row needs to be separated
by a comma (press the ,key). Each row of the
matrix needs to be separated by a semi-colon. To
insert a semi-colon, press kto access the Catalog
and select Option 4 (by pressing 4). Highlight
the ; symbol and press . The keys to be pressed
can be seen in the screen shown.
4. Place the cursor at the end of the expression and
press to display the resulting matrix.
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 2
3 4
5 6
1. Set up a new matrix A with specied dimensions.
(Lets use 3 3.) Press band select 7: Matrix &
Vector. Select 6: Create and then 1: New Matrix.
Enter the number of rows followed by a comma and
then the number of columns. Press )to close the
set of brackets. Press /, h and A to store the
new matrix as matrix A. Press to display the
matrix.
2. Press band select 7: Matrix & Vector. Select
6: Create and then 5: Fill. Enter the given value.
(Lets use 5.) Press the comma key (,) and then
press Ato enter matrix A. Press . You will see a
message on the screen that indicates that this
command has been done.
3. To display matrix A, press Aand .
Solving simultaneous equations
Consider x + y + z = 4
2x y 2z = 6
3x 2y = 2
This set of linear equations can be set up as a matrix equation of the form
AX = B.
Use a graphics calculator to solve this set of equations by each of the methods
listed below.
1 Find A
1
. Hence nd X by calculating A
1
B.
2 Set up the augmented matrix [A| B]. Perform Gaussian elimination (using row
operations) to obtain [I | X] and hence nd X.
3 Set up the augmented matrix [A| B]. Perform Gaussian elimination but this
time use the Reduced Row-Echelon Form function of your calculator to
nd X.
(Hint: For the TI-Nspire CAS calculator, look for the Reduced Row-Echelon
Form in the 7: Matrix & Vector menu.)
4 Use the determinant function of your calculator to apply Cramers Rule to solve
the set of equations.
Present your work in a report. Clearly communicate how you performed each
method and discuss your ndings.
x

= ,

y

=

,

z

=

30
11
------
34
11
------
20
11
------
Applications of determinants
Using determinants to nd the equation of a line
One of the many applications of determinants is in
determining the equation of a straight line.
You are familiar with the equation of a straight line
through two points. Assume that the given line passes
through points A (x
1
, y
1
) and B (x
2
, y
2
). Let P (x, y)
be a point on this line.
As P is a point on the line then the slope of AP
equals the slope of AB.
=
Therefore (y y
1
)(x
2
x
1
) = (y
2
y
1
)(x x
1
)
x
2
y x
1
y x
2
y
1
+ x
1
y
1
= xy
2
x
1
y
2
xy
1
+ x
1
y
1
(x
1
y
2
x
2
y
1
) (xy
2
x
2
y) + (xy
1
x
1
y) = 0
1 1 + 1 = 0
The multipliers of one have been included to display the determinant form more
clearly and can be written as:
= 0
1 Find the equation of the straight line joining points (2, 4) and (4, 6) using
determinants.
Using determinants to nd the area of a triangle
Similarly the area of a triangle can be
represented in a determinant form:
where the area of LABC equals the total
area of the two trapeziums ADEB and
BEFC less the area of trapezium ADFC.
2 Demonstrate that the area of LABC = and use this
determinant to nd the area of a triangle of your design.
A(x
1
, y
1
)
B(x
2
, y
2
)
P(x, y)
y y
1
x x
1
--------------
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
----------------
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
x x
2
y y
2
x x
1
y y
1
1 1 1
x x
1
x
2
y y
1
y
2
A(x
1
, y
1
)
B(x
3
, y
3
)
C(x
2
, y
2
)
D E F
1
2
---
1 1 1
x
1
x
2
x
3
y
1
y
2
y
3

y

=

5

x

+

14
Systems of linear equations
A pair of equations, ax + by = u and cx + dy = v, may be written in the form AX = B
where A = , X = and B = .
The matrix equation AX = B can be rearranged to X = A
1
B so that values for x and
y may be found. These values can also be called equilibrium values.
Inputoutput (Leontief) matrices
An inputoutput analysis matrix can be written as X = AX + D where:
matrix X contains the variables to be determined and is called the output matrix
matrix A contains information about the input details and is called the technology
matrix
matrix D contains information about the nal demand and is called the nal
demand matrix.
The matrix equation X = AX + D can be rearranged to make X the subject:
X = (I A)
1
D.
An augmented matrix [A| B] can be used to nd the solution of a set of
simultaneous equations when Gaussian row reduction changes [A | B] to [I | X].
An augmented matrix [A| B] can be used to nd the inverse of A when Gaussian
row reduction changes [A| B] to [A
1
| I].
Determinants
The determinant of A is written det A; det A = ad bc where A = .
If A = , det A = a b + c
In general, the determinant of a 3 3 matrix is found by using the
alternating signs of attached to the coefcients of each minor.
a b
c d
x
y
u
v
summary
a b
c d
a b c
d e f
g h i
e f
h i
d f
g i
d e
g h
+ +
+
+ +

Adjoint matrix
A
1

= , where adj A is the transpose of the cofactor matrix of A, made up of
the minors of A.
Cramers Rule for solving linear equations
Cramers Rule for solving equations: ax

+ by

= u
cx

+ dy

= v
states that x

= and y

= provided ad

bc

0.
adj A
det A
-------------
u b
v d
a b
c d
-----------------------
a u
c v
a b
c d
-----------------------
1 Find the equilibrium values of G and H in the following:
G

= H

+ 40
H

= 2G

90
2 A certain economy produces only two commodities, aluminium and gold. To produce
1 tonne of aluminium, 0.01 tonne of aluminium is required. To produce 1 tonne of gold,
0.005 tonne of gold and 0.2 tonne of aluminium are required. The nal demand is for
15 tonnes of aluminium and 11 tonnes of gold. Find the output matrix.
3 Use the Gaussian method of elimination to solve the following system of linear equations:
2x

y

+ z

=

1
3x

+ 2y

z

= 4
x

2y

+ 2z

= 1
4 Use Gaussian elimination to nd the inverse of the following matrices:
a b
5 Evaluate the following determinants:
a b c
6 Evaluate the following determinants and list the property involved.
a b
c given that

= 52 d given that = 13
e given that = 4 f
g given that = 15
5A
CHAPTER
review
5A
5B
5B
3 2
1 1
3 0 1
2 0 1
1 1 2
5C
1 2 3
1 1 2
2 0 0
2 3 2
0 1 4
2 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 3 2
5D
1 2 3
0 0 0
2 3 5
3 1 4
0 2 2
0 0 5
2 1 3
3 2 1
1 3 2
2 3 1
3 1 2
1 2 3
1 0 2
3 1 0
0 2 1
1 3 0
0 1 2
2 0 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 2
3 4 0
2 2 4
1 2 2
2 3 4
1 4 3
1 0 2
2 1 4
1 2 3

G

=

50,

H

=

10

x

=

1,

y

=

8,

z

=

9

X

=

(15.15 tonnes of aluminium, 14.1 tonnes of gold)
15.15
14.1
0.2 0.4
0.2 0.6
1 1 0
5 7 1
2 3 0

2
0 Property 3

30 Property 7

24
Property 5
(twice)
0 Property 2

15 Property 6
10
13 Property 1

52 Property 4
7 Find the i determinant, ii cofactor matrix, iii adjoint matrix and iv inverse of the following:
a b
8 Use the cofactoradjoint method to solve the following system of linear equations:
2x

y

+ 3z

= 4

x

+ 2y

z

=

5
4x

+ y

2z

= 0
9 a State Cramers Rule for solving two equations in two unknowns.
b Use this rule to solve
2x

3y

= 7
3x

+ y

= 5
1 Let A be a 4

3 matrix. Consider matrix B which is a pre-multiplier of matrix A, that is, BA.
Find matrix B if it performs the following elementary row operations on A.
a Multiplies the second row of A by 4.
b Adds twice row 3 to row 4.
c Interchanges rows 1 and 3.
2 Let A be a 3 4 matrix. Consider matrix C which is a post-multiplier of A, that is, AC. Find
matrix C if it performs the following elementary row operations on A.
a Adds 3 times the rst column of A to the second column.
b Interchanges the rst and fourth columns of A.
c Multiplies the third column of A by 2.
3 Find the value of a if = 0.
4 The table shown on the next page is part of Scotlands Aggregate Combined Use Matrix
2004 (Purchasers Prices), millions. The Industries intermediate consumption section
shows the inputs of commodities used by Scottish industries in the production of their output.
The Final demand section shows the purchases of each product by each category of nal
demand (for example, consumers, government, exports).
a Find the nal demand matrix D for this system.
b Find the output matrix X.
c Calculate the Leontief matrix (I A) for this system.
5E
1 2
3 4
3 1 1
2 1 2
1 2 3
5E
5F
a + 1
1
2
10
a 1
2a
a
2
0
1

b i

12

ii

iii

iv
7 4 5
5 8 7
1 4 1
7 5 1
4 8 4
5 7 1
1
12
------
7 5 1
4 8 4
5 7 1

x

=

,

y

=

2 ,

z

=

17
27
------
2
27
------
2
9
---

y

=

and

x

=

where

ax

+

by

=

u

and

cx

+

dy

=

v

a u
c v

a b
c d
-----------------------

u b
v d

a b
c d
-----------------------

B

=

0 0 1 0
0 4 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 2 1

C

=

0 3 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 2 0
1 0 0 0

a

=

3

a
D
2
4
1
3
1
6
9
2
5
6
5
2
4
3
3
1
3
8
3
8
2
8
8
4
4
7
4
3
3
2
5
9
8
9
1
3
1
5
9
1
6
4
8
7
7
1
9
5
=

x

=

2,

y

=

1

7 a i

2

ii iii iv
4 3
2 1
4 2
3 1
2 1
1.5 0.5

c
3713
4532
------------ 0
1160
81 609
---------------- 0
17
14 100
----------------
93
10 501
---------------- 0
2
48 238
----------------
2
13 756
----------------
3
19 116
----------------
6
10 168
----------------
0
3945
4273
------------
1716
81 609
----------------
195
8570
------------
285
14 100
----------------
41
10 501
----------------
7
17 256
----------------
2
48 238
----------------
3
13 756
---------------- 0
4
10 168
----------------
821
4532
------------
383
4273
------------
69 438
81 609
----------------
107
8570
------------
1 918
14 100
----------------
1 982
10 501
----------------
939
17 256
----------------
1 511
48 238
----------------
2 979
13 756
----------------
1 601
19 116
----------------
672
10 168
----------------
24
4532
------------
106
4273
------------
778
81 609
----------------
4733
8570
------------
15
14 100
----------------
83
10 501
----------------
36
17 256
----------------
78
48 238
----------------
141
13 756
----------------
127
19 116
----------------
33
10 168
----------------
48
4532
------------
136
4273
------------
136
81 609
----------------
209
8570
------------
16 713
14 100
----------------
78
10 501
----------------
128
17 256
----------------
1 415
48 238
----------------
628
13 756
----------------
286
19 116
----------------
41
10 168
----------------
100
4532
------------
52
4273
------------
97
81 609
----------------
64
8570
------------
82
14 100
----------------
10 194
10 501
----------------
150
17 256
----------------
373
48 238
----------------
216
13 756
----------------
152
19 116
----------------
64
10 168
----------------
130
4532
------------
416
4273
------------
981
81 609
----------------
103
8570
------------
106
14 100
----------------
1 587
10 501
----------------
14 203
17 256
----------------
2 140
48 238
----------------
649
13 756
----------------
384
19 116
----------------
274
10 168
----------------
209
4532
------------
915
4273
------------
2 120
81 609
----------------
522
8570
------------
1 370
14 100
----------------
2 606
10 501
----------------
1 226
17 256
----------------
39 454
48 238
----------------
2 302
13 756
----------------
848
19 116
----------------
1 348
10 168
----------------
4
4532
------------
9
4273
------------
34
81 609
----------------
9
8570
------------
14
14 100
----------------
7
10 501
----------------
25
17 256
----------------
452
48 238
----------------
13 719
13 756
----------------
1
19 116
----------------
5
10 168
----------------
29
4532
------------
18
4273
------------
75
81 609
----------------
38
8570
------------
11
14 100
----------------
39
10 501
----------------
61
17 256
----------------
349
48 238
----------------
365
13 756
----------------
17 543
19 116
----------------
71
10 168
----------------
23
4532
------------
42
4273
------------
192
81 609
----------------
44
8570
------------
11
14 100
----------------
88
10 501
----------------
113
17 256
----------------
423
48 238
----------------
438
13 756
----------------
129
19 116
----------------
8 699
10 168
----------------
(I A) =

b
X
4
5
3
2
4
2
7
3
8
1
6
0
9
8
5
7
0
1
4
1
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1
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5
0
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7
2
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6
4
8
2
3
8
1
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7
5
6
1
9
1
1
6
1
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1
6
8
=
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A g r i c u l t u r e , f o r e s t r y a n d
s h i n g
M i n i n g
M a n u f a c t u r i n g
E n e r g y a n d w a t e r
C o n s t r u c t i o n
D i s t r i b u t i o n a n d c a t e r i n g
T r a n s p o r t a n d
c o m m u n i c a t i o n
F i n a n c e a n d b u s i n e s s
P u b l i c a d m i n .
E d u c a t i o n , h e a l t h a n d
s o c i a l w o r k
O t h e r s e r v i c e s
T o t a l i n t e r m e d i a t e
d e m a n d
C o n s u m e r s
G o v e r n m e n t
G r o s s c a p i t a l f o r m a t i o n
E x p o r t s R U K
E x p o r t s R o W
T o t a l n a l d e m a n d
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Digital doc:
Test Yourself
Chapter 5
eBookplus eBookplus
syllabus
reference
Core topic:
In this
chapter
6A Geometric transformations
and matrix algebra
6B Linear transformations
6C Linear transformations and
group theory
6D Rotations
6E Reections
6F Dilations
6G Shears
6
Transformations
using matrices
Geometric transformations
and matrix algebra
In your junior mathematics studies you encountered the
idea of translation, reection, rotation and dilation and how
these transformations changed the position, size and orientation
of the original gure. However, at that stage your investigations were
limited to identifying the type of transformation that had taken place, the position of
the mirror line or centre of rotation, and perhaps the size of the image gure.
However, now you have skills with matrices that will allow much greater detailed
explanation of the position of images or, conversely, the transformation necessary to
map point (x, y) onto point (z, w).
The matrix algebra used is very straightforward and because we are limiting our dis-
cussion at this stage to 2-dimensional space, most of our matrices will be of order
2 2. Throughout this section you will be reminded of the properties of groups and
how transformations involved in matrix algebra can be considered to be a group.
Transformations
A transformation t is an operation which maps
each point of the Cartesian plane onto some
other point on the plane.
Consider point P(x, y). Under a transformation
t this point is mapped onto P(x, y). The point
P(x, y) is referred to as the original or pre-image
point and P(x, y) is the image.
This transformation can be written in its most
general form as (x, y) = t(x, y).
t
P(x, y)
x
y
P
'
(x', y')
Find the coordinates of the image points of A(2, 1) and B(3, 0) under the transformation
dened by the equations:
x = 2x 4xy + y
2
4
y = 6 2xy + x 2y
2
THINK WRITE
Think of x and y as functions of x
and y.
Substitute x = 2 and y = 1 into equations
for x and y.
For A(2, 1)
x = 2(2) 4(2)(1) + (1)
2
4
x = 4 + 8 + 1 4
x = 9
y = 6 2(2)(1) + (2) 2(1)
2
x = 6 + 4 + 2 2
x = 10
Write the coordinates of the transformed
image. The symbol is used to denote
maps onto.
A(2, 1) A(9, 10)
1
2
1
WORKEDExample

group properties of 2

2 matrices
applications of matrices in both life-related and purely mathematical situations
C h a p t e r 6 Tr a n s f o r m a t i o n s u s i n g m a t r i c e s 251
Translations
The equations used in the previous example dene a general transformation or map-
ping. A translation is a specic transformation that involves a shift of each point in the
same direction.
x = x + a
y = y + b
Each x-coordinate is moved a units parallel to the
x-axis and each y-coordinate is moved b units
parallel to the y-axis.
The image of P is written P and this
translation can be expressed in matrix
equation form as
= + where
1. is the vector holding the image coordinates (x, y) of point P
2. represents the original coordinates (x, y) of point P
3. is the translation vector and represents information about the horizontal
and vertical displacement.
THINK WRITE
Substitute x = 3 and y = 0 for B. For B(3, 0)
x = 2(3) 4(3)(0) + (0)
2
4
x = 6 0 + 0 4
x = 2
y = 6 2(3)(0) + (3) 2(0)
2
x = 6 0 + 3 0
x = 9
Write the coordinates of the transformed image. B(3, 0) B(2, 9)
Sketch each original point and its image.
Notice that the transformation of A seems quite
unconnected with the transformation of B.
3
4
5
B(3, 0)
A(2, 1)
x
y
A'(9,10)
B'(2, 9)
t
t
0
P(x, y)
x
y
t
b
a
P
'
(x', y')
x
y
x
y
a
b
x
y
x
y
a
b
Note t (lower case) denotes the translation itself and T (upper case) denotes the matrix
of the translation.
Therefore (x

, y

)

= t(x, y) can be written in matrix form as

=

+ T

=

+

=
x
y
x
y
x
y
a
b
x a +
y b +
Find the image of triangle PQR with vertices P(2, -3), Q(0, 1) and R(-1, -2) under the
translation vector . Sketch the original and image gures.
THINK WRITE
State the general translation matrix
equation.
= +
Substitute x- and y-values for each
point in turn. Consider P(2, 3).
For P(2, 3)
= +
=
=
Write the coordinates of the point P,
the image of P. P(2, 3) maps to
P(7, 4).
P(2, 3) P(7, 4)
Consider Q(0, 1). For Q(0, 1)
= +
=
=
5
1
1
x
y
x
y
a
b
2
x
y
2
3
5
1
2 5 +
3 1 +
7
4
3
4
x
y
0
1
5
1
0 5 +
1 1 +
5
0
2

WORKEDExample
Note that the image has been moved 5 units to the right and 1 unit down but remains
unchanged in shape, area, size and orientation. Such a transformation is said to be
congruent.
Successive translations
The translation above could have been achieved by a succession of translations that
have the nal effect of 5 across and 1 down. Any number of successive translations
could achieve this: and or the reverse order, and , and so on.
THINK WRITE
Write the coordinates of the point Q, the
image of Q. Q(0, 1) maps to Q(5, 0).
Q(0, 1) Q(5, 0)
Consider R(1, 2). For R(1, 2)
= +
=
=
Write the coordinates of the point R, the
image of R. R(1, 2) maps to R(4, 3).
R(1, 2) R(4, 3)
Sketch both the original and the image
points for the triangle PQR.
5
6
x
y
1
2
5
1
1 5 +
2 1 +
4
3
7
8
Q(0, 1)
P(2, 3)
R(1, 2)
x
y
R
'
(4, 3)
Q
'
(5, 0)
P
'
(7, 4)
5
0
0
1
3
2
2
3
Show that the translation T
1
= followed by T
2
= maps the point P(2, -3) from the
previous example to the same point P(7, -4) as found in Worked example 2, and that the
order of the translation has no effect on the result.
THINK WRITE
Set up the general matrix equation.
= + T
1
3
2
2
3
1 x
y
x
y
3

WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Use T
1
followed by T
2
. For P(2,

3)

=

+

=
P(2,

3)

P

(5,

1)
is the image, P

of image P

.

=

+ T
2

=

+

=
P

(5,

1)

P

(7,

4)
Therefore P(2, 3) P(5, 1) P(7, 4)
Use T
2
followed by T
1
. = +
=
=
P(2, 3) P(4, 6)
= +
=
P(4, 6) P(7, 4)
Therefore P(2, 3) P(4, 6) P(7, 4)
Sketch the translated image in 2 stages.
2
x
y
2
3
3
2
5
1
3
x
y

x
y

x
y
5
1
2
3
7
4
4
x
y
2
3
2
3
2 2 +
3 3 +
4
6
x
y

4
6
3
2
7
4
5
x
y
P
''
(7, 4)
P(2, 3)
P' (4, 6)
P' (5, 1)
t
2
2
t
1
t
2
t
1
1
This example shows, but does not prove, that a set of translations is commutative; that
is, the order of operation does not affect the nal result.
Translation of a curve
Find the equation of the curve y

= x
2
under the translation of T

= .
Sketch the original and image curves on the same set of axes.
THINK WRITE
Set up the general matrix equation.

=

+
To nd the image of the curve we
must express x and y as found in the
original function in terms of x

and y

.

=

x

= x

1
y

= y

+ 4
Substitute for x and y in the original
function to obtain the function in
terms of the image coordinates.
y = x
2
becomes
y + 4 = (x 1)
2
Rearrange and expand this function.
y = x
2
2x + 1 4
y = x
2
2x 3
State the equation of the image curve. The equation of the image is y = x
2
2x 3.
To assist in graphing the image curve,
rst nd the intercepts with the x-axis
and the y-axis.
x-axis intercepts occur when y = 0
0 = (x 3)(x + 1)
x-axis intercepts occur when
x 3 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
3 x = 3 x = 1
y-axis intercepts occur when x = 0
y = 0
2
2(0) 3
y = 3
Sketch the original and image
functions.
Note that the turning point (0, 0) maps
to (1, 4) which was the translation
vector.
1
4
1
x
y
x
y
1
4
2
x
y
x
y
1
4
3
4
5
6 y
(3, 0)
(1, 0)
3
4
y = x
2
x
0
y' = x'
2
2x' 3
4

WORKEDExample
We can use a graphics calculator to draw the original function and its image on the
same axes. Consider the function y

= x
2
and its image y

= x

2

2x

3 found in
Worked example 4.
1. Press to display the MAIN MENU. Use the
cursor keys to highlight GRAPH.
2. Press . Enter the rst equation y

= x
2
as Y1.
Press to enter X and then press to show
the index of 2. Press .
3. Enter the second equation y

= x
2

2x

3 as Y2.
Remember to press to enter X. Press .
4. To distinguish between the two graphs on the screen,
we can change the appearance of Y2. Highlight the
equation and press (STYL). Select , or
for a different line style. In this example,
was chosen.
5. Press to graph the curves.
6. To see the two curves more clearly, we need to set up
a view window. Press (V-WIN) and enter
values for Xmin and Xmax. From the screen at right
you can see that 6 and 6 have been chosen. Press
after each entry. Scroll down to enter values
for Ymin and Ymax. The values 6 and 6 have been
chosen. Again, press after each entry.
7. Press to return to the GRAPH function screen
and then press (DRAW) to see the graphs.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Graphing the original
and its image
MENU
EXE
X,q,T x
2
EXE
X,q,T EXE
F4 F2 F3
F4 F3
EXE
SHIFT F3
EXE
EXE
EXIT
F6
1. Open a new Graphs & Geometry document (press
/Nand select 2: Graphs & Geometry).
2. To draw the graph of y = x
2
, type in x
2
(by pressing
Xand then q) into the function entry line next to
f1(x) =.
3. Press to obtain the curve labelled with its
equation.
4. To enter the second equation, type x
2
2x 3 into
the function entry line next to f2(x) = and press .
5. To see the two curves more clearly, we can alter the
scale settings of the axes. Press band then press
4to select 4: Window.
6. Press 1to select 1: Window settings. The values
in the Window Settings box can now be changed.
Enter the values as shown. Press eto move to the
next setting. (To return to a previous setting, press
the shift button (g) followed by e.)
7. Press euntil OK is highlighted and press . The
graphing window will appear with the new scale.
8. If necessary, the label for each graph can be moved
to a different position. Press d. A pointer () will
appear in the work area. Use the NavPad to move the
pointer so that it hovers over the equation. The
pointer will then appear as an open hand (). Press
/and then x. The hand will close ({) and the
equation will ash. Use the NavPad to move the
equation to the desired location and then press d.
Note: When the function entry line is shaded, you cannot edit the function entry line
because you are in the graph work area. To move between the graph work area and the
function line, press e.
Also, if the function entry line is covering too much of the graph and you wish to hide
it, press /and then G. To bring the entry line back, press /and then G.
Geometric transformations
and matrix algebra
1 Find the image of each of the following points under the transformation dened by
x = 2xy 3y + x
2
y = xy + 4y x
a (0, 0) b (2, 4) c (1, 1) d (5, 2)
Sketch the original point and its image.
2 Find the image of each of the following points under the translation T = .
a (0, 0) b (2, 4)
c (3, 5) d (4, 1)
3 The vertices of a triangle are given by A(0, 0), B(3, 5) and C(7, 2). Find the image of
the vertices under each of the following translations:
a b c d
1. A translation T can be written as = + T in matrix equation form.
The matrix is the vector representing the coordinates of the point (x, y)
and represents the coordinates of the point (x, y) the image of (x, y)
after translation.
2. A translation results in an image congruent to the original object.
3. A set of translations is commutative the order of operation does not affect
the nal result.
x
y

x
y
x
y
x
y

remember
6A
WORKED
Example
1
WORKED
Example
2
2
5
4
2
4
0
0
2
0
0
(0, 0) (0,

26) (0, 4) (51, 7)
(2,

5) (4,

9)
(5, 0) (

2,

4)
A

(4, 0), B

(7, 5), C

(11, 2) A

(0,

2), B

(3, 3), C

(7, 0) A

(0, 0), B

(3, 5), C

(7, 2)
A

(4, 2), B

(7, 7), C

(11, 4)
4 The line y

=

x

+ 4 undergoes a succession of translations dened by T
1

= and
T
2

= . Show that the order in which these translations take place has no effect on
the result.
5 The line y

= 2x

+ 3 undergoes a translation dened by T

= . Find the equation of
the image and sketch the original line and its image.
6 Find the equation of the image of each of the following curves under the following
translations. Graph the original curve and its image using a graphics calculator.
a y

=

x
2
b y

= x
2

4 c y

= x
2

x

6
d x
2

+ y
2

= 4 e y
2

+ x
2

+ 6y

= 0
7 Rearrange a matrix equation to nd the translation vector that maps each of the pairs of
points:
a (2, 4) (0, 1) b (4, 1) (3, 5) c (6, 2) (2, 5)
Linear transformations
Have you ever wondered how pro-
grammers who develop computer
games move and manoeuvre char-
acters on a screen to get them to
spin or shrink as they appear to
move further away from the
observer? The study of linear trans-
formation forms the foundation for
these changes of form and size
the warping of the plane on which
the characters are mapped.
There are many different ways in which the original, or pre-image, can be changed
or moved so that it looks different, or is in a different place.
A linear transformation l is a mapping of the pre-image P(x, y) onto the image
P(x, y) where:
x = ax + by
y = cx + dy
for all real values of a, b, c, and d. In matrix form this system is written as:
=
= L where L = and is called the transformation matrix.
WORKED
Example
3
4
3
2
1
WORKED
Example
4
1
2
3
1
5
1
2
0
2
2
4
2
x
y

a b
c d
x
y
x
y

x
y
a b
c d


y

(

x

3)

2

1

y

=

(

x

5)

2

5

y

=

x

2

+

3

x

4

x

4

x

+

y

4

y

+

4

=

0

x

2

+

8

x

+

y

2

+

2

y

+

8

=

0
2
3
1
6
4
7

5

y

=

2

x

+

7
3.5 1.5
y' = 2x' + 7
7
3
0
x
y
y = 2x + 3
This type of transformation leaves the origin unchanged and therefore differs from a
translation. The transformation matrix can also be extracted from information about the
original and image points. An example of this is shown in the following worked
example.
Find the images of the vertices of a unit square ABCD under
the transformation given by
L = .
THINK WRITE
Set up the initial matrix equation where
the image of P is given as P. =
Investigate the transformation of each
point in turn.
(Recall that the symbol is used to
denote maps onto.)
For point A(0, 1)
= =
That is, A(0, 1) A(2, 1)
For point B(1, 1)
= =
That is, B(1, 1) B(3, 0)
For point C(1, 0)
= =
That is, C(1, 0) C(1, 1)
For point D(0, 0)
= =
That is, D(0, 0) D(0, 0)
Plot the image on the same axes as the
original.
1 2
1 1
1
x
y

1 2
1 1
x
y
2
x
y

1 2
1 1
0
1
2
1
x
y

1 2
1 1
1
1
3
0
x
y

1 2
1 1
1
0
1
1
x
y

1 2
1 1
0
0
0
0
3
C(1, 0)
y
A(0, 1)
D(0, 0)
B(1, 1)
x
A'(2, 1)
B' (3, 0)
C' (1, 1)
5

WORKEDExample
x
y
A(0, 1)
D(0, 0)
B(1, 1)
C(1, 0)
As hinted at in the introduction to this section, there are two ways to conceptualise a
transformation. The more obvious way is to imagine that the points move to new
positions on the Cartesian plane. The other less obvious notion is that it is actually the
Find the matrix of the linear transformation that maps A(1, 1) onto A

(2,

-1) and B(2,

-1)
onto B

(1,

-1).
THINK WRITE
Set up the initial matrix equation.

=
State matrix equations for points A, A

,
B and B

.
For point A:

=
and for point B:

=
Multiply the matrices to arrive at 4
simultaneous equations for 4
unknowns, a, b, c and d.
From the equation for point A:
2

= a

+ b

1

= c

+ d
From the equation for point B:
1

= 2a b
1 = 2c d
This is really 2 sets of 2 equations in 2
unknowns that can be solved by
elimination.
If you wish to use your graphics
calculator, enter this as
A = , B =
and nd A
1
B.
a + b = 2 [1]
c + d = 1 [2]
2a b = 1 [3]
2c d = 1 [4]
[1] + [3]: 3a = 3
a = 1
[2] + [4]: 3c = 2
c =
Find b by substituting a = 1 into
Equation [1] and nd d by substituting
c = into Equation [2]. List the
values for a, b, c and d.
Sub. a = 1 into [1]: 1 + b = 2
b = 1
Sub. c = into [2]: + d = 1
d =
a = 1, b = 1, c = , d =
Use these values to build L, the linear
transformation matrix.
L =
1
x
y

a b
c d
x
y
2
2
1
a b
c d
1
1
1
1
a b
c d
2
1
3
4
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
2 1 0 0
0 0 2 1
2
1
1
1
2
3
---
5
2
3
--- 2
3
---
2
3
---
1
3
---
2
3
---
1
3
---
6
1 1
2
3
---
1
3
---
6

WORKEDExample
Cartesian plane on which the original points are plotted that undergoes distortions to
yield the transformed image. Perhaps the former is more straightforward, but the end
product will be the same.
1 ii Which of the following transformations are linear?
ii Write the transformation matrices for each of these.
a x

= x

+ y b x

= x

1 c x

= 2x 3y
y

= 2x + y y = y + 2 y = 3x + 2y
d x = + y e x = x
2
y = 1 +
y = y
2
2 a Find the images of the points A(1, 2), B(2, 0) and C(3, 1) under the following
transformations:
i ii iii iv
b Sketch the original triangle from a and its 4 different images.
3 Find the image of the points (given below) under the transformation dened by:
x = x 2y
y = 2x + y
a A(2, 3) b B(3, 1) c C(4, 1)
Plot the original point and its image in each case.
4 Find the image of the pre-image points A(4, 1), B(4, 1) and C(0, 5) under the trans-
formation dened by:
x = x + 3y
y = x 2y
Plot the original and image points.
5 Find the matrix of the linear transformation which maps:
a (1, 2) (3, 1) and (3, 0) (1, 4)
b (2, 3) (0, 0) and (2, 4) (1, 1)
c (2, 1) (1, 1) and (2, 1) (3, 6)
d (3, 4) (5, 0) and (3, 2) (2, 4)
1. A linear transformation can be represented by = or
= L where L = is the transformation matrix that maps
point (x, y) onto the image (x, y).
2. The transformed image can be found using = .
3. The transformed image is not congruent to the object.
x
y

a b
c d
x
y
x
y

x
y
a b
c d
x
y
a b
c d
1
x
y

remember
6B
x
1
y
---
WORKED
Example
5
2 1
1 1
1 0
0 1
2 0
0 2
1 0
0 1
WORKED
Example
6
i

A

(
0
,

1
)
,

B

(
4
,

2
)
,

C

5
,

2
)

i
i

A

1
,

2
)
,

B

2
,

0
)
,

C

(
3
,

1
)

i
i
i

A

(
2
,

4
)
,

B

(
4
,

0
)
,

C

6
,

2
)

i
v

A

(
1
,

2
)
,

B

(
2
,

0
)
,

C

3
,

1
)
A

(8,

7) B

1, 5)
1 1
1.75 2.5

1
3
---

1.5
2

2
3
---

2

iv

No change
1 1
2 1
2 3
3 2

2
a
2
b
i
i
i
C
'
(
6
,

2
)
B
'
(
4
,

0
)
A
'
(
2
,

4
)
x
y
A
B
C
0
x
y
B
'
(
4
,

2
)
C
'
(
5
,

2
)
A
'
B
(
2
,

0
)
A
(
1
,

2
)
C
(
3
,

1
)
0

2
b
i
i
i
x
B
(
2
,

0
)
A
(
1
,

2
)
B
'
(
2
,

0
)
C
'
(
3
,

1
)
A
'
(
1
,

2
)
y
C
(
3
,

1
)
0

C

(2,

7)

3
3
2 2 4 6 8
x
y
B
C
5
4
3
2
1
A
A'
C'
B'
2
3
4
5
6
7

5 a b
1
3
--- 1
2
3
---
1
1
3
---
1
6
---
1.5 1
1.5 1

4

A

(7,

6), B

1, 2), C

(15,

10)
A' (7, 6)
C' (15, 10)
B' (1, 2)
B(4, 1)
A(4, 1)
C(0, 5)
10
y
x
5
5
4 1 45 7 10 15
Linear transformations and
group theory
Earlier in your Mathematics C course of study you were introduced to group theory
(Chapter 4). You found that a system formed a group if the properties of closure and
associativity applied and an identity element and inverse existed. These properties
apply to many areas of mathematics including linear transformations. In Chapter 4
we investigated whether matrices, in general, formed a group; now we will study
groups that perform linear transformations.
Closure
If l
1
is a linear transformation that maps (x, y) (x, y) then
(x, y) = l
1
(x, y)
If l
2
is a linear transformation that maps (x, y) (x, y) then
(x, y) = l
2
(x, y)
Therefore it follows that
(x, y) = l
2
[l
1
(x, y)]
where l
1
is followed by l
2
and maps (x, y) (x, y). This double transformation can be
represented as a single, where l = l
2
l
1
. This is known as composition of transform-
ations, where the order is signicant.
From the Mathematics B course you would be familiar with the idea of composition
of functions, where g(x) = h(f(x)) indicates that f(x) is the inner function within the
structure and general shape of h(x).
In matrix form
= L
2
= L
2
= L
2
L
1
= L where L is a 2 2 matrix and L = L
2
L
1
We can verify this result by considering the image
of the point P(1, 2) after a linear transformation
L
1
= followed by a linear transformation
L
2
= . Show that following this double
transformation produces the point P(3, 1). If we mapped
P(1, 2) directly to P(3, 1) in a single transformation,
nd the transformation matrix L. Is this transformation
matrix L equivalent to L
1
L
2
or L
2
L
1
?
x
y

x
y

L
1
x
y

x
y
x
y
1
2
3
4
5
1 2 3 4 5 6
P
P
"
P
'
l
1
l
2
l
0
y
x
1 2
2 1
3 3
3 4
Associativity
As seen with matrix operations, matrix multiplication is associative; that is,
(L
1
L
2
)L
3

= L
1
(L
2
L
3
). Therefore linear transformations are associative; that is,
(l
1
l
2
)l
3

= l
1
(l
2
l
3
).
Identity
Remember the identity element (IE) is one which leaves the original number
unchanged. When dealing with linear transformation this means that matrix multi-
plication has been performed which leaves the original point unchanged. This is the
identity transformation and is denoted by l
i
and the matrix is I.
For a 2

2 matrix, I

= .
Inverse transformations
An inverse transformation is one that maps the image
back to the original point where
(x, y)

(x

, y

)

(x, y).
This transformation is denoted by l
1
.
As with other inverses ll
1

= l
1
l
1

= l
i
If l
1
and l
2
are 2 linear transformations such that L
1
= and L
2
= :
a nd P, the image of P (1, 3) under l
1
b nd P, the image of P under transformation l
2
c nd the single transformation of P such that l = l
2
l
1
d verify that P (as found in part b) is equal to LP
THINK WRITE
a Use matrix operation to nd P, the
image of P(1, 3) under l
1.
.
a = =
b Find P, the image of P under
transformation l
2
.
b = =
c Find the single transformation of P such
that l = l
2
l
1
.
c L = =
d Verify that P (as found in part b) is
equal to LP.
d LP = = = P
Therefore P(1, 3) P(0, 4)
1 1
2 2
0 0
2 1
x
y

1 1
2 2
1
3
4
4
x
y

0 0
2 1
4
4
0
4
0 0
2 1
1 1
2 2
0 0
4 0
0 0
4 0
1
3
0
4
7

WORKEDExample
1 0
0 1
P(x, y)
x
y
l
1
l
P
'
(x
'
, y
'
)
If L is the linear transformation matrix and A is the transformation matrix which returns
the point to the original, then A

= L
1
.
As with general matrix terminology, the transformation l is non-singular; that is, l
has an inverse if it has a matrix l
1
that will map the image back to the original.
Therefore, only linear transformations that have an inverse l
1
can be considered to
form a group. If l is singular then the set of linear transformations does not form a
group.
Abelian groups
If the composition of linear transformations is commutative, then the set will form an
Abelian group. But in general, multiplication of linear transformations is not commu-
tative, that is l
1
l
2

l
2
l
1
.
a Find the image of the point P(2, 3) under l
1
followed by l
2
with
L
1
= L
2
=
b Verify that l
2
= l
1
1
in 2 ways.
THINK WRITE
a Set matrices in = LP form. a = =
P is the point (13, 1). Now nd P
using P = L
2
P.
= =
State the image of P under l
1
followed by l
2
.
The image of the point P(2, 3) under l
1
followed by l
2
is (2, 3).
Since P(x, y) = P(x, y), L
2
has mapped
P(x, y) back onto the original, therefore
L
2
is the inverse linear transformation of L
1
.
b Verify this by showing L
2
L
1
= I. b L
2
L
1
= =
Verify by nding the inverse of L
1
. L
1
1
=
L
1
1
=
L
1
1
=
L
1
1
= L
2
State the conclusion. Therefore L
2
= L
1
1
2 3
1 1
0.2 0.6
0.2 0.4
1
x
y

x
y

2 3
1 1
2
3
13
1
2
x
y

0.2 0.6
0.2 0.4
13
1
2
3
3
1
0.2 0.6
0.2 0.4
2 3
1 1
1 0
0 1
2
1
ad bc
------------------
d b
c a
1
2 3
----------------
1 3
1 2
0.2 0.6
0.2 0.4
3
8

WORKEDExample
Images of curves non-singular transformations
So far we have mainly considered only the images of individual points under linear
transformation where

= L . Now consider the image of a curve essentially
a set of points.
Determine whether the following linear transformation, l
1
, is singular or non-singular.
x = 2x + y
y = 2x + 3y
THINK WRITE
State l
1
in matrix form.
L
1
= for L =
Test to determine whether the
determinant = 0.
| L
1
| = ad bc = 6 2 = 8
State your conclusion. Since det L
1
0, L
1
is non-singular, that is, it
has an inverse.
1
2 1
2 3
a b
c d
2
3
9

WORKEDExample
x
y

x
y
Find the image of the line y = 2x 3 under the linear transformation L = .
Sketch the original line and its image.
THINK WRITE
We need to express the original
function in terms of the image points so
we need to nd and substitute
image points for the original points x
and y.
= L
L
1
= L
1
L
= L
1
Evaluate the inverse.
=
=
2 1
0 3
1
x
y
x
y

x
y
x
y

x
y
x
y
x
y

2
x
y
1
6 0
------------
3 1
0 2
x
y

1
2
---
1
6
---
0
1
3
---
x
y

10

WORKEDExample
Images of curves singular transformations
If a linear transformation L is singular, then L does not have an inverse and the method
shown in Worked example 10 cannot be used. We need to use a different approach as
shown in the next worked example.
THINK WRITE
Express x and y in terms of the original
points.
=
Therefore
x = x y
y = y
Substitute for x and y in terms of the
image points, into the original function.
Simplify and rearrange the image
equation.
y = 2x 3 becomes
y = 2( x y) 3
= x y 3
y = x 3
State the equation of the image. Some
texts drop the primes on x and y at this
stage, but if they are left in it reminds us
that the graph of this function is the image
of the original.
y = x 4
The image of y = 2x 3 has the equation
y = x 4 .
Sketch the original and image functions.
3
x
y
1
2
--- x
1
6
--- y
0x

1
3
--- y

+
1
2
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
4
1
3
---
1
2
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
2
3
---
5
3
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
---
1
2
---
6
x
y
3
3
y = 2x 3
4
1
2
y' = x' 4
3
2
1
2
1
1
2
0
Find the image of the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 1 under the linear transformation L = .
Sketch the original curve and its image.
THINK WRITE
State the initial transformation in
general matrix form.
= L
=
1 2
2 4
1
x
y

x
y
1 2
2 4
x
y
11

WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Find values for x and y. =
Notice that the equation for y equals
twice the equation for x. Therefore this
should be stated as the function of the
image.
y = 2x
State the equation of the image. The image of x
2
+ y
2
= 1 has the equation
y = 2x.
Sketch the original curve and its image.
2
x
y

x 2y +
2x 4y +
3
4
5
x
y
x
2
+ y
2
= 1
y' = 2x'
(0, 1)
(1, 0) (1, 0)
(0, 1)
1. (a) Linear transformations are closed.
(b) If (x, y) = l
1
(x, y) where l
1
is a linear transformation that maps
(x, y) (x, y) and l
2
is a linear transformation that maps
(x, y) ( x, y) then (x, y) = l
2
(x, y)
= l
2
[l
1
(x, y)]
where l
1
is followed by l
2
2. Linear transformations are associative; that is, (l
1
l
2
)l
3
= l
1
(l
2
l
3
).
3. The identity transformation is denoted by l
i
and is represented by the identity
matrix I.
4. An inverse transformation is one that maps the image back to the original point
where (x, y) (x, y) (x, y) and is denoted by l
1
.
1
= l
1
l
= l
i
Only linear transformations that have an inverse l
1
can be considered to form
a group.
5. If linear transformations are commutative, then they will form an Abelian
group. But in general, multiplication of transformations is not commutative,
that is l
1
l
2
l
2
l
1
.
remember
Linear transformations and
group theory
1 If l
1
and l
2
are 2 linear transformations such that L
1
= and L
2
= :
a nd P, the image of P(2, 5) under l
1
b nd P, the image of P under transformation l
2
c nd the single transformation of P such that l = l
2
l
1
d verify that P is equal to LP.
2 a Find the image of the point P(1, 4) under l
1
followed by l
2
with
L
1
= L
2
=
b Verify that l
1
= l
1
-1
in 2 ways.
3 Determine whether, in each of the following linear transformations, l
1
is singular or
non-singular:
a x = 3x y b x = 2x y
y = x + 2y y = 4x 2y
4 A linear transformation l
1
is dened as x = 2x + 5y
y = x + 3y
a What will the image of P(3, 5) be?
b Is this linear transformation singular?
c Show that l
1
1
(l
1
P ) = P.
d Use this linear transformation to state the image of the following curves:
i y = x ii y = 3x + 2 iii x
2
+ y
2
= 2
5 Find the image of the line y = 3x + 2 under the linear transformation L = .
Sketch the original line and its image.
6 Find the image of the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 9 under each of the following transformations.
a b c
7 Find the image of the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 9 under each of the following transformations.
a b c
8 Show that under any linear transformation the image of a straight line is itself a
straight line.
9 a Sketch the following lines on separate axes.
i y = 2x 1
ii y = x + 4
b Find the image of each line under the linear transformation
c Sketch each image with the original line.
10 Find the image of each of the following functions under the linear transformation .
a y = x
2
b y = 2x + 5
6C
WORKED
Example
7
2 1
0 1
0 1
1 2
WORKED
Example
8
3 1
5 2
2 1
5 3
WORKED
Example
9
WORKED
Example
10
4 2
1 0
1 3
1 4
1 3
1 0
1 1
3 2
WORKED
Example
11
2 0
2 0
2 4
3 6
8 4
4 2
2 4
1 1
5 3
2 1

P

(9, 5)
P

(5, 1)
0 1
2 1
P

(1, 4)
Non-singular Singular
P

(31, 18)

det

A

=

1 (non-singular)

d i

y

=

x

ii

y

=

x

+

iii

10

x

34

x

+

29

y

2

=

2
4
7
---
10
17
------
2
17
------

17

x

26

x

+

10

y

2

=

9
10

y

2

+

x

2

x

=

81

13

x

2

+

10

x

+

2

y

2

=

9

y

=

x

=

x

3
2
---

y

= x
1
2
---
x
y
y = x + 4
4
4
y' = 4
0
b i y = x +
ii y = 4
3
10
------
1
5
---
x
2
6xy + 9y
2
2x + 5y = 0
11y = 4x 5
9 a, c ii
y = x 2
1
2
---
5
y
y = 3x + 2
x
2
0
4
y' = x' 2
1 _
2
2
2 _
3
Rotations
A rotation is a transformation in
which the plane rotates about a
xed point called the centre of
rotation. This point is usually taken
as the origin. The rotation in an
anticlockwise direction is con-
sidered to be a positive rotation and
in a clockwise direction to be a
negative rotation.
Examine the diagram at right to
note that the centre of rotation is the
only point that doesnt move.
In a rotation:
1. each original point rotates through the same angle of rotation.
2. the image is congruent to the original the length, angle and area
remain unchanged in the image. This is referred to as a congruent
transformation.
3. r
q
denotes rotation in a positive direction through an angle of and R
is the matrix of rotation.

With all the transformations that will be discussed we will generate matrices based
on where the points (1, 0) and (0, 1) are mapped to on the plane, as a result of the trans-
formation. These points are represented by columns 1 and 2 of the identity matrix:

Special rotations
In this section we will discuss transformations involving rotations of 90, 180, 270
and 360, as well as general rotations.
Rotation of 90
Consider the gure at right.
As the plane rotates through = 90 about the origin, point (1, 0) will map to point
(0, 1) and point (0, 1) will map to point (1, 0).

Hence, the identity matrix, I, is altered to to achieve a rotation of 90 about
the origin.
It is most important that you recognise the pattern that is displayed by the columns in
the matrix and the coordinates of the image points. This concept forms the basis of the
next section of work and totally eliminates remembering formulas so that you will be
able to understand what is happening to the points.
x
y
0
A
B
C
A
'
B
'
C
'
1 0
0 1
x
y
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
x
y
90
90
0 1
1 0
SLE 4: Demonstrate the use of the transformation matrices (rotation,
reection, dilation) as an application of 2 2 matrices to geometric
transformations in the plane.
Hence R
90
= and is the matrix of rotation.
In general terms
(x, y) (y, x)
=
x = y
y = x
As mentioned earlier, these rotation matrices should not be learned. They are quite
similar and can be too readily confused. Sketch the original (1, 0) and (0, 1) points and
then use their images to build the rotation matrices.
Rotation of 180
In the diagrams below, notice that point (1, 0) is mapped onto point (1, 0) and point
(0,1) is mapped onto (0, 1).
Therefore R
180
= where (x, y) (x, y).
Rotation of 270
In the diagrams below, notice that point (1, 0) is mapped onto point (0, 1) and point
(0, 1) is mapped onto point (1, 0).
Therefore R
270
= where (x, y) (y, x).
Rotation of 360
R
360
= because R
360
essentially leaves the original unchanged (or mapped onto
itself).
0 1
1 0
x
y
P(x, y)
P' (x
',
y
'
)
x
y

0 1
1 0
x
y
x
y
(1, 0)
180 (1, 0)
y
(0, 1)
(0, 1)
1
8
0
x x
y
1
8
0
P(x, y)
0
P'(x', y')
1 0
0 1
y y
x
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
0 2
7
0
x
(1, 0) 270
(0, 1)
0 x
y
P(x, y)
2
7
0
P
'
(x', y')
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
General rotation of

Consider the points (1, 0) and (0, 1)

that are rotated through angle

about
the origin.
Careful examination of the diagram shows that point (1, 0) is
mapped onto point (cos

, sin

) and point (0, 1) is mapped
onto point (

sin

, cos

) where
cos

= x (horizontal)
and sin

= y (vertical)
R

=
R
, where

is taken in a clockwise, negative rotation about
the origin, and is shown in the diagram to the right.
R

=
R

= since cos (

)

= cos

and sin (

)

=

sin

Both R

and R

can be used to conrm the specic cases of R

90
, R
180
and R
270
.
R
90

=

=
Remember that when you need to evaluate a trigonometric ratio:
1. sketch the angle concerned in the correct quadrant
2. write the coordinates or length of the sides on the right-angled triangle
3. in the unit circle, the cosine ratio involves only the x-coordinate and the sine ratio
involves only the y-coordinate.
Verication of the other angle measures is left as a future exercise.

y
0
A(1, 0)
B(0,1)
P
sin
sin
cos
cos
Q
1
1
x
A'
B
'
sin
cos
cos sin
sin cos y
P(x, y)
x
P
'
(x', y')
cos ( ) sin ( )
sin ( ) cos ( )
cos sin
sin cos
cos 90 sin 90
sin 90 cos 90
0 1
1 0
Find the image of the point (2, -2) under a rotation of about the origin. Sketch the
original point and its image.
THINK WRITE
Write the general rotation matrix and
sketch the original point (shown on next
page).
R
4
---
c
1
cos sin
sin cos
12
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Substitute for .
(Note: The small c is the symbol for
circular or radian measure.)
=
Always use a sketch to develop the matrix. =
Set up the general matrix form for
transformations.
=
=
=
Rationalise the denominator and simplify. =
=
State the coordinates of the image point. The image of the point (2, 2) is (2 , 0).
Sketch the original and the image points.
2
c
4
----- R
4
---
cos
4
--- sin
4
---
sin
4
--- cos
4
---
3
2
1
1
4
---
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
4
x
y

1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
2
2
2
2
-------
2
2
------- +
2
2
-------
2
2
-------
4
2
-------
0
5
4
2
-------
2
2
-------
0
2 2
0
6
2
7
(2, 2)
x
y
(2 2, 0)
0
Find the image of the line y

=

x

+ 4 under the rotation of about the origin. Sketch the
original line and its image.
THINK WRITE
Write the general R

matrix. R

=
Substitute for

and evaluate using
the relevant triangle of ratios.

=

=
Set up the general transformation
matrix model, rearranged so that
is the subject.

=

=
Evaluate the inverse of R.

=

=
Multiply out the matrices. x

= x

+ y

y

= x + y
function.
y = x + 4 becomes
x + y = x y + 4
After applying the Distributive Law and
rationalising the denominator, this
expression can be simplied.
y = +
y = ( 2)x + 4( 1)
6
---
c
1
cos sin
sin cos
2
6
---
c
1
2
3
6
---
cos
6
--- sin
6
---
sin
6
--- cos
6
---
3
2
-------
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
-------
3
x
y
x
y

6
---
x
y
x
y
R
6
---
1
x
y

4
1
3
4
---
1
4
---
-------------
3
2
-------
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
-------
x
y

3
2
-------
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
-------
x
y

5
3
2
-------
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
-------
6
1
2
---
3
2
-------
3
2
-------
1
2
---
7
(1 3)x
3 1 +
--------------------------
8
3 1 +
----------------
3 3
13

WORKEDExample
Rotations
1 Construct matrices for the following anticlockwise rotations about the origin (the
angles are given in radians).
a b

c d 2

2 Find the image of the following points under the given anticlockwise rotations about
the origin.
a (2, 1)

=
c
b (0, 4) =
c
c (6, 3) =
c
d (1, 3) = 60
e (2, 3) = 90 f (1, 1) =
c
3 a Find the equation of the image of the line y = 3x + 1 as a result of the following
rotations:
i = 45 ii =
c
iii =
c
b Sketch each original line and its image.
4 Find the equation of the image of the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 1 after a rotation of
c
. What do
you notice? Can you explain why this is so?
THINK WRITE
Use your calculator only at the end to
simplify surds for sketching purposes.
8
x
y
4
4 10.9
2.9
y = x + 4
y' = (3 2) x' + 4 (3 2)
1. For general rotation in an anticlockwise direction about the origin
R
= .
2. Use the special right-angled triangles to obtain the trigonometric ratios.
3. Rotation is a congruent transformation.
cos sin
sin cos
remember
6D
2
---
3
2
------
WORKED
Example
12
3
---
4
---
6
---
WORKED
Example
13
2
---
2
---
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 6.1
2
---
0 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
(1

,

+

)
3
2
------- 3
1
2
---

(0,

4)
( , )
3 2
2
----------
9 2
2
----------

(

)
1
2
---
3 3
2
----------
3
2
-------
3
2
---

(

3, 2) (

,

+

)
3
2
-------
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
-------

a i

y

=

+

ii

y

=

+

iii

y

x
2
----
2
4
-------
x
3
---
1
3
---
x
3
---
1
3
---

No change, rotation about the centre of the circle.

3 b i
y
y = 3x + 1
x
1
0.35
0
0.7 1
y = +
x _
2
2 _
4
1 _
3
Reections
A reection is a linear transformation in
which every point of the original is reected
through a straight line called a mediator.
This line can be thought of as a mirror.
The diagram at right shows LABC reected
through the mediator m, at x = 1.
In a reection:
1. corresponding points of the image and
original gures are equidistant from and
perpendicular to the mediator
2. length, angle and area of the image and
original are unchanged, hence it is a congruent transformation
3. any points of the original on the mediator are left unchanged.
We usually let m denote the reection transformation and M the reection matrix.
Reection in the x-axis (where y = 0)

Again, sketch the points (1, 0) and (0, 1) from the identity matrix I = .
Under a reection in the x-axis, point
(0, 1) will map to (0, 1) and point
(1, 0) will map onto itself because it
is on the mediator.
Therefore M
y = 0
= .
= =
= =
x
y
A
B C
x = 1
m
A
'
C' B'
1 0
0 1
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
m
y = 0
0
1 0
0 1

SLE 4: Demonstrate the use of the transformation matrices (rotation, reection, dilation) as
an application of 2

2 matrices to geometric transformations in the plane.
Reection in the y-axis (where x = 0)
If you sketch the original points (1, 0) and (0, 1)
you will notice that if these points are reected in
the y-axis then point (1, 0) will map to (1, 0) and
point (0, 1), which is on the mediator, will map
onto itself.
Therefore, M
x = 0
= .
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0) (1, 0)
0
m
x = 0
1 0
0 1
Find the image of point (3, 1) under reection M
y = 0
. Sketch the original and its image.
THINK WRITE
Sketch the diagram to construct your
reection matrix.
M
y = 0
=
Write the initial transformation matrix
statement.
= M
y = 0
Substitute the necessary values and
evaluate.
=
=
Sketch the original and image points. The image is the point (3, 1).
1
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
m
y = 0
0
1 0
0 1
2
x
y

x
y
3
1 0
0 1
3
1
3
1
4
x
y
P(3, 1)
P' (3, 1)
0
m
y = 0
14

WORKEDExample
Find the image of y

= x under reection in the y-axis. Sketch the original and its image.
THINK WRITE
Sketch the diagram to construct your
reection matrix.
M
x

= 0

=
Write the initial transformation matrix
statement and rearrange it to have the
original points as the subject.

= M
x

= 0

= M
1
Substitute for M
x = 0
and evaluate the
inverse.
=
=
Multiply to give expressions for x
and y.
x = x
y = y
Substitute for x and y into the original
equation.
y = x becomes
y = x
Sketch the original and image graphs.
Note the origin is left unchanged.
1
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0) (1, 0)
0
m
x = 0
1 0
0 1
2
x
y

x
y
x
y
x = 0
x
y

3
x
y
1
1
------
1 0
0 1
x
y

1 0
0 1
x
y

4
5
6
0
x
y
y = x
y' = x'
m
x = 0
15

WORKEDExample
Reection in line y

= x
To nd this reection, sketch the situation as described.
Remember to note the main points from the introduc-
tion to this section:
1. corresponding points of the image and original
gures are equidistant from and perpendicular to the
mediator
2. length, angle and area of the image and original are
unchanged, hence it is a congruent transformation
3. any points of the original on the mediator are left unchanged.
We nd that (1, 0) and (0, 1) map to each other, therefore
M
y

= x

= .
=
=
x
y
y = x
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
0
0 1
1 0
Find the equation of the image y = x
2
reected in the line y = x.
THINK WRITE
Sketch the relevant diagram to establish
the reection matrix.
M
y = x
=
Set up the initial matrix equation
and rearrange to have x and y as the
subject.
= M
y = x
= M
y = x
Find the inverse of M
y = x
. =
=
1
=
=
x
y
y = x
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
0
0 1
1 0
2
x
y

x
y
x
y
1 x
y

3
1
1
------
0 1
1 0
x
y

0 1
1 0
x
y

16

WORKEDExample
Continued over page
Reection in the line y

= x tan

q
This line might be more easily recognised as
y

= mx, where m is the gradient of the line
which passes through the origin.
Remember that the gradient m

=
and tangent ratio

= .
Therefore the tangent and gradient ratios provide
the same information: .
Carefully examine these diagrams that illustrate
reection of the points (1, 0) and (0, 1) in the line
y

= x tan

.
Note the following from these diagrams.
For the point A(1, 0):
1. point A is reected to a point equidistant from and perpendicular to the line
2. the angle from the x-axis to A

is 2

3. the x-coordinate of the right-angled triangle is cos 2

4. the y-coordinate of this triangle is sin 2

.
5. Hence point (1, 0)

(cos 2

, sin 2).
For the point B(0, 1):
1. point B is reected to a point equidistant from and perpendicular to the line
2. MOB = 90 therefore MOB = 90
THINK WRITE
Multiply matrices to determine x and y. x = y
y = x
expression.
y = x
2
becomes x = y
2
y =
Sketch the original and image curves.
Note that the points (1, 1) and (0, 0) are
unchanged as they are on the mediator.
4
5
x
6
y
y = x
y = x
2
y = x
(1, 1)
x
y' = x'
y' = x'
0
=
=
x
y
y = x tan

A(1, 0)
1
A' (cos 2 , sin 2 )
0
B'(cos(90 2 ), sin(90 2 ))
B(0, 1)
90 2
90
x
y
0
=
=
m
y = x tan
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
----------------
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
----------------
rise
run
--------
3. therefore XOB = (90 ) = 90 2
4. the x-coordinate = cos (90 2)
5. the y-coordinate = sin (90 2) because the angle is in the fourth quadrant.
6. Hence point (0, 1) [cos (90 2), sin(90 2)].
7. Using trigonometric ratios, this simplies to yield (sin 2, cos 2). (Remember that
sin 30 = cos 60, etc.)
Using all this information from the reection of points (1, 0) and (0, 1) in the line
y = x tan yields: M
y = x tan
= .
cos 2 sin 2
sin 2 cos 2
Find the matrix for the reection in the line y = x.
THINK WRITE
Note that the sign applies only to the 3.
Use a sketch to express as the tangent
ratio of some angle.
tan =
State the general reection matrix in the line
y = x tan , then substitute for .
M
y = x tan
=
M
y = x
=
Evaluate these ratios using the following
triangle.
=
3
1
3
1
2 3
3
--- 3
2
3
---
cos 2 sin 2
sin 2 cos 2
3
cos
2
3
------ sin
2
3
------
sin
2
3
------ cos
2
3
------
3
1
2
3
1
2
---
3
2
-------
3
2
-------
1
2
---
17

WORKEDExample
Find the image of the line y

=

x

1 as reected in the line y

= x.
THINK WRITE
Use the matrix from the previous
example as M
y

= x
.
M
y

= x

=
Set up the initial matrix
transformation and inverse
statement.

= M
y

= x

= M
y = x
Find the inverse and multiply the
matrices.

=

=
x

=

x

+ y

y

= x

+ y


equation. Make sure you carry
through the minus sign from the
function.
y

= x 1 becomes
x + y = x y 1
y + y = x x 1
Simplify and rationalise the
denominators to nd the equation of
the image line.
y = x 1
y = ( 2)x + 1
3
1
3
3
1
2
---
3
2
-------
3
2
-------
1
2
---
2
x
y

3
x
y
x
y
1
3
x
y

3
x
y
1
1
4
---
3
4
---
-----------------
1
2
---
3
2
-------
3
2
-------
1
2
---
x
y

1
2
---
3
2
-------
3
2
-------
1
2
---
x
y

1
2
---
3
2
-------
3
2
-------
1
2
---
4
3
2
-------
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
-------
1
2
---
3
2
-------
1
2
---
3
2
-------
5
1 3 +
2
----------------
1 3
2
----------------
3 3
18

WORKEDExample
In the reections covered so far, the mediator has always passed through the origin. If
we return to the original reection in the line x

= 1, it needs to be broken into two trans-
formations: a reection and a translation. Reecting in the line x

= 1 can be thought of
as reection in the y-axis (x

= 0) followed by a shift 2 to the right (x

= 1 is 1 unit to the
right of the origin therefore the image would be 2

1

= 2 units to the right). Thus the
transformations matrices would be followed by the addition of . Verify this
by checking that (0, 0)

(2, 0).
Reections
1 Write the matrices for the following reections:
a m
x = 0
b m
y = 0
c m
y = x
d m
y = 2
e m
y = x
f m
y = x
2 Find the images of each of the following points under the reection given below.
Sketch each original and its image.
a y-axis b x-axis c y = x d y = x
i (3, 1) ii (4, 2) iii (1, 3) iv (2, 4) v (3, 0) vi (2, 1)
3 Find the image of the following curves under each of the reections given below.
a y = x b y = x
2
c y = 2x
2
+ 1 d y = x
2
i y-axis ii x-axis iii y = x iv y = x (part a only)
THINK WRITE
Sketch the original and its image. To
assist in graphing the image, a
calculator can be used to obtain
y = 0.27x 0.73.
6
0
x
y
y' x'
y =
+ 1
x 1
y =
=
3x
(3 2) 3
1 0
0 1
2
0
1. Reection is a congruent transformation.
2. Reection occurs through a mediator, m.
3. Reection in the line y = x tan is represented by M = .
cos 2 sin 2
sin 2 cos 2
remember
6E
3
WORKED
Example
14
3
3
-------
WORKED
Example
15,16,17,18
3
3
-------
1
a
b
c
d

and
then

e
f
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
0
4
1
2
---
3
2
-------
3
2
-------
1
2
---
0 1
1 0

2 a
i

(

3,

1)

ii

(

4, 2)

iii

(1,

3)

iv

(2, 4)

v

(

3, 0)

vi

(2,

1)
x
y
m
x = 0
(i)'
(v)'
(ii)'
(iv)'
(iii)'
(vi) (vi)' (i)
(ii)
(iv)
(v)
(iii)
0

3

c i

y

=

2

x

2

+

1

ii

y

=

2

x

1

iii

y

=

d i

y

2

ii

y

=

x

2

iii

y

=

x 1
2
-----------------
x

2 b i (3, 1) ii (4,

2)
iii

(

1, 3)

iv

(

2,

4)

v

(3, 0)

vi

(

2, 1)
x
y
m
y = 0 (v)'
(i)'
(iii)'
(iii)
(iv)'
(ii)'
(vi)'
(vi)
(i)
(ii)
(iv)
(v)
0

3
a
i

y

i
i
i

y

i
i
i

y

=

x

i
v

y

=

(

1
)

2

x

o
r

y

0
.
2
6
8

x

b
i

y

=

x

2

i
i
i

y

2

i
i
i

y

12 -
--
3
x

2 c i

(1,

3)

ii

(

2,

4)

iii

(3, 1)

iv

(

4, 2)

v

(0,

3)

vi

(1, 2)

2 d i

(

,

+

)

ii

(2

+

, 2

1)

iii

(

,

+

)

iv (1 + 2 , 2) v ( , ) vi (1 , + )
3
2
---
3
2
-------
3 3
2
----------
1
2
---
3 3
1
2
------
3 3
2
----------
3
2
----------
3
2
---
3 3
3
2
---
3 3
2
----------
3
2
-------
3
1
2
---
Dilations
So far we have investigated 4 kinds of trans-
formations. The translation shifted the gure
on the plane; the general linear transform-
ation produced an image that, on occasions,
bore little resemblance to its original.
The rotation and reection transform-
ations are congruent transformations with
the original basically repositioned on the
plane. A dilation is a transformation in
which point P and image P are collinear
from a xed point, usually the origin O, as
shown in the gure below.
The length OP = kOP where k is referred
to as the dilation factor.
If k > 0, a dilation may be an enlargement (for k > 1) or a reduction (for 0 < k < 1).
If k < 0 then the image of the original has been mapped through the origin in a
reverse direction.
In this diagram, k = , therefore the
image appears half the distance from the
xed point O and on the opposite side of
O to the original points.
In a dilation:
1. length and area are not preserved; the
shape will appear similar, but not con-
gruent to the original
2. the dilation d is denoted by the matrix D
k, x
with the dilation factor of k given parallel
to the x-axis and the anchor line being the y-axis.
O
P
P'
O
A
A'
B
B'
C C'
k > 1
O C' C
B
A
A'
B'
0 < k < 1
1
2
---
O
A
C
B
A'
B'
C'
k < 0
SLE 4: Demonstrate the use of the transformation matrices (rotation, reection, dilation) as an
application of 2 2 matrices to geometric transformations in the plane.
Dilation parallel to the x-axis
The dilation matrix D
k, x
of the points (1, 0) and (0, 1)
under the dilation d
k, x
is given by D
k, x
=
where
1. (0, 1) is left unchanged since it is on the anchor line
2. the x-coordinate is mapped k 1 units away from the
anchor line.
This is shown graphically in the gure at right.
Dilation parallel to the x-axis can be thought of as pulling the plane away from the
xed point or anchor line in this case, the y-axis.
Dilation parallel to the y-axis
This dilation pulls the plane away from the x-axis
so all points on the x-axis are anchored.
The gure at right shows that
D
k, y
=
where
1. (1, 0) is left unchanged since it is on the anchor line
2. the y-coordinate is mapped k 1 units away from
the anchor line (the x-axis).
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0) (k, 0)
0
k 0
0 1
0
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(0, k)
1 0
0 k
Find the coordinates of the image of point (4, 3) under the dilation factor of -2 parallel to
the x-axis. Sketch the original point and its image.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Sketch the dilation and construct the
matrix from the sketch.
D
2, x
=
Write the general transformation matrix
equation.
= D
2, x
1
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0) (2, 0)
0
2 0
0 1
2
x
y

4
3
19

WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Multiply the matrices to produce the
image coordinates.
=
=
Point (4, 3) maps to image point (8, 3) under a
dilation of 2 parallel to the x-axis.
Sketch the original point and its image.
3
x
y

2 0
0 1
4
3
8
3
4
x
y
P(4, 3) P' (8, 3)
0
Find the equation of the image of y = 2x + 1 under the dilation d
2, x
. Sketch the original line
and its image.
THINK WRITE
Sketch the dilation and construct the
matrix from the sketch.
D
2, x
=
matrix equation and rearrange to
have as the subject.
= D
2, x
= D
2, x
1
Find the inverse of D
2, x
and substitute it
into the equation.
=
=
Multiply the matrix equations. x = x
y = y
1
0
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0) (2, 0)
2 0
0 1
2
x
y
x
y

x
y
x
y
x
y

3
1
2
---
1 0
0 2
x
y

1
2
--- 0
0 1
x
y

4
1
2
---
20

WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Substitute x and y in the original
equation and simplify.
y = 2x + 1 becomes
y = 2( x) + 1
y = x + 1
Sketch the original and its image.
Note that (0, 1) remains unchanged
since it is on the anchor line of the
y-axis.
5
1
2
---
6
0
x
y
y = 2x + 1
y' = x' + 1
(0, 1)
Find the image of the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 9 with a dilation factor of parallel to the y-axis.
Sketch the original circle and its image.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Sketch the situation and use this to
construct the dilation matrix.
=
matrix equation and rearrange to put
as the subject.
=
=
Calculate the inverse of D and
substitute it into the equation.
=
=
1
3
---
1
(0, )
1
3
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
0
D
1
3
--- y ,
1 0
0
1
3
---
2
x
y
x
y

D
1
3
--- y ,
x
y
x
y
D
1
3
--- y ,
1 x
y

3
1
1
3
---
------
1
3
--- 0
0 1
x
y

1 0
0 3
x
y

21

WORKEDExample
If you think about the original shape and its image as shown in this example you will
understand that the dilation factor of , in effect, shrinks the original shape, parallel to
the y-axis so the gure falls back towards the anchor line (the x-axis) and leaves all
points on the x-axis unchanged.
Dilation about the origin, d
k
The previous dilations have been mapped parallel
to an axis, where that axis has provided the anchor
line for the stretching of the plane. However, a dilation
about the origin does not anchor to a line, but rather to
a point the origin. The diagram at right shows
this stretch that results in both x and y coordinates
being mapped a dilation factor of k from the origin.
Therefore, if the original point is on the origin it will
map onto itself. Only the dilation factor is given in
the dilation matrix:
D
k

=
THINK WRITE
Multiply the matrices and write
expressions for x and y.
x = x
y = 3y
Substitute x and y into the original
equation and rearrange to t the general
equation of an ellipse.
x
2
+ y
2
= 9 becomes
(x)
2
+ (3y)
2
= 9
x
2
+ 9y
2
= 9
This can be written as + = 1
since is the general equation of an
ellipse about the origin.
Therefore
a = 3 So the length of the semi-major axis is 3.
b = 1 So the length of the semi-minor axis is 1.
4
5
x
2
9
-----
y
2
1
-----
x
2
a
2
-----
y
2
b
2
----- + 1 =
6
x
y
x
2
+ y
2
= 9

x'
2
+
y'
2
= 1
9 1
0
1
3
---
x
y
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(0, k)
(k, 0)
P(x, y)
P'(k
x
, k
y
)
0
k 0
0 k
Find the image of y = x
2
under a dilation factor of 2 about the origin. Sketch the original
and its image.
THINK WRITE
Sketch the situation to construct the
matrix.
D
2
=
Set up the initial transformation matrix
equation.
= D
2
=
Evaluate the inverse and multiply. =
=
x = x
y = y
equation and simplify.
y = x
2
becomes
y = ( x)
2
= x
2
y = x
2
The minus sign results in the image
reversing its position with respect to the
origin, and the factor of 2 results in the
broader parabola.
1
x
y
(1, 0)
(0, 2)
(0, 1)
(2, 0)
0
2 0
0 2
2
x
y

x
y
x
y
D
2
1
x
y

3
1
4
---
2 0
0 2
x
y

1
2
--- 0
0
1
2
---
x
y

1
2
---
1
2
---
4
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
2
---
5
y = x
2
y' =
1
x'
2
2
y
x
0
22

WORKEDExample
History
of mathematics
MAURI TS CORNELI US ESCHER ( 1 8 9 8 1 9 7 2 )
Portrait of M. C. Escher
2000 Cordon Art, Baarn,
Holland. All rights reserved.
World War I and
World War II take
place.
Flight technology
develops from
the Wright
brothers rst ight
in 1903 to the
moon landing in
1969.
Israel is established.
Maurits Escher is quoted as having said I
never got a pass mark in math. And just
imagine mathematicians now use my
prints to illustrate their books. I guess they
are quite unaware that I am ignorant about the
whole thing. Escher was born on
17 June 1898 in the Netherlands.
His early work was mainly concerned with
the representation of visible reality, such as
landscapes and buildings. However, he
gradually became more interested in studying
the abstract space-lling patterns used by the
Moors in mosaics found in Spain. He also
studied a paper by Polya on 17-plane
crystallographic groups; however, instead of
using geometrical motifs, Escher used
animals, plants or people to ll the space on
his intricate prints.
Even though he professed ignorance of all
things mathematical, Escher incorporated
many mathematical ideas in his works
innity, Mobius strips, stellations,
deformations, reections, rotations, Platonic
solids, spirals and the hyberbolic plane.
Original Escher prints are highly prized
possessions now, but it was not until 1951
that he actually began to earn a reasonable
income from his prints. Widely regarded as a
graphic artist, his designs have appeared on
postage stamps, bank notes, T-shirts, jigsaw
puzzles, record album covers, and, as he
remarked, in many scientic and
mathematical publications.
Relativity by M. C. Escher
2000 Cordon Art, Baarn, Holland. All rights reserved.
His work has been held in high regard by
both artists and mathematicians. He died in
1972, in the Netherlands.
Research
1. Research Mobius strips, stellations,
deformations, reections, rotations,
Platonic solids, spirals and the
hyberbolic plane.
2. Look through scientic and
mathematical publications to see if any
use Eschers prints as covers or
illustrative pages.
1. Dilation occurs in relation to an anchor line or point.
2. Dilation is not a congruent transformation.
remember
Dilations
Sketch the original and its image for all questions.
1 Find the image of each of the following points under the dilations given:
a 2, parallel to the x-axis b

3, parallel to the y-axis
i (2, 1) ii (4, 3) iii (0, 3) iv (3, 0) v (2, 5) vi ( , 3)
2 Find the image of the line y = 3x 2 under the following dilations:
a dilation factor 2 parallel to the x-axis
b dilation factor 1 parallel to the y-axis
3 Find the image of the ellipse = 1 with a dilation factor of
a , parallel to the y-axis b 4, parallel to the x-axis
4 Find the image of y = 2x
2
with a dilation factor of 4
a parallel to the x-axis b parallel to the y-axis
5 Find the image of the line y = 3x 2 under a dilation factor of about the origin.
6 Find the image of each of the points in question 1 under the following dilations:
a , about the origin b 4, about the origin
7 Find the image of the ellipse in question 3 with a dilation factor of
a 2, about the origin b , about the origin
Shears
The nal transformation discussed in this
chapter is that of shears, which can be thought of
as a push from one side that results in a change
in shape. An example of this is seen when
changing a rectangle into a parallelogram.
Where a dilation pulls the plane from a certain
anchor point or line, a shear pushes from one
side and any points on the anchor line again
remain unchanged.
A shear parallel to the x-axis (see the gure shown at
right) moves every point in the plane parallel to the x-axis
by a distance proportional to its distance from the x-axis.
That is, points on the x-axis remain anchored while
points further away are pushed further from their original
position.
6F
WORKED
Example
19
1
2
---
WORKED
Example
20
WORKED
Example
21
x
2
4
-----
y
2
9
----- +
1
2
---
WORKED
Example
22
1
4
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
y
x
Push
0
y
x 0
1 a i

4, 1)

ii

(

8, 3)

iii

(0, 3)

iv

(6, 0)

v

(4, 5)

vi

(1,

3)
(iii) (ii) (iii)' (ii)'
(iv)'
(i)'
(vi)' (vi)
(iv)
(i)
(v)' (v)
x
y
0

1 b
i

(2,

3)

ii

(

4,

9)

iii

(0,

9)

iv

(3, 0)

v

(2,

15)

vi

( , 9)
1
2
---
x
y
0
(iii) (ii)
(iii)'
(v)'
(ii)'
(iv)'
(i)'
(vi)'
(vi)
(i)
(iv)
(v)

2
(a)
(b)
x
y
y = 3x 2
0

y

=

x

2 1
8
---

y

=

8

x

2

y

=

3

x

1
2
---

6 a
i

(1, )

ii

(

2, 1 )

iii

(0, 1 )

iv

(1 , 0)

v

(1, 2 )

vi

( ,

1 )
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
2
---

6 b i

(

8,

4)

ii

(16,

12)

iii

(0,

12)

iv

(

12, 0)

v

(

8,

20)

vi

(

2,

12

)

7 a

+

=

1

b

4

x

2

+

=

1
x
2
16
------
y
2
36
------
16y
2
9
-----------

see top right see bottom left

y

=

x

2
3
2
---

y

3

x

+

2

+

=

1
x
2
4
-----
4y
2
9
--------

+

=

1
x
2
64
------
y
2
9
-----

3
(b)
(a)
x
y
x
2
4
y
2
9
+ = 1

4 a
y
y = 2x
2
x
y' = x'
2 1
8
Similarly a shear parallel to the y-axis (see the gure shown
at right) moves every point in the plane parallel to the
y-axis by a distance proportional to its distance from the
y-axis.
The shear transformation matrix uses similar notation to
other linear transformations, where S
k, x
denotes the shear
with a shear factor of k parallel to the x-axis and S
k, y
denotes
the shear with a factor of k parallel to the y-axis.
That is, S
k, x
= , S
k, y
= .
Shears parallel to the x-axis
As can be seen from the gure at right, point (1, 0)
remains unchanged because it is anchored to the
x-axis while point (0, 1) is mapped to (k, 1). This
means that point (2, 1) will map to (2k, 1).
Shears parallel to the y-axis
The gure at right shows the point (0, 1) unchanged by
the shear because it lies on the y-axis while point
(1, 0) is mapped to (1, k).
y
x 0
1 k
0 1
1 0
k 1
y
x
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(k, 1)
0
(1, k)
y
x
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
0
The vertices of a triangle are O(0, 0), A(2, 0) and B(2, 3). Find the image of these
points OAB under a shear factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis. Sketch the original and
its image.
THINK WRITE
Sketch the initial unit diagram and use
this to determine the shear matrix.
S
2, y
=
1 y
x
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
(1, 2)
0
1 0
2 1
23
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Set up the initial general transformation
matrix equation.
= S
2, y
Substitute S
2,y
and solve for each point
in turn.
For O(0, 0), the equation is:
=
=
O(0, 0) is unchanged because it is on
the anchor axis.
So O(0, 0) O(0, 0)
For A(2, 0), the equation is:
=
=
So A(2, 0) A(2, 4)
For B(2, 3), the equation is:
=
=
Note that the y-coordinate is not
actually multiplied by 2.
So B(2, 3) B(2, 7)
Sketch the image points with the
original.
2
x
y

x
y
3
x
y

1 0
2 1
0
0
0
0
x
y

1 0
2 1
2
0
2
4
x
y

1 0
2 1
2
3
2
7
4
B' (2, 7)
A' (2, 4)
y
x
A(2, 0)
B(2, 3)
O(0,0)
Find the image of the parabola y

= 2x
2
under the shear factor of 3, parallel to the y-axis.
THINK WRITE
Sketch the initial unit diagram and use
this to determine the shear matrix.
S
3, y

=
Set up the initial general transformation
matrix equation.

= S
3, y
Rearrange in terms of x and y.

=
Find the inverse of S
3, y
.

=

=
Multiply to nd expressions for x and y. x

= x

y

=

3x

+ y


equation.
y = 2x
2
becomes
3x + y = 2x
2
y = 2x
2
+ 3x
= x(2x + 3)
Sketch the image with the original.
Find the intercepts to aid in sketching
the image. Notice that
ii(i) the origin is anchored
i(ii) the positive x-values are pulled up
from the x-axis
(iii) the negative x-region seems to have
slipped back from the x-axis.
y = 0 when x = 0 and x = 1
1
x
y
(1, 3)
(0, 1)
(1, 0)
0
1 0
3 1
2
x
y

x
y
3
x
y
S
3 y ,
1
x
y

4
1
1
---
1 0
3 1
x
y

x
3x y +
5
6
7
1
2
---
y = 2x
2
y' = x'(2x' + 3)
x
y
0
24

WORKEDExample
Shears
1 Find the image of each of the following points under a shear factor of
i 2 parallel to the y-axis ii parallel to the x-axis
a (3, 0) b (2, 1) c (4, 1) d (3, 2)
e (2, 5) f (0, 5)
Sketch each pair of original and image points.
2 A parallelogram has vertices A(0, 0), B(1, 3), C(6, 3) and D(5, 0).
Sketch the original shape and its image under the shear factor of
a 3 parallel to the x-axis b 3 parallel to the y-axis
c 1 parallel to the x-axis d 1 parallel to the y-axis
3 Find the image of each of the following curves under a shear factor of
i 3 parallel to the y-axis ii 3 parallel to the x-axis
a y = x b y = x
c y = x
2
d y = 2x + 5
Sketch the original and image curves.
Transformations
1 Transform the ellipse = 1 under the dilation of d
2
. Give the equation of
the new ellipse, fully supporting your response with matrix operations and a
fully labelled diagram.
2 Design a set of 4 or 5 transformations that map a shape of your own choosing
to another shape on the plane. Your response should include all working and
fully labelled diagrams.
3 With your current knowledge of transformations using matrix applications,
investigate whether the following transformations are possible. You may need
to consider a series of transformations.
a A square into a straight line
b A triangle into a square
c A circle into a straight line
d A square into a circle
e A kite into a square
1. A shear can be thought of as a push parallel to an anchor line that transforms
all points on the plane by a distance proportional to their distance from the
anchor line.
2. A shear is not a congruent transformation.
remember
6G
WORKED
Example
23
eBookplus eBookplus
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Building a
transformation matrix
SkillSHEET 6.2
Finding the image of
a curve after
transformation
1
4
---
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WorkSHEET 6.2
WORKED
Example
24
x
2
4
-----
y
2
1
----- +

Possible; perform a singular linear transformation
Not possible
Possible; perform a singular linear transformation
Not possible
Possible; one way is to perform a translation then a linear transformation

1

+

=

1
x
y0
x
2
1
6
y
2
4
+
=

1
x
2
4
y
2
1
+
=

1
x
2
1
6
-
-
-
-
-
--
y
2
4
-
-
-
-
-
--

1 i a
6
x
y
P'
P
3
0

1
i
c
d
P P
'
y
x
0
7
y
P
'
4
2
0
3
x
P

1 i b
P' 5
1
x
P
y
0
2

1 ii a

(3, 0)

b

(2 , 1)

c

(

3 , 1)

d

(2 ,

2) e (3 , 5) f (1 , 5)
1
4
---
3
4
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
1 i a (3, 6) b (2, 5) c (4, 7)
d (3, 4) e (2, 9) f (0, 5)
2 a
x
y
B(1, 3)
B'(10, 3)
C(6, 3)
C'(15, 3)
A = A' D(5, 0)
3 d ii
y' = x' +
2
7
5
7
y = 2x + 5
y
x
Geometric transformations and matrix algebra
A general transformation maps each point of the Cartesian plane onto some other
point of the plane.
A translation, t, moves each x-coordinate a units parallel to the x-axis and each
y-coordinate b units parallel to the y-axis, such that = + T, where
(x, y) is the image of point (x, y) and T is the transformation matrix. The
translation t results in a congruent transformation.
A linear transformation, l, warps the plane such that = L . Linear
transformations are not congruent transformations.
Rotations
A rotation, r, rotates the plane about a xed point to result in a congruent
transformation. The matrix representing the rotation is R
= .
Reections
A reection, m, reects every point of the original through a straight line called a
mediator and results in a congruent transformation. The reection matrix
M
y = x tan
= .
Dilations
A dilation, d, transforms each point P to P where P and P are collinear with a xed
point O. The matrix D
k, x
represents a dilation of k units parallel to the x-axis
anchored from the y-axis. The matrix D
k
represents a dilation factor of k units
through the origin and D
k
represents the same dilation in the reverse direction.
Shears
A shear, s, is a transformation like a push from one side. The matrix S
k, x
moves
every point in the plane parallel to the x-axis by a distance proportional to its
distance from the x-axis. Points on the x-axis remain unchanged.
summary
x
y

x
y
x
y

x
y
cos sin
sin cos
cos 2 sin 2
sin 2 cos 2
1 State all congruent transformations.
2 Find the image of the following points under the translation T

=
a (0, 0) b (3, 1) c (4,

2)
3 The line y = 2x 1 undergoes a succession of translations dened by T
1
= and
T
2
= . Show that the order in which these occur has no effect on the result.
4 Find the equation of the image of y = 2x
2
under the translation of .
5 Find the image of points A(0, 1) and C(3, 2) under the transformation .
6 Find the matrix of the linear transformation which maps (1, 2) to (3, 2) and (3, 3) to (1, 1).
7 Find the image of y = x + 1 under the linear transformation . Sketch the original
and image curves.
8 Find the image of the following points under the given anticlockwise rotations about the
origin.
a (2, 1) where = b (3, 0) where =
c (4, 1) where = d (2, 5) where = 60
9 Find the image of the line y = 2x + 2 through a rotation of . Sketch the original and the
image.
10 Find the image of each of the following points under the reection as given:
a (3, 1) in the y-axis b (2, 2) in the line y = x
c (1, 2) in the line y = x d (2, 1) in the line y = 2
CHAPTER
review
6A
6A
1
3
6A
1
4
2
3
6A
2
1
6B
2 3
1 0
6B
6C
1 2
1 1
6D
3
---
4
---
6D
2
---
6E
3
Translations, rotations and reflections
(1, 3) (2, 4) (3, 1)
y = 2x
2
8x + 7
A(3, 0) C(12, 3)
2
1
3
--- 2
2
3
---
2
2
3
--- 2
1
3
---
7 y = 2x + 3
x
y
y = x + 1
y' = 2x' + 3
(2, 1)
( , )
3
2
---
3 3
2
----------
( , )
5 2
2
----------
3 2
2
---------- (1 + , + 2 )
5
2
--- 3 3
1
2
---
9 y = + 1
x
2
----
y
y = 2x + 2
x
y' = x'

+ 1
1
2
(3, 1) (2, 2)
( + , + 1)
1
2
--- 3
3
2
------- (2, 3)
y = 2x + 3 See graph top of page.
y = + 1 See graph top of page.
x
2
----
11 Find the image of the line y = 3x under reection in the line y = x. Sketch the original and
the image.
12 Find the image of each of the following points under the dilation factors given:
a (2, 1), 2 units parallel to the y-axis b (2, 4), unit about the origin
c (4, 1), 4 units about the origin d (0, 2), 3 units parallel to the x-axis
13 Find the image of y = 3x under the dilation factor of 3 parallel to the x-axis.
14 Find the image of each of the following points under the given shear factor:
a (3, 1), unit parallel to the y-axis b (1, 1), 3 units parallel to the x-axis
15 Find the image of the curve y = 2x
2
under a shear factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis.
1 Under a certain transformation, the circle (x 2)
2
+ (y 2)
2
= 4 becomes (x + 2)
2
+ (y 2)
2
= 4.
It is claimed that three different transformations could have achieved this outcome. Investigate
this claim giving details of the possible transformations and their matrices of transformation.
2 A square, ABCD, formed by the points A(0, 0), B(1, 0), C(1, 1) and D(0, 1) is mapped to
A(0, 0), B(3, 0), C(3, 3) and D(0, 3) after two successive transformations. Analyse this
mapping to determine the transformations involved, and nd a single transformation matrix
that could achieve this result.
6E
6F
1
2
---
6F
6G
1
2
---
Digital doc:
Test Yourself
Chapter 6
eBookplus eBookplus
6G
11 y = x
1
3
---
y = 3x
y
x
y' = x'
1
3
(2, 2) (1, 2)
(16, 4) (0, 2)
y = x
(3, 2 )
1
2
--- (2, 1)
y = 2x
2
+ 2x
1 Rotation of 90:
or reection in y-axis:
or translation 4 left:
0 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
4
0
2 Dilation of 3 about the origin followed
by reection in the y-axis:
3 0
0 3
7
In this
chapter
7A Vectors and scalars
7B Position vectors in two
and three dimensions
7C Multiplying two
vectors the dot
product
7D Resolving vectors
scalar and vector
resolutes
7E Time-varying vectors
syllabus
reference
Core topic:
Vectors and applications
Introduction
to vectors
Vectors and scalars
Introduction
In mathematics, one of the important distinctions that we make is between scalar quan-
tities and vector quantities. Scalar quantities have magnitude only; vector quantities
have direction as well as magnitude. Most of the quantities that we use are scalar, and
include such measurements as time (for example 1.2 s; 15 min), mass (3.4 kg; 200 t)
and area (3 cm
2
; 400 ha).
However, consider the measurement of velocity. A velocity of 20 km/h has both
magnitude and direction. One of the boats shown below may travel 20 km/h north from
Townsville, while the other one may travel 20 km/h east from the same point. Although
they both are travelling at the same speed (magnitude) they are travelling in different
directions; they do not end up in the same place!
Now consider the force involved in Daniel
and Anna ghting over who gets to use the
television remote control.
Daniel exerts a force of 40 N and Anna
exerts a force of 50 N and they apply these
forces as shown.
In what direction will the remote control
move and what is the force in that direction?
That is, what is the resultant force?
The resultant force depends not only on the size
of each force but the direction in which the forces
are applied. In the following discussion we will develop
techniques to nd the resultant force.
A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.
50 N
40 N
150
denition of a vector,
including standard unit
vectors i, j and k
relationship between vectors
and matrices
two- and three-dimensional
vectors and their algebraic
and geometric representation
operations on vectors
including addition, and
multiplication by a scalar
unit vectors
scalar product of two vectors
resolution of vectors into
components acting at right
angles to each other
calculation of the angle
between two vectors
applications of vectors in
C h a p t e r 7 I n t r o d u c t i o n t o v e c t o r s 301
Vector notation
A vector is shown graphically as a line, with a head (end) and
tail (start). The length of the line indicates the magnitude and
the orientation of the line indicates its direction.
In the gure at right, the head of the vector is at point B
(indicated with an arrow), while the tail is at point A.
When writing this vector we can use the points A and B to indicate the start and end
points with a special arrow to indicate that it is a vector: . Some textbooks use a
single letter, in bold, such as w, but this is difcult to write using pen and paper, so
can also be used. The symbol (~) is called a tilde.
Equality of vectors
Since vectors are dened by both magnitude and direction:
two vectors are equal if both their magnitude and direction are equal.
In the gure, the following statements can be made:
=
(directions are not equal)
(magnitudes are not equal).
Addition of vectors
Consider a vector which measures the travel from A to B and another vector, ,
which measures the subsequent travel from B to C. The net result is as if the person
travelled directly from A to C (vector ). Therefore we can say that .
To add two vectors, take the tail of one vector and join it to the head of another.
The result of this addition is the vector from the tail of the rst vector to the head
of the second vector.
Returning to Daniel and Anna who are ghting over the television remote control
(see page 300), we see that the forces they apply to the remote control unit can be rep-
resented as a sum of two vectors.
From this gure we are able to get a rough idea of the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force. In the following sections, we will learn techniques for calculating the
resultant magnitude and direction accurately.
The negative of a vector
If is the vector from A to B, then is the vector from
B to A.
We can subtract vectors by adding the negative of the
second vector to the rst vector.
A
B
AB
w
w
~
u
~
v
~
z
~
u
+ =
u
A
B
u
~
u
~
Multiplying a vector by a scalar
Multiplication of a vector by a number (scalar) affects only
the magnitude of the vector, not the direction. For example,
if a vector has a direction of north and a magnitude of 10,
then the vector has a direction of north and magnitude
of 30.
If the scalar is negative, then the direction is reversed.
Therefore, has a direction of south and a magnitude
of 20.
Using the vectors shown at right, draw the result of:
a b c d .
THINK WRITE
a Move so that its tail is at the head
of .
a
Join the tail of to the head of to
nd .
b Reverse the arrow on to obtain . b
c Reverse to get . c
get which is the same as
or .
d Reverse to get . The vectors are
now aligned properly with the head of
joining the tail of .
d
get .
Note that this is the same as .
u
~
v
~
u
+ u
1
v
u
~
v
~
v
~
2
u
+
u
~
v
~
u + v
~ ~
u
u
~
u
~
1
v
u
~
v
~
2
v
+ u
( ) +
u
~
v
~
v
~
+u
~
1
u
u
~
v
~
2
u
+ ( )
u
~
v
~
v u
~ ~
1
WORKEDExample
u
~
3u
~
2u
~
N
S
E W
u
3u
2u
Use the vectors shown at right to draw the result of:
a b .
THINK WRITE
a Increase the magnitude of by a factor
of 2 and by a factor of 3.
a
Move the tail of to the head of .
Then join the tail of to the head of
to get .
b Increase the magnitude of by a factor
of 2 and by a factor of 4.
b
Reverse the arrow on to get .
Join the tail of to the head of .
r
~
s
~
2r
3s
+ 2s
4r
1
r
2r
~
3s
~
2
3s
2r
2r
3s
2r 3s
+
2r
~
3s
~
3s
~
2r
~
3s
~
+
1
s
4r
~
2s
~
2
4r
4r
4r
~
2s
~
3
4r
2s
4r
~
2s 4r
~ ~
2s
~
2
WORKEDExample
The parallelogram ABCD can be dened by the two vectors
and .
In terms of these vectors, nd:
a the vector from A to D
b the vector from C to D
c the vector from D to B.
THINK WRITE
a The vector from A to D is equal to the
vector from B to C since ABCD is a
parallelogram.
a
b The vector from C to D is the reverse of D
to C which is .
b
c The vector from D to B is obtained by
adding the vector from D to A to the vector
from A to B.
c
c
~
b
~
C
B A
D
b
AD c
=
b
CD b
=
DB c
+ =
b
=
3
WORKEDExample
A cube PQRSTUVW can be dened by the three vectors , and
as shown at right.
Express in terms of , and :
a the vector joining P to V
b the vector joining P to W
c the vector joining U to Q
d the vector joining S to W
e the vector joining Q to T.
THINK WRITE
All of the opposite sides in a cube are equal in
length and parallel. Therefore all opposite
sides can be expressed as the same vector.
a The vector from P to V is obtained by
adding the vector from P to Q to the vector
from Q to V.
a
b The vector from P to W is obtained by
adding the vectors P to V and V to W.
b
c The vector from U to Q is obtained by
adding the vectors U to P and P to Q.
c
d The vector from S to W is obtained by
adding the vectors S to R and R to W.
d
e The vector from Q to T is obtained by
adding the vectors Q to P, P to S and S to T.
e
Q
W
S
P
U
V
T
R
b
~
a
~
c
~
a
PV a
+ =
PW a
+ + =
UQ b
+ =
a
=
SW a
+ =
QT a
+ + =
b
+ =
4
WORKEDExample
A boat travels 30 km north and then 40 km west.
a Make a vector drawing of the path of the boat.
b Draw the vector that represents the net displacement of the boat.
c What is the magnitude of the net displacement?
d Calculate the bearing (from true north) of this net displacement vector.
THINK WRITE
a Set up vectors (tail to head), one
pointing north, the other west.
a
Indicate the distances as 30 km and
40 km respectively.
b Join the tail of the vector with the head
of the vector.
b
1
N
S
E W N (30 km)
~
W (40 km)
~
2
N
N (30 km)
~
N + W
~ ~
W (40 km)
~
5
WORKEDExample
Vectors and scalars
1 a Draw the result of:
b Draw the result of:
i ii iii
i ii iii
THINK WRITE
c Let R km = length of + . c
The length (magnitude) of can be
calculated using Pythagoras theorem.
d Indicate the angle between and
+ as .
d
Use trigonometry to nd .
The true bearing is 360 minus 53.13. Therefore the true bearing is:
= 360 53.13
= 306.87
1
N
N (30 km)
~ R = N + W
~ ~ ~
W (40 km)
~
2
R
R 30
2
40
2
+ =
900 1600 + =
50 km =
1
N
N (30 km)
~
N + W
~ ~
W (40 km)
~
2
sin
40
50
------ =
0.8 =
53.13 =
3
1. Denition: A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.
2. Equality of vectors: Two vectors are equal if both magnitude and direction are equal.
3. Addition of vectors: To add two vectors, take the tail of one vector and join it
to the head of the other. The result of addition is the vector from the tail of the
rst vector to the head of the second.
4. Subtraction of vectors: Subtract vectors by adding the negative of the second
vector to the rst vector.
5. Multiplication of a vector by a scalar: Multiply the magnitude of the vector by
the scalar; maintain the direction of the original vector.
remember
7A
r
~
s
~
WORKED
Example
1
r
+ r
WORKED
Example
2
2r
2s
+ 2r
2s
3s
4r
a i
ii
iii
s
~
s
~
r
~
r + s
~ ~
s
~
s
~
r
~
r s
~ ~
s
~
r
~
s r
~ ~

Same as

1 a i

except scaled by a factor of 2. Same as

1 a ii

except scaled by a factor of 2.
s
~
3s
~
r
~
4r
~
3s 4r
~ ~
2 The pentagon ABCDE at right can be dened by the four
vectors, , , and .
Find in terms of these 4 vectors:
a the vector from A to D
b the vector from A to B
c the vector from D to A
d the vector from B to E
e the vector from C to A.
3
A girl travels 4 km north and then 2 km south. What is the net displacement vector?
4 In the rectangle ABCD, the vector joining A to B is denoted
by and the vector joining B to C is . Which pairs of points
are joined by:
5
Consider the following relationships between vectors , and .
i
ii
Which of the following statements is true?
6 A rectangular prism (box) CDEFGHIJ can be
dened by three vectors , and as shown
at right.
Express in terms of , and :
a the vector joining C to H
b the vector joining C to J
c the vector joining G to D
d the vector joining F to I
e the vector joining H to E
f the vector joining D to J
g the vector joining C to I
h the vector joining J to C.
7 A pilot plans to y 300 km north then 400 km east.
a Make a vector drawing of her ight plan.
b Show the resulting net displacement vector.
c Calculate the length (magnitude) of this net displacement vector.
d Calculate the bearing (from true north) of this net displacement vector.
A 6 km north B 6 km south C 2 km north
D 2 km south E 2 km north
a ? b ?
c ? d ?
A B
C D
E
B
C
D
E A
v
~
u
~
t
~
s
~
WORKED
Example
3
s
multiple choice
B
C
D A
v
~
u
~
u
+ u
3u
2v
2u
+
multiple choice
u
2v
+ =
w
=
u
= u
=
u
2
3
--- v
= u
3
2
--- v
=
u
3v
=
C
G
J
F
I
E
D
H
t
~
s
~
r
~
WORKED
Example
4
r
WORKED
Example
5
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
EXCEL Spreadsheet
Position vector
s
+
s
+ + +
s

A to C D to B
B to D A to C
r
+
s
+
r
+
t
+
r
+ +
s

500 km
53.1

clockwise from N

a, b
Flight
path
8 Another pilot plans to travel 300 km
east, then 300 km north-east. Show that
the resultant bearing is 67.5 degrees.
How far east of its starting point has the
plane travelled?
9 An aeroplane travels 400 km west, then
600 km north. How far is the aeroplane
from its starting point? What is the
bearing of the resultant displacement?
10 On a piece of graph paper draw a vector, , that is 3 units east and 5 units north of the
origin. Draw another vector, , that is 5 units east and 3 units north of the origin.
On the same graph paper, draw the following vectors.
11 Find the direction and magnitude of a vector joining point A to point B, where B is
10 m east and 4 m north of A.
12 Consider a parallelogram dened by the vectors and ,
and its associated diagonals, as shown at right. Show that
the vector sum of the diagonal vectors is .
13 Show, by construction, that for any vectors and :
(This is called the Distributive Law.)
14 Show, by construction, that for any three vectors , and :
(This is called the Associative Law.)
15 Show, by construction, that for any two vectors and :
16 As you will learn shortly, vectors can be represented by two values: the horizontal
(or x) component and the vertical (or y) component.
Consider the vector , dened by joining the origin to the point (4, 5), and the
vector , dened by joining the origin to (2, 3). Find the horizontal and vertical com-
ponents of each vector.
Demonstrate, graphically, that the sum has an x-component of 6 (that is,
4 + 2), and a y-component of 8 (that is, 5 + 3).
17 Using the same vectors, and , as in question 16, demonstrate graphically that the
difference vector, , has an x-component of 2 and a y-component of 2.
18 Using the same vectors, and , as in question 16, demonstrate graphically that:
a the vector has an x-component of 16 and a y-component of 20
b the vector has an x-component of 4 and a y-component of 6.
a b c d
e f g h
i j
a
+ a
3b
+ a
3b
4a
0.5a
2.5b
+ a
2.5b
4a
2.5a
1.5b
2.5a
2a
b
~
a
~
u
3 u
+ ( ) 3u
3v
+ =
a
+ ( ) c
+ a
+ ( ) + =
r
3r
3r
( ) =
w
+
w
4w
2v

512.1 km; find bearing
using trigonometry
721.1 km, 326.3

(clockwise from N)

10

Each part of answer
has coordinate labelled

a

,

b

, . . .

j

. The original
vectors and are
also drawn.
a
a
~
a
g
e
d
b
h
b
~
f
15 5
5
15
5
5
15
15
j
i
c

Magnitude

=

10.77, direction 68.2

True.

SLE 3: Use addition and
subtraction in
life-related
situations.

12

18

Check with
your teacher.
19 Using the results from questions 16, 17 and 18, what can you deduce about an
algebraic method (as opposed to a graphical method) of addition, subtraction and
multiplication of vectors?
20
In terms of vectors and in the gure above, the vector joining O to D is given by:
21
In terms of vectors and , the vector joining E to O above is:
22 A girl walks the following route: 400 m north 300 m east 200 m north
500 m west 600 m south 200 m east
Make a vector drawing of these six paths. What is the net displacement vector?
23 Which of the following are vector quantities?
speed velocity displacement force volume angle
24 Which of the following are scalar quantities?
speed time acceleration velocity length displacement
25 A 2-dimensional vector can be determined by its length and its angle with respect to
(say) true north. What quantities could be used to represent a 3-dimensional vector?
Position vectors in two and
three dimensions
Introduction
As a vector has both magnitude and direction, it can be represented in 2-dimensional
planes or 3-dimensional regions in space. (It is easier to discuss 2-dimensional vectors
as they t the page nicely!)
Position vectors in two dimensions
In the gure at right, the vector joins the point A to
point B.
An identical vector can be considered to join the origin
with the point C.
It is easy to see that is made up of two components:
one along the x-axis and one parallel to the y-axis. Let be
a vector along the x-axis, with magnitude 1. Similarly, let
be a vector along the y-axis, with magnitude 1.
A B C D
E none of these
A B C D
E none of these
multiple choice
O
D
b
~
a
~
a
3a
3b
+ 2a
4b
+ 3b
2a
2a
3b
multiple choice
O
E
b
~
a
~
a
3a
4b
+ 4b
3a
3a
4b
3 a
4b
C
D
u
~
i
~
j
~
x
y
B
A
u
~
x
y
u

One can deduce that

x

and

y

components can be added/subtracted/
multiplied separately.
0

Displacement, velocity, force
Speed, time, length
1 magnitude and 2 angles
We can say the vector is the position vector of point C
relative to the origin.
With vectors, it is equivalent to travel along from the
origin directly to C, or to travel rst along the x-axis to D and
then along the y-axis to C. In either case we started at the
origin and ended up at C. Clearly then, is made up of some
multiple of in the x-direction and some multiple of in the
y-direction.
For example, if the point C has coordinates (6, 3) then
.
Position vectors in three dimensions
In 3 dimensions, a point in space has 3 coordinates, so a third
component, along the z-axis, is needed. Let be a vector
along the z-axis, with magnitude 1. The orientation is now
such that the x-axis is coming directly out from the page as
shown at right.
For example, if the point C has coordinates
(6, 2, 4), then its position vector would be
denoted by .
Relationship between vectors
and matrices
From our earlier work on matrices, we know that a matrix is an array that can store
numbers. These numbers could be the components of a vector, so for the vector
, the components could be expressed as .
So as a matrix, the components of could be expressed as and the
components of could be expressed as .
We will look further at the relationship between vectors and matrices later in the
chapter.
The magnitude of a vector
By using Pythagoras theorem on a position vector, we can nd its length, or magnitude.
Consider the vector at right.
The magnitude of , denoted as or u, is given by:
=
=
= 3
O
3
C
D
u
~
6i
~
3j
~
y
x
0
z
x
y
u
6i
3 j
+ =
k
(6, 2, 4)
0
C
v
~
4k
~
6i
~
2j
~
z
x
y
v
6i
2 j
4k
+ =
v
ai
b j
ck
+ + =
a
b
c
u
6i
3 j
+ =
6
3
v
6i
2 j
4k
+ =
6
2
4
C (6, 3)
u
~
3j
~
6i
~
x
y
u
6
2
3
2
+
u
45
5
Consider, now, the general position vector relative to the origin, for the point with
coordinates (x, y):
The magnitude of a vector, , is given by .
The direction of a vector
From what we already know about trigonometry, we can work out the angle () that
makes with the positive x-axis (that is, anticlockwise from the positive x-axis). This
gives us the direction of .
This angle can be calculated as:
= tan
1
( )
= tan
1
0.5
= 0.464 radians
= 26.6
The result obtained by this method needs to be adjusted if the angle is in the 2nd,
3rd, or 4th quadrants.
The direction of a vector, , is given by = tan
1
with appropriate
adjustment depending on the quadrant involved.
u
xi
y j
+ =
u
xi
y j
+ = u
x
2
y
2
+ =
C (6, 3)
u
~
3j
~
6i
~
x
y
u
3
6
---
u
xi
y j
+ =
y
x
---
Using the vector shown at right, nd:
a the magnitude of
b the direction of (express the angle with respect to the positive
x-axis)
c the true bearing of .
THINK WRITE
a Use Pythagoras theorem or the rule
for magnitude of a vector with the
x- and y-components 3 and 5
respectively.
a
Simplify the surd.
b The angle is in the 4th quadrant
since x = 3 and y = 5.
b
Use trigonometry to nd the angle ,
from the x- and y-component values.
= tan
1
Use a calculator to simplify. = 59
c The negative sign implies that the
direction is 59 clockwise from the
x-axis.
c
The true bearing from north is the
angle measurement from the positive
y-axis to the vector .
true bearing = 90 + 59
= 149.
(3, 5)
u
~
y
x
u
1
u
3
2
5 ( )
2
+ =
2 u
9 25 + =
34 (= 5.831 to 3 decimal places) =
1
2
5
3
------

3
1
2
u
6
WORKEDExample
Consider the vector shown in worked example 6. The vector can be expressed in com-
ponent form (or rectangular form) as . One way of nding the magnitude and
direction (the angle the vector makes with the positive x-axis) is to convert the vector
from rectangular form to polar form using a graphics calculator.
1. Press and select RUN-MAT. Decide whether
you want the angle displayed in degrees or radians.
In this example we want degrees. Press [SET
UP] and alter the setting for Angle if necessary. Press
(Deg) for degrees.
2. Press to accept this setting. Next press
then ( ) to show more options.
3. Press (ANGL) and then ( ) for more
options. There are three options shown. The one we
need is Pol(, which converts vectors in rectangular
form to polar form.
4. Press (Pol() and enter the components 3 and 5,
separated by a comma (press ). Press to close
the set of brackets.
5. Press to perform the conversion. The rst
number (which is highlighted) is the magnitude of
the vector and the second number is the angle the
vector makes with the positive x-axis.
1. Decide whether you want the angle displayed in
degrees or radians. In this example we want degrees.
Press cto access the home screen and select
8: System Information followed by 2: System
Settings. Press euntil you reach Angle and then
select Degree by using the arrow keys. Press to
accept this setting.
2. Continue pressing euntil you highlight OK. Press
to select OK.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the magnitude and direction
of a vector in two dimensions
3i
5 j
MENU
SHIFT
F1
EXE OPTN
F6
s
F5 F6
s
F1
, )
EXE
3. We will rst dene as the vector u and then
convert this to polar form. Press /Nand select
1: Add Calculator to open a new calculator
document. Press band select 1: Actions.
4. Select 1: Dene. Press U(to name the vector as u)
then =followed by /(to set up square
brackets. Enter the components 3 and 5, separated
by a comma (press ,), within the square brackets.
Use the right arrow key to move the cursor to the
right of the second square bracket and press .
5. Press Uto nominate vector u. Then press band
select 7: Matrix & Vector followed by C: Vector.
6. Select 4: Convert to Polar and press to perform
the conversion. The exact values for the magnitude
and the angle are shown.
7. To obtain the approximate values, press /.
Note that if no other operations are required, you can
enter the vector directly by using square brackets. You
then continue in the same way to convert to polar form.
Unit vectors
As we have seen, any vector is composed of x and y (and z, in 3 dimensions)
components denoted by , (and ). The vectors, , and are called unit
vectors, as they each have a magnitude of 1. This allows us to resolve a vector into its
components.
3i
5 j
xi
y j
zk
If a 2-dimensional vector makes an angle of with the positive x-axis and it has
a magnitude of then we can nd its x- and y-components using the formulas:
Vectors can be expressed in different forms. In the graphics calculator tip on page 311,
we converted a vector in rectangular form to polar form so we could obtain the
magnitude and direction of the vector. The reverse process can also be performed.
Consider the vector in Worked example 7 where the magnitude is 30 and the angle to
the positive x-axis is 140. To nd the x- and y-components, we convert the vector to
rectangular form. Check that the calculator is set to degrees.
1. Press and select RUN-MAT. Press
then ( ) to show more options. Press
(ANGL) and then ( ) for more options. There
are three options shown. The one we need is Rec(,
which converts vectors in polar form to rectangular
form.
u
x u
cos q =
y u
sin q =
Consider the vector , whose magnitude is 30 and whose
bearing (from N) is 310. Find its x- and y-components and
write in terms of and .
THINK WRITE
Change the bearing into an angle with
respect to the positive x-axis ().
The angle between and the positive
y-axis is 360 310.
Calculate . = 90 + 50
= 140
Find the x- and y-components using
trigonometry.
x =
= 30 cos 140
= 22.98
y =
= 30 sin 140
= 19.28
Express as a vector.
u
~
310
N
S
E W
y
x
u
1
u
~
y
x
50
2
u
3
4
u
cos
u
sin
5
u
22.98i
19.28 j
+ =
7
WORKEDExample
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the x- and y-components
of a vector
MENU OPTN
F6
s
F5
F6
s
2. Press (Rec() and enter 30 for the magnitude
followed by a comma. Then enter 140 for the angle
and close the set of brackets.
3. Press to perform the conversion. The rst
number (which is highlighted) is the x-component
of the vector and the second number is the
y-component. Hence .
1. Open a new Calculator document (press /Nand
select 1: Add Calculator). To enter the vector in
polar form, rst press /(to set up square
brackets. Then enter 30 for the magnitude followed
by a comma. Press /kand highlight the angle
symbol ().
2. Press to insert the angle symbol on the calculator
page and enter 140 for the angle. Move the cursor to
the right of the second square bracket. The vector is
now entered in polar form.
3. Press band select 7: Matrix & Vector followed by
C: Vector. Select 5: Convert to Rectangular and
press to perform the conversion. The exact values
for the x- and y-components are shown. To obtain the
approximate values, press /. Hence
.
F2
EXE
u
22.98 i
19.28 j
+ =
u
22.98 i
19.28 j
+ =
A bushwalker walks 16 km in a direction of bearing 050, then walks 12 km in a direction
of bearing 210. Find the resulting position of the hiker giving magnitude and direction
from the starting point.
THINK WRITE
Draw a clear diagram to represent
the situation.
1
x
y
a
~
1
6

k
m
b
~
1
2

k
m
50
30
210
240
8
WORKEDExample
Clearly, in 3 dimensions, this is much more difcult as you need two angles (for
instance, an angle with respect to the x-axis and another with respect to the z-axis).
Unit vectors can also be found in the direction of any vector. This is merely the
original vector divided by its magnitude.
The unit vector of any vector , in the direction of denoted by , is:
THINK WRITE
Express position vectors as angles
from the direction of the x-axis.
= 16 cos 40 + 16 sin 40
= 12 cos 240 + 12 sin 240
Simplify position vectors. = 12.2567 + 10.2846
= 6 10.3923
Use the Triangle Law
of addition of vectors.
+ = (12.2567 6) + (10.2846 10.3923)
= 6.2567 0.1077
Find the angle . = tan
1
= tan
1
= 0.986
Find the magnitude. | + | =
=
=
= 6.26
State the resultant vector in terms of
magnitude (distance) and direction
(bearing).
Final position is 6.26 km from the starting point in
a direction of bearing 091.
2
a
3
a
a
~
~
b
a
~
b
~
+
a
5
y
x
--
0.1077
6.2567
-------------------
6
a
x
2
y
2
+
6.26
2
0.11 ( )
2
+
39.2
7
u
------ =
Find the unit vector in the direction of .
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Express the vector in component form.
Compute the magnitude of the vector .
u
1
u
6i
3 j
+ =
2
u
6
2
3
2
+ =
45 =
3 5 =
9
WORKEDExample
C (6, 3)
u
~
3j
~
6i
~
As seen above, the unit vector is obtained by dividing each component by the
magnitude of the vector. We can also use a graphics calculator to achieve this. Consider
the vector in Worked example 9 which can be expressed in component form as
.
1. First nd the magnitude of . Repeat the steps
shown on page 311 to change the vector into
polar form. The magnitude is 6.7082.
(Alternatively, calculate .)
2. Consider the components of as the matrix .
Press until you return to the MAT
screen. Enter the matrix using square brackets (each
row is listed within a set of square brackets) as
3. Press and then [Mat] followed by
[U] to store this matrix as matrix U.
4. Press to display the matrix and then press
again to return to your calculation screen.
Next we need to divide each component of the vector
by the magnitude of the vector to obtain the unit
vector. Since we are using matrices, we need to
change this to multiplying matrix U by the reciprocal
of the magnitude.
THINK WRITE
Divide each component of the original
vector by the magnitude to get .
= +
= +
Comrm that has a magnitude of 1.
=
=
=
= 1
3
u
6
3 5
---------- i
3
3 5
---------- j
2 5
5
---------- i
5
5
------- j
4
u
x
2
y
2
+
20
25
------
5
25
------ +
25
25
------
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the unit vector in the
direction of the vector
u
6i
3 j
+
u
6
2
3
2
+
u
6
3
EXIT
SHIFT
ALPHA
EXE
EXE
Enter 6.7082 and press [x
-1
] to obtain the
reciprocal of the magnitude. Press and then enter
matrix U by pressing [Mat] followed by
[U].
5. Press . The approximate values for the
components of the unit vector are shown. Hence
.
1. Begin with a new calculator page. To dene the
vector as u, rst press band select 1: Actions
followed by 1: Dene. Press U(to name the vector
as u) then =followed by /(to set up square
brackets. Enter the components, separated by a
comma, within the square brackets. Move the cursor
to the right of the second square bracket and press
.
2. Press band select 7: Matrix & Vector followed by
C: Vector.
3. Select 1: Unit Vector and press Uto enter the
required vector. Close the set of brackets by
pressing )and then press . The exact values
for the components of the unit vector are shown.
Hence .
These steps also apply to nding the unit vector for a
three-dimensional vector.
Locating vectors
In the gure at right, is the position vector of point A
and is the position vector of point B relative to the origin.
The vector describing the location of A relative to B is
easily found using vector addition as or .
Similarly, the vector describing the location of B relative to A is . This
result also applies in 3 dimensions and can be formalised as follows.
If A and B are points dened by position vectors and respectively, then
SHIFT
SHIFT
ALPHA
EXE
u
0.8944i
0.4472 j
+ =
u
2 5
5
---------- i
5
5
------- j
+ =
a
OA ( )
O
A
B
a
~
b
~
y
x
b
OB ( )
BA ( )
b
+ a
AB ( ) b
AB b
=
Magnitudes in three dimensions
Pythagoras theorem also applies in the case of a 3-dimensional line or vector. Let x, y
and z be the components of a vector, , in 3-dimensional space, that is
. The magnitude of is
a Find the position vector locating point B (3, 3) from point A (2, 5).
b Find the length of this vector.
THINK WRITE
a Express the point A as a position vector .
a Let
Express the point B as a position vector .
Let
The location of B relative to A is .
b The length of is . b =
=
= (or 8.06)
1
a
OA a
2i
5 j
+ = =
2
b
OB b
3i
3 j
= =
3
AB ( ) b
AB b
=
3i
3 j
2i
5 j
+ ( ) =
i
8 j
=
AB b
AB b
1
2
8 ( )
2
+
65
10
WORKEDExample
u
xi
y j
zk
+ + = u
x
2
y
2
z
2
+ + =
Consider the point in 3-dimensional space given by the coordinates
(2, 4, 3).
Find the magnitude of the position vector, , joining this point to
the origin.
THINK WRITE
Express as a position vector.
Since the vector is in 3-dimensional
space, use the 3-D version of
Pythagoras theorem to nd the
magnitude.
Substitute the components for each
direction and compute the magnitude.
(= 5.39 to 2 decimal places)
(2, 4, 3)
u
~
z
x
y
u
1
u
2i
4 j
3k
+ + =
2 u
x
2
y
2
z
2
+ + =
3 u
2
2
4
2
3
2
+ + =
29 =
11
WORKEDExample
We are now in a position to resolve the problem of nding, accurately, the resultant
force acting on the television remote control when Daniel and Anna are pulling on it.
First redraw the diagram to show the addition of
vectors.
Taking the direction of Annas force as the i
~
direction,
Annas force, = 50i
~
+ 0j
~
Daniels force, = 40 cos 150i
~
+ 40 sin 150j
~
= 34.6410i
~
+ 20j
~
Resultant force, + = (50 34.6410)i
~
+ 20j
~
= 15.3590i
~
+ 20j
~
Magnitude = | + |
Magnitude = 25.2 N
Direction = tan
1
Direction = 52.48
30
150
50 N
40 N
Resultant
force
Daniels
force
Annas
force
a
20
15.3590
-------------------
1. Magnitude of a vector: If , the magnitude is given by
Speed is the magnitude of velocity which is a vector quantity.
2. Direction of a vector (2-D only): If , the direction is given by
= tan
1
3. The x- and y-components of a vector: Given magnitude and direction, the x-
and y-components are given by:
4. Unit vector: The unit vector of a vector , in the direction of , is denoted by
and is:
5. Locating vectors: If A and B are points with position vectors and
respectively then .
u
xi
y j
zk
+ + =
u
x
2
y
2
z
2
+ + =
u
xi
y j
+ =
y
x
--
x u
cos =
y u
sin =
u
----- =
a
AB b
=
remember
Position vectors in two and
three dimensions
1 State the x, y and z components of the following vectors:
2 For each of the following nd:
i the magnitude of the vector
ii the direction of each vector. (Express the direction with respect to
the positive x-axis.)
3 Find the true bearing of each vector in question 2.
4 Consider the vector shown at right. Its
magnitude is 100 and its bearing is 210 True.
Find the x- and y-components of , and
express them as exact values (surds).
State the answer in the form .
5
A vector with a bearing of 60 degrees from N and a magnitude of 10 has:
A x-component = , y-component =
B x-component = , y-component =
C x-component = , y-component = 5
D x-component = 5, y-component =
E none of the above
6 An aeroplane travels on a bearing of 147 degrees
for 457 km. Express its position as a vector in terms
of and .
7 A ship travels on a bearing of 331 degrees for
125 km. Express its position as a vector in terms
of and .
a b c
a b
c d
7B
3i
4 j
2k
+ 6i
3k
3.4i
2 j
1
2
--- k
+ +
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
EXCEL Spreadsheet
Position vector
WORKED
Example
6a, b
(6, 6)
v
~
y
x
(4, 7)
w
~
y
x
(3.4, 3.5)
a
~
y
x
(320, 10)
b
~
y
x
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital docs:
SkillSHEET 7.1
Bearings
WORKED
Example
6c
WORKED
Example
7
100
210
N
S
E W
y
x
w
~
w
xi
y j
+ =
multiple choice
3
2
-------
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
-------
5 3
5 3
i
3, 4,

2 6, 0,

3
3.4,

, 2
1
2
---

a i
ii

45

b i
ii

119.7

c i

4.88

ii

225.8

d i

320.16

ii

358.2

72
65

a

045

b

330.3

c

224.2

d

091.8

50i
50 3 j

3
2
248.9i
383.3 j
60.6i
109.3 j
+
8 A pilot ies 420 km in a direction 45 south of east and then 200 km in a direction
60 south of east. Calculate the resultant displacement from the starting position
giving both magnitude and direction.
9 The instructions to Black-eye the Pirates hidden treasure say: Take 20 steps in a
north-easterly direction and then 30 steps in a south-easterly direction. However, a
rockfall blocks the rst part of the route in the north-easterly direction. How could
you head directly to the treasure?
10 Two scouts are in contact with home base. Scout A is 15 km from home base in a
direction 30 north of east. Scout B is 12 km from home base in a direction 40 west
of north. How far is scout B from scout A?
11 Find unit vectors in the direction of the given vector for the following:
12
A unit vector in the direction of is:
13 Not all unit vectors are smaller than the original vectors. Consider the vector
. Show that the unit vector in the direction of is twice as long as .
14 Find the unit vector in the direction of .
15 Find a unit vector in the direction of for the vector of question 4.
16 Consider the points A (0, 1) and B (4, 5) in the gure at
right. A vector joining A to B can be drawn.
a Show that an equivalent position vector is given by:
.
b Similarly, show that an equivalent position vector joining
B to A is given by: .
17 For each of the following pairs of points nd:
i the position vectors locating the second point from the rst point
ii the length of this vector.
18 Find the position vectors from question 17, by going from the second point to the rst.
a b
c d
e
f f =
A B C D E none of these
a (0, 2), (4, 5) b (2, 3), (5, 4) c (4, 5), (0, 2)
d (5, 4), (2, 3) e (3, 7), (5, 7) f (7, 3), (3, 3)
WORKED
Example
8
WORKED
Example
9
(3, 4)
0
a
~
y
x
(3, 4)
0
d
~
y
x
b
4i
3 j
+ = e
4i
3 j
+ =
c
2 j
+ =
3.5i
2.7 j
+
multiple choice
3i
4 j
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
+
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
3
25
------ i
4
25
------ j
0.3i
0.4 j
+ = v
0.1i
0.02 j
=
w
(4, 5)
A
B
(0, 1)
y
x
4i
4 j
+
4i
4 j
WORKED
Example
10
615 km at 49.8 south of east
36 steps 11.3 south of east
20.8 km
Check with
0.98i
0.20 j
1
2
--- i
3
2
------- j


subtraction in
life-related
situations.
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
+
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
4
5
--- i
3
5
--- j
+
4
5
--- i
3
5
--- j
+
1
3
------- i
2
3
------- j
+
0.792i
0.611 j
+

17
a i ii
b i ii
c i ii
d i ii
e i ii

2

f i ii

4
4i
7 j
65
3i
+ 10
4i
7 j
+ 65
3i
10
2i
4i

18 a
b
c
d
e
f
4i
7 j
+
3i
4i
7 j
3i
+
2i
4i

your teacher.
19 Find unit vectors in the direction of the position vectors for each of the vectors of
question 17.
20 Let and .
a Find:
b Conrm or reject the statement that
21 Let and .
a Find:
b Conrm or reject the statement that .
22 To nd the distance between two vectors, and , simply nd .
Find the distance between these pairs of vectors:
23 A river ows through the jungle from west to east at a speed of 3 km/h. An explorer
wishes to cross the river by boat, and attempts this by travelling at 5 km/h due north.
Find:
a the vector representing the velocity of the river
b the vector representing the velocity of the boat
c the resultant (net) vector of the boats journey
d the bearing of the boats journey
e the magnitude of the net vector.
24 Consider the data from question 23. At what bearing should the boat travel so that it
arrives at the opposite bank of the river due north of the starting position?
i ii iii iv v vi
i ii iii iv v vi
a and b and
u
5i
2 j
= e
2i
3 j
+ =
u
+ u
+
u
+ u
+ =
u
3i
4 j
+ = e
5i
=
u
+ u
+
u
+ u
+ =
a
3i
2 j
+ 2i
3 j
+ 5i
2 j
2i
5 j
+

19 a
b
c
d
e
f
4
65
---------- i
7
65
---------- j
3
10
---------- i
1
10
---------- j
+
4
65
---------- i
7
65
---------- j
+
3
10
---------- i
1
10
---------- j
2 58

329.0

29 13
5
29
---------- i
2
29
---------- j
2
13
---------- i
3
13
---------- j
+
3i
+
10

Reject, because magnitudes different.
5
26
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
+
5
26
---------- i
1
26
---------- j
2i
3 j
+
13

Reject, because magnitudes different.
3i
5 j
3i
5 j
+

031.0

km/h 34
25 Find the magnitude of the following 3-dimensional vectors.
26 By calculating the difference between two position vectors, a vector representing the
separation of the two vectors can be dened. Find the distance between the
following 3-dimensional vectors.
27 If four points C, D, E and F in 3-dimensional space are located as follows:
C = (2, 6, 0), D = (3, 1, 2), E = (4, 8, 10), F = (2, 6, 6), show that CD is parallel
to EF.
28 A boat travels east at 20 km/h, while another boat travels south at 15 km/h. Find:
a a vector representing each boat and the difference between the boats
b the magnitude of the difference vector
c the bearing of the difference vector.
29 Consider the vector and the vector . Find the angles of each
of these vectors with respect to the x-axis. Show that these two vectors are
perpendicular to each other. Also show that the products of each vectors
corresponding x- and y-components add up to 0. Can you conrm that this is a pattern
for all perpendicular vectors?
30 A river has a current of 4 km/h westward. A boat which is capable of travelling at
12 km/h is attempting to cross the river by travelling due north. Find:
a a vector representing the net velocity of the boat
b the bearing of the actual motion of the boat
c how long it takes to cross the river, if the river is 500 m wide (from north to south).
(Hint: The maximum speed of the boat is still 12 km/h.)
a b
c
d
e f
a and b and
c and d and
WORKED
Example
11
(3, 4, 5)
0
z
y
x
(3, 4, 5)
0
z
y
x
0.5i
2k
3 j
+
2i
2 2 j
+
7i
14 j
21k
+ i
+ +
4i
3 j
2k
+ 5i
2 j
+ 2i
+ 5i
+ +
i
2 j
3k
+ + 3i
+ i
3 j
+ 8i
5 j
2k
+ +
u
3i
4 j
+ = v
4i
3 j
=
35 13
2 6 62

, CD i
7 j
2k
= EF 2i
14 j
= 4k

, , 20i
15 j
20i
15 j
+
25
053.1
53.1, 36.9 Difference = 90
4i
12 j
+
341.6
0.0417 h or 2.5 minutes
subtraction in
life-related
situations such
as the effect of
current ow on
a boat.
5 2 5 2
3.64
7 14
11
3
Multiplying two vectors the dot product
Introduction
In a previous section we studied the result of multiplying a vector by a scalar. What
happens if a vector is multiplied by another vector? There are two possibilities: either
the result is a scalar (called the scalar product or dot product) or the result is a vector
(called the cross, or vector product). In this course we will study only the former.
The scalar or dot product of two vectors, and , is denoted by .
Calculating the dot product
There are two ways of calculating the dot product. The rst method follows from its
denition. (The second method is shown later.) Consider the two vectors and below.
By denition, the dot product is given by:
cos [1]
where is the angle between (the positive directions of) and .
Note: The vectors are not aligned as for addition or subtraction, but their two tails are
joined.
Properties of the dot product
1. The dot product is a scalar. It is the result of multiplying three scalar quantities: the
magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them.
2. The order of multiplication is unimportant (commutative property), thus
3. The dot product is distributive, thus
4. Since the angle between and itself is 0
u
u
~
v
~
=
u
=
a
+ ( ) a
+ =
u
2
=
Let and . Find .
THINK WRITE
Find the magnitudes of and .
Draw a right-angled triangle showing
the angle that makes with the
positive x-axis since is along the
x-axis.
u
3i
4 j
+ = v
6i
= u
1
u
3
2
4
2
+ =
5 =
v
6
2
=
6 =
2
u
5
3
u
~
y
x
12
WORKEDExample
Note: An easier method for nding the dot product will now be shown.
Unit vectors and the dot product
Consider the dot product of the unit vectors , and . Firstly, consider in
detail. By denition, and, since the angle between them is 0, cos = 1, thus
. To summarise these results:
(since = 0)
(since = 0)
(since = 0)
(since = 90)
(since = 90)
(since = 90)
Using this information, we can develop another way to calculate the dot product of
any vector. Let and , where x
1
, y
1
, z
1
, x
2
, y
2
, z
2
are constants. Then we can write as:
Considering the various unit vector dot products (in brackets), the like products
( , and , shown underlined) are 1; the rest are 0. Therefore:
[2]
This is a very important result.
We only need to multiply the corresponding x, y and z components of two vectors
to nd their dot product.
THINK WRITE
Find cos , knowing that u = 5 and the
x-component of is 3.
cos =
Find using equation 1. =
Simplify.
= 5 6
= 18
3
u
3
5
---
4
u
cos
5
3
5
---
i
1 =
i
1 =
i
1 =
j
1 =
k
1 =
i
0 =
i
0 =
j
0 =
u
x
1
i
y
1
j
z
1
k
+ + = v
x
2
i
y
2
j
z
2
k
+ + =
u
x
1
i
y
1
j
z
1
k
+ + ( ) x
2
i
y
2
j
z
2
k
+ + ( ) =
x
1
x
2
i
( ) x
1
y
2
i
( ) x
1
z
2
i
( ) y
1
x
2
j
( ) y
1
y
2
j
( ) + + + + =
+ y
1
z
2
j
( ) z
1
x
2
k
( ) z
1
y
2
k
( ) z
1
z
2
k
( ) + + +
i
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
z
1
z
2
+ + =
Let and . Find .
THINK WRITE
Write down using equation 2.
Multiply the corresponding
components.
Simplify.
u
3i
4 j
2k
+ + = v
6i
= 4 j
+ u
1
u
3i
4 j
2k
+ + ( ) 6i
4 j
+ ( ) =
2
u
3 6 4 4 2 1 + + =
3 18 16 2 + =
4 =
13
WORKEDExample
The following steps show how a graphics calculator can be used to nd the dot product
of two vectors. Consider the vectors and in Worked
example 13.
1. Press and select RUN-MAT. Enter the
components of vector as a matrix. Then press
and [Mat] followed by [U] to store
as matrix U. Press to display the matrix and
again to return to the calculation screen.
Repeat this procedure to enter the components of
vector as a matrix and store as matrix V.
2. To calculate the dot product using matrices, we rst
need to transpose the elements of matrix U before we
multiply by matrix V. Press then (MAT)
followed by (Trn) to access the transpose
function.
3. Press [Mat] then [U] to enter matrix
U. Press followed by [Mat] then
[V] to enter matrix V.
4. Press to display the value for the dot product.
1. Open a new Calculator document. Dene the
vector and the vector by entering each set of
components within square brackets.
2. Press band select 7: Matrix & Vector then
C: Vector followed by 3: Dot Product. Press U,
then the comma key (,) followed by Vand close
the set of brackets by pressing ). Press to
obtain the value of the dot product.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the dot product
of two vectors
u
3i
4 j
2k
+ + = v
6i
4 j
+ =
MENU
u

SHIFT ALPHA
EXE
EXE
v
OPTN F2
F4
SHIFT ALPHA
SHIFT ALPHA
EXE
u
Finding the angle between two vectors
Now that we have two formulas (equations 1 and 2) for calculating the dot product, we
can combine them to nd the angle between the vectors:
Rearranging the nal two equations, we obtain the result that:
[3]
Note: The angle will always be between 0 and 180 as 180 is the maximum angle
between two vectors.
Special results of the dot product
Perpendicular vectors
If two vectors are perpendicular then the angle between them is 90 and equation 1
(page 324) becomes:
(since cos 90 = 0)
If , then and are perpendicular.
u
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
z
1
+ + z
2
=
= u
cos
cos q
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
z
1
z
2
+ +
u
---------------------------------------------- =
Let and . Find the angle between them to the
nearest degree.
THINK WRITE
Find the dot product using equation 2. =
Simplify. = 4 2 + 3 3 + 1 2
= 3
Find the magnitude of each vector.
=
=
=
=
Substitute results into equation 3.
cos =
Simplify the result for cos . =
= 0.142 695
Take cos
1
of both sides to obtain and
round the answer to the nearest degree.
= cos
1
(0.142 695)
= 98
u
4i
3 j
+ + = v
2i
3 j
2k
=
1 u
4i
3 j
+ + ( ) 2i
3 j
2k
( )
2
3 u
4
2
3
2
1
2
+ +
26
v
2
2
3 ( )
2
2 ( )
2
+ +
17
4
3
26 17
--------------------
5
3
442
-------------
6
14
WORKEDExample
u
uv cos 90 =
uv 0 =
0 =
u
0 = u
Parallel vectors
If vector is parallel to vector then = k where k R.
Note: When applying the dot product to parallel vectors, (the angle between them)
may be either 0 or 180 depending on whether the vectors are in the same or opposite
directions.
Find the constant a if the vectors and are perpendicular.
THINK WRITE
Find the dot product using equation 2.
Simplify.
Set equal to zero since and are perpendicular.
Solve the equation for a. a = 4
u
4i
3 j
+ = v
3 i
a j
+ =
1
u
4i
3 j
+ ( ) 3i
a j
+ ( ) =
2 12 = 3a +
3
u
12 3a + 0 = =
4
15
WORKEDExample
u
Let . Find a vector parallel to such that the dot product is 87.
THINK WRITE
Let the required vector . Let =
=
Find the dot product of .
=
Simplify. = 25k + 4k
= 29k
Equate the result to the given dot product 87. 29k = 87
Solve for k. k = 3
Substitute k = 3 into vector .
=
u
5i
2 j
+ = u
1
v
ku
= v
k 5i
2 j
+ ( )
5ki
2k j
+
2
u
5i
2 j
+ ( ) 5ki
2k j
+ ( )
3
4
5
6
v
15i
6 j
+
16
WORKEDExample
1. Scalar (dot) product: The scalar or dot product of two vectors and is
denoted by .
2. Calculation of dot product:
cos (where is the angle between the two vectors).
3. Algebraic calculation of dot product:
Let and .
Then .
4. Special results:
(a) If , then and are perpendicular.
(b) If , , then are parallel.
u
=
u
x
1
i
= y
1
j
z
1
k
+ + v
x
2
i
= y
2
j
z
2
k
+ +
u
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
z
1
z
2
+ + =
u
0 = u
kv
= k R u
and v
remember
Multiplying two vectors
the dot product
1 Find the dot product of the vectors and using equation 1.
2 Compare the result from question 1 with that obtained by nding the dot product
using equation 2. Which is probably the most accurate?
3 Find in each of the following cases.
a ,
b ,
c ,
d ,
e ,
f ,
g ,
h ,
4
The dot product of and is:
5
Consider the two vectors shown at right. Their dot product is:
6 Consider the vectors and at right. Their magnitudes are
7 and 8 respectively. Find .
7 Let . Show that .
8 Let and let . Find their dot product.
9 Let , and . Demonstrate, using these vectors,
the property:
Formally, this means that vectors are distributive over subtraction.
10 Repeat question 9 for the property:
Formally, this means that vectors are distributive over addition.
A 0 B 3 C 12 D 21 E 27
A 30 B 21.2 C 21.2 D 0
E There is insufcient data to determine the dot product.
7C
WORKED
Example
12
3i
3 j
+ 6i
2 j
+
WORKED
Example
13
u
2i
3 j
5k
+ + = v
3i
3 j
6k
+ + =
u
4i
2 j
3k
+ = v
5i
2k
+ =
u
4 j
5k
+ = v
3i
7 j
+ =
u
5i
9 j
+ = v
2i
4 j
=
u
3i
+ = v
4k
+ =
u
10i
= v
2i
=
u
3 j
5k
+ = v
=
u
6i
2 j
2k
+ = v
4 j
=
multiple choice
u
3i
3 j
3k
+ = v
2 j
6k
+ =
multiple choice
6
5
45
u
~
v
~
50
u
~
v
~
u
xi
y j
+ = u
x
2
y
2
+ =
u
2i
5 j
+ = v
2 j
4k
+ =
u
3i
2 j
+ = v
2 j
= w
5i
2 j
=
w
( ) w
=
w
+ ( ) w
+ w
=
23.99
Dot product = 24; more accurate,
since no angle needed
36
12
9 and 10 Check
with your teacher.
45
12
36
26
1
20
0
0
11
If , which of the following is perpendicular to ?
12
If then:
13
If then:
14 Find the dot product of the following pairs of vectors.
15 Find the angle between each pair of vectors in question 14 to the nearest degree.
16
The angle between the vectors and is closest to:
17
The angle between the vectors and is closest to:
18 Find the constant a, if the vectors and are perpendicular.
19 Find the constant a, such that is perpendicular to
.
20 Let . Find a vector parallel to such that their dot product is 40.
21 Let . Find a vector parallel to such that their dot product is 80.
A B C
D E
A is parallel to B and have equal magnitudes
C is perpendicular to D is a multiple of
E None is true.
A B must be equal to the zero vector,
C is perpendicular to
D must be equal to
E None is true.
a and b and
c and d and
A 0 B 67 C 90
D 113 E 180
A 0 B 69 C 90
D 111 E 180
multiple choice
u
5i
4 j
3k
+ + = u
5i
4 j
3k
3i
4 j
5k
+ + 5i
3i
5k
+ 5i
3k
+
multiple choice
u
( ) u
+ ( ) 0 =
u
multiple choice
u
( ) u
+ ( ) v
2
=
u
= u
2 v
4i
3k
7 j
4k
+ i
2 j
3k
+ 9i
4 j
+
8i
3 j
+ 2i
3 j
4k
+ 5i
5 j
5k
+ 5i
5 j
5k
+
WORKED
Example
14
multiple choice
2i
3 j
+ 2i
3 j
multiple choice
2i
3 j
4 i
6 j
+
WORKED
Example
15
v
ai
3 j
+ = u
6i
2 j
=
v
ai
2a j
3k
+ =
u
4i
3 j
2k
+ =
WORKED
Example
16
u
2i
4 j
+ = u
4i
3 j
= u
12 2
7 25
15 a 107
b 87
c 81
d 109
a = 1
a =
3
5
---
4i
8 j
+
64
5
------ i
48
5
------ j
History
of mathematics
CHARLES LUTWIDGE DODGSON (1832 1898)
During his lifetime ...
The Braille reading system is invented by
Louis Braille.
Morse code is developed.
Famine devastates Ireland.
Edison develops the light bulb.
Charles Dodgson was an English writer and
mathematician. He wrote several
mathematics books but is best known for
his ctional works produced under the pen
name Lewis Carroll. Dodgson was the son
of a clergyman and was the third of eleven
children. His education included a period at
Rugby, a school where the game of Rugby
originated in 1823. Dodgson went on to
study at Christ Church College at Oxford
University. After completing his studies he
lectured in mathematics at Oxford from
1855 until 1881. He also became a
clergyman in 1861 but did not take up a
position in the church, possibly because he
had a stutter.
Dodgsons most famous achievements were
two books which have become classics of
childrens literature: Alices Adventures in
Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass.
His main character was inspired by Alice
Liddell who was the second daughter of the
Dean of his college. Alices Adventures in
Wonderland was published in 1865 and became
a huge success. Through the Looking-Glass,
published in 1872, was equally successful.
Dodgson also wrote humorous poetry. His
poem Jabberwocky is a masterpiece, although it
is often thought of as being just a piece of
nonsense verse. The word chortle which is
used for the rst time in this poem was invented
by Dodgson and is derived from the two words
chuckle and snort.
Dodgsons mathematical works include
Euclid and his Modern Rivals, A Syllabus of
Plane Algebraical Geometry, and An
Elementary Treatise on Determinants. These
were well written but have not survived the test
of time.
Dodgson was interested in logic and loved
puzzles. His books contain many mathematics
and logic puzzles including this example from
Through the Looking-Glass: Contrariwise,
said Tweedledee, if it was so, it might be; and
if it were so, it would be; but as it isnt, it
aint. Thats logic. One of the puzzles he
invented was If 6 cats kill 6 rats in 6 minutes,
how many will be needed to kill 100 rats in
50 minutes?
Questions
1. What was Dodgsons job at Oxford
University?
2. Name his two most famous works.
3. Who was the inspiration for the
character of Alice?
4. If 6 cats kill 6 rats in 6 minutes, how
many will be needed to kill 100 rats in
50 minutes?
Mathematics lecturer

Alices Adventures
in Wonderland

and

Through the
Looking-Glass

The daughter of the Dean of his college
12 cats
Resolving vectors scalar and
vector resolutes
Introduction
Consider the two vectors, and , shown at right. The angle between
them, as for a dot product, is given by . It can be shown that is
made up of a component acting in the direction of and another
component acting perpendicular to .
Firstly we wish to nd the component in the direction of .
The scalar resolute
To obtain the component of in the direction of , we perform the following construction:
1. Drop a perpendicular from the head of to (this is perpendicular to ). This line
joins at point A.
2. We wish to nd the length of the line OA.
This construction is shown at right.
Let the length of (its magnitude) be denoted by . Then,
from trigonometry:
OA = cos
But from the denition of the dot product:
cos
(from the rst equation)
Therefore, solving for OA:
But we know that , the unit vector in the direction of , and therefore
This quantity, the length OA, is called the scalar resolute of on . It effectively
indicates how much of is in the direction of .
The scalar resolute of on is given by , where is the unit vector in the
direction of .
u
~
v
~
O
A
v
~
u
~
=
u
OA =
OA
u
--------- =
u
-----

v
=
u
----- u
= u
OA u
=
v
Let and . Find:

a the scalar resolute of on b the scalar resolute of on .
THINK WRITE
a Find the magnitude of . a =
= 5
Find by dividing by . =
=
u
3i
4 j
+ = a
6i
2 j
=
a
1
u
3
2
4
2
+
2
u u
-----
u
5
---
17
WORKEDExample
Notes:
1. The two scalar resolutes are not equal.
2. The scalar resolute of on can easily be evaluated as .
Vector resolutes
Consider, now, the vector joining O to A at right. Its magnitude
is just the scalar resolute , while its direction is the same
as , that is . This quantity is called the vector resolute of
parallel to and is denoted by the symbol .
The vector resolute of parallel to is given by:
[4]
Consider the geometry of the above gure. The original vector can be seen to be
the sum of two other vectors, namely and . This second vector is called the vector
resolute of perpendicular to and can be computed simply as follows:
(by addition of vectors)
(by rearranging the vector equation)
By substitution for from equation 4, the vector resolute of perpendicular to
is given by:
[5]
In practice, once has been calculated, simply subtract it from to get .
THINK WRITE
Simplify. =
=
Find the scalar resolute of on using . =
Simplify. =
=
= 2
b Find the magnitude of . b =
=
Find by dividing by .
=
=
Find the scalar resolute of on using .
=
Simplify.
=
=
=
3
1
5
--- 3i
4 j
+ ( )
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
+
4
a
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
+ ( ) 6i
2 j
( )
5
18
5
------
8
5
---
10
5
------
1
a
6
2
2 ( )
2
+
40
2
a
-----
1
40
---------- 6i
2 j
( )
3
a
1
40
---------- 6i
2 j
( ) 3i
4 j
+ ( )
4
1
40
---------- 18 8 ( )
10
40
----------
10
2
----------
v
.
u
----------
O
A
v
~
u
~
v
||
~
v
( )
u
||
v
||
u
( )u
=
v
||
v
||
v
+ =
v
||
=
v
||
v
^
v
( )u
=
v
||
v
The dot product and the unit vector can be found on a graphics calculator, and then
used to nd a scalar resolute or a vector resolute. Consider the vectors
and in Worked example 18.
1. Press and select RUN-MAT. Enter the
components of both vectors as matrices and store as
matrix U and matrix V.
Let and . Find:
a the scalar resolute of on
b the vector resolute of parallel to
c the vector resolute of perpendicular to .
THINK WRITE
a Find the magnitude of . a =
=
Find .
=
=
Find the scalar resolute using .
=
Simplify. =
=
b Find using equation 4. b =
=
Simplify. =
=
c Find by subtraction of from
as in equation 5.
c =
=
Simplify by subtracting , , and
components.
=
u
2 i
3 j
+ + = v
3i
2 j
+ =
v
namely v
||
,
v
, namely v
^
1
u
2 ( )
2
3
2
1
2
+ +
14
2
u
u
-----
1
14
---------- 2i
3 j
+ + ( )
3
u
1
14
---------- 2i
3 j
+ + ( ) 3i
2 j
+ ( )
4
1
14
---------- 6 6 1 + ( )
1
14
----------
1
v
||
v
||
u
( )u
1
14
---------- ( )
1
14
---------- 2i
3 j
+ + ( ) [ ]
2
1
14
------ 2i
3 j
+ + ( )
1
7
--- i
3
14
------ j
1
14
------ k
1
v
||
v
||
3i
2 j
1
7
--- i
3
14
------ j
1
14
------ k
( ) +
2
i
20
7
------ i
31
14
------ j
13
14
------ k
+
18
WORKEDExample
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding scalar and vector
resolutes
u
2 i
3 j
+ + = v
3i
2 j
+ =
MENU
2. To nd the scalar resolute of on , we need to
calculate the dot product of (the unit vector of )
and the vector . For a three-dimensional vector, we
cannot calculate the magnitude of the vector using
polar form as we did previously for the two-
dimensional vector. So calculate the value of
.
3. Press followed by [M] and then
to store this answer for future use.
4. As in the previous graphics calculator tip on
page 326, the dot product is performed by
multiplying the transpose of the rst matrix by the
second matrix. The rst matrix in this case is ,
which is obtained by multiplying matrix U by the
reciprocal of magnitude M. (To access the transpose
function, press then (MAT) and
(Trn).)
5. Press to display the scalar resolute.
6. To nd the vector resolute of parallel to , we
need to calculate . This is the scalar resolute
multiplied by the unit vector .
7. Press to display the components for the
required vector resolute.
8. To nd the vector resolute of perpendicular to ,
we need to subtract the vector resolute of parallel
to (calculated in Step 7) from . Subtract the
appropriate matrices.
9. Press to display the components of the
required vector resolute.
v
2 ( )
2
3
2
1
2
+ +
ALPHA EXE
u
OPTN F2 F4
EXE
v
( )u
EXE
v
EXE
1. Open a new Calculator document. Dene the
vector and the vector by entering each set of
components within square brackets.
and the vector . Access the Dot Product function
(press band select 7: Matrix & Vector then
C: Vector followed by 3: Dot Product). To enter ,
rst access the Unit Vector function (press band
select 7: Matrix & Vector then C: Vector followed by
1: Unit Vector). Press Uand then )to close the set
of inner brackets. Press the comma key (,) followed
by Vand then close the set of outer brackets by
pressing ). Press to display the value of the
scalar resolute.
3. To nd the vector resolute of parallel to , we
need to calculate . Press /vto show the
previous answer then press the multiplication key
r. Repeat the steps above to access the Unit Vector
function and press U. Close the set of brackets by
pressing ). Press to display the components of
the required vector resolute.
4. The vector resolute can be found straight after
dening the vectors and (without nding the
scalar resolute rst) as seen in the screen at right.
to (calculated in Step 4) from . Press Vthen -
followed by /v(the answer from the previous
line of working). Press to display the components
of the required vector resolute.
u
( )u
1. Scalar resolute of on is given by:

2. Vector resolute of , parallel to is:
3. Vector resolute of , perpendicular to :
or
v
||
u
( )u
=
v
( )u
=
v
||
=
remember
Resolving vectors scalar and
vector resolutes
1 For each of the following pairs of vectors, nd:
i the scalar resolute of on .
ii the scalar resolute of on .
2 For each pair of vectors and , nd:
i the scalar resolute of on .
ii the vector resolute of , parallel to , namely .
iii the vector resolute of , perpendicular to , namely .
3 An injured bushwalker is located at a pos-
ition relative to a camp given by the vector
. A searcher heads off from the camp
in a direction parallel to the vector .
All measurements are in kilometres.
a How far is the searcher from the camp
when closest to the bushwalker?
b What is the minimum distance between
the searcher and the bushwalker?
4 A distressed yacht is located at a position
given by the vector relative to a
cruiser. A rescue boat is sent off from the
cruiser and travels in a direction parallel to
the vector . If all measurements are in
kilometres nd, to the nearest metre, how
close the rescue boat gets to the yacht.
a and b and
c and d and
e and
a ; b ;
c ; d ;
e ; f ;
Vectors and matrices
As we have seen earlier in the chapter, there is a relationship between vectors and
matrices. If you are using a Casio fx-9860G AU graphics calculator, you will have
used this relationship to perform certain functions or calculations.
If we consider the vector , the components could be expressed
as the matrix .
7D
WORKED
Example
17
a
2i
3 j
+ = a
4i
5 j
+ = u
5i
2 j
= a
3i
=
u
2 i
6 j
+ = a
4 j
= u
3i
2 j
= a
4 i
3 j
=
u
8i
6 j
= a
5 i
+ =
WORKED
Example
18
u
||
v
3i
= v
2i
5 j
+ = u
4i
5 j
+ = v
8i
10 j
+ =
u
4i
3 j
+ = v
3i
4 j
+ = u
+ + = v
2i
+ =
u
2i
3 j
4k
+ + = v
2i
3 j
4k
= u
3i
+ = v
2 j
3k
=
2i
3 j
+
3i
4 j
+
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 7.1
5i
2 j
3i
ai
b j
ck
+ + =
a
b
c

1 a i ii
b i ii
c i

ii

d i

ii

e i

ii

23 13
13
----------------
23 41
41
----------------
17 29
29
----------------
17 10
10
----------------
13 10
10
----------------
26 17
17
----------------
6 13
13
-------------
6
5
---
23
5
------
23 26
13
----------------

3.6 km
0.2 km or 200 metres
316 metres

2 a i ii iii
b i ii iii
c i

0

ii iii
1
10
---------- v
||
3
10
------ i
1
10
------ j
= v
17
10
------ i
51
10
------ j
+ =
82
41
---------- v
||
8i
10 j
+ = v
=
v
||
0
= v
3 i
4 j
+ =

2d
i

i
i

i
i
i

e
i

i
i

i
i
i

f
i

i
i

i
i
i

2
3
-
-
-
-
-
--
v
|
|
23 -
--
i
23 -
--
j
23 -
--
k
+
+
=
v
43 -
--
i
13 -
--
j
53 -
--
k
+
+
=
2
1
2
9
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
v
|
|
2
1
2
9
-
-
-
-
--
2
i
3
j
4
k
+
+
(
)
=
v
4
2
9
-
-
-
-
--
2
5
i
6
j
8
k
(
)
=
51
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
v
|
|
1
5
1
1
-
-
-
-
--
i
5
1
1
-
-
-
-
--
j
5
1
1
-
-
-
-
--
k
+
=
v
1
5
1
1
-
-
-
-
--
i
1
7
1
1
-
-
-
-
--
j
2
8
1
1
-
-
-
-
--
k
+
=
Similarly, for the vector , the components could be expressed as
the matrix .
The properties of vector addition and subtraction, scalar multiplication and the
dot product can be formulated in terms of the properties of matrices.
Addition of and :
Scalar multiplication of :
Dot product of and :
= [a b c]
= [ap + bq + cr]
1 Consider the vectors and .
Use matrix operations to calculate:
a
b the scalar resolute of on
c the vector resolute of parallel to
d the vector resolute of perpendicular to .
In mathematics there is often more than one method to represent an idea. For
example, a fraction of a number can be written using a proper fraction or a
decimal fraction 0.75. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.
A vector in two dimensions can be represented in three ways:
1 in component form using and
2 as a column matrix
3 by giving magnitude and direction.
That is, , or (5, 53.1) can all be used to represent the same vector.
2 Suppose that your class is going to use one of these forms of notation. By
considering the strengths and weaknesses of each, decide which one you will
use.
w
pi
q j
rk
+ + =
p
q
r
v
a
b
c
p
q
r
a p +
b q +
c r +
= +
v
2
a
b
c
2a
2b
2c
=
v
a
b
c
T
p
q
r
p
q
r
u
2i
3 j
4k
+ + = v
2i
3 j
4k
=
u
3
4
---
i
3i
4 j
+
3
4

21
21
29
------ 2i
3 j
4k
+ + ( )
4
29
------ 25i
6 j
8k
( )
21
29
----------
Time-varying vectors
Introduction
Consider a vector where the x- and y-components are not constants, but vary with time.
So, instead of writing , we write .
In theory, x(t) and y(t) can be any functions, but often there is a limitation in that t 0.
For example, suppose x(t) = t
2
and y(t) = t. Thus, .
We can tabulate values for at various values of time t.
So at each point of time we get a new vector; thus
we can talk about a vector function of time.
We can join the heads of each of these vectors, as
shown at right. The dashed line indicates the path that
the head of the vector takes. Note that the tail of all
these vectors is the origin. How can we nd the
equation of this path?
Finding the equation of the path
Consider a vector function of time .
The expressions x(t) and y(t) are referred to as parametric equations.
If we can solve these simultaneous equations, by eliminating t, we can get an
expression in terms of x and y only. This is best seen by example.
The most difcult work is often in step 2, nding equivalent functions of t for both x
and y. Sometimes squaring (or taking the square root of) one or more of the x(t) and y(t)
functions will yield successful results. Otherwise the simultaneous equations can be
solved using substitution as demonstrated in the following example.
t x(t) y(t)
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 4 2
3 9 3
4 16 4
u
xi
y j
+ = u
x t ( )i
y t ( ) j
+ =
u
t
2
i
t j
+ =
u
+
4i
2 j
+
9i
3 j
+
16i
4 j
+
y
x
1
1
2
3
4
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
u
x t ( )i
y t ( ) j
+ =
Let a particles position, as a function of time, be given by . Find the equation
of the path, assuming t 0.
THINK WRITE
Express the and components of
in terms of their time functions.
x = t
2
y = t
Express each equation in terms of an
identical function of t.
x = t
2
y
2
= t
2
Equate the two expressions.
t
2
= x = y
2
So x = y
2
, or
Make y the subject.
y =
u
t
2
i
t j
+ =
1
i
2
3
4 x
19
WORKEDExample
Find the equation of the path of a particle whose position is given by:
, t 0
Sketch the graph of its path.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Express the and components in terms
of their time functions.
x = 2t
y = t
2
t
Express t as a function of x.
t =
Substitute for t in the equation y = t
2
t.
y =
Simplify.
=
Since t 0, 0.
Since t 0, 0
State the domain of the equation. x 0
Use a graphics calculator to sketch the
graph over the domain [0, ).
v
2t i
t
2
t ( ) j
+ =
1
i
2
x
2
---
3
x
2
---

2
x
2
---
4
x
2
4
-----
x
2
---
5
x
2
---
x
2
---
6
7
2
3
0
(1, )
1
4
y
x
20
WORKEDExample
Let a particles position as a function of time be given by .
a Find the equation of the path.
b Sketch the graph of the motion of the particle.
c State the period of the motion.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Express the and components of in
terms of their time functions.
a x = cos t
y = sin t
Square both sides of each equation so that a
trigonometric identity can be used to eliminate t.
x
2
= cos
2
t
y
2
= sin
2
t
Add the two equations.
x
2
+ y
2
= cos
2
t + sin
2
t
Use the trigonometric identity cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1
to simplify the equation.
x
2
+ y
2
= 1
b The equation represents a circle of radius 1
and centre (0, 0).
b
c The period of cos t and sin t is 2 (the path
makes one revolution every 2).
c Period = 2.
u
cos t i
sin t j
+ =
1
i
2
3
4
21
WORKEDExample
0
y
x
1
1
1
1
To draw the graph of a time-varying vector, we need to express the components in
terms of parametric equations. Consider drawing the graph of the position vector
= 2cos t + 3sin t from Worked example 22 using a graphics calculator.
1. Press and select GRAPH. Ensure that the
Angle setting is shown as radians. Press
[SET UP] and alter the setting for Angle if necessary.
Press (Rad) for radians.
2. Press to accept this setting. Press (TYPE)
followed by (Parm) to select the parametric
equations option.
Let a particles position as a function of time be given by . Find the
equation of the path and sketch its graph.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Express the and components of in terms of
their functions.
x = 2 cos t
y = 3 sin t
In this case, rst eliminate the constants in front of
the trigonometric functions.
= cos t
= sin t
Square both sides of the equation. = cos
2
t
= sin
2
t
Add the 2 equations. + = cos
2
t + sin
2
t
Use the trigonometric identity cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1. + = 1
This is the equation of an ellipse.
u
2 cos t i
3 sin t j
+ =
1
i
2
x
2
---
y
3
---
3
x
2
4
-----
y
2
9
-----
4
x
2
4
-----
y
2
9
-----
5
x
2
4
-----
y
2
9
-----
6
0
y
x
2
3
2
3
22
WORKEDExample
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Vector functions
of time
u
MENU
SHIFT
F2
EXE F3
F3
3. Enter the x-component by completing the entry line
for Xt1= with 2 cos t. (Press to enter t.)
Similarly, enter the y-component by completing the
entry line for Yt1= with 3 sin t. Press after each
entry.
4. Press (DRAW) to display the graph. Note that
with the standard window setting used, there are not
equal scale values on the two axes so it doesnt give
a true representation of the shape of the graph.
5. Press (ZOOM) followed by ( )
for more options. Press (SQR) to correct the
V-Window settings so that the x-axis and y-axis
values are identical. (You can also experiment with
other Zoom options to enhance the display.)
6. To obtain a clearer view of the graph, you can adjust
the Window settings. Press (V-WIN) and
adjust the values for Xmin, Xmax, Ymin and Ymax.
Alternatively, press (V-WIN) followed by
(INIT) to initialise the V-Window. Press
and then press (DRAW) to display the graph
with this new setting.
1. First ensure that the Angle setting is shown as
radians. Press cto access the home screen and
select 8: System Information followed by 2:
System Settings. Press euntil you reach Angle
and then select Radian by using the arrow keys.
Press to accept this setting.
2. Continue pressing euntil you highlight OK. Press
to select OK. Open a new Graphs & Geometry
document (press /N and select 2: Add Graphs &
Geometry). Press band select 3: Graph Type
followed by 2: Parametric.
3. Enter the x-component by completing the entry
line for x1(t) with 2 cos t. Similarly, enter the
y-component by completing the entry line for
y1(t) with 3 sin t. (Use the arrow keys to move
between entry lines.)
X,q,T
EXE
F6
SHIFT F2 F6
s
F2
SHIFT F3
SHIFT F3
F1 EXE
F6
4. Press to display the graph. If the entry line is
covering too much of the graph and you wish to hide
it, press /G. (To bring the entry line back, press
/Gagain.)
5. To obtain a clearer view of the graph, you can adjust
the window settings. Press b and select 4: Window
followed by 1: Window Settings. Adjust the values
for XMin, XMax, YMin and YMax.
Alternatively, press band select 4: Window
followed by 3: Zoom - In. Use the arrow keys to
dene the centre point of the zoom and press .
This will increase the size of the graph by a factor of
approximately 2. (Continue to press to increase
the size of the graph as required.)
These techniques work well for 2-dimensional vectors, but 3-dimensional vectors
usually are more difcult as the paths are much more complicated. Three-dimensional
vectors will not be covered in this part of the course.
Let = (2t + 1) + (3t 4) be the position vector of Ship A.
Let = (3t 2) + (2t + 3) be the position vector of Ship B.
Find where the ships paths cross.
THINK WRITE
Express the and components for the path
of Ship A in terms of their time functions.
Ship A: x = 2t + 1
y = 3t 4
Make t the subject of each equation. = t
= t
Equate the two expressions. =
Simplify the equation and make y the
subject. Call this equation A.
3x 3 = 2y + 8
y = [A]
Express the and components of Ship B
in terms of their time functions.
Ship B: x = 3t 2
y = 2t + 3
Make t the subject of each equation.
= t
= t
u
1
i
2
x 1
2
-----------
y 4 +
3
------------
3
x 1
2
-----------
y 4 +
3
------------
4
3x 11
2
------------------
5
i
6 x 2 +
3
------------
y 3
2
-----------
23
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
Note: Time-varying vectors will be considered in more detail in Chapter 8.
Use a graphics calculator to assist where appropriate in the following exercise.
1 For each of the following, nd the equation of the path, assuming t 0.
a
b
c
d
2
The value of when t = 0, for the vector is:
A 0 B C D E none of these
THINK WRITE
Equate the two expressions. =
Simplify the equation and make y the
subject. Call this equation B.
2x + 4 = 3y 9
y = [B]
The ships paths will cross when the two
equations (equations A and B) are equal.
Equating equations A and B:
=
Solve for x. 9x 33 = 4x + 26
5x = 59
x = 11.8
Substitute x = 11.8 into equation B to
nd y.
Substituting into equation B:
y =
= 12.2
State the solution.
Note: Although the paths cross, the ships
might not be there at the same time!
The ships paths cross at the point with
coordinate (11.8, 12.2).
7
x 2 +
3
------------
y 3
2
-----------
8
2x 13 +
3
------------------
9
3x 11
2
------------------
2x 13 +
3
------------------
10
11
2 11.8 ( ) 13 +
3
-------------------------------
12
If , t 0, then the equation of the path of a particle can be found
by solving the equations x(t) and y(t) simultaneously.
u
x t ( )i
y t ( ) j
+ =
remember
7E
WORKED
Example
19
u
2t i
t j
=
u
t 1 ( )i
3t j
=
u
t 3 + ( )i
4t
2
j
+ =
u
2t i
t
3
j
+ =
multiple choice
u
t 3 + ( )i
4t
2
j
+ =
3i
3i 4 j
+ 4i
4 j
+
y
x
2
--- =
y 3x 3 =
y 4 x 3 ( )
2
=
y
x
3
8
----- =
3 a Find the equation of the path of a particle whose position is given by:
b Sketch the graph of its path.
4 a Find the equation of the path of a particle whose position is given by:
b Sketch the graph of its path.
5 Let a particles position as a function of time be given by .
b Sketch the graph of the motion of the particle.
c State the period of the motion of this particle.
6 A particles position as a function of time is given by .
b Sketch its graph.
7 A particles position as a function of time is given by
.
b Sketch its graph.
8 Let a particles position, as a function of time, be given by:
Find the equation of the path and sketch its graph.
9 Let a particles position, as a function of time, be given by:
Find the equation of the path and sketch its graph.
10 Find the equation of the paths described by each of the following vector functions:
a (Hint: Add x -and y-components and factorise.)
What is the initial position of ?
When does x = y? What is the position at this time?
b
c
11 Let be the position vector of Ship A.
Let be the position vector of Ship B.
Find where the ships paths cross.
12 Let . Find the equation of the path. Consider vector .
Show that the path of this vector is the same as the path of . Assuming both vectors
equations start when t = 0, do these vectors ever coincide?
WORKED
Example
20
v
t
2
--- i
t
2
t + ( ) j
+ =
v
t 1 + ( )i
t
2
2t ( ) j
+ =
WORKED
Example
21
u
cos 2t i
sin 2t j
+ =
u
3cos 2t i
3sin 2t j
+ =
u
1 cos t + ( )i
2 sin t + ( ) j
+ =
WORKED
Example
22
u
3cos 2t i
sin 2t j
+ =
u
2cos t i
4sin t j
=
u
t
2
4 +
t 2 + ( )
2
------------------ i
4t
t 2 + ( )
2
------------------ j
+ =
u
t 2 + ( )i
t 1 + ( )
2
j
+ =
u
2 cos t 3 + ( )i
3 sin t 1 ( ) j
+ =
WORKED
Example
23
u
3t 1 + ( )i
4t 2 ( ) j
+ =
v
2t 3 + ( )i
5t 1 + ( ) j
+ =
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 7.2
u
t i
t
2
j
+ = v
e
t
i
e
2t
j
+ =
u

b
0
y
x

b
0
1
1
3
y
x
(2, 1)
Note: x 1
0
y
x
1
1
1
1
b
0
y
x
3
3
3
3
b

8
x
2
9
----- y
2
+ 1 =
0
y
x
3
1
1
3

9
x
2
4
-----
y
2
16
------ + 1 =
0
y
x
2
4
4
2

; ;

t

=

2, y 1 x = u
0 ( ) i
= u
1
2
--- i
1
2
--- j
+ =

y

=

(

x

1)

2

, x 2
x 3 ( )
2
4
-------------------
y 1 + ( )
2
9
------------------- + 1 =

x

=

,

y

=

19
7
------
2
7
---

y

=

x

2

; No, since is always ahead of . v

y

=

4

x

2

+

2

x
y

=

x

2

4

x

+

3

x

2

+

y

2

=

1
Period

=

x

2

+

y

2

=

9
Period

=

(

x

1)

2

+

(

y

+

2)

2

=

1
Period

=

2

b
0
y
x
2 1
2
3
1
Vectors and scalars
Denition: A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.
Equality of vectors: Two vectors are equal if both magnitude and direction are
equal.
Addition of vectors: To add two vectors, take the tail of one vector and join it to the
head of the other. The result of addition is the vector from the tail of the rst vector
to the head of the second.
Subtraction of vectors: Subtract vectors by adding the negative of the second vector
to the rst vector.
Multiplication of vectors (by a scalar): Multiply the magnitude of the vector by the
scalar, maintaining the direction of the original vector.
Position vectors in 2 and 3 dimensions
Magnitude of a vector: If , magnitude =
Direction of a vector (2-D only): If , direction = = tan
1
x- and y-components of a vector: Given magnitude and direction, the x- and
y- components are given by:
x = cos
y = sin
Unit vector: The unit vector of a vector , in the direction of , denoted by is:
Locating vectors: If A and B are points with position and respectively then
Multiplying two vectors the dot product
Scalar (dot) product: The scalar or dot product of two vectors and is denoted
by .
Calculation of dot product: Where is the angle between two vectors:
cos
Algebraic calculation of dot product: Let and
.
Then .
If , then and are perpendicular.
If , then and are parallel.
summary
u
xi
y j
+ = zk
+ u
x
2
y
2
z
2
+ + =
u
xi
y j
+ =
y
x
--
u
----- =
a
AB b
=
u
=
u
x
1
i
= y
1
j
z
1
k
+ +
v
x
2
i
= y
2
j z
2
k
+ +
u
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
z
1
z
2
+ + =
u
0 = u
kv
k R , = u
Resolving vectors scalar and vector resolutes
Scalar resolute of on : Let be a unit vector in the direction of . The scalar
resolute of on is given by .
Vector resolute of parallel to : Let be a unit vector in the direction
of .
Vector resolute of perpendicular to :
or
If , t 0, then the equation of the path of a particle can be found
by solving the equations x(t) and y(t) simultaneously.
v
||
u
( )u
=
v
( )u
=
v
||
=
u
x t ( )i
y t ( ) j
+ =
1
If and , then is equal to:
2 A re observation tower reaches 40 m above the ground. Susan is 400 m from the tower,
which is at a bearing of 60 (N 60 E) from her. State the position vector from Susans
current position to the top of the tower.
3
The vector with a magnitude of 5 is:
4
Let the position vector for point P be and for point Q be . Then
the magnitude of the vector is given by:
5 A boat sails 5 km due east from H, turns northward at a bearing of 45 (N 45 E) for a
distance of 10 km and then travels due north for a further 5 km to point X.
a Find the position vector from H to X.
b Find the distance from H to X (correct to 2 decimal places).
6
If and , then is equal to:
A B C
D E
A
B
C
D E
A B C
D 4 E 1
A 10 B 0 C 480 D 6 E 33
CHAPTER
review
7A
multiple choice
u
4i
3 j
0.2k
+ = v
2i
4 j
+ = 4u
2.5v
11i
22 j
3.3k
+ 6i
0.8k
+ 8i
12 j
0.2k

21i
13 j
2.3k
11i
13 j
7A,B
Susan
40 m
400 m
E
N
60
7B
multiple choice
3i
+ +
2i
5 j
4k
+ +
5i
5 j
5k
+ +
6i
3 j
4k
+ 25i
7B
multiple choice
3i
4 j
5k
+ i
3 j
4k
+
PQ
3 2 134 553
7B
7C
multiple choice
u
3i
2 j
4k
+ = v
4i
5 j
+ + = u
200 3i
200 j
40k
+ +
5 5 2 + ( )i
5 5 2 + ( ) j
+

17.07 km
7
The angle between and is equal to:
8
A unit vector perpendicular to is:
9
If , and it is known that is perpendicular to , then a is:
10
The angle between and is:
11 Let and . Find the angle between the two vectors, in radians, to
4 decimal places.
12 Let and . Find:
13 Find the angles that the vector makes with the x, y and z axes.
14 Find value(s) of p, such that is perpendicular to .
Using the vectors and answer questions 15 and 16.
15
The scalar resolute of on is given by:
16
The vector resolute of parallel to is:
A 0 B 12.3 C 45 D 60 E 90
A B C D E
A 0 B 1 C 1 D 6
E cannot be determined with the given information
A cos
1
0
B cos
1
C cos
1
D cos
1
E cos
1
a b c d
e the angle between and .
A
B
C
D
E 4
A
B C
D E
7C
multiple choice
u
3i
2 j
= v
16i
24 j
+ =
7C
multiple choice
3i
4 j
4i
3 j
+ 0i
0 j
+ 0.8i
0.6 j
+ 4i
3 j
3i
4 j
+
7C
multiple choice
u
3i
a j
+ = v
2ai
a j
= u
7C
multiple choice
u
4i
2 j
3k
+ = v
2i
2 j
=
1
58
----------
3
10
----------
1
10
----------
6
58
----------
7C
u
4i
3 j
+ = v
2 j
+ =
7AC
u
3i
5 j
= v
4i
+ =
u
+ u
u v
7C
v
3i
2 j
4k
+ =
7C
pi
2 1 3p ( ) j
+ 2pi
3 j
+
a
2 j
= b
2i
3 j
+ =
multiple choice
7D
a
4
13
------
4
13
----------
4
5
---
4
5
-------
7D
multiple choice
b
4
5
-------
4
5
--- i
2 j
( )
4
13
------ 2i
3 j
+ ( )
4
13
------ i
2 j
( )
4
5
--- 2i
3 j
+ ( )

1.3909
i
4 j
7i
6 j

17
3
34
---------- i
5
34
---------- j

135

56.1

, 111.8

, 42.0

9 69
2
-------------------
17 Let and .
a Find a unit vector parallel to .
b Resolve into components parallel and perpendicular to .
18
Let be a position vector of an object, whose position varies with time. If
then the path this object takes is:
A a straight line
B a parabola
C a circle
D an ellipse
E unable to be determined with the given information
19 Find the equation of the path of the time-varying position vector . State
the type of path (linear, parabolic, etc.). Hence, sketch its graph.
1 A radar station tracks a jet ghter ying with constant speed. If the radar station is considered
to be at the origin, the ghters starting position is and 1 minute later it is at
. The units are in kilometres.
a State the vector which indicates the path of the ghter.
b State a unit vector in the direction of this path.
c Find a vector, in terms of a parameter m, which represents the position of the ghter at any
time along the path.
d Find the point along the path where the ghter is closest to the station.
e Find the distance from the station at this point.
f Find the speed of the plane in km/h.
g How fast is the plane rising (or falling)?
7D
u
2i
3 j
+ = v
2k
+ =
u
7E
multiple choice
u
t ( )
u
3 sin t i
2 cos t j
+ =
7E
u
1
t
--- i
= 2 t 1 ( ) j
+
2i
8 j
+ +
8i
4 j
13k
+

19

, hyperbolic y
2
x
2
----- = 2
0
y
x
1
2
6i
12 j
12k
+
1
3
--- i
2 j
2k
+ ( )
2i
8 j
m
3
---- i
2 j
2k
+ ( ) + + +
1
3
--- 10i
16 j
11k
+ + ( )
7.28 km
1080 km/h
720 km/h
2
14
---------- i
3
14
---------- j
1
14
---------- k
+
, v
||
1
2
--- 2i
3 j
+ ( ) = v
1
2
--- j
3k
+ ( ) =
2 Consider the box shown at right.
The coordinates (in cm) of point D are (3, 0, 4), while the
coordinates of E are (0, 5.5, 4).
a Find the coordinates of point C.
b Express the line joining C to E as a vector.
c Show that the two diagonals in the same plane as CE
intersect with an angle of 73.7.
d Find the volume of the box in litres.
e Express the longest diagonal, from the origin, as a vector.
f Find the length of this diagonal.
g Find the angle that this diagonal makes with the other long diagonal.
3 The parallelogram OXYZ has O at the origin. The vector joining O to Z is given by while
the vector joining O to X is given by .
a Sketch the parallelogram, labelling all vertices.
b State the vectors joining Z to Y and Y to X.
c State the vectors which represent the diagonals of the parallelogram.
d Find the cosine of the angle between the diagonals. Express your answer in simplest surd
form.
e Find the angle that OX makes with the x-axis.
f State the vector resolute of the vector joining O to X in the direction of OZ.
g Let P be a point on the extended line of XY, such that the vector joining P to Z is
perpendicular to OY. Find the coordinates of P.
h Find the area of the parallelogram.
4 A river ows westeast at 5 m/s. A swimmer, in still water, can swim 3 m/s and tries to swim
directly across the river from south to north.
a Draw a vector diagram to illustrate this situation.
b Find the resultant speed of the swimmer.
c Find the bearing of the swimmer.
d If it took the swimmer 2 minutes to reach the opposite bank, how wide is the river?
e How far downstream would the swimmer be carried?
f Repeat parts b to e if the swimmer had started on the north bank.
5 The top of an 8-m diving board lies over the
swimming pool as illustrated at right.
Sally sits 25 metres away in the corner of the
swimming pool and takes a bearing of 35 (N 35 E)
to the feet of her friend, Kate, who is about to do a
belly op.
a State the position vector from Sallys current
location to her friends feet.
b Find the distance between Sally and her friends
feet.
c Determine the angle of elevation from Sally (at ground level) to the top of her friends
head if her friend is 1.75 metres tall. (Give your answer to the nearest tenth of a degree.)
C
E
D
z
x
y
5i
2i
7 j
+
N 8 m
35
25 m
X
E
Sally
Kate
(3, 5.5, 0)
3i
4k
+

66 cm

3

=

0.066 litres
3i
5.5 j
4k
+ +

7.43 cm
84.5

a
O
Z 5i
y
x
2i + 7j
Y(7, 7) X
~
~
~
2i
7 j
+ 5i
,
7i
7 j
+ 3i
7 j
+ ,
2 29
29
-------------

74.1

2i

2, 7)
35 square units

a N
5
3

5.83 m/s
059

360 m
600 m
Same result, except bearing

=

180

059

=

121

14.34

+

20.48

+

8 i

26.25 m
21.3

6 Because of air resistance, a skydiver is eventually falling at a constant speed. If his target
point on the ground is considered to be at the origin, the skydivers starting position is
, while 1 minute later he is at . (The units are in kilometres.)
a Indicate the skydivers path with a vector.
b State a unit vector in the paths direction.
c Find the distance from the target to the skydiver at this point (that is, after 1 minute).
d Find the speed of the skydiver in kilometres per hour.
6i
4 j
12k
+ + 3i
5 j
4k
+
Digital doc:
Test Yourself
Chapter 7
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8 i

8 )
1
154
------------- i

km 5 2

744.6 km/h
In this
chapter
8A Force diagrams and the
triangle of forces
8B Newtons First Law
of Motion
8C Momentum
8D Relative velocity
8E Using vectors in geometry
8
syllabus
reference
Core topic:
Vectors and applications
Vector
applications
Introduction
In the previous chapter, we discussed the theory of vectors. Vectors are the ideal math-
ematical tool for dealing with the motion of, and forces on, objects in two and three
dimensions. In this chapter we consider these applications of vectors forces in
equilibrium, momentum and relative velocity.
Force diagrams and the triangle
of forces
Introduction
An understanding of the causes of motion is fundamental to our understanding of the
world. All around us objects are in motion. In the seventeenth century, Sir Isaac
Newton succeeded in producing three simple laws which accurately described the
motion of large objects. His mathematical model was based on the effect that forces
have on the acceleration of objects treated as point particles. These effects are
embodied in his First and Second Laws of Motion.
What is a force?
We all know from experience what a force is. It is a push or a pull. The force due to
gravity acts on us all the time. A bar magnet repels a second bar magnet: a magnetic
force acts here. The force of friction slows down the wheel of a bike when the brakes
are applied. Air resistance retards the motion of athletes. In both these cases there is
relative motion between two objects. The strings of a tennis racquet when stretched
exert a force on a tennis ball while the strings and ball are in contact. In all these
examples, objects which have unbalanced forces acting on them tend to undergo a
change in their motion; objects which have a balanced set of forces acting on them
maintain their motion. Objects under balanced forces are said to be in equilibrium.
The forces that we will discuss in this chapter can be classied as one of three types:
eld forces, applied forces, and resistive forces.
Field forces
Field forces act without physical
contact between objects. The
weight force which acts on an
object due to the presence
of an external
gravitational eld or
the electric force
which inuences
the motion of a
charged particle
are examples of
eld forces.

two- and three-dimensional vectors and their algebraic and geometric representation
resolution of vectors into components acting at right angles to each other
applications of vectors in both life-related and purely mathematical situations
C h a p t e r 8 Ve c t o r a p p l i c a t i o n s 355
Applied forces
Applied forces are the pushes or
pulls exerted on objects due to
contact. They are forces with
which we have daily experience.
The normal contact force acting
upwards on a book resting on a
table or on us as we stand on the
oor or sit on a chair are examples
of applied forces. Other examples
of applied forces include tensile
forces in taut strings and cables
(as in the cable used by a crane
or rescue helicopter), and com-
pressive forces acting on weight-
bearing rods.
Resistive forces
Air drag and friction are examples
of resistive forces. This type of
force occurs when two objects
move or attempt to move relative to
one another. Air drag has been put
to good use in the design of hang
glider; it is found also, in the resis-
tance between a moving body like a
car and the air. An example of fric-
tion is seen in a bicycle that is
slowing down on level ground, even
without the brakes being applied.
What is a particle?
We are all familiar with the notion of a particle, but in Newtonian dynamics a particle
is used to model an object and is taken to be a point. That is, the size of the object is not
relevant and any internal movements such as spin and change in shape are not included
in the model. A particle can, in principle, model the movement of a bullet, a car, a diver
or a planet, provided that we accept the model as an approximation to the motion of the
real objects they represent. Any force that acts on a particle is said to act through the
point that denes the position of the particle.
For example, if we were to describe the various forces acting on a car, we would
include the upwardly directed contact forces exerted on the car by the road at each of
the four tyres in addition to frictional forces exerted on the tyres by the road. If the car
was moving, we would add the drag forces due to the movement of the car through the
air. There would be the weight force acting on the car due to the gravitational eld of
the earth. If we were to treat the car as a particle, we would describe all these forces as
acting through a single point. The word particle serves to dene the position of an
object and sets it apart from the rest of the immediate environment.
What assumptions do we make in Newtonian dynamics?
In modelling motion we make the following assumptions so that problems can be
solved to give reasonably accurate predictions.
In many cases we ignore the presence of forces which would be insignicant, such as
air drag on slowly moving objects.
The resultant force
Crucial to a good understanding of Newtons laws of motion is the concept of a net or
resultant force acting on a particle. Force is a vector quantity because a force has not
only a magnitude but also a direction. The unit of force is the newton (N). (This is a
derived unit, which is simply one dened in terms of the standard units, namely dis-
tance, time and mass. This will be discussed later.)
Forces can be described in two ways:
1. Using notation
For example, N (Only coplanar forces will be considered.)
2. Using size and direction notation
For example, N, N45E is a force of magnitude 200 N directed at an angle
45 from north towards east.
The net or resultant force is simply the vector sum of all real physical forces acting
on the particle. It represents the sum or total force acting on a particle representing an
object. It is not in itself a real force, only the sum of real forces.
The net or resultant force acting on a particle is the vector sum of all real forces
acting on that particle.
Force diagrams
Individual forces are one of three types eld, contact or resistive and are drawn
as vectors which indicate their direction and magnitude.
Term Meaning
Light (body or string)
Smooth
Inextensible
Rigid
Perfectly elastic
Object has no mass.
No frictional forces are exerted.
Strings or ropes do not stretch.
Objects do not change shape when forces are applied
to them.
Applied forces do not permanently deform an object
(for example, a spring).
R
2i
4 j
=
F
200 =
Draw vector diagrams to represent the forces involved in the situations shown below as a
set of vectors acting on a point particle. Indicate the relative size of the force by the length
of the vector arrows. Further indicate the nature of each of the forces acting by labelling
them for weight, for normal contact, for friction, for applied force and for
air drag or air resistance.
THINK WRITE
In the force diagrams for a to f, treat each
object as a particle.
a There are two equal, opposing forces: the
weight force down, which is a eld force,
and the normal contact force up.
a
b A cart moving at constant velocity has
balanced horizontal forces.
b
Any resistive forces ( ) must be balanced
by an applied force ( ) to keep the cart
moving at constant velocity.
The cart will have balanced vertical
forces arising from the weight force of
the cart and the normal contact force.
c An accelerating cart will have balanced
vertical forces as in a and b but
unbalanced horizontal forces giving rise to
an acceleration.
c
W
a b c
d e f
A stationary person Constant velocity Accelerating
Velocity
Cricket ball
through the air
Ball rolling down a slope
Constant
velocity
N
~
~
W
1
N
W
A D
~
~
~ ~
2
D
3
N
W
A D
~
~
~ ~
1
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
d A ball moving through the air will have
the vertical force of weight and the
resistive force of air drag.
d
The drag force will be in the opposite
direction to that of the ball.
e A ball rolling down a slope will have a
weight force directed vertically down, a
normal contact force perpendicular to the
slope and a resistive or frictional force.
e
f The parachutist will have two balanced
vertical forces: one down due to the weight
force and the second upwards due to air
drag.
f
1
W
D
~
~
W
~
2
~
~
~
W
N
F
~
~
D
W
Three forces , and act on a ball as shown in the force vector diagram at
right. The three forces are described by the vectors:
a Find the resultant force , the sum of the three forces , and .
b Find the magnitude of the resultant force .
c Find the angle that the vector makes with the vector.
d The force is changed so that = 0; that is, the resultant force equals zero. Find the
force .
THINK WRITE
a The resultant force is the sum of the
forces , and .
a
Evaluate .
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
1
4i
5 j
=
F
2
10i
2 j
+ =
F
3
6i
7 j
. + =
F
3
F
1
F
2
j
i
~
~
~
~
~
R
1
F
2
F
3
R
1
R
1
1
R
1
F
2
F
3
F
3
F
1
~
~
~
~
~
~
F
2
j
i
R
R
=
F
1
F
2
F
3
+ + =
2
R
4i
5 j
10i
2 j
+ 6i
7 j
+ + =
8i
4 j
+ =
2
WORKEDExample
The triangle of forces
If three non-parallel forces acting on a particle have a
resultant force of zero then the three forces can be rep-
resented in a triangle since the vector sum of the forces is
zero.
From the gure at right, if = + + = 0, then
the three forces , and can be represented in a tri-
angle representing the magnitude and direction of the three
forces.
The advantage of representing three forces in a triangle
is that the sine rule and/or cosine rule can be used to solve
some problems involving three forces whose vector sum is
zero. That is:
Sine rule: .
Cosine rule: a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
2bc cos A.
THINK WRITE
b The magnitude of the vector is its length. b
The symbol or R is used to represent
the magnitude of a vector .
Recall that and
, and evaluate .
c Dene . c Let the angle that makes with be .
Then use the result for the dot product of
two vectors cos .
Let cos
cos =
Evaluate to the nearest tenth of a
degree.
cos =
cos 26.6
d The vector sum of all forces is now equal
to zero. Set = 0.
d
Make the subject of the equation.
Substitute and into the equation
and simplify to nd .
1
R
2
R
=
3
i
1 = =
i
0 = = R
8i
4 j
+ ( )

8i
4 j
+ ( ) =
8
2
4
2
+ =
80 =
4 5 =
1
R
2
a
=
R
=
8i
4 j
+ ( )

i
4 5 1
----------------------------
3
8
4 5
----------
1
R
1
F
2
F
3
+ + =
0 =
2
F
1
F
1
F
2
F
3
+ ( ) =
3
F
2
F
3
F
1
F
1
10i
2 j
6i
7 j
+ + ( ) =
4i
9 j
=
X
Z Y
~
~ ~
X
Z
Y
~
~
~
C A
B
a c
b
R
a
sin A
------------
b
sin B
------------
c
sin C
------------- = =
Note: The angle between two forces in the real situation and the angle between them
in a triangle of three forces are supplementary; that is, they sum to 180.
Three forces , and act on an object such that the resultant force is zero. The
force acts at an angle of 150 to the force and they have the same magnitude of 20 N.
a Determine the magnitude of .
b Find the angle that the force makes with to the nearest degree.
THINK WRITE
a Draw a force vector diagram of three
forces acting through a point with an
angle of 150 between and and an
angle of between and .
a
Since the resultant of the three forces is
zero, place them in a triangle of forces.
Mark the angle between and as
180 150 = 30 and the angle
between and as 180 .
Substitute a = C, b = 20, c = 20 and
A = 30 into the cosine rule.
cos 30
= 107.18
Solve for C to nd the magnitude of . C = 10.35
State the solution. The magnitude of force is
approximately 10.35 newtons.
b Use the sine rule with a = 20,
A = 180 , b = 10.35 and B = 30.
b
Invert both sides of the equation.
Make sin(180 ) the subject of the
equation.
Find the value of 180 .
180 = sin
1
(0.9662)
= 75.06
Solve for . = 104.94
State the solution to the nearest degree.
The angle between forces and is
approximately 105.
A
1
A
A
C
B
150
~
~
~
2
A
C
B
30
(180 )
~
~
~
3
A
4
C
2
20
2
20
2
2 20 20 + =
5
C
6
C
1
20
sin 180 ( )
---------------------------------
10.35
sin 30
----------------- =
2
sin 180 ( )
20
---------------------------------
sin 30
10.35
----------------- =
3
sin 180 ( )
20 sin 30
10.35
------------------------- =
0.9662 =
4
5
6 B
3
WORKEDExample
Force diagrams and the
triangle of forces
1 Draw vector diagrams to represent forces which act on the following objects. Indicate
the relative size of the force by the length of the vector arrows. Further indicate the
nature of each of the forces acting by labelling them: for normal contact forces,
for gravitational forces (that is, weight), for applied forces, for air resistance
(drag) forces, and for friction forces.
a A book sitting on a table.
b A ball falling vertically through the air at constant speed.
c A car driving on a horizontal road at a constant speed.
d A boat drifting through the water at constant speed.
e A body sliding across a smooth horizontal surface at constant velocity.
f A car accelerating on a horizontal road.
g A body at rest on an inclined plane.
h A body sliding down an inclined plane at constant speed.
i A ball travelling vertically up (include air resistance).
j A ball travelling vertically down (include air resistance).
2
Refer to the diagram at right to answer the following questions.
a Using and notation, the exact value of the resultant force is:
A B
C D
E
1. Force is a vector quantity. Its derived unit is the newton.
1 N = 1 kg m/s
2
2. Types of force:
(a) Field forces occur without physical contact. A common eld force is the
gravitational force often referred to as weight.
(b) Normal contact forces occur between objects in contact or via strings,
where they are known as tensile forces.
(c) Friction forces occur when there is actual or attempted relative movement
between two objects in contact.
3. The resultant force is the vector sum of all physical
forces acting on an object. A force vector diagram
illustrates this with two forces and :
4. If the resultant of three coplanar, non-parallel forces
acting on a particle is zero then the three forces can be
represented in a triangle of forces.
5. Sine rule: .
6. Cosine rule: a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
2bc cos A.
F
2
F
2
F
1
F
1
R = F
1
+ F
2
~
~
~
~ ~ ~
~
R
1
F
2
a
sin A
------------
b
sin B
------------
c
sin C
------------- = =
remember
8A
WORKED
Example
1
N
multiple choice
y
x
3
4
4 3
3 3
i
4 3 3 + ( )i
7 j
+ 7 3i
3 4 3 + ( ) j
+
4 3 3 + ( )i
3 4 3 + ( ) j
+ 4 3 3 ( )i
7 j
+
4 3 3 + ( )i
4 3 3 ( ) j
+
1 a

b

c

d
e
N
W
Book
~
~
D
W
Ball
~
~
N
W
A F
Car
~
~
~ ~
N
W
A F
Boat
~
~
~
~
N
W
Sliding object
~
~

1
f
g
h
i
j
N
W
A F
Accelerating car
~
~
~
~
W
N
F
Body at rest
~
~
~
W
N
F
Sliding
body
~
~
~
D
W
Ball moving
up
~
~
D
W
Ball moving
down
~
~
b The magnitude and direction, anticlockwise from the direction, respectively of a
third force for the resultant force to be zero is nearest to:
3
The three coplanar forces , and act in such a way that
the resultant force is zero. Use a triangle of forces to assist in
answering the following questions.
a The magnitude of is:
b The angle between the forces and , to the nearest degree, is:
4 Two forces and act on an object. They are described by the vectors:
i
ii
iii .
For each of the above nd:
a the resultant force, , acting on the object
b the magnitude of the resultant force,
c a third force, , applied to the body so that the resultant force is equal to zero.
5 Three forces , and act on an object. They are described by the vectors:
i and
ii and .
For each of the above nd:
a the resultant force, , acting on the object
b the magnitude of the resultant force,
c the angle that the vector makes to the vector
d a fourth force, , applied to the body so that the resultant force is equal to zero.
6 In each of the following cases:
i nd the resultant force, , for the specied forces acting on a body
ii describe the additional force needed to attain equilibrium; that is, = 0.
a = 25 N at N30E and = 45 N at N30W
b and
c and
d = 10 N at S50W and = 7.0 N at N45W and = 12 N at N70E
7 Three forces , and act on an object such that the resultant
force = 0. The force acts at an angle of 120 to the force and has
the same magnitude as the force which is 10 N.
a Determine the magnitude of .
b Find the angle that the force makes to .
8 Three coplanar forces , and have magnitudes of 1000 N,
1200 N and 1700 N respectively. They act on a body such that the
resultant force is zero. Find the angle between and .
A 182 N, 49 B 15.3 N, 41 C 13.5 N, 41 D 182 N, 229 E 13.5 N, 221
A 15 N B 21 N C 3 N D 21 N E 0 N
A 37 B 53 C 143 D 137 E 127
i
A
C
B
(5 newtons)
(4 newtons)
~
~
~
multiple choice
A
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Digital doc:
EXCEL
Spreadsheet
Vector addition
WORKED
Example
2
F
1
F
2
F
1
13i
5 j
2
, 4i
9 j
+ = =
F
1
8i
6 j
, F
2
+ 14i
9 j
= =
F
1
2 2i
3 j
2
, 3 5i
2 j
+ = =
R
3
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
1
3i
5 j
2
, 4i
9 j
+ = = F
3
6i
2 j
=
F
1
i
2
, 2 i
3 j
+ = = F
3
2i
2 j
=
R
4
R
80 j
= F
50i
75 j
+ =
A
26i
80 j
= B
30i
92 j
+ =
F
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Digital docs:
SkillSHEET 8.1
Sine rule
SkillSHEET 8.2
Cosine rule
WORKED
Example
3
X

10 N
120

79.2

4 a i

ii

iii
b i

ii
iii
c i

ii

iii

9i
4 j
+
6i
3 j
(2 2 3 5 )i
97
3 5
54 12 10
9 i
4 j
6i
3 j
+
(3 5 2 2 )i
+

5 a i ii
b i ii
c i

63.4

ii

0

d i ii
i
2 j
+ ( 2 1) i
5 2 1
i
2 j
(1 2 )i

6 a i

61.4 N at N9.4

W

ii

61.4 N at S9.4

E

b i
ii
c i
ii
d i

2.9 N at N26.9

W

ii

2.9 N at S26.9

E
50i
5 j
50 i
5 j
+
4 i
12 j
+
4i
12 j
9 Three forces , and add to give a resultant force
equal to zero.
a Find if = 135, = 200 N and = 150 N.
b Find if = 100, = 135 and = 27 N.
c If = and = 60, show that = .
X
Z
Y
~
~
~
X
3 X
History
of mathematics
SIR ISAAC NEWTON ( 1642 1727)
During his lifetime ...
The Great Fire destroys much of
London.
The Great Plague of London
causes the death of more than
12000 people.
Huygens develops the pendulum
clock.
Lloyds of London starts its
insurance society.
Sir Isaac Newton was a great English
mathematician and physicist. He
developed the theory of differential calculus,
discovered the law of gravitation and is
regarded as the founder of modern physics.
Newton was the son of a wealthy man but his
father died just three months before his son was
born. He was not happy as a child and his
school reports describe him as idle and
inattentive. It is thought that he suffered from
bouts of depression throughout his life.
In 1661 Newton was admitted to Trinity
College, Cambridge. When bubonic plague
broke out in London and closed the university
in 1665 he went home to Lincolnshire. During
the next two years he began the work which
would lead to his revolutionary advances in
mathematics, optics, physics and astronomy. He
returned to Cambridge when it reopened after
the plague and was elected to a major
fellowship in 1668 at the age of only 26. He
published his theory of differential calculus in
1671. However, the German philosopher
Leibniz had been working in the same area and
a bitter quarrel developed as to who had made
the discovery rst. It became one of the
great controversies of the times.
In 1687 Newton published his
major work, the Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
The Principia is considered by
many to be the greatest scientic
book ever written. In it Newton
gives a mathematical description
of the laws of mechanics and
gravitation and applies this theory
to explain planetary and lunar
motion. His three laws of motion can
be expressed in simple terms as: 1. A body
at rest or in constant motion will stay in that
state until a force is applied; 2. Force = mass
multiplied by acceleration; 3. For any action
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In 1696 Newton took up a new direction
when he was appointed Warden of the Royal
Mint and then Master in 1699. He was
responsible for an urgently needed reform of the
coinage and also introduced measures to
prevent counterfeiting. He was knighted in
1705. In 1703 he was elected President of the
Royal Society and was re-elected each year
until he died in 1727 at the age of 85.
Questions
1. Why did Newton leave Cambridge in
1665?
2. Who else claimed to have discovered
differential calculus?
3. What did Newton describe and apply in
the Principia?
4. Name two of Newtons achievements as
Master of the Royal Mint.

77

37.6 N
Z
2 sin 60 X
=

Bubonic plague broke out and the university closed.
Leibniz
The laws of mechanics and gravitation
He reformed the coinage and introduced measures
to prevent counterfeiting.
Newtons First Law of Motion
Historically, Newtons First Law of Motion had its origins in some of the work done by
Galileo. The law concerns itself with the motion of a particle when the resultant force
acting on it is zero. It was a commonly held belief that in order to have motion, an
unbalanced force was required. This belief seemed quite natural: clearly, carts need to
be pulled by horses in order to move and that balls rolling across a lawn come to rest.
However, experiments showed that the force of friction could be used in both cases to
explain the apparent necessity of an applied force to maintain constant motion. It was
Newton who stated that in the absence of an unbalanced force (that is, = 0) acting on
a body, the body would continue in a state of uniform motion. The phrase uniform
motion is used to describe the motion of a body with zero acceleration; that is, the
velocity of the body is a constant.
Today we would write this as:
If = 0 (the resultant force acting on the body is zero)
then v = c (the velocity of the body is a constant)
and thus a = 0 (the acceleration of the body is zero).
If the resultant force acting on a body is zero, then its acceleration is zero.
It is important to recognise that the inference above is equally valid in reverse. That is,
If a = 0 (the acceleration of the body is zero)
then v = c (the velocity of the body is a constant)
and thus = 0 (the resultant force acting on the body is zero).
When the net or resultant force acting on an object is equal to zero, it is commonly
said that the body is in equilibrium. Such an object moves at a constant velocity.
These types of situation belong to a class of problems called statics.
To solve dynamics and related kinematics problems there is a clear strategy.
1. Read the question carefully.
2. Draw a clear diagram that contains all the information.
3. Superimpose arrows depicting vectors which act on the body in question. This
is called a force vector diagram.
4. Find the resultant force vector that is the sum of all forces acting on the body.
Mass and weight
We know from experience that some objects are harder to push than others; that is, it is
more difcult to modify their motion. We call this property of matter inertial mass. The
SI (Systme International dUnits) unit for mass is the kilogram. It is harder to stop or
accelerate a large truck than a small car, the truck having the greater mass.
Weight is a vector quantity. It is a force, equal to the product of the acceleration
due to gravity and the mass on which it is acting. We often refer to the weight of the
object but the object does not possess weight as an intrinsic quantity; it does, how-
ever, possess mass. The SI unit for weight, since weight is a force, is the newton.
Suppose that an astronaut is somewhere in space where there is a zero gravitational
eld (g = 0 N/kg); he may be 70 kg, but he is said to be weightless. The gravi-
tational eld strength g is a measure of the magnitude of the force of gravity acting
on a unit mass. Consequently it has the dimensions of force per unit mass. In SI units
this is the newton per kilogram (N/kg). The same 70 kg man on the surface of the
Earth where the vector has a magnitude of 9.8 N/kg down would have a weight of
R
686 N or 70 N downward. That is, the weight of a mass m in a gravitational eld
is given by the equation:
Note: The value for of 9.8 m/s
2
down is used universally in examples and problems
in this textbook. Sometimes the unit for is quoted as N/kg. This is the acceleration
due to gravity. For a mass of 1 kg, it becomes equal to the weight force when all other
forces are ignored.
Resolving a force into its components
In many cases the size of a force acting in a particular direction needs to be calculated.
For example, when a jet aircraft is taking off from a runway the engines provide a thrust.
Part of the thrust assists in lifting the plane up into the air (the vertical component) and
the other component exerts a horizontal push making the plane move forward. In the
diagram at right, the combined thrust of the jets engines is rep-
resented by a single vector acting on a particle representing
the aircraft.
If is the applied force acting on the plane due to the action
of the engines then we can write the force vector as the sum of
two vectors and which are parallel to the unit vectors
and respectively.
Thus = +
= +
where = cos
and = sin .
The quantities F
x
and F
y
are referred to as the components of the vector force in
the and directions respectively.
A force can be resolved into perpendicular components:
= Fcos + Fsin
where F = and is the angle between and .
For example, if the combined thrust of the engines is 2 10
6
N and the plane during
take-off had a 15 elevation angle then the vertical component would be:
F
y
= sin
= 2 10
6
sin 15
5.18 10
5
N
while the horizontal component would be:
F
x
= cos
= 2 10
6
cos 15
1.93 10
6
N
or (1.93 10
6
) + (5.18 10
5
)
Note: The and components
are usually horizontal and
vertical components respectively
but they can be rotated to suit a
particular problem.
g
mg
=
g
F
y
F
x
F
j
i
Aircraft
~
~
~
~
~
F
x
F
y
i
x
F
y
F
x
i
y
j
x
F
y
F
A water skier is being pulled along by rope attached to a speed boat across a horizontal lake.
The rope makes an angle of 5 to the horizontal and exerts a force of 6000 N on the skier.
a Calculate the horizontal component of the force exerted on the skier by the rope.
b Calculate the vertical component of the force exerted on the skier by the rope.
The skier is moving with a constant velocity.
c Calculate the size of the horizontal resistance forces on the skier.
THINK WRITE
The skier has four forces acting on him: the weight
force, , acting vertically downwards; the normal
reaction, , of the water on the skier, acting
vertically upwards; the tension force, , in the
rope, acting 5 to the horizontal; and the resistance
forces, , acting horizontally against the direction
of motion.
Draw a force vector diagram showing the forces
acting on the skier.
a Evaluate the magnitude of the horizontal
component of , T
H
.
a T
H
= 6000 cos 5
5997 N
b Evaluate the magnitude of the vertical
component of , T
V
.
b T
V
= 6000 sin 5
523 N
c Constant velocity means the acceleration is zero
and in turn the resultant of the horizontal forces
is zero.
c Since acceleration = 0,
The magnitude of the horizontal resistance
forces, F, is equal to the horizontal component of
the tension force, .
F = T
H
= 5997 N
1
W
N
F
T
W
5 ~
~
~
~
2
T
1
2
T
4
WORKEDExample
In a science laboratory a 1.0 kg mass is suspended by two taut
strings as shown at right. The tension forces in string 1 and
string 2 are and respectively.
a Draw a force vector diagram showing all three forces
which act on the 1.0 kg mass.
b By resolving vectors into and components nd the
magnitudes of and respectively.
THINK WRITE
a The mass has three forces acting on it:
the weight force vertically downwards
and the two tension forces. One tension
force acts horizontally; the second acts
at an angle of 42 to the horizontal.
Draw the force vector diagram.
a
b The weight vector can be written as g .
b = g
The rst tensile force can be written
as T
1
.
1
= T
1
The second tensile force can be resolved as
= T
2
cos 42 + T
2
sin 42 .
2
= T
2
cos 42 + T
2
sin 42
Express the resultant force, , as the
sum of the three forces.
= (T
1
T
2
cos 42) +
(T
2
sin 42 g)
Set the sum of the three vectors to zero
in accordance with Newtons First Law
of Motion.
But = 0 + 0 .
Set the component of to zero and
call it equation [1].
T
1
T
2
cos 42 = 0 [1]
Set the component of to zero and
call it equation [2].
T
2
sin 42 g = 0 [2]
Solve equation [2] for T
2
. T
2
=
14.6 N
Solve for T
1
by substituting T
2
into
equation [1].
T
1
= T
2
cos 42
10.9 N
Note: Part b could also be solved by
drawing a triangle of forces and solving
using trigonometry.
W = g = T
1
tan 42
T
1
=
10.9 N
and W = g = T
2
sin 42
T
2
=
14.6 N (as in part b above).
String 2
String 1
1.0-kg mass
j
i
42
~
~
T
1
T
2
i
1
T
2
1
2
j
i
42
T
1
W = g
T
2
~
~
~
~
~
~
1
j
2
i
3
T
2
i
4
R
5 R
6
i
7
j
8
g
sin 42
-----------------
9
j
i
42
T
1
W = g T
2
~
~
~
~
~
~
g
tan 42
-----------------
g
sin 42
-----------------
5
WORKEDExample
A car of mass 800 kg is parked in a street which has an angle of
elevation of 15. The direction is parallel down the street and the
direction is perpendicular to the street.
The car is subject to three forces, namely its weight, , the normal
contact force, , of the road acting on the car and the applied force
of the brake (this is actually a static friction force) .
a Draw a vector diagram indicating the three forces, , and , acting on the car,
taking the car as a particle.
b What is the magnitude of the resultant force ?
c Resolve the weight, , into its components and express it as a vector using notation.
d Calculate the magnitude of , the normal contact force.
e Calculate the magnitude of the applied force of the brake .
THINK WRITE
a A stationary car parked on a street will have a vertical
weight force, a normal contact force and a static frictional
force resisting its sliding or rolling down the street.
a
Draw the force vector diagram.
b The car is in equilibrium since it is stationary. b
Apply Newtons First Law of Motion: the resultant
force, , must be zero.
= 0
Therefore, the magnitude of the resultant force, R, is zero. R = 0 N
c Draw a diagram showing the resolution of the weight,
, into components parallel to and .
c
The component of parallel to , , is sin 15.
j
i
15
~
~
i
1
j
N
F
W
i
15
~
~
~
~
~
2
1
2
R
3
1
W
W
x
W
y
j
W
i
15
15
~
~
~
2
W
W
x
W
6
Example WORKED
Note: In general, when an object of mass m and hence weight is on an inclined
plane with incline angle , the weight vector can be resolved into two components:
1. one, of magnitude mg sin , acting down the plane
2. one, of magnitude mg cos , acting perpendicular to the plane. This is opposed by
the normal contact force, .
Friction
A body resting on a table is acted on by
a number of forces. As we have discussed
the weight acts downwards and is given
by the formula
= mass .
The normal reaction, , is the force exerted by the table on the body which opposes,
and just balances, the weight. Suppose the body is further acted on by a horizontal
force . If the table is smooth, there is no friction and the mass will move to the right.
If the table is not smooth a frictional force will oppose the motion. The frictional force
depends on the roughness of the surface and the normal reaction .
Friction = normal reaction, where is the coefcient of friction.
=
Note that this formula gives the maximum value for friction. If, in the diagram, is
less than , then the frictional force will just balance the force .
THINK WRITE
Substitute W = 800g and evaluate. W
x
= 800g sin 15
207g
The component of W parallel to , , is Wcos 15. = W cos 15
Substitute W = 800g and evaluate. = 800g cos 15
773g
Express in vector notation. = +
= 207g 773g
d The component of the net force parallel to the
vector is zero.
d (N 773g) = 0
Solve for the magnitude of the normal N. N = 773g
e The component of the net force parallel to the
vector is zero.
e (207g F) = 0
Solve for the magnitude of the applied force of the
brake, F.
F = 207g
3
4
j
W
y
W
y
5
6
W
W
x
i
W
y
j
1
j
2
1
i
2
mg
Friction
G
N
W
A body of mass 4 kg, at rest on a table, is acted on by a
horizontal force, , as shown in the gure at right.
If the body just begins to move when is 12 N, calculate
the coefcient of friction between the body and the table.
THINK WRITE
The weight of the body is m g. W = m g
= 4 9.8
= 39.2 N
The normal force, N, must balance the
weight.
N = W
= 39.2 N
The friction will oppose P and its
maximum value is N.
F = N
12 = 39.2
= 0.3
P
1
2
3
7
WORKEDExample
Friction
P
N
W
A body of mass 4 kg rests on a plane inclined at an angle of

30 to the horizontal. It is just prevented from moving by
friction. Calculate the:
a weight
b normal reaction
c frictional force
d coefficient of friction .
THINK WRITE
a W = m g
m = 4 kg, g = 9.8 m/s
2
.
The units are newtons.
a = m g
= 4 9.8
= 39.2 N
b First resolve each force into its
components.
Take the i direction to be down the plane
and the j direction to be perpendicular to
the plane.
b = N .
= 39.2 cos 60 + 39.2 sin 60
= 19.6 + 33.9
= N
If a body is at rest the vector sum of
forces is 0.
F + N + W = 0
F + N + 19.6 + 33.9 = 0
If + + + = 0 then
a = c and b = d.
The i and j components add to 0
N = 33.9 N
c c F = 19.6 N
d Coefcient of friction can be calculated
using F = N.
d F = N
19.6 = 33.9
= 0.58
Friction N
W
30
ai
b j
ci
d j
8
WORKEDExample
Note: Use = 9.8 m/s
2
down for all problems involving weight.
1 A girl is pulling along her baby brother in a cart attached to a rope. The cart is on a
horizontal path. The rope makes an angle of 20 to the horizontal and exerts a force on
the cart of magnitude 25 N.
a Calculate the horizontal component of the force exerted on the cart by the rope.
b Calculate the vertical component of the force exerted on the cart by the rope.
The cart moves along at a constant velocity; that is, the acceleration of the cart is zero.
c Calculate the size of the horizontal friction force acting on the cart.
2
A child of mass 40 kg is held on a swinging rope at an angle of 25 to the vertical by
a horizontal force of 300 N. If is the tension force of the rope acting on the child, then:
a the force vector diagram which best represents this situation is:
b the horizontal component of is:
A B C
D E
A 40 N B 300 N C 127 N D 272 N E 200 N
1. Components of a force:
A force can be resolved into perpendicular components:
=
x
+
y
= Fcos + Fsin
where F = | | and is the angle between and .
2. Newtons First Law of Motion is used for equilibrium or statics problems:
= 0 (the resultant force is zero)
a = 0 (the acceleration is zero)
v = c (the velocity is a constant).
3. The weight (in N) of a mass m (in kg) in a gravitational eld is given by
= m where the value commonly used for g is 9.8 m/s
2
(or 9.8 N/kg).
4. Friction = normal reaction, where is the coefcient of friction
=
F
remember
F
y
F
x
F
j
i
Aircraft
~
~
~
~
~
8B
g
WORKED
Example
4
multiple choice
T
T
65
300 N
40g N
~
T
25
300 N
40g N
~
T
25
300 N
40g N
~
T
25
300 N
40g N
~
T
25
300 N
40g N
~
T
g
SLE 4: Use resolution of vectors to consider the equilibrium of a body subject
to a number of coplanar forces acting at a point.

23.5 N
8.6

N
23.5

N
c the vertical component of is:
d the magnitude of is nearest to:
3 A ship of mass m is being pulled by two tugboats. It glides
through the water at constant velocity. The angle between the
two ropes connecting the two tugboats to the front of the ship
is 20 and they each support a tension of magnitude 20000 N.
a Draw a force vector diagram showing all three coplanar forces which act on the ship.
b What is the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the ship? (Be careful; use
Newtons First Law of Motion.)
c Calculate the magnitude of the force of friction due to the water acting on the ship.
4 A swing chair of mass 8 kg is suspended
by two taut ropes as shown at right. The
tension forces in rope 1 and rope 2 are
and respectively.
a Draw a force vector diagram showing
all three forces which act on the swing.
b By resolving vectors into com-
ponents nd the exact magnitudes of
and .
5 A speaker in an auditorium has a mass of 50 kg and is suspended from the ceiling by
two 4.0-m ropes. The ropes are attached to the ceiling at points A and B whose separ-
ation is 6.0 m as shown at right.
a Draw a force vector diagram showing all
forces which act on the speaker.
b Calculate the angle that each rope makes with
the ceiling.
c Determine the vertical component of the ten-
sion force in each rope.
d Give the vectors for the tensions in the left and
right rope respectively using notation.
e Calculate the magnitude of the tension in
each rope.
f The speaker is to be raised by increasing the
separation between the points A and B, but the
ropes will break if the tension exceeds 4000 N.
Find the maximum possible separation
between A and B; that is, when the tensions in
the ropes are equal to 4000 N.
6 Sam earns some extra pocket money by mowing his neighbours
front lawn. When he pushes the lawnmower at a constant velocity he
applies a force of 120 N down the shaft of the mower which is
angled at 40 to the vertical. The lawnmower has a mass of 40 kg.
a Draw a force vector diagram illustrating all four forces
acting on the lawnmower. (Treat the lawnmower as a
particle.)
A 300 N B 127 N C 40 N D 200 N E 272 N
A 494 N B 440 N C 477 N D 92 N E 300 N
T
g
T
10
10
Tugboat
Tugboat
Ship
30
Rope 2 Rope 1
60
WORKED
Example
5
T
1
T
2
i
1
T
2
i
4.0 m
A B
6.0 m
j
~
~
i
40
120 N

a
Tugboat
Ship
Tugboat
Drag force
due to
water
T
~
T
~
F
~

0 N 39 392.3 N

a
T
1
8g N
30 60
T
2
~
~
~
j
~
~
i

a
Speaker
T
left
T
right
W
~
~
~

41.4

245 N

d

278

+

245 N;
278

+

245 N
i

370.6 N
8.0 m

a
N
W = 40g
F
A = 120 N at
40 to
vertical
~
~
~
~
~

T

1

=

4

g

N;

T

2

=

g

N 4 3
b Calculate both the vertical and horizontal components of the force that Sam
applies to the lawnmower.
c Using notation, write a vector equation for the resultant force, , acting on
the lawnmower in terms of the four forces acting on the lawnmower.
d Determine the magnitude of the force of friction acting on the lawnmower as it
moves across the lawn at constant velocity.
e Determine the magnitude of the normal contact force.
7 A 1.5 kg mass is placed on a smooth inclined plane angled at
30 to the horizontal. To stop it from sliding down the plane
a string is attached to the upper side as shown at right.
The unit vectors and are also shown.
a Draw a force vector diagram showing the forces which act on the mass. Label the
forces for the normal contact force, for the tension force and for the
force arising from the effect of gravity.
b What is the magnitude of the resultant force, ?
c Determine the weight vector, , using notation.
d Determine the tension force, , using notation.
e Determine the magnitude of the normal contact force, N.
8 A 1.5 kg mass is placed on a smooth inclined plane angled at
30 to the horizontal. To stop it from sliding down the plane
a horizontal force is applied to the mass as shown at right.
The unit vectors and are also shown.
a Draw a force vector diagram showing the forces which act
on the mass. Label the forces for the normal contact
force, for the horizontal force and for the force due to gravity.
b Determine the weight vector, , using notation.
c Determine the horizontal force, , using notation.
d Determine the normal contact force, , using notation.
e Show that .
9 A box containing books has a mass of 40 kg. It requires a force of 300 N to move the
box across the oor. Calculate the coefcient of friction between the box and the oor.
10 The maximum deceleration the BMV Tycoon can achieve under braking is 4 ms
2
. If
this vehicle has a mass of 1900 kg, calculate:
a the frictional force on the car
b the normal reaction
c the coefcient of friction between the tyres and the road.
11 A force of 200 N is needed to keep a log of mass 300 kg sliding along a horizontal
path. Calculate the coefcient of friction between the log and the path.
12 A body of mass 6 kg rests on a plane inclined at an angle of 40 to the horizontal. It
is just prevented from moving by friction. Calculate the:
a weight
b normal reaction
c frictional force
d coefcient of friction.
i
WORKED
Example
6
i
j
~
~
i
30
N
j
~
~
~
i
30
Horizontal
force, H
N
3
--------
3 W
3
--------------- = =
WORKED
Example
7
WORKED
Example
8

A

v

=

91.9 N down

A

H

=

77.1 N left
77.1 N
483.9 N

a
W
N
T
Mass
~
~
~
0i
0 j
+

N 7.4 i
12.7 j

7.4

N
12.7 N

a
W
N
H
Mass
~
~
~

7.4i
12.7 j

N 7.4i
4.3 j

N 17 j

0.77
7600 N
18 620 N
0.41
0.07
58.8 N
45.04 N
37.8 N
0.84

c

with all forces in N.
R
F
friction
77.1 ( )i
N 483.9 ( ) j
+ 0 = =
13 A book lies on a horizontal table. One end of the table is raised until, at an angle of
35, the book starts to slide. Calculate the coefcient of friction between the book and
the table.
14 An object of mass 2 kg rests on a plane inclined at an angle of 40 to the horizontal.
If the coefcient of friction between the object and the plane is 0.2, calculate the
resultant force down the plane.
Momentum
Kirsten is an investigator with the Trafc Accident Squad and she is called to investi-
gate the collision between a large four-wheel-drive vehicle and a small hatchback.
Luckily no one was hurt in the accident but there was considerable damage to the
vehicles. An eyewitness report suggests that the small vehicle was speeding.
The diagram below indicates the direction of travel of the vehicles.
A indicates the direction of motion of the
small car before the accident.
B indicates the direction of motion of the
large car.
C indicates the direction of motion of both
vehicles after impact.
What conclusion can Kirsten make con-
cerning the speeds of the vehicles before
impact? By investigating the accident
scene Kirsten will be able to determine
whether any of the cars were speeding. In particular she will look for any skid marks
and look at the motion of the vehicles after collision. A key mathematical concept that
will help her to understand the events leading up to the accident is momentum.
Denition of momentum
One of the properties of a moving body is momentum. The momentum of a moving
body is given by:
Momentum = mass velocity
Because velocity is a vector quantity, momentum is also a vector quantity; that is, it has
both magnitude and direction.
The standard units of momentum are N s (newton seconds) where mass is in kg and
velocity is in m/s. (Alternative units for momentum are kg m/s.)
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 8.1
A
C
B
45
25
Calculate the momentum of a car of mass 2.5 tonnes travelling north at 20 m/s.
THINK WRITE
Use standard units. Convert tonnes to
kilograms.
Mass = 2.5 t = 2500 kg
Use the formula for calculating the
magnitude of momentum.
= 2500 20
= 50 000 N s
Momentum is a vector quantity so
include direction as well as magnitude.
Momentum = 50 000 N s in a northerly
direction.
1
2
3
9
WORKEDExample

0.7
9.6 N
Conservation of momentum
Momentum is a useful concept because it is conserved in collisions. That is, if two
bodies, A and B, collide their total momentum before collision is equal to their total
momentum after the collision.
Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
A tennis ball of mass 80 g is hit at a wall with a speed of 50 m/s. It rebounds with a speed
of 40 m/s. What is the change in momentum?
THINK WRITE
State the required quantities in
standard units. Mass should be
in kg and velocity in m/s.
Mass = 80 g = 0.08 kg
Initial velocity = 50 m/s towards the wall
Final velocity = 40 m/s away from the wall
Calculate the initial
momentum.
Initial momentum = mass initial velocity
= 0.08 50
= 4 N s towards the wall
Calculate the nal momentum. Final momentum = mass nal velocity
= 0.08 40
= 3.2 N s away from the wall
Calculate the change in
momentum by subtracting the
initial momentum from the
nal momentum.
Change in momentum
= nal momentum initial momentum
= (3.2 N s away from the wall) (4 N s towards
the wall)
= (3.2 N s away from the wall) (4 N s away from
the wall)
= 7.2 N s away from the wall
1
2
3
4
10
WORKEDExample
A car weighing 1.9 tonnes is travelling east at 22 m/s. A second car travelling north and
weighing 2.4 tonnes passes through a stop sign at 14 m/s. It collides with the rst car. If
after the collision the cars move off together, calculate their nal speed and direction.
THINK WRITE
Momentum is conserved: the total
momentum before collision is equal to
the total momentum after collision.
First calculate the momentum of each
vehicle before collision.
Momentum of rst car = 1900 22
Momentum of rst car = 41 800 N s east
Momentum of second car = 2400 14
Momentum of second car = 33 600 N s north
1
2
11
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Find the total momentum before the
collision by adding vectors.
x =
= 53 630
tan =
= 38.8
Total momentum before collision
= 53 630 N s at 38.8 north of east
Since momentum is conserved, state the
total momentum after the collision.
Hence, total momentum after collision
= 53 630 N s at 38.8 north of east
Calculate the nal speed (magnitude of
the nal velocity) by rearranging the
formula for momentum. The mass of
the cars as they move off together is the
sum of the individual masses.
Final speed =
Final speed =
Final speed = 12.5 m/s
Write the nal speed and direction of
the cars after the collision.
The nal speed and direction of the vehicles as
they move off together is 12.5 m/s at 38.8
north of east.
3
33 600 N s
41 800 N s
x
33 600
2
41 800
2
+
33 600
41 800
----------------
4
5
momentum
mass
---------------------------
53 630
1900 2400 + ( )
-----------------------------------
6
Mass A, 2 kg, collides with mass B, 3 kg, moving as shown.
a Calculate the momentum of each body before the collision.
b Calculate the total momentum of the system before the collision.
If, after the collision, mass A moves as shown,
c calculate the nal speed and direction of mass B.
THINK WRITE
a Calculate the momentum of A and
the momentum of B before the
collision, using the formula
momentum = mass velocity.
a Before the collision:
Momentum of A = 2 10
= 20 N s, to the right
Momentum of B = 3 6
= 18 N s, 30 left of the initial
= direction of A
12
WORKEDExample
A
10 m/s
B
6 m/s
30
A
8 m/s
B
x m/s
40
THINK WRITE
b Draw a vector diagram showing the
situation before the collision. Add the
vectors for the momentum of A and
momentum of B (head to tail) to
produce the vector for the total
momentum .
b
Use the cosine and sine rules to
calculate T and , the magnitude and
direction of the total momentum
before the collision.
T
2
= 18
2
+ 20
2
2 18 20 cos 150
= 1347.5
T = 36.7 N s
=
sin = 0.24523
= 14.2
Total momentum before the collision is
36.7 N s, 14.2 left of the initial direction of A.
c Calculate the momentum of A after
the collision. Let B represent the
momentum of B after the collision.
c After the collision:
Momentum of A = 2 8
= 16 N s, 40 left of the
initial direction of A
Let B represent the momentum of B after the
collision.
Since the momentum is conserved, state
the total momentum after the collision.
That is, momentum before the collision =
momentum after the collision.
Total momentum after the collision =
36.7 N s, 14.2 left of the initial direction of A
Draw a vector diagram showing the
situation after the collision. Add the
vectors for the momentum of A and
momentum of B (head to tail) to produce
the vector for the total momentum.
Calculate B, the momentum of
mass B, using the cosine rule.
Note that the angle marked is
40 14.2 = 25.8.
B
2
= 16
2
+ 36.7
2
2 16 36.7 cos
= 16
2
+ 36.7
2
2 16 36.7 cos 25.8
B = 23.4 N s
The speed of B can be calculated
from the momentum by using
momentum = mass velocity.
23.4 = 3 x
x = 7.8 m/s
To calculate , note that as marked in
the diagram = +14.2. First
calculate using the sine rule.
=
sin = 0.2976
= 17.3
Therefore = 3.1.
State the nal speed and direction of
B after the collision.
The nal speed and direction of B is 7.8 m/s
in a direction 3 right of the initial path of A
as shown.
1
T
30
T
20
18 N s
N s
2
sin
18
------------
sin 150
36.7
-------------------
1
2
3
14.2
40
16 N s
36.7 N s
B N s
4
5
6
sin
16
------------
sin 25.8
23.4
---------------------
7
Using our understanding of momentum we return to the scene of the accident with
Kirsten (see page 374).
The driver of the four-wheel-drive
vehicle, B, says she was travelling at
70 km/h (19.4 m/s). Further, the
masses of both vehicles are known: the
mass of vehicle A is 1640 kg, the mass
of vehicle B is 2060 kg.
Momentum is conserved. That is, in vector terms,
momentum of A + momentum of B = momentum of C.
Momentum of B = mass velocity
= 2060 kg (19.4 + 0 )
= 39 964 + 0 .
Let the momentum of A before impact be A and let the momentum of both vehicles
after collision be T.
Then since momentum before = momentum after
39 964 + A cos 45 A sin 45 = T cos 25 T sin 25
Therefore
39 964 + A cos 45 = T cos 25 [1]
and
A sin 45 = T sin 25 [2]
Substituting [2] in [1] (noting that cos 45 = sin 45)
39 964 + T sin 25 = T cos 25
T cos 25 T sin 25 = 39 964
T(cos 25 sin 25) = 39 964
T =
= 82 623 N s
Substituting in [2] gives
A sin 45 = 82 623 sin 25
A = 49 381.5 N s
Thus the speed of A before collision = momentum of A mass of A
= 49 381.5 1640
= 30.1 m/s
= 108.4 km/h
Kirsten concludes that car A was speeding.
Conservation of momentum using
and notation
Consider the problem posed in Worked example 12. Recalculate the answers by
expressing the momentum vectors in and notation.
i
A
C
B
25
45
j
i
~
~
i
39 964
cos 25 sin 25 ( )
----------------------------------------------
Momentum
1 Calculate the momentum of the following objects whose mass and velocity are given:
a mass = 2.5 kg, velocity = 16 m/s east
b mass = 4 kg, velocity = 150 m/s south
c mass = 250 g, velocity = 30 m/s north
d mass = 2.5 tonnes, velocity = 13 m/s west
e mass = 88 kg, velocity = 40 km/h north
f mass = 3.4 tonnes, velocity = 120 km/h north
2 Calculate the speed of the following objects with momentum and mass given:
a momentum = 2000 N s, mass = 25 kg
b momentum = 3000 N s, mass = 80 g
c momentum = 42 000 N s, mass = 2.1 tonnes
3 Calculate the mass of the following objects with momentum and speed given:
a momentum = 2500 N s, speed = 50 m/s
b momentum = 22 000 N s, speed = 40 km/h
4 Give the total momentum of the following systems.
a object A: mass = 3 kg, velocity = 10 m/s east
object B: mass = 2 kg, velocity = 4 m/s east
b object A: mass = 3 kg, velocity = 10 m/s east
object B: mass = 2 kg, velocity = 4 m/s west
c object A: mass = 3 kg, velocity = 10 m/s east
object B: mass = 2 kg, velocity = 4 m/s north
d object A: mass = 3 kg, velocity = 10 m/s east
object B: mass = 2 kg, velocity = 4 m/s 30 north of east
e object A: mass = 3 kg, velocity = 10 m/s east
object B: mass = 2 kg, velocity = 4 m/s north of west
5 At the carnival, a dodgem car with a mass of 300 kg with its driver travels at 6 m/s
and crashes into a wall. If it rebounds at 3 m/s calculate the change of momentum.
6 A cyclist (plus bicycle, pack, clothes, etc.) has a combined mass of 100 kg. He is trav-
elling at 10 m/s.
a Find his momentum.
b If the cyclist slows down to 5 m/s, what is the change in his momentum?
1. The momentum of a moving body is given by the equation
momentum = mass velocity
2. Momentum is a vector quantity it has both magnitude and direction. The
units of momentum are N s or kg m/s.
3. Momentum is conserved in collisions:
total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision.
remember
8C
WORKED
Example
9
WORKED
Example
10

40 N s east
600 N s south
7.5 N s north
32 500 N s west
978 N s north
113 333 N s north
80 m/s
37 500 m/s
20 m/s
50 kg
1980 kg
38 N s east
22 N s east
31 N s 14.9 N of E
37.1 N s 6.2 N of E
25 N s 13 N of E
2700 N s
1000 kg m/s

500 kg m/s
7 Find the change of momentum for:
a a mass of 10 kg which slows from 12 m/s to 8 m/s
b a mass of 8 kg which accelerates from 7 m/s to 13 m/s
c a car of mass 0.95 tonne which increases speed from 44 km/h to 80 km/h.
d a horse of mass 400 kg which slows from a gallop of 50 km/h to a trotting speed
of 18 km/h.
8 Laurie is about to collide, at 90, with Alan. After the collision the two players move
as one unit before coming to rest. Laurie has a mass of 85 kg and Alan has a mass of
100 kg.
Calculate the common speed and direction of the two players immediately after the
collision.
9 Two dodgem cars collide. The mass
of car A and its driver is 320 kg
while the mass of car B and its
driver is 280 kg.
Calculate the nal speed and
direction of car B in each of the
following situations.
Before collision After collision
Car A Car B Car A Car B
a 8 m/s north 2 m/s north 4 m/s north ?
b 8 m/s north 2 m/s south 1 m/s north ?
c 2 m/s north 8 m/s south 2 m/s south ?
WORKED
Example
11
Alan 7m/s
Laurie 8m/s
WORKED
Example
12
1 8

9 a

6.6 m/s N

b

6 m/s N

c

3.4 m/s S

40 kg m/s
48 kg m/s
9500 kg m/s

3556 kg m/s
5.3 m/s at 44 to Alans current direction.
10 Using the data from question 8, assume that Laurie does not tackle Alan at right
angles but rather at 60 as shown. Calculate the common velocity of the two players
after the collision.
11 Two billiard balls, A and B, each of mass 100 g, collide and then move off. Use the
principle of conservation of momentum to calculate the unknown values in the table
below.
(The direction of motion is specied by giving the angle with the positive x-direction.)
12 The principle of momentum can be used to calculate the amount of recoil
experienced when a weapon is red.
The momentum of a bullet and rie before ring =
the momentum of the bullet and rie after ring.
If a bullet has a mass of 25 g and is red from a rie at 180 m/s:
a calculate the momentum of the rie immediately after ring
b calculate the speed of the rie immediately after ring if the rie has a mass of
1.5 kg.
Before collision After collision
A B A B
v m/s v m/s v m/s v m/s
a 4 30 0 2 10
b 4 60 2 0 3 45
c 3 30 2 150 1 80
d 3 30 4 120 2 0
Collision momentum
In the analysis of the accident scene, Kirsten concluded that the smaller vehicle
was speeding. Her analysis is based on the evidence of the person driving the
larger vehicle who claimed her speed was 70 km/h. What if this evidence was
inaccurate?
Imagine you are the accident investigator and have to write a report of the
accident. In your report consider alternative scenarios in which the driver of car B
was travelling at 70 km/h, at greater than 70 km/h and at less than 70 km/h.
8 m/s
7 m/s
Laurie
Alan
60
3.7 m/s at 58 to Alans current direction.

2.2 at 47.9
5.9 at 71.4
1.67 at 65.4
2.4 at 234
4.5 N s
3 m/s
See Solutions
Manual.
Relative velocity
As you sit at your desk reading this paragraph it appears that you are not moving sig-
nicantly. While this may be apparent to someone in the room watching you, an
observer with a different point of reference may disagree entirely. As you sit in the
room you are moving around the Sun at about 100 000 km/h. Measurement of velocity
depends on the frame of reference.
Most people have experienced the sensation of movement while sitting in a
stationary train and observing a nearby train moving. The visual messages tell our brain
we are moving and, for a moment, we become disoriented.
Consider the situation of a boy rowing a boat across a swiftly owing river. The boy
thinks he is rowing directly towards the bank opposite but to an observer on the shore
his velocity is different. The situation can be described using vectors.
In general the relationship between relative velocities is
where is the velocity of a ( ) relative to the velocity of b ( ).
Velocity of boy relative to river
Velocity of boy
Velocity of river
v
a
v
a rel b
v
b
+ =
v
a rel b
v
a
v
b
The pilot of a boat heads due north at a speed of 12 km/h with respect to the water. The
water moves at a velocity of 5 km/h in an easterly direction. Calculate the velocity of the
boat as seen by an observer on the shore.
THINK WRITE
The velocity of the boat relative to the
water (v
b rel w
) is 12 m/s north.
The velocity of the water (v
w
) is 5 km/h
east.
We want to nd the velocity of the boat,
v
b
.
= 12
= 5
Use the relative velocity formula. = +
= 12 + 5
Write the answer as a speed and
direction.
| v
b
| =
= 13
tan =
= 67.4
An observer on the shore sees the boat moving
at 13 km/h at 67.4 north of east.
1
v
b rel w
j
5
12
v
b
v
w
i
2
v
b
v
b rel w
v
w
j
3
12
2
5
2
+
12
5
------
13
WORKEDExample

SLE 3: Use addition and subtraction in life-related situations such as the
effect of current ow on a boat; consider the concept of relative velocity.
A pilot is to y a plane to a destination which is 450 km from
his present position in a direction N20W. There is a wind from
the east at 22 km/h and the plane has an airspeed of 300 km/h.
In what direction should the plane head to reach the
destination?
THINK WRITE
Use the relative velocity formula and
draw a diagram.
The wind velocity is and the
airspeed of the plane is .
The speed of the plane, relative to the
ground is .
= +
Use the sine rule:
= =
=
sin x = 0.0689
x = 3.95
The plane should head 16.05 west of north or
N16.05W.
1
v
b
v
a rel b
v
a
v
a
v
a rel b
v
b
22
300
20
va
2
a
sin A
------------
b
sin B
------------
c
sin C
-------------
70
22
300
x
sin x
22
-----------
sin 70
300
----------------
14
WORKEDExample
Relative velocity
1 The pilot of a boat heads due east at a speed of 16 km/h with respect to the water. The
water moves south at a velocity of 4 km/h. Calculate the velocity of the boat as seen by
an observer on the shore.
2 A plane with an airspeed of 300 km/h heads due north. A wind blows from the west at
30 km/h. What is the velocity of the plane relative to the ground?
3 A rowing crew heads across river at 15 m/s. The crew heads in a direction 45 north of
west. At the same time the current ows at 3 m/s due north. What is the speed and
direction of the boat on the river?
4 The driver of a cross-river ferry wants to head to a pier directly across the stream, at
right angles to the bank. His boat can travel at 20 km/h and there is a current owing
downstream at 6 km/h. At what angle to the bank should the driver head in order to
travel directly across the river?
5 A passenger on a cruise ship walks at 6 km/h towards the stern (the back) of the ship.
The ship travels at 19 km/h in a north-westerly direction. What is the speed of the pas-
senger with respect to the water?
6 Copy and complete the following table.
7 A cyclist rides north at 15 km/h and observes that the wind appears to come to him
from the north-east. On the return journey he rides at the same speed in the opposite
direction. Now the wind appears to be coming from the south-east. Calculate the true
speed and direction of the wind.
a b a rel b
a 40 m/s N 20 m/s E
b 15 m/s S 20 m/s N
c 25 m/s NE 20 m/s E
d 4 m/s SE 30 m/s W
e 3 m/s 30 S of E 5 m/s 25 W of N
The equation for determining the velocity of object a relative to object b is
= + where is the velocity of a ( ) relative to the velocity of
b ( ).
v
a
v
a rel b
v
b
v
a rel b
v
a
v
b
remember
8D
WORKED
Example
13
WORKED
Example
14
v

16.5 km/h at 14 S of E
301.5 km/h at 5.7 W of N
17.3 m/s at 52.1 N of W
72.5
13 km/h
44.7 m/s at 26.6 W of N
5 m/s N
17.8 m/s at 7.6 W of N
32.95 m/s at 4.9 S of E
7.7 m/s at 52 S of E
15 km/h W
8 A cyclist rides north at 15 km/h and observes the wind appears to come to him from the
north-east. On the return journey he rides at the same speed in the opposite direction.
Now the wind appears to be coming from 30 south of east. Calculate the true speed
and direction of the wind.
9 As a jogger runs along level ground at 9 km/h the rain appears to be heading
directly towards her at an angle of 10 with the vertical. When she turns around
and travels at the same speed in the opposite direction the rain still appears to be
coming directly towards her but now makes an angle of 5 with the vertical. Calcu-
late the speed and direction of the rain.
Using vectors in geometry
The rules for addition, subtraction and dot product of vectors can be used to prove
theorems and other general statements in geometry.
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 8.2
In the drawing at right, ABC is a triangle. Point D is along the
line BC such that BD = BC. The vectors , and are as shown
in the diagram. Prove that: = (2 + ).
THINK WRITE
Express the line joining B to D as a vector and the
line joining B to C as a vector .
Redraw the diagram with and indicated.
Express as the vector sum of and .
Since D is one-third of the way from B to C, = .
Express as the vector sum of and .
Substitute = into the expression for .
Substitute into = + .
Simplify by expanding the bracket.
Collect like vectors.
Factorise the vectors, by removing common scalar
factors. The required expression for is obtained.
A
C
D
B
q
~
t
~
r
~
1
3
--- q
1
3
--- q
1
v
2
v
A
C
D
B
q
~
v
~
s
~
t
~
r
~
3
s
+ =
4
v
1
3
--- s
1
3
--- s
=
5
t
+ =
6
v
1
3
--- s
1
3
--- s
+ =
7
s
+ = t
1
3
--- s
1
3
--- q
+ ( ) + =
8
t
1
3
--- q
1
3
--- r
+ =
9
t
2
3
--- q
1
3
--- r
+ =
10
t
1
3
--- 2q
+ ( ) =
15
WORKEDExample

19.4 km/h 78 W of S
68.3 m/s at 2.5 with the vertical.

SLE 6: Solve problems from geometry using vectors.
Consider the isosceles triangle at right, where AB = BC. Show, using
the properties of vectors only, that line BD, drawn such that BD is
perpendicular to AC, divides AC in half, that is: .
THINK WRITE
Express AD as a vector, in terms of other
vectors. (In this example, is the
vector joining A to D.)
Take the dot product of this expression
with itself.
Simplify, and recall that .
Since is perpendicular to
, .
But .
so
Express using the denition of
dot product.
Divide both sides by .
where is the angle between and .
Express CD as a vector in terms of other
vectors.
Take the dot product of this expression
with itself.
Simplify.
Since BD and CD are perpendicular,
.
But .
Express in dot product form.
Divide both sides by .
where is the angle between and .
Write down the respective expressions for
and .
Since the triangle is isosceles,
and = .
But and = .
It can be concluded that = . Therefore .
A
D
C
B
AD DC =
1
AD
AD AB BD + =
2
AD
AD

AD AB BD + ( )

AD =
3
AD

AD AD
2
= AD
2
AB

AD BD

AD + =
4
BD
AD BD

AD 0 =
BD

AD 0 =
AD
2
AB

AD =
5
AB

AD AB AD cos =
6
AD AD AB cos =
AB AD
7
CD CB BD + =
8
CD
CD

CD CB BD + ( )

CD =
9
CD
2
CB

CD BD

CD + =
10
BC

CD 0 =
BD

CD 0 =
11
CB

CD CD
2
CB

CD =
CB CD cos =
12
CD CD CB cos =
CB CD
13
AD CD
AD AB cos =
CD CB cos =
14
AB CB =
AB CB =
15
AD CD AD CD =
16
WORKEDExample
Three-dimensional non-zero vectors
If , and are 3-dimensional non-zero vectors:
1 Show geometrically that:
2 Prove algebraically that:
3 Prove algebraically that:
Under what circumstances are all of the above statements equal?
Use a vector method to show that the diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other.
THINK WRITE
Construct a rectangle ABCD.
Let the vector from A to D be and
the vector from A to B be .
Let
Let
Let E be the midpoint of diagonal AC.
Let E be the midpoint of AC.
Find in terms of and .
Find which is half of in terms
of and .
Determine in terms of and .
Determine in terms of and .
Note that .
This means that and are
collinear and of equal length since they
are equal vectors.
So E is the midpoint of BD.
State your conclusion.
The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other.
1
E
B C
A D
a
~
b
~
2
a
AD a
=
AB b
=
3
4
AC a
AC a
+ =
5
AE AC
a
AE
1
2
--- a
+ ( ) =
6
BE a
BE b
1
2
--- a
+ ( ) + =
1
2
--- a
( ) =
7
ED a
ED
1
2
--- a
+ ( ) a
+ =
1
2
--- a
( ) =
8
ED BE = BE =
9
BE ED
10
17
WORKEDExample
a
+ + a
+ +
a
+ +
a

See Solutions
Manual.
1 In the triangle ABC, point D is the midpoint of BC.
The vectors , and are dened as indicated.
Show that:
2 ABC is a triangle with point D along the line BC such that:
The vectors , and are as shown in the diagram.
Prove that:
Vector geometry
In any triangle ABC, the points D, E and F divide the lines BC, CA and AB
respectively in the ratio 1:2.
1 Show that the vector joining A to P is of the vector joining A to D.
2 Show that the vector joining R to P is of the vector joining A to D.
3 Can you calculate the ratio of the area of triangle QRP to the area of triangle
ABC?
C
E
A
B
D
P
F R
Q
6
7
---
3
7
---
In vector proofs, it is simpler to use pronumerals to represent vectors, but not
essential. Use as few vectors as necessary in completing a proof and apply the
rules for vector addition, subtraction and dot products as appropriate.
remember
8E
WORKED
Example
15
B
D
C
A
r
~
t
~
q
~
q
1
2
--- r
1
2
--- q
+ =
A
C
D
B
q
~
t
~
r
~
BD
1
n
---BC =
q
1
n
---r
n 1 ( )
n
----------------q
+ =

See Solutions
Manual.

SLE 6: Solve problems from geometry using vectors: for example; prove that the
angle of a semicircle is a right angle; Pythagoras theorem; the concurrency of
(a) the medians and (b) the bisectors of the internal angles of a triangle.

Check with
your teacher.
3 Consider the triangle ABC. Point D is the midpoint of line
AB and E is the midpoint of line BC.
Show, using vectors to represent various lines, that line
DE is parallel to AC and DE = AC.
4 In the gure at right, D is the midpoint of CB and AD is per-
pendicular to CB. Let be the vector joining D to A and
the vector joining D to B.
Find, in terms of and only:
a the vector, , joining D to C
b the vector, , joining C to A
c the vector, , joining B to A
d the dot products, and .
Hence, show that AC = AB.
5 In the gure at right, is the vector joining point A to point
B, joins B to C and joins C to A.
Prove that .
6 Consider the equilateral triangle at right. Show, using the
properties of vectors only, that line BD, drawn such that BD
is perpendicular to AC, divides AC in half, that is:
.
7 Show that the diagonals of a non-square rhombus intersect at right angles.
(Hint: Make a drawing; a rhombus is a parallelogram with all 4 sides of equal length.)
8 If the length of a vector, , is given by , show geometrically that for any two
vectors and :
This is known as the triangle inequality.
9 Use vectors to show that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
10 Use vectors to show that the angle subtended by a diameter of a circle is a right angle.
11 Use a vector method to show that by joining the midpoints of a parallelogram, the
gure formed is a parallelogram.
12 Consider any two major diagonals of a cube. Use a vector method to show that:
a the diagonals bisect each other
b the acute angle between the diagonals is 70.53.
13 Use vectors to demonstrate Pythagoras theorem.
1
2
---
A
D E
C
B
A
D
C
B
C
B
A
a
~
b
~
c
~
A
D
C
B
u
+ + 0 =
WORKED
Example
16
AD DC =
a
+ a
+
WORKED
Example
17


v

+

u

.

=

2

+

2

.

=

2

+

2
b

512

Check with
your teacher.
Force diagrams and the triangle of forces
Force is a vector quantity. Its derived unit is the Newton. 1 N = 1 kg m/s
2
.
Types of force:
Field forces occur without physical contact. A common eld force is the
gravitational force often referred to as weight: down. The magnitude of
is 9.8 m/s
2
.
Normal contact forces occur between objects in contact or via strings where they
are known as tensile forces.
Friction forces occur when there is actual or attempted
relative movement between two objects in contact.
The resultant force is the vector sum of all physical forces
acting on an object. A force vector diagram illustrates this
with two forces and :
A force can be resolved into horizontal
and vertical components.
=
x
+
y
=
Newtons First Law of Motion is used for equilibrium or statics problems:
= 0 (the resultant force is zero)
= 0 (the magnitude of acceleration is zero)
= c (the magnitude of velocity is a constant).
Newtons First Law of Motion: In the absence of an unbalanced force (that is,
= 0) a moving body moves in a state of uniform motion (or constant velocity).
Friction = normal reaction, where is the coefcient of friction
=
Momentum
The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity.
In a collision the momentum of the system is conserved:
momentum of system before collision = momentum of system after collision
Momentum is a vector quantity. Its units are N s or kg m/s.
Relative velocity
The velocity of an object measured by an observer depends on the frame of
reference of the observer. In general:
= +
where is the velocity of a relative to b.
In proofs using vectors it is simpler to use pronumerals to represent vectors.
Use as few vectors as necessary in completing a proof and apply the rules for vector
addition, subtraction and dot products as appropriate.
summary
W
mg
=
g
1
F
2
F
F
y
F
x
F
j
i
~
~
~
~
~
F
2
F
2
F
1
F
1
R = F
1
+ F
2
~
~
~
~ ~ ~
~
F
F cos i
F sin j
+
R
a
v
R
a
v
a rel b
v
b
v
a rel b
1
A body is in equilibrium under the action of three forces , and .
= 3 + 7 and = 5 + 2
The magnitude of the vector is
A 2 9 B C D E
2
If the three forces shown are in equilibrium, the magnitude of the
force F is
A 34.6 N B 40 N C 20 N
D 54.3 N E 80 N
3
Two forces, equal in magnitude, are sufcient to keep the mass
shown at right in equilibrium against the force of gravity.
The magnitude of each force is
A 8.9 N B 10.8 N C 17.8 N
D 19.6 N E 22.8 N
4 An object is in equilibrium under the action of three
forces , and .
Calculate the magnitude and direction of .
5 Three coplanar forces have magnitudes of 400 N, 500 N and 600 N. They act on a body
such that the resultant force is zero. Find the angle between the 500 N and 600 N forces.
6 A body of mass 6.0 kg is suspended from a ceiling by two ropes. The angle between the two
ropes is 90 and they are connected to the ceiling at points A and B respectively. The tension
T
2
, in rope 2, is twice the tension T
1
, in rope 1.
a Draw a force vector diagram for the 6.0 kg mass.
b Calculate the magnitudes of the tensions T
1
and T
2
.
c Find the angles that rope 1 and rope 2 make with the horizontal.
d If rope 1 has a length x, show that the distance AB is .
8A
CHAPTER
review
multiple choice
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
1
i
2
i
3
i
85 77 85 17
8A
multiple choice
60
F
20 N
20 N
2
8A
multiple choice
50
2 kg
8A
f
2
= 40 N
f
3
f
1
= 80 N
1
f
2
f
3
f
3
8A
8B
5x
2
----------
89.4 N at 153.4 to f
1

138.6
26.3 N, 52.6 N
26.6, 63.4
7 A mass of 4 kg rests on a plane which has a coefcient of
friction of 0.25. Calculate the minimum force , acting
parallel to the plane, needed to prevent the mass slipping
down the plane.
8
The momentum of an 85 kg sprinter who runs 100 metres in 10 seconds is
A 0.85 N s B 10 N s C 85 N s D 850 N s E 8500 N s
9
A tennis ball of mass 85 g hits a wall at 40 m/s and rebounds at 30 m/s. The change in
momentum of the tennis ball is
A 10 N s B 5.95 N s C 3.4 N s D 2.55 N s E 0.85 N s
10
How fast would an object of mass 45 g have to move to have the same momentum as a car
of mass 1170 kg moving at 100 km /h?
A approximately 500 000 m/s B approximately 600 000 m/s
C approximately 700 000 m/s D approximately 800 000 m/s
E approximately 900 000 m/s
11
A car of mass 1250 kg moves at 70 km/h in a northerly direction. It collides with a car of
mass 1300 kg moving at 80 km/h in an easterly direction. The magnitude of the momentum
of the system before the collision is closest to
A 23 457 N s B 24 543 N s C 29 992 N s D 37 747 N s E 43 450 N s
12 The diagram shows the view from above as a ball,
travelling horizontally, rebounds at a wall. The mass
of the ball is 150 g and its speed, before and after
the collision, is 20 m/s. Calculate the change in the
momentum of the ball.
13 A 100 kg rugby player, A, tackles an opposition player, B, at right
angles as shown. The opposition player has a mass of 85 kg.
After the tackle they fall together. Calculate the direction and speed
of their joint motion after the tackle.
14
If = 2 + 3 and = 2 + 2 , the value of is
A 5 B 4 + C 4 D E
15
A traveller in a car is moving in a northerly direction. He observes a second vehicle and to
him it appears to be travelling in a south-easterly direction. Which of the following could be
possible values for the true direction of the second vehicle?
A North B South C East D West E South-west
8B
40
P
8C
multiple choice
8C
multiple choice
8C
multiple choice
8C
multiple choice
8C
30 30
8C
v = 8 m/s
v = 9 m/s
A B
8D
multiple choice
v
a
i
b
i
a rel b
j
5
8D
multiple choice

17.7 N
3 N s away from the wall
6.0 m/s at 43.7 with As original motion
16 A river ows from north to south at 5 km/h. A boat heads directly across the river from the
river bank to the other side at 11 km/h. Find the true velocity of the boat.
17 A cyclist travels at 15 km/h on a road heading east. When she is travelling in this direction
the wind appears to be coming from a direction 60 E of N. When she turns around and
travels west on the road at the same speed the wind appears to come from 60 W of N. Find
the true speed and direction of the wind.
18
Which of the statements regarding is true?
A = B = 2 4
C = + D = +
E = +
19 Show that the diagonals of a square bisect each other at 90.
20 For any vectors and show that
( + ) ( ) = | |
2
| |
2
1 Arnie is pushing against a trailer, preventing it from rolling down a hill. The trailer has a mass
of 200 kg and the hill is on an incline of 15 to the horizontal. At the moment there is no
problem because Arnie is capable of pushing with a force of 1000 N parallel to the plane.
However, it is raining and the trailer is lling with water at a rate of 25 litres per minute.
How long will Arnie be able to hold the trailer and stop it from running down the hill?
2 When the surf gets big at Kirra there is always a sweep running from south to north.
Jodie is heading out at 8 km/h. If she heads directly out to sea and she wants to get to the
take-off area, how far up the beach should she walk before paddling out?
8D
8D
8E
multiple choice
p
a
p
2 cm
4 cm
b
A
B
1
2
--- b
1
2
--- a
1
3
--- b
2
3
--- a
2
3
--- b
1
3
--- a
8E
8E
u
Take-off area
Water
Shore
Sweep = 4 km/h
120 m

12.1 km/h at 65.6
to the bank
8.7 km/h from the north
7 minutes 27 seconds
60 m
3 A ball of mass 0.20 kg is shot vertically in the air. It decelerates under the action of two
forces: the weight force and the force of air resistance. When the ball moves with a speed of
40 m/s, it has an air resistance of 1.0 N. When the ball is stationary, the air resistance force is
equal to zero.
a Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the ball when it is
moving upwards at a speed of 40 m/s.
b Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the ball when it is
at its maximum height above the ground.
Later, the ball is travelling toward the ground at 40 m/s.
c Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the ball when it is
moving downwards at a speed of 40 m/s.
4 In a James Bond movie scene, a car of mass 1500 kg rolls in a straight line from rest down a
road inclined at 10 from the horizontal. It takes 10 seconds for the car to reach the bottom of
the incline at a speed of 43.2 km/h where the road becomes level. The handbrake of the car
was on, providing a constant retardation force of 20g newtons.
a Find the value of the coefcient of friction correct to 3 decimal places.
At the bottom of the incline the car jolts, and the handbrake is rendered inactive.
b How much further does the car travel? (Give your answer to the nearest tenth of a metre.)
5 A pyramid, OABCD, is shown in the gure at right. The height
of the pyramid is the length of DE, where E is the point on the
base OABC such that DE is perpendicular to the base.
a Show that the base, OABC, is a rhombus.
b Use a vector method to nd AOC correct to the nearest
tenth of a degree.
c The unit vector p + q + r , p > 0, is perpendicular to both OA and OC.
i Show that q = 0 and nd the exact values of p and r.
ii Hence nd the exact height of the pyramid.
6 A parallelogram, OXYZ, has O at the origin. The vector joining O to Z is given by 6 while
the vector joining O to X is given by 3 + 5 .
a Sketch the parallelogram, labelling all vertices.
b State the vectors joining Z to Y and Y to X.
c What vectors represent the diagonals of the parallelogram?
d Find the angle between the diagonals to the nearest tenth of a degree.
e Find the angle that OY makes with the x-axis.
f State the vector resolute of the vector joining O to X, perpendicular to OZ.
g Let P be a point on the line ZY, such that the vector joining P to X is perpendicular to ZX.
Find the exact coordinates of P.
h Find the exact area of the triangle XPZ.
A (4, 1, 4)
B
(2, 6, 2)
C
(2, 5, 2)
O (0, 0, 0)
D (3, 4, )
E
1_
3
i
Digital doc:
Test Yourself
Chapter 8
eBookplus eBookplus

2.96 N down
1.96 N down
0.96 N down
0.038
193.5 m
109.5

p

=

;

r

=

1
2
-------
1
2
-------

units
5 2
3
----------

a
y
x O
X (3, 5) Y (9, 5)
Z (6, 0)

=

6 ;

=

3

+

5 YX i
ZY i

=

9 + 5 ;

=

3

+

5 OY i
ZX i

91.9
29.1
5 j

(12 , 10 )
3
8
---
5
8
---

31 square units
7
8
---
In this
chapter
syllabus
reference
Core topic:
Structures and patterns
9
9A Arithmetic sequences
9B Geometric sequences
9C Applications of geometric
sequences
9D Finding the sum of an innite
geometric sequence
9E Contrasting arithmetic and
geometric sequences through
graphs
Fibonacci Sequence
The Mandelbrot Set
Sequences
and series
Introduction
Discovered in 1980 by Benoit Mandelbrot, the Mandelbrot Set (see the image on
page 446) is one of the most intricate and beautiful geometrical patterns in math-
ematics. The Mandelbrot Set is an image that captures many of the qualities people nd
fascinating about mathematics. Although it is generated by repeating a simple formula,
its patterns are innitely complex. If you select any portion of the Mandelbrot Set and
magnify it you will see that no detail is lost the magnied shape is as intricate and
even contains parts that look like copies of the original. This notion of worlds within
worlds appeals to the philosopher in all of us.
How is the Mandelbrot Set created? Using some of the concepts developed in the
following sections we will see how a computer or a graphics calculator can produce
this fascinating image.
Arithmetic sequences
A sequence in mathematics is an ordered set of numbers.
An arithmetic sequence is one in which:
1. the difference between any two successive terms is the same
2. the next term in the sequence is found by adding the same number.
Consider the arithmetic sequence:
4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22.
The difference between each successive term is +3, or similarly, the next term is found
by adding 3 to the previous term. We can see that a positive common difference gives a
sequence that is increasing. We say that the common difference is +3, stated as d = +3.
The rst term of the sequence is 4. We refer to the rst term of a sequence as a. So
in this example, a = 4.
In the arithmetic sequence above, the rst term is 4, the second term is 7, the third
term is 10 and so on. Another way of writing this is:
t
1
= 4, t
2
= 7 and t
3
= 10.
There are 7 terms in this sequence. Because there are a countable number of terms in
the sequence, it is referred to as a nite sequence.
The arithmetic sequence below
is an innite sequence since it continues endlessly as indicated by the dots. The rst
term, a, is 37 and the common difference, d, is 7. We can see that a negative common
difference gives a sequence that is decreasing.
1. An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers for which the difference
between successive terms is the same.
2. The rst term of an arithmetic sequence is referred to as a.
3. The common difference between successive terms is referred to as d.
4. t
n
is the term number, for example, t
6
refers to the 6th term in the sequence.
4 7
+3
10
+3
13
+3
16
+3
19
+3
22
+3
37, 30,
7
23,
7
16,
7
9...
7

sum to innity of a geometric progression

purely mathematical and life-related applications of arithmetic and geometric progressions

sequences and series other than arithmetic and geometric

recognition of patterns in well-known structures including Pascals Triangle and Fibonacci
sequence

applications of patterns
C h a p t e r 9 S e q u e n c e s a n d s e r i e s 397
Which of the following are arithmetic sequences?
a 7, 13, 19, 25, 31, . . .
b 1.3, 2.5, 3.7, 4.9, 6.3, . . .
c 1 , 1, , 0, , . . .
THINK WRITE
a Write the sequence.
Calculate the difference between the rst
term, t
1
, and the second term, t
2
.
a 7, 13, 19, 25, 31, . . .
t
2
t
1
= 13 7
= 6
Calculate the difference between the
second term, t
2
, and the third term, t
3
.
t
3
t
2
= 19 13
= 6
Calculate the difference between the third
term, t
3
, and the fourth term, t
4
.
t
4
t
3
= 25 19
= 6
Calculate the difference between t
5
and t
4
.
t
5
t
4
= 31 25
= 6
Check that the differences are the same
and write your answer.
There is a common difference of 6,
therefore d = 6.
This is an arithmetic sequence.
b Write the sequence.
2
and t
1
.
b 1.3, 2.5, 3.7, 4.9, 6.3, . . .
2.5 1.3 = 1.2
3
and t
2
. 3.7 2.5 = 1.2
4
and t
3
. 4.9 3.7 = 1.2
5
and t
4
. 6.3 4.9 = 1.4
Check that the differences are the same. There is no common difference.
This is not an arithmetic sequence.
c Write the sequence.
2
and t
1
.
c 1 , 1, , 0, , . . .
1 (1 ) =
3
and t
2
. (1) =
4
and t
3
. 0 ( ) =
5
and t
4
. 0 =
Check that the differences are the same. There is a common difference of .
This is an arithmetic sequence.
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
1
2
---
1
2
---
4
1
2
---
1
2
---
5
1
2
---
1
2
---
6
1
2
---
1
WORKEDExample
Finding the terms of an arithmetic sequence
Consider the arithmetic sequence for which a = 8 and d = 10.
Now, t
1
= 8 t
1
= a
t
2
= 8 + 10 t
2
= a + d t
2
= a + 1d
t
3
= 8 + 10 + 10 t
3
= a + d + d t
3
= a + 2d
t
4
= 8 + 10 + 10 + 10 t
4
= a + d + d + d t
4
= a + 3d
t
5
= 8 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 t
5
= a + d + d + d + d t
5
= a + 4d
We notice a pattern emerging. That pattern can be described by the equation:
t
n
= 8 + (n 1) 10
where n represents the number of the term.
For example, if n = 4, then the fourth term is:
t
4
= 8 + (4 1) 10
t
4
= 8 + 3 10
t
4
= 38
Therefore, the 4th term is 38.
We can generalise this rule for all arithmetic sequences.
t
n
= a + (n 1)d
where t
n
is the nth term
a is the rst term
d is the common difference.
Write down the value of a and d for each of the following arithmetic sequences.
a 1.2, 3.6, 6, 8.4, 10.8, . . .
b 1 , , , 1 , 2 , . . .
THINK WRITE
What is the rst term?
a 1.2, 3.6, 6, 8.4, 10.8, . . .
a = 1.2
What is the difference between t
2
and t
1
?
You need check only once as the question
states that this is an arithmetic sequence.
t
2
t
1
= 3.6 1.2
= +2.4
d = +2.4
Write your answer. The arithmetic sequence has a rst term,
a, of 1.2 and a common difference, d, of
+2.4.
What is the rst term?
b 1 , , , 1 , 2 , . . .
a = 1
What is the difference between t
2
and t
1
?
t
2
t
1
= (1 )
= +1
d = +1
Write your answer. The arithmetic sequence has a rst term,
a, of 1 and a common difference, d,
of +1.
2
5
---
2
5
---
3
5
---
3
5
---
3
5
---
1
2
3
4
1
2
2
5
---
2
5
---
3
5
---
3
5
---
3
5
---
2
5
---
3
2
5
---
2
5
---
4
2
5
---
2
WORKEDExample
8 18
+10 +10 +10 +10
28 38 48
This rule enables us to nd any term of an arithmetic sequence provided we know the
value of a and d.
If we are given only two terms of an arithmetic sequence, we are able to use the rule
t
n
= a + (n 1)d to set up two simultaneous equations to nd the value of a and d and
hence write down the rule for the arithmetic sequence.
Find the 20th term of the following arithmetic sequence.
5, 40, 75, 110, 145, . . .
THINK WRITE
Find the value of a. a = 5
Find the value of d. You need to calculate only
one difference as the question states that it is an
arithmetic sequence.
d = t
2
t
1
= 40 5
= 35
Use the rule t
n
= a + (n 1)d where n is 20 for
the 20th term.
t
20
= 5 + (20 1) 35
= 5 + 19 35
= 670
Write the answer. The 20th term is 670.
1
2
3
4
3
WORKEDExample
The third term of an arithmetic sequence is 1 and the fth term is 11.
a Write down the rule for the arithmetic sequence.
b Find the 50th term of the sequence.
THINK WRITE
a We know that t
3
= 1 and that
t
n
= a + (n 1)d.
a t
3
= a + 2d = 1
We know that t
5
= 11 and that
t
n
= a + (n 1)d.
t
5
= a + 4d = 11
Solve the 2 equations simultaneously
using the elimination technique.
Eliminate a, by subtracting equation [1]
from equation [2].
a + 2d = 1 [1]
a + 4d = 11 [2]
2d = 12 [2] [1]
d = 6
Evaluate a by substituting d = 6 into
either of the two equations.
Substituting d = 6 into [1]:
a + 12 = 1
a = 13
To nd the rule, substitute values for a
and d into t
n
= a + (n 1) d.
t
n
= 13 + (n 1) 6
t
n
= 13 + 6n 6
t
n
= 19 + 6n
b To nd the 50th term or t
50
, substitute
n = 50 into the rule.
b t
n
= 19 + 6n
t
50
= 19 + 6 50
= 19 + 300
= 281
Write your answer. The 50th term is 281.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
4
WORKEDExample
If you know the rule for an arithmetic sequence, successive terms can be listed using a
graphics calculator. The steps for generating these terms are shown below. Consider an
example where the rst term is 3 and the difference is 2 so the rule is t
n
= 3 + (n 1) 2.
then (LIST) followed by (Seq).
2. Enter the rule (3 + (n 1) 2) followed by the
variable name (n), the start value for n (1), the end
value of n (say, 10) and the increment (1), each
separated by a comma ( ). Press to close the
set of brackets. (To enter the variable n, press
[N].)
3. Press to display the list of the rst 10 terms.
Use the down arrow key to scroll down the list.
1. Open a new Lists & Spreadsheet document. Press
b, then 3: Data.
2. Press 1: Generate Sequence and complete at least
the rst two entry boxes, pressing e to move to the
next line. Enter 3 + (n 1) 2 for the Formula and
3 for the Initial Terms. Completing the boxes for
Max No. Terms (the default value is 255) and
Ceiling Value is optional. Press euntil OK is
highlighted.
3. Press to display the list of terms. Use the NavPad
to scroll down the list.
4. If you wish to widen Column A, use the up arrow on
the NavPad to highlight the column and then press
bfollowed by 1: Actions, 2: Resize and 1: Resize
Column Width. Press the right arrow until you reach
the required width and press .
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Listing the terms of an
arithmetic sequence
MENU OPTN
F1 F5
, )
ALPHA
EXE
The sum of a given number of terms of an
arithmetic sequence
When the terms of an arithmetic sequence are added together, an arithmetic series is
formed.
So, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, . . . is an arithmetic sequence
whereas 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + 21 + . . . is an arithmetic series.
The sum of n terms of an arithmetic sequence is given by S
n
.
Consider the nite arithmetic sequence below.
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50
The sum of this arithmetic sequence is given by S
10
since there are 10 terms in the sequence.
So, S
10
= 5 + 10 + 15 + 20 + 25 + 30 + 35 + 40 + 45 + 50
= 275
Note that the sum of the rst and last terms is 55. Also, the sum of the second and
second last terms is 55. Similarly, the sum of the third and third last term is 55. This
pattern continues with the fourth and fourth last terms as well as with the fth and fth
last terms. There are in fact ve lots of 55.
We can formalise this pattern to obtain a rule which applies to all arithmetic sequences.
Let S
n
= a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . + (l 2d) + (l d) + l
where l is the last term of the sequence.
By reversing the order of the series above, we obtain
S
n
= l + (l d) + (l 2d) + . . . + (a + 2d) + (a + d) + a.
By adding these two equations, we obtain
2S
n
= (a + l) + (a + d + l d) + (a + 2d + l 2d) + . . . (a + l) + (a + l) + (a + l)
2S
n
= (a + l) + (a + l) + (a + l) + . . . (a + l) + (a + l) + (a + l)
2S
n
= n(a + l) where n represents the number of terms in the sequence.
So, .
The sum of n terms of an arithmetic sequence with a as its rst term and l as its
last term is given by
.
Now we know that the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is given by
.
So, for the sum of n terms, l is the last term; that is, t
n
= l.
So, the last term is l = a + (n 1)d.
Substituting this into S
n
= we obtain S
n
=
= .
An alternative formula for the sum of n terms of an arithmetic sequence when the
value of a and d are known is given by
.
S
n
1
2
--- n a l + ( ) =
S
n
n
2
---
a l + ( ) =
t
n
a n 1 ( )d + =
n
2
--- a l + ( )
n
2
--- a a n 1 ( )d + [ ] + { }
n
2
--- 2a n 1 ( )d + [ ]
S
n
n
2
---
2a n 1 ( )d + [ ] =
For the arithmetic sequence 4, 10, 16, 22, , 58 considered in Worked example 5, we
can use a graphics calculator to nd the sum of the rst 10 terms. The rule for this
sequence is 4 + (n 1) 6.
then (LIST) followed by (Seq). Enter the
rule (4 + (n 1) 6) followed by the variable name
(n), the start value (1), the end value (10) and the
increment (1), each separated by a comma ( ).
Press to close the set of brackets.
Find the sum of the rst ten given terms of the arithmetic sequence 4, 10, 16, 22, 28, 34, 40,
46, 52, 58.
THINK WRITE
Method 1
We know the values of the rst and last
term and that there are ten terms in the
series.
a = 4
l = 58
n = 10
Use the series formula S
n
= . S
n
=
=
= 5 62
= 310
Method 2 (alternative)
We know the value of a and d and n.
a = 4
d = 10 4 = 6
n = 10
Use the formula S
n
= . S
n
=
S
10
=
S
20
= 5[8 + 9 6]
= 5[8 + 54]
= 5 62
= 310
Write the answer.
The sum of the rst 10 terms is 310.
1
2
n
2
--- a l + ( )
n
2
--- a l + ( )
10
2
------ 4 58 + ( )
1
2
n
2
--- 2a n 1 ( )d + [ ]
n
2
--- 2a n 1 ( )d + [ ]
10
2
------ 2 4 10 1 ( )6 + [ ]
3
5
WORKEDExample
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the sum of an
arithmetic sequence
MENU OPTN
F1 F5
,
)
2. To store this sequence of 10 terms as List 1, press
then (List) and followed by .
3. Press ( ) twice to display the Sum option and
then press (Sum).
4. Press ( ) again for more options and then
(List) and to indicate List 1. Press to
display the sum of the rst 10 terms. The sum of the
rst 10 terms is 310.
b, then 3: Data followed by 1: Generate
Sequence. Enter the rule 4 + (n 1) 6 with an
initial term of 4. Press euntil OK is highlighted.
2. Press to display the list of terms. Use the NavPad
to scroll across to cell B1.
3. To calculate the sum of the rst 10 terms, we can add
the numbers in cells A1 to A10. Enter the formula
= sum(A1:A10) in cell B1.
(Press =SUM(A1:A10).)
4. Press to display the sum in cell B1. The sum of
the rst 10 terms is 310.
F1 1 EXE
F6
s
F1
F6
s
F1
1 EXE
1 State which of the following are arithmetic sequences.
2 For those arithmetic sequences found in question 1, write down the values of a and d.
3 For each of the arithmetic sequences given, nd:
a the 25th term of the sequence 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, . . .
b the 30th term of the sequence 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, . . .
c the 33rd term of the sequence 5, 2, 9, 16, 23, . . .
4 Evaluate the following.
a The 2nd term of an arithmetic sequence is 13 and the 5th term is 31. What is the
17th term of this sequence?
b The 2nd term of an arithmetic sequence is 23 and the 5th term is 277. What is the
c The 2nd term of an arithmetic sequence is 0 and the 6th term is 8. What is the
32nd term of this sequence?
d The 3rd term of an arithmetic sequence is 5 and the 7th term is 19. What is the
e The 4th term of an arithmetic sequence is 2 and the 9th term is 33. What is the
a 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, . . . b 3, 7, 11, 15, 20, . . .
c 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, . . . d 123, 23, 77, 177, 277, . . .
e 1, 0, 1, 3, 5, . . . f 6.2, 9.3, 12.4, 15.5, 16.6, . . .
g , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , . . . h , , 1 , 1 , 2 , . . .
1. In an arithmetic sequence:
(a) the rst term is a
(b) the common difference is d.
2. Given an unspecied sequence, establish whether it is arithmetic by testing all
terms for a common difference: d = t
2
t
1
= t
3
t
2
= t
4
t
3
= . . .
3. To nd the term of an arithmetic sequence use the following formula:
t
n
= a + (n 1) d
where t
n
is the nth term
a is the rst term
d is the common difference.
4. A series is the sum of terms in a sequence.
5. S
n
is the sum of the rst n terms in a series; for example, S
25
represents the sum
of the rst 25 terms.
6. Given the number of terms in a series, n, the rst term, a, and the last term, l,
use S
n
= .
7. Given the number of terms in a series, n, the rst term, a, and the common
difference, d, use S
n
= .
n
2
--- a l + ( )
n
2
--- 2a n 1 ( )d + [ ]
remember
9A
WORKED
Example
1
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
3
4
---
1
4
---
3
4
---
1
4
---
WORKED
Example
2
WORKED
Example
3
WORKED
Example
4
1 a

,

c

,

d

,

g

,

h
2 a

a

=

2,

d

=

5

c

a

=

0,

d

=

100

d

a

=

123,

d

=

100

g

a

=

,

d

=

1

h

a

=

,

d

=

1
2
---
1
4
---
2
4
---

122
2900
103
1777

60

217

152

219
5 For each of the given series, nd:
a the sum of the rst 20 terms of the sequence 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, . . .
b the sum of the rst 15 terms of the sequence 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, . . .
c the sum of the rst 23 terms of the sequence 4, 1, 2, 5, 8, . . .
6
The 41st term of the arithmetic sequence 4.3, 2.1, 0.1, 2.3, 4.5, . . . is:
7
The 2nd term of an arithmetic sequence is 2 and the 5th term is 2.5. The 27th term
of this sequence is:
8
The sum of the rst 21 terms of the sequence, 0, 3 , 7, 10 , 14, . . . is:
9
The rst term of an arithmetic sequence is 5.2 and the 2nd is 6. The sum of the rst
22 terms of the sequence is:
10 State which of the following situations are arithmetic sequences.
a A teacher hands out 2 lollies to the rst student,
4 lollies to the second student, 6 lollies to the
third student and 8 lollies to the fourth student.
b The sequence of numbers after rolling a die 8
times.
c The number of layers of paper after each folding
in half of a large sheet of paper.
d The house numbers on the same side of a street on a newspaper delivery route.
e The cumulative total of the number of seats in the rst ten rows in a regular
cinema (for example, with 8 seats in each row, so there are 8 seats after the rst
row, 16 seats after the rst 2 rows, and so on).
11 For those arithmetic sequences found in question 10, where
appropriate information is given, write down the value of a
and d.
12 For the following arithmetic sequences:
a 4, 13, 22, 31, . . . which term, t
n
, will be equal to 58?
b 9, 4.5, 0, . . . which term, t
n
, will be equal to 18?
c 60, 49, 38, . . . which term, t
n
, will be the rst to be
greater than 10?
d 100, 87, 74, . . . which term, t
n
, will be the rst to be less
than 58?
13 A batsman made 23 runs in his rst innings, 33 in his
second and 43 in his third. If he continued to add 10 runs
each innings, write down a rule for the number of runs he
would have made in his nth innings.
A 83.7 B 85.9 C 92.3 D 172.4 E 178.5
A 32.5 B 35.5 C 42.5 D 89.5 E 96
A 1470 B 735 C 700 D 36.75 E 735
A 598.4 B 299.2 C 242 D 70.4 E 70.4
WORKED
Example
5
multiple choice
multiple choice
multiple choice
1
2
---
1
2
---
multiple choice

820
270
667

10 a

,

d

,

e
a

a

=

2,

d

=

2

d

a

=

not specied,

d

=

2

e

a

=

8,

d

=

8

11

7th
8th
5th

t

n

=

13

+

10

n

7th
14 In a vineyard, rows of wire fences are built to support the vines. The length of the
fence in row 1 is 40 m, the length of the fence in row 2 is 43 m, and the length of
the fence in row 3 is 46 m. If the lengths of the fences continue in this pattern, write
down a rule for the length of a fence in row number n.
15 The rst fence post in a fence is 12 m from the road, the next is 15.5 m from the road and
the next is 19 m from the road. The rest of the fence posts are spaced in this pattern.
a Write down a rule for the distance of fence post n from the road.
b If 100 posts are to be erected, how far will the last post be from the road?
16 The 1st term of an arithmetic sequence is 2 and the sum of the rst 19 terms of the
sequence is 551. Find:
a the 19th term b the rst 3 terms of the sequence.
17 The 1st term of an arithmetic sequence is 4 and the sum of the rst 30 terms of the
sequence is 2490. Find:
a the 30th term b the rst 3 terms of the sequence.
18 Sam makes $100 prot in his rst week of business. If his prot increases by $75 each
week, what would his prot be in total by the end of week 15?
19 Georges salary is to start at $36 000 a year and increase by $1200 each year after
that. How much will George have earned in total after 10 years?
20 A staircase is designed so that the height of each step increases by 0.8 cm for each step.
If the height of the rst step is 15 cm, what is the total height of the rst 17 steps?
21 Paula collects stamps. She bought 250 in the rst month to start her collection and
added 15 stamps to the collection each month thereafter. How many stamps will she
have collected after 5 years?
22 Proceeds from the church fete were $3000 in 1990. In 1991 the proceeds were $3400
and in 1992 they were $3800. If they continued in this pattern:
a what were the proceeds from the year 2009 fete?
b how much in total would the proceeds from church fetes since 1990 have
amounted to in the year 2009?
Geometric sequences
A sequence in mathematics is an ordered set of numbers. A geometric sequence is one
in which the rst term is multiplied by a number, known as the common ratio, to create
the second term which is multiplied by the common ratio to create the third term, and
so on. The rst term in a geometric sequence is referred to as a and the common ratio
is referred to as r.
Consider the geometric sequence where a = 1 and r = 3. The terms in the sequence are
1 3
3 3 3 3
9 27 81...

t

n

=

37

+

3

n
t

n

=

8.5

+

3.5

n

358.5 metres
56 2, 5, 8
170

4, 2, 8
$9375
$414 000
363.8 cm
1135
$10 600
$136 000

SLE 12: Investigate the use
of an arithmetic progression
in real-life situations.
To discover the common ratio, r, of a geometric sequence you need to calculate the ratio
of successive terms, namely . You could alternatively calculate or and so on.
A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers for which the ratio of successive
terms is the same.
common ratio
The rst term of a geometric sequence is referred to as a.
The common ratio between a term and its preceding term is referred to as r.
t
2
t
1
----
t
3
t
2
----
t
4
t
3
----
t
2
t
1
----
t
3
t
2
----
t
4
t
3
---- = = = =
Which of the following are geometric sequences?
a 2, 10, 50, 250, 1250, . . .
b 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, . . .
THINK WRITE
Calculate the ratio of .
a 2, 10, 50, 250, 1250, . . .
Check that all ratios are the same. There is a common ratio of 5.
This is a geometric sequence.
b 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, . . .
There is no need to check any further
as the two ratios are not the same.
There is no common ratio.
This is not a geometric sequence.
1
2
t
2
t
1
----
t
2
t
1
----
10
2
------ =
5 =
3
t
3
t
2
----
t
3
t
2
----
50
10
------ =
5 =
4
t
4
t
3
----
t
4
t
3
----
250
50
--------- =
5 =
5
t
5
t
4
----
t
5
t
4
----
1250
250
------------ =
5 =
6
1
2
t
2
t
1
----
t
2
t
1
----
6
2
------ =
+3 =
3
t
3
t
2
----
t
3
t
2
----
18
6
------ =
3 =
4
6
WORKEDExample
Finding the terms of a geometric sequence
Consider the nite geometric sequence of seven terms for which a = 3 and r = 4.
Now, t
1
= 3 t
1
= a
t
2
= 3 4 t
2
= a r t
2
= a r
1
t
3
= 3 4 4 t
3
= a r r t
3
= a r
2
t
4
= 3 4 4 4 t
4
= a r r r t
4
= a r
3
t
5
= 3 4 4 4 4 t
5
= a r r r r t
5
= a r
4
and so on . . .
Write down the value of a and r for each of the following geometric sequences.
a 1.2, 4.8, 19.2, 76.8, 307.2, . . .
b 1, , , , , . . .
THINK WRITE
a is the rst term.
a 1.2, 4.8, 19.2, 76.8, 307.2, . . .
a = 1.2
To nd r use the ratio or any other
ratio.
=
= 4 or
=
= 4
Write your answer.
This is a geometric sequence with the rst
term 1.2 and a common ratio of 4.
a is the rst term.
b 1, , , , , . . .
a = 1
To nd r use the ratio or any other
ratio.
=
= or
=
=
=
Write your answer.
This is a geometric sequence with the rst
term 1 and a common ratio of .
3
4
---
9
16
------
27
64
------
81
256
---------
1
2
3
t
2
t
1
----
t
2
t
1
----
4.8
1.2
----------
t
3
t
2
----
19.2
4.8
----------
4
1
2
3
4
---
9
16
------
27
64
------
81
256
---------
3
t
2
t
1
----
t
2
t
1
----
3
4
---
1
------
3
4
---
t
3
t
2
----
9
16
------
3
4
---
-------
9
16
------
4
3
---
3
4
---
4
3
4
---
7
WORKEDExample
3 12
4 4 4 4
48 192 384
We notice a pattern emerging. That pattern can be described by the equation:
t
n
= 3 4
n 1
.
For example, if n = 5,
t
5
= 3 4
4
.
We can generalise this rule for all geometric sequences.
t
n
= ar
n 1
where t
n
is the nth term
a is the rst term
r is the common ratio.
This rule enables us to nd any term of a geometric sequence provided we know the
value of a and r.
Find the 12th term of the geometric sequence:
2, 10, 50, 250, 1250, . . .
THINK WRITE
Find the value of a. a = 2
It has been stated that it is a geometric
sequence, so nd the value of r.
r =
= 5
Use the rule t
n
= a r
n 1
to nd the
12th term.
t
12
= 2 5
12 1
= 97 656 250
Write your answer. The value of the 12th term is 97 656 250.
1
2
10
2
------
3
4
8
WORKEDExample
The 2nd term of a geometric sequence is 8 and the 5th is 512. Find the 10th term of
this sequence.
THINK WRITE
We know that t
2
= 8 and that
t
n
= a r
n 1
.
t
2
= a r
1
= 8
We know that t
5
= 512 and that
t
n
= a r
n 1
.
t
5
= a r
4
= 512
Solve the 2 equations simultaneously
by eliminating a, to nd r.
Divide equation 2 by equation 1.
a r
1
= 8 [1]
a r
4
= 512 [2]
= [2] [1]
r
3
= 64
r = 4
1
2
3
a r
4
a r
--------------
512
8
---------
9
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
To nd a, substitute the value of r. Substituting r = 4 into equation [1]:
a 4 = 8
a = 2
Write down the rule. t
n
= 2 4
n 1
To nd the 10th term, let n = 10. t
10
= 2 4
9
= 524 288
Write your answer. The 10th term in the sequence is 524 288.
4
5
6
7
The rst three terms of a geometric sequence are 2, 6, and 18.
Which numbered term would be the rst to exceed 1 000 000 in this sequence?
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Method 1: Using logarithms
To nd the rule for the sequence, nd a
and r and substitute them into
t
n
= a r
n 1
.
a = 2
r =
=
= 3
t
n
= 2 3
n 1
Set up the equation to be solved.
2 3
n 1
= 1 000 000
3
n 1
= 500 000
Express 3
n 1
and 500 000 in terms of
logarithms to the base 10.
log 3
n 1
= log 500 000
(n 1) log 3 = log 500 000
(n 1) =
n 1 = 11.9445
n = 12.9445
The next whole number term is the 13th. The 13th term would be the rst to exceed
1000000.
Method 2: Trial and error
Find the rule for the sequence.
See Method 1.
a = 2 and r = 3
t
n
= 2 3
n 1
Set up the equation to be solved. 2 3
n 1
= 1 000 000
3
n 1
= 500 000
Try various values of n.
With n = 8, value is less than 1 000 000.
With n = 15, value is greater than
1 000 000.
With n = 12, value is too small.
With n = 14, value is too large.
With n = 13, value just exceeds 500 000.
Let n = 8, 3
77
= 2187 (too small)
Let n = 15, 3
14
= 4 782 969 (too large)
Let n = 12, 3
11
= 177 147 (too small)
Let n = 14, 3
13
= 1 594 323 (too large)
Let n = 13, 3
12
= 531 441
The 13th term is the required term.
1
t
2
t
1
---
6
2
---
2
3
log 500 000
log 3
----------------------------
4
1
2
3
10
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Method 3: Using a graphics calculator
Find the rule for the sequence. See Method 1. a = 2 and r = 3
t
n
= 2 3
n1
Locate the term that equals or exceeds 1 000 000. Two
methods are shown for this example.
Method A: Generating the terms of the sequence
(a) Press and select RUN-MAT. Press
then (LIST) followed by (Seq). Enter the
rule (2 3
n 1
) followed by the variable name (n),
the start value (1), the end value (say, 20) and the
increment (1), each separated by a comma. Press
to close the set of brackets.
(b) Press to display the list of terms.
(c) Scroll down until you reach the term that exceeds
1 000 000.
(a) Open a new Lists & Spreadsheet document. Press
b, then 3: Data followed by 1: Generate
Sequence. Enter the rule 2 3
n 1
with an initial
term of 2. Press euntil OK is highlighted.
(b) Press to display the list of terms. Increase the
width of Column A to view the terms more easily.
(Press bthen select 1: Actions, 2: Resize and
1: Resize Column Width.)
1
2
MENU OPTN
F1 F5
)
EXE
Continued over page
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
(c) Scroll down until you reach the term that exceeds
1 000 000.
Method B: Solving an equation
Set up an equation to solve.
(a) Press and select EQUA. Press (SOLV) to
select F3: Solver. A previous equation and its
solution will be displayed.
2 3
n 1
= 1 000 000
(b) Enter the required equation in the rst line and press
. Notice that even though the variable in the
second line has changed to N, the value shown is not
the calculated solution.
(c) Press (SOLV) to display the solution. (If you
wish to use the Solver again, press (REPT).)
Open a new Calculator document. Use the solve
function to nd n when 2 3
n 1
= 1 00 000. Press b
and select 3: Algebra followed by 1: Solve (or type the
word solve and press (). Enter the equation to be
solved and then the variable, separated by a comma.
Press )to close the set of brackets and press .
Write your answer.
Note that the value of the 13th term may appear as 1.06E6
or 1.06288E6 which is approximately 1.06 10
6
or
1 060 000. It is written in exponential form since it is too
large a number to t on the screen.
The rst term to exceed
1 000 000 is the 13th.
MENU F3
EXE
F6
F1
3
The sum of a given number of terms of a
geometric sequence
When the terms of a geometric sequence are added, a geometric series is formed.
So 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, . . . is a geometric sequence
whereas 3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + 48 + . . . is a geometric series.
The sum of n terms of a geometric sequence is given by S
n
.
Consider the general geometric sequence a, ar, ar
2
, ar
3
, . . . ar
n 1
.
Now, S
n
= a + ar + ar
2
+ ar
3
+ . . . + ar
n 1
.
Also, multiplying each term by r, rS
n
= ar + ar
2
+ ar
3
+ ar
4
+ . . . + ar
n
.
So, rS
n
S
n
= a + ar
n
since all the other terms cancel out.
So, S
n
(r 1) = a(r
n
1)
S
n
=
This formula is useful if r < 1 or r > 1, for example, if r is 2, 10, 3.3, 4, 1.2.
By calculating S
n
rS
n
instead of rS
n
S
n
, as we did earlier, we obtain an alternative
form of the formula. That is,
This formula is useful if r is in between 1 and 1 (shown as 1 < r < 1).
The sum of n terms, S
n
, of a geometric sequence may be calculated using
S
n
= if r < 1 or r > 1
or
S
n
= if 1 < r < 1.
a r
n
1 ( )
r 1
----------------------
S
n
rS
n
a ar
n
=
S
n
1 r ( ) a 1 r
n
( ) =
S
n
a 1 r
n
( )
1 r
---------------------- =
a r
n
1 ( )
r 1
----------------------
a 1 r
n
( )
1 r
----------------------
Find the sum of the rst 9 terms of the sequence 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, . . .
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Find the value of a. a = 0.25
Find the value of r by testing ratios of
the given terms.
= =
= 2 = 2
= =
= 2 = 2
Since r > 1, use . S
9
=
= 127.75
Write the answer. The sum of the rst 9 terms is 127.75.
1
2
t
2
t
1
----
0.5
0.25
----------
t
3
t
2
----
1
0.5
-------
t
4
t
3
----
2
1
---
t
5
t
4
----
4
2
---
3
S
n
a r
n
1 ( )
r 1
---------------------- =
0.25 2
9
1 ( )
1
------------------------------
4
11
WORKEDExample
SLE 1: Establish the formula

for the sum to

n

terms of a
geometric progression.
Geometric sequences
1 State which of the following are geometric sequences.
2 Look again at the geometric sequences found in question 1. Write down the values of
a and r.
3 Find the value of the term specied for the given geometric sequences.
a Find the 10th term of the geometric sequence 2, 12, 72, 432, 2592, . . .
b Find the 18th term of the geometric sequence 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, . . .
c Find the 11th term of the geometric sequence 5, 15, 45, 135, 405, . . .
d Find the 10th term of the geometric sequence 2.3, 2.76, 3.312, 3.9744, . . .
e Find the 9th term of the geometric sequence 2, 8, 32, 128, 512, . . .
a 2, 6, 12, 24, 48, . . . b 1, 4, 16, 64, 256, . . .
c 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . d 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, . . .
e 4, 12, 36, 108, 324, . . . f 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60 000, . . .
g 5, 15, 25, 45, 85, . . . h 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, 9.6, 19.2, . . .
i 7, 3.5, 1.75, 0.875, 0.4375, . . . j , , , , , . . .
1. In a geometric sequence:
(a) the rst term is a,
(b) the common ratio is .
2. Given an unspecied sequence, establish whether it is geometric by testing all
terms for a common ratio,
3. To nd the terms of a geometric sequence use the following formula:
t
n
= ar
n 1
where t
n
is the nth term
a is the rst term
4. When the terms of a geometric sequence are added, a geometric series is
formed.
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 is a nite geometric sequence.
2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 is a nite geometric series.
5. The sum of n terms, S
n
if r < 1 or r > 1, for example, r = 2, , + 2 or + 1.5
or
if 1 < r < 1, for example, r = 0.2, or 0.25.
r
t
2
t
1
---- =
r
t
2
t
1
----
t
3
t
2
----
t
4
t
3
---- = = = =
S
n
a r
n
1 ( )
r 1
---------------------- =
3
2
---
S
n
a 1 r
n
( )
1 r
---------------------- =
1
8
---
remember
9B
WORKED
Example
6
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
8
---
1
16
------
1
32
------
WORKED
Example
7
WORKED
Example
8

1 b

,

c

,

e

,

f

,

h

,

i

,

j
b

a

=

1,

r

=

4

c

a

=

1,

r

=

2

e

a

=

4,

r

=

3

f

a

=

6,

r

=

10

h

a

=

1.2,

r

=

2

i

a

=

7,

r

=

j

a

=

,

r

=

1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---

2

20 155 392
1 048 576
295 245
11.867 494 81

131 072
4 Find the value of the term specied in each of the following geometric sequences.
a The 2nd term of a geometric sequence is 6 and the 5th term is 162. Find the 10th term.
b The 2nd term of a geometric sequence is 6 and the 5th term is 48. Find the 12th term.
c The 2nd term of a geometric sequence is 2 and the 5th term is 16. Find the 16th term.
d The 4th term of a geometric sequence is 32 and the 7th term is 256. Find the
14th term.
e The 4th term of a geometric sequence is 192 and the 7th term is 12 288. Find
the 12th term.
f The 3rd term of a geometric sequence is 36 and the 6th term is 972. Find the
12th term.
5 Evaluate the following.
a The rst three terms of a geometric sequence are 5, 12.5 and 31.25. Which term
would be the rst to exceed 50 000?
b The rst three terms of a geometric sequence are 3.2, 9.6 and 28.8. Which term
would be the rst to exceed 1 000 000?
c The rst three terms of a geometric sequence are 5.1, 20.4 and 81.6. Which term
would be the rst to exceed 100 000?
d The rst three terms of a geometric sequence are 4.3, 9.46 and 20.812. Which
term would be the rst to exceed 500 000?
6 a Find the sum of the rst 12 terms of the geometric sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, . . .
b Find the sum of the rst 7 terms of the geometric sequence 5, 35, 245, 1715,
12 005, . . .
c Find the sum of the rst 15 terms of the geometric sequence 1.1, 2.2, 4.4, 8.8,
17.6, . . .
d Find the sum of the rst 11 terms of the geometric sequence 3.1, 9.3, 27.9, 83.7,
251.1, . . .
7
There is a geometric sequence for which a is positive and r = 2. It is true to say that:
A only one term of the sequence is a positive number
B the 3rd term will be a negative number
C the 3rd term will be less than the 2nd term
D the 5th term will be greater than the 6th term
E the 4th term will be greater than the 3rd term.
8
The 12th term of the geometric sequence 21, 63, 189, 567, . . . is:
9
The sum of the rst 10 terms of the geometric sequence 2.25, 4.5, 9, 18, 36, . . . is
closest to:
10
The 2nd term of a geometric sequence is 20 and the 5th is 1280. The sum of the
rst 12 terms of the sequence is:
A 6804 B 413 343 C 1 240 029 D 3 720 087 E 5 931 980 229
A 1149.75 B 2301.75 C 5318.81 D 6648.51 E 8342.65
A 27 962 025 B 1 062 880 C 15 360 D 1 062 880 E 16 777 215
WORKED
Example
9
WORKED
Example
10
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Digital doc:
SkillSHEET 9.1
Solving indicial
equations
WORKED
Example
11
multiple choice
multiple choice
multiple choice
multiple choice

39 366
6144
32 768

32 768

12 582 912

708 588
12th
13th
9th
16th
531 440
686 285
36 043.7
274 576.3
11 On the rst day Jenny hears a rumour. On the second day, she
tells two friends. On the third day, each of these two friends tell
two of their own friends, and so on.
a Write the geometric sequence for the rst ve days of the
above real-life situation.
b Find the value of r.
c How many people are told of the rumour on the 12th day?
12 Decay of radioactive material is modelled as a geometric sequence where r = . If
there are 20 million radioactive atoms, write the rst 7 terms of the sequence.
13 The number of cells of a micro-organism, after each process of cell division, can be
summarised as follows.
1, 2, 4, 8, 16
If the number of cells after each division continues to follow a geometric sequence, nd:
a a rule for the number of cells after n divisions
b the number of cells after 12 divisions.
14 The takings at a new cinema each month are
recorded.
If the takings each month continue to
follow a geometric sequence, nd:
a a rule for the takings in month n
b the takings in week 9.
1
2
---
Month number Takings
1 $10 000
2 $8500
3 $7225

1, 2, 4, 8, 16
2
2048
20 million, 10 million,
5 million, 2 million,
1 million, 625 000,
312 500
1
2
---
1
4
---

t

n

=

2

n

1

2048

t

n

=

10 000

0.85

n

1

$2724.91
15 A small town is renowned for spreading
rumours. All of its citizens are aware in
a short time of any new rumours. The
spread of the rumour can be summarised
in the table given at right.
If the number of citizens who have
been told the rumour each day con-
tinues to follow a geometric sequence,
nd:
a a rule for the number of citizens in day n
b the number of citizens told of the rumour by day 5
c on which day all 4230 citizens will know of the rumour.
16 A ranger records the distance from a sand
dune to the waters edge at low tide over a
number of years.
If the distance from the waters edge each year continues to follow a geometric
sequence, nd:
a a rule for the distance from the waters edge in year n
b the distance from the waters edge in year 6 (correct to 2 decimal places)
c in which year the distance from the waters edge will exceed 100 m.
17 How many terms of the geometric sequence 600, 180, 54, 16.2, 4.86, . . . are required
for the sum to be greater than 855?
Day number
Number of citizens
in the know
1 1
2 6
3 36
Year
number
Distance from
waters edge (m)
1 60
2 64.8
3 69.984
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WorkSHEET 9.1

t

n

=

6

n

1

1296
6

t

n

=

60

1.08

n

1

88.16 m
8th year
Applications of geometric sequences
Growth and decay of discrete variables is constantly found in real-life situations. Some
examples are increasing or decreasing populations and increase or decrease in nancial
investments. Some of these geometric models are presented here.
A city produced 100 tonnes of rubbish in the year 2008. Forecasts suggest that this may
increase by 2% each year. If these forecasts are true,
a what will be the citys rubbish output in 2012?
b in which year will the amount of rubbish reach 120 tonnes?
c what was the total amount of rubbish produced by the city in the years 2008, 2009 and 2010?
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
a This is an example of a geometric
sequence. Find the rst term, a.
a a = 100
Determine the common ratio, r.
The amount of rubbish increases by 2%,
that is, the original amount plus an extra
2%. Note that r 0.02.
Increase by 2%
1 + 2% = 1 + 0.02
r = 1.02
Determine which term is represented by
the amount of rubbish for the year 2012.
Year 2008 is the rst term, so n = 1.
Year 2009 is the second term, so n = 2.
Year 2012 is the fth term, so n = 5.
Use t
n
= ar
n 1
to nd the amount of
rubbish collected in the fth year.
t
5
= 100 1.02
5 1
= 100 1.0824
= 108.24
Write your response. The amount of rubbish produced in the
fth year, or 2012, will be 108.24
tonnes.
b Method 1: Using logarithms b
Use t
n
= ar
n 1
and t
n
= 120.
100(1.02)
n 1
= 120
(1.02)
n 1
= 1.2
Express 1.02 and 1.2 in terms of
logarithms with base 10.
log 1.02
n 1
= log 1.2
(n 1) log 1.02 = log 1.2
n 1 =
n 1 = 9.207
n = 10.207
Write your answer. During the 11th year, that is, during
2018, the rubbish will have exceeded
120 tonnes.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
log 1.2
log 1.02
-------------------
3
12
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Method 2: Using trial and error
Use t
n
= ar
n 1
and t
n
= 120. 100(1.02)
n 1
= 120
(1.02)
n 1
= 1.2
Try various values of n. Let n = 10, (1.02)
9
= 1.195
Let n = 11, (1.02)
10
= 1.21
Write your answer. During the 11th year, that is, during
2018, the rubbish will have
exceeded 120 tonnes.
Use t
n
= ar
n 1
to write the rule.
t
n
= 100(1.02)
n 1
Locate the term that equals or exceeds 120.
Two methods are shown for this example.
Method A: Generating the terms of the
sequence
(a) Press and select RUN-MAT. Press
then (LIST) followed by
(Seq). Enter the rule (100 1.02
n 1
)
followed by the variable name (n), the start
value (1), the end value (say, 20) and the
increment (1), each separated by a comma.
Press to close the set of brackets.
(b) Press to display the list of the rst 20
terms. Scroll down until you reach the term
that exceeds 120. (This screen is also
useful for part c.)
(a) Open a new Lists & Spreadsheet
document. Press b, then 3: Data
followed by 1: Generate Sequence.
Enter the rule 100 1.02
n 1
with an
initial term of 100. Press euntil OK
is highlighted.
(b) Press to display the list of terms.
Scroll down until you reach the term that
exceeds 120.
(You may like to save this le for part c.)
1
2
3
1
2
MENU
OPTN F1 F5
)
EXE
Continued over page
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Press and select EQUA. Press
(SOLV) to select F3: Solver.
(A previous equation and its solution
will be displayed.) Enter the required
equation in the rst line and press
. Press (SOLV) to display the
solution.
100(1.02)
n 1
= 120
Open a new Calculator document. Press
band select 3: Algebra followed by
1: Solve. Enter the equation to be solved
and then the variable, separated by a
comma. Press )to close the set of
brackets and press .
Write your answer. The rst term to exceed 120 tonnes is the
11th term or year 2018.
c We need to nd the sum of the rst
3 terms.
Method 1: Using the formula
Use where n = 3.
c
S
3
=
S
3
= 306.04
Method 2: Using a graphics
calculator
Use the display generated by a graphics
calculator from Method A of part b
to add the rst three terms.
(For the TI-Nspire CAS calculator, nd
the sum of the numbers in cells A1 to
A3.)
100 + 102 + 104.04 = 306.04
Write your answer. The total output of rubbish for the years
2008, 2009 and 2010 will be 306.04
tonnes.
MENU
F3
EXE F6
3
1
S
n
a r
n
1 ( )
r 1
---------------------- =
100 1.02
3
1 ( )
1.02 1
------------------------------------
2
Compound interest
Consider the case where a bank pays compound interest of 5% per annum on an
amount of $20 000. The amount is invested for 4 years and interest is calculated yearly.
Compound interest receives its name because the interest which is earned is paid
back into the account so that the next time interest is calculated, it is calculated on an
increased amount. There is a compounding effect on the money in the account.
If we calculated the amount in the account mentioned above each year, we would
have the following amounts.
Start $20 000
After 1 year $20 000 1.05 = $21 000
After 2 years $20 000 1.05 1.05 = $22 050
After 3 years $20 000 1.05 1.05 1.05 = $23 152.50
After 4 years $20 000 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 = $24 310.13
The amounts 20 000, 21 000, 22 050, 23 152.50, 24 310.13, . . . form a geometric
sequence where a = 20 000 and r = 1.05.
We need to be a little careful, however, in using the formula t
n
= ar
n 1
in calculating
compound interest. This is because the original amount in the account, that is, $20 000,
in terms of the geometric sequence would be referred to as t
1
or a. In banking terms, t
1
would represent the amount in the account after the rst lot of interest has been calcu-
lated and added in.
To be clear and to be safe, it is best to use the following formula for compound interest.
A = PR
n
where R = 1 +
A = amount in the account, $
P = principal, $
r = interest rate per period (that is, per year or quarter etc.), %
n = the number of periods during the investment.
A computer system decreases in value each year by 15% of the previous years value. Find
an expression for the value of the computer, which shall be referred to as V
n
, after n years.
Its initial purchase price is given as V
1
= $12 000.
THINK WRITE
This is a geometric sequence since there is a
15% decrease on the previous years value.
Find a and r.
Note: Since this is a decreasing value, r is a
value less than 1.
a = 12 000
r = 1 15%
= 1 0.15
= 0.85
We want an expression for the value after n
years. Use t
n
= ar
n 1
which gives the value
of the nth term. Use V
n
instead of t
n
.
V
n
= 12 000 (0.85)
n 1
Write your answer. The value of the computer is given by the
expression V
n
= 12 000(0.85)
n 1
.
1
2
3
13
WORKEDExample
r
100
---------
Helen inherits $60 000 and invests it for 3 years in an account which pays compound
interest of 8% per annum compounding every 6 months.
a What will be the amount in Helens account at the end of 3 years?
b How much will Helen receive in interest over the 3-year period?
THINK WRITE
a This is an example of compound interest.
Use A = PR
n
, where . Interest
is calculated each 6 months so, over 3 years,
there are 6 periods: n = 6. Interest is 8% per
year or 4% per 6 months.
So, r = 4%.
a P = 60 000
n = 6 half years
r = 4% per half year
So, R = 1 +
= 1.04
A = PR
n
= 60 000(1.04)
6
= 75 919.14
Write your answer. At the end of 3 years, Helen will
have a total amount of $75 919.14.
b Interest equals the amount in the account at
the end of 3 years, less the amount in the
account at the start of the investment.
b Interest = Total amount Principal
= $75 919.14 $60 000
= $15 919.14
Write your answer. Amount of interest earned over
3 years is $15 919.14.
1
R 1
r
100
--------- + =
4
100
---------
2
1
2
14
WORKEDExample
Jim invests $16 000 in a bank account which earns compound interest at the rate of 12%
per annum compounding every quarter.
At the end of the investment, there is $25 616.52 in the account.
For how many years did Jim have his money invested?
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Method 1: Using logarithms
We know the value of A, P, r and R.
We need to nd n using the compound
interest formula.
Note: There are 4 quarters per annum.
A = 25 616.52
P = 16 000
r =
r = 3% per quarter
and so R = 1 + = 1.03
Now substitute into A = PR
n
. A = PR
n
25 616.52 = 16 000(1.03)
n
1.601 = 1.03
n
Express 1.601 and 1.04 in terms of
logarithms with base 10.
log 1.601 = log 1.03
n
So, log 1.601 = n log 1.03
n =
n =
1
12
4
------
3
100
---------
2
3
log 1.601
log 1.03
----------------------
0.2044
0.0128
----------------
15
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Round up the number of periods to 16
to ensure the amount is reached.
n = 15.92
Write your answer. It will take 16 periods where a period is
3 months. So, it will take 48 months or 4 years.
Method 2: Trial and error
We know the value of A, P, r and R.
We need to nd n using the compound
interest formula.
A = 25 616.52
P = 16 000
r =
r = 3% per quarter
and so R = 1 +
= 1.03
Now, A = PR
n
So, 25 616.52 = 16 000(1.03)
n
1.601 = 1.03
n
Try some different values of n. Let n = 5 1.03
5
= 1.159
Let n = 10 1.03
10
= 1.344
Let n = 15 1.03
15
= 1.558
Let n = 16 1.03
16
= 1.605
Write your answer. It will take 16 periods where a period is
3 months. So, it will take 48 months or 4 years.
Use t
n
= PR
n
to write the rule for the
sequence.
P = 16 000
r =
= 3% per quarter
and so R = 1 +
= 1.03
t
n
= 16 000(1.03)
n
Locate the term that equals or exceeds
25 616.52.
You may wish to generate the sequence
and scroll down to the required term
(see page 400). Alternatively, an
equation can be set up to be solved.
This method is shown here.
Press and select EQUA. Press
(SOLV) to select F3: Solver. (A
previous equation and its solution will
be displayed.) Enter the required
equation in the rst line and press
. Press (SOLV) to display the
solution.
For t
n
= 25 616.52,
16 000(1.03)
n
= 25 616.52
4
5
1
12
4
------
3
100
---------
2
3
1
12
4
------
3
100
---------
2
MENU
F3
EXE F6
Continued over page
Applications of geometric
sequences
1 A farmer harvests 4 tonnes of lucerne in his rst year of production. In
his business plan, he has estimated an annual increase of 6% on his
lucerne harvest.
a According to this plan, how many tonnes of lucerne should he har-
vest in his 7th year of production?
b In which year will his harvest reach 10 tonnes?
c How much will he expect to harvest in the rst 3 years?
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Open a new Calculator document. Press
band select 3: Algebra followed by
1: Solve. Enter the equation to be solved
and then the variable, separated by a
comma. Press )to close the set of
brackets and press .
Write your answer. Jim has money invested for 16 periods where a
period is 3 months.
So it will take 48 months or 4 years.
3
Geometric growth
1. Geometric growth or increase is expressed as a percentage increase.
2. Common ratio, r = 1 + % increase
3. r values are greater than 1, for example, an 8% increase gives r = 1.08.
Geometric decay
4. Geometric decay or decrease is expressed as a percentage decrease.
5. Common ratio, r = 1 % decrease
6. r values are less than 1, for example, an 8% decrease gives r = 0.92.
Compound interest
7. The formula for compound interest is
A = PR
n
where R = 1 +
P = principal, $
r = interest rate per period (that is, per year or quarter etc.) as a percentage
r
100
---------
remember
9C
WORKED
Example
12
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EXCEL
Spreadsheet
Sequences and series
5.67
17th year
12.7 tonnes
2 A taxi driver estimates that the cost of keeping her taxi on the road increases by 4.5%
each year. If the cost of keeping her taxi on the road in her rst year of owning a taxi
was $1800:
a what was the cost in the 5th year?
b during which year did costs exceed $2500?
c what were the total costs of keeping her taxi on the road in the rst 3 years?
3 The population of a town is decreasing by 10% each year. Find an expression for the
population of the town, which will be referred to as P
n
. The population in the rst
year, P
1
, was 10 000.
4 $13 000 is invested in an account which earns compound interest of 8%, com-
pounding quarterly.
a After 5 years, how much is in the account?
b How much interest was earned in that period?
5 The population of the newly established town of Alansford in its rst year was 6000.
It is predicted that the towns population will increase by 10% each year. If this were
to be the case, nd:
a the population of the town in its 10th year
b in which year the population of Alansford would reach 25 000.
6 The promoters of Fleago ea
powder assert that continued
application of the powder will
reduce the number of eas on a
dog by 15% each week. At the end
of week 1, Fido the dog has 200
eas left on him and his owner
continues to apply the powder.
a How many eas would Fido be
expected to have on him at the
end of the 4th week?
b How many weeks would Fido
have to wait before the number
of eas on him had dropped to
less than 50?
7 Young saplings should increase in
height by 9% each year under
optimum conditions. If a batch of
saplings which have been planted
out measure 2.2 metres in their
rst year:
a how high should they be in
their 4th year?
b in which year should they
exceed 5 metres in height?
8 A number of timber beams support a ramp. The rst of the beams is 0.8 metres long
and each successive beam is 3% longer than the previous one.
a How long will the 7th beam in the line be?
b Which beam will be the rst to exceed 2 metres in length?
WORKED
Example
13
WORKED
Example
14

$2146.53
Year 9
$5646.65

P

n

=

10 000

(0.9)

n

1

$19 317.32
$6317.32
14 147
16th year
123
10 weeks
2.85 m
Year 11
0.96 m
32nd beam
9
A colony of ants is studied and the population of the colony in week 1 of the study is
800. If the population of the colony is expected to increase at the rate of 2% each week,
then the week in which the number of ants would exceed 1000 would be closest to:
10 A company exported $300 000 worth of manufactured goods in its rst year of pro-
duction. According to the business plan of the company, this amount should increase
each year by 7.5%.
a How much would the company be expected to export in its 5th year?
b In which year would exports exceed $500 000?
c What is the total amount exported by the company in its rst 7 years of operation?
11 Country football crowds have been decreasing by 3% each year since records of
crowd attendance were kept. If the number of people attending in the rst year that
records were kept was 63 000 in a season:
a how many people attended in the 5th year?
b when did the number of people attending in a year drop below 50 000?
12 $10 000 is invested in an account which earns compound interest of 10% per annum.
Find the amount in the account after 5 years if the interest is compounded:
13 $20 000 is invested in an account earning compound interest of 10% per annum com-
pounding quarterly.
What is the amount in the account after:
14 $7000 is invested in an account which earns compound interest of 6% per annum
compounding monthly. After 3 years, how much is in the account?
15 In an account earning compound interest of 8% per annum compounding quarterly, an
amount of $6000 is invested. When the account is closed, there is $7609.45 in the
account. For how many years was the account open?
16 Sue earns 12% interest per annum compounding quarterly on her investment of
$40 000. For how many years would this investment need to operate for the amount to
rise to $50 670.80?
17 Helena receives $15 627.12 after closing an investment account which earned com-
pound interest of 9% per annum compounding every 6 months. If Helena originally
deposited $12 000 in the account, for how long was it in the account?
18 Todd receives $66 277.33 after having invested an inheritance of $60 000 in an
account earning compound interest of 12% per annum compounding monthly. For
how long did Todd have the money invested?
19 An amount of $14 500 is invested in an account attracting compound interest of
6% per annum compounding quarterly. After a certain time the interest earned in the
account is $1834.14. Find out for how long the amount had been invested.
A 6 B 10 C 13 D 26 E 32
a yearly b every 6 months
c quarterly d monthly.
a 1 year? b 3 years?
c 5 years? d 10 years?
multiple choice
WORKED
Example
15

$400 640.74
Year 9
2 636 196.56
55 773
9th year
$16 105.10 $16 288.95
$16 386.16 $16 453.09
$22 076.26 $26 897.78
$32 772.33 $53 701.28
$8376.76
3 years
2 years
3 years
10 months
2 years
Finding the sum of an innite
geometric sequence
If you are 2 metres away from a wall and you move 1 metre
(or half-way) towards the wall and then move metre
(or half-way again) towards the wall and continue to do
this, will you reach the wall? When will you reach the wall?
Consider the following geometric sequence:
1, , , , , . . . This is an innite geometric sequence
since it continues on with an innite number of terms.
Each term in the sequence is less than the previous term by
a factor of , that is, r = 0.5.
If we were to add n terms of this sequence together, we would have:
S
n
=
=
=
= 2 0.5
n 1
Consider 0.5
n 1
in the above equation. As n becomes very large, the term 0.5
n 1
becomes very small. Try this with your calculator.
Let n = 5, 0.5
n 1
= 0.5
4
= 0.0625; therefore, S
5
= 2 0.0625 = 1.9375
Let n = 10, 0.5
n 1
= 0.5
9
= 0.001 95; therefore, S
10
= 2 0.001 95 = 1.998 05
Let n = 20, 0.5
n 1
= 0.5
19
= 0.000 001 9; therefore, S
20
= 2 0.000 001 9 = 1.999 998 1
We can see that as n becomes larger, 0.5
n 1
becomes smaller. If n were to approach
innity (note that you can never reach innity, you can only approach it), then the value
of 0.5
n 1
would approach zero. So, S
n
= 2 0.5
n 1
would become S
= 2.
It is possible to generalise this in order to nd the sum of an innite geometric
sequence. We use the symbol S
which is referred to as the sum to innity of a geo-

metric sequence.
The sum to innity of a geometric sequence for which 1 < r < 1 is given by
.
1 m
1 m
m
2
1
4
1
8
1
2 m
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
8
---
1
16
------
1
2
---
1 1 0.5
n
( )
1 0.5
---------------------------------
1 0.5
n
0.5
------------------
1
0.5
-------
0.5
n
0.5
---------
S
a
1 r
----------- =
Find the sum to innity of the geometric sequence 2, 0.4, 0.08, 0.016, 0.0032, . . .
THINK WRITE
Find a and r. a = 2
r =
=
= 0.2
1
t
2
t
1
----
0.4
2
-------
16
WORKEDExample
Continued over page

SLE 1: Establish the
formula for the sum to

n

terms of a geometric
progression, and hence the
formula for the sum to
innity of a geometric
progression; verify the
formula by mathematical
induction.
THINK WRITE
As r = 0.2 satises the condition
1 < r < 1, use the formula .
S
=
=
=
= 2.5
Write your answer. The sum to innity of the given sequence is 2.5.
2
S
a
1 r
----------- =
a
1 r
-----------
2
1 0.2
----------------
2
0.8
-------
3
The sum to innity of the geometric sequence is 6.25 and the value of r is 0.2. Write down
the rst 4 terms of the sequence.
THINK WRITE
Use the formula to nd the
value of a.
S
=
6.25 =
6.25 0.8 = a
a = 5
a = 5 and r = 0.2. Use these to generate
the terms.
The rst 4 terms of the sequence are
5, 1, 0.2, 0.04.
1
S
a
1 r
----------- =
a
1 r
-----------
a
1 0.2
----------------
2
17
WORKEDExample
The sum to innity of a geometric sequence is 15 and the value of a is 10. Write down the
rst 4 terms of the sequence.
THINK WRITE
Use the formula to nd the
value of r. Transpose the equation to
make r the subject.
a = 10 and r = . Use these to generate
the terms in the sequence.
The rst 4 terms of the sequence are
10, , , or 10, 3 , 1 , .
1
S
a
1 r
----------- = S
a
1 r
----------- =
15
10
1 r
----------- =
1 r
10
15
------ =
r 1
2
3
--- =
r
1
3
--- =
2
1
3
---
10
3
------
10
9
------
10
27
------
1
3
---
1
9
---
10
27
------
18
WORKEDExample
Converting recurring decimals to fractions
We can use the sum to innity formula to convert recurring decimals to fractions.
Express 1.2
.
as a fraction.
THINK WRITE
We need to express 1.2
.
as the sum of a
geometric sequence.
1.2
.
= 1.222 222 222 222 2
= 1 + 0.2 + 0.02 + 0.002 + 0.0002 +
= 1 + (0.2 + 0.02 + 0.002 + 0.0002 + )
The terms in the bracket form an
innite geometric sequence where
a = 0.2 and r = 0.1. Use the formula
.
Multiply both the numerator and
denominator of by 10 to eliminate
the decimal.
a = 0.2
r =
= 0.1
S
=
0.2
.
=
0.2
.
=
0.2
.
=
Express the nal answer. So 1.2
.
= 1 +
= 1
1
2
S
a
1 r
----------- =
0.2
0.9
-------
0.02
0.2
----------
a
1 r
-----------
0.2
1 0.1
----------------
0.2
0.9
-------
2
9
---
3
2
9
---
2
9
---
19
WORKEDExample
Express 0.645 . . . as a fraction.
THINK WRITE
We need to express as
the sum of a geometric
sequence.
The terms in the bracket form
an innite geometric sequence
where a = 0.045 and r = 0.01.
1
0.645
0.645 0.645 454 5 =
0.6 0.045 0.000 45 0.000 004 5 + + + + =
0.6 0.045 0.000 45 0.000 004 5 + + + ( ) + =
2 a 0.045 =
r
0.00045
0.045
------------------- =
= 0.01
20
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Use the formula .
Multiply both the numerator and the
denominator of by 1000 to eliminate
the decimal.
Express the nal answer. =
=
Write your answer. So
3
S
a
1 r
----------- =
0.045
0.99
-------------
S
a
1 r
----------- =
0.045
0.045
1 0.01
------------------- =
0.045
45
990
--------- =
0.645 0.6
45
990
--------- + =
4
6
10
------
45
990
--------- +
594
990
---------
45
990
--------- +
5
0.645
639
990
--------- =
An injured rabbit attempts to crawl back to its hole. It moves 30 metres in the rst hour,
21 metres in the second hour and 14.7 metres in the third hour and so on. If the rabbit
hole is 200 metres away, will the rabbit make it back to its hole?
THINK WRITE
Determine what sort of sequence we
have.
t
1
= 30, t
2
= 21 and t
3
= 14.7
Now = 0.7
and = 0.7
So, we have a geometric sequence where
a = 30, r = 0.7.
Find the value of . S
=
S
= 100
Write your answer.
The rabbit will cover a total of 100 metres.
Since the rabbit hole is 200 metres away, the
rabbit wont make it.
1
21
30
------
14.7
21
----------
2
S
a
1 r
----------- =
30
1 0.7
----------------
3
21
WORKEDExample
Finding the sum of an innite geometric sequence:
1. For decreasing or decaying geometric series, the sum of an innite number of
terms approaches a nite sum.
2. The sum to innity of a geometric sequence for which 1 < r < 1 is given by
S
a
1 r
----------- =
remember
Finding the sum of an innite
geometric sequence
1 Find the sum to innity of the following geometric sequences.
2 Write down the rst 3 terms of the geometric sequence for which:
3 Write down the rst 3 terms of the geometric sequence for which:
4 Express each of the following recurring decimals as fractions.
5 A deant child walks 10 metres towards his mother in the rst minute, 4 metres in the
second minute and 1.6 metres in the third minute. If the child continues to approach
in this same pattern, and if his mother is standing stationary, 20 metres from the
childs initial position, will the child ever reach the mother?
6 A failing machine produces 35 metres of spouting in the rst hour, 21 metres in the
second hour and 12.6 in the third hour. If this pattern continues and 280 metres of
spouting is required, how far short of the quota will the machine fall?
7 A nail penetrates 20 mm with the rst hit of a hammer, 12 mm with the 2nd hit and
7.2 mm with the 3rd. If this pattern continues, will the 50 mm long nail ever be com-
pletely hammered in?
8 A woman establishes a committee to raise money for a hospital. It raises $40 000 in
the 1st year, $36 800 in the 2nd year and $33 856 in the 3rd year. If the fundraising
continues in this pattern, how far short will they fall in raising $1 000 000?
9 An irrigation system sprays 25 mm of water over a crop in its 1st month, 20 mm in
the 2nd month and 16 mm in the 3rd month. If the crop requires 100 mm of water
during its lifetime, how far short or how far over is the irrigation system in supplying
the correct amount?
10 A will of a recently deceased woman species how her money is to be donated to a
charity. Her total wealth of $12.5 million is to be donated for eternity with the rst
donation of $1 million in the rst year.
a What fraction of this rst donation should be donated for the second year and sub-
sequent years?
b Write the value of the donations for each of the rst 5 years.
c How much will be donated after 10 years?
a 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, 3.125, . . . b 20, 16, 12.8, 10.24, 9.192, . . .
c 4, 2.4, 1.44, 0.864, 0.5184, . . .
d 1, , , , , . . .
e 1, , , , , . . . f 2, , , , , . . .
g 3, 0.6, 0.12, 0.024, 0.0048, . . . h 12, 7.2, 4.32, 2.592, 1.5552, . . .
i 120, 48, 19.2, 7.68, 3.072, . . . j 50, 5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.05, . . .
a r = 0.6 and S
= 25 b r = 0.2 and S
= 50
c r = 0.25 and S
= 8 d r = 0.9 and S
= 120
e r = 0.2 and S
= 3 f r = 0.5 and S
= 4
g r = 0.8 and S
= 5 h r = 0.2 and S
= 7.5
i r = 0.6 and S
= 60 j r = 0.3 and S
= 11
a a = 12.5 and S
= 25 b a = 12.5 and S
= 50 c a = 6 and S
= 8
d a = 48 and S
= 120 e a = 2 and S
= 3
a b 0.8
.
c 0.4
.
d 1.3
.
e 3.7
.
f 8.666 666 666 . . . g 0.1
.
4
.
h 0.5
.
7
.
i j
9D
WORKED
Example
16
1
3
---
1
9
---
1
27
------
1
81
------
1
5
---
1
25
------
1
125
---------
1
625
---------
8
10
------
32
100
---------
128
1000
------------
512
10 000
----------------
WORKED
Example
17
1
3
---
7
13
------
WORKED
Example
18
4
9
---
2
3
---
WORKED
Example
19, 20
0.5
0.529 1.321
WORKED
Example
21
100 100
10
3
2
---
5
4
---

3
1
3
---

2.5

7.5
200
45
5
11
------

10, 6, 3.6 40, 8, 1.6
6, 1.5, 0.375
12, 10.8, 9.72
4,

0.8, 0.16 6,

3, 1.5
9,

7.2, 5.76

6,

1.2,

0.24

24,

14.4,

8.64

15, 4.5,

1.35
6, 1.5, 0.375
2 , ,
4
9
---
22
27
------
22
81
------

a

12.5, 6.25, 3.125

b

12.5, 9.375, 7.031 25

d

48, 28.8, 17.28

3
5
9
---
8
9
---
4
9
---

1
1
3
---

3
7
9
---

8
2
3
---
14
99
------
55
99
------
262
495
---------

1
321
999
---------

No falls short by 3 metres
1
3
---

192.5 m
Yes
$500 000
25 mm too much
23
25
------

$1 000 000, $920 000, $846 400,
$778 688, $716 392.96
$7 070 144.32

SLE 13: Use geometric progressions in situations involving the sum to innity.
Contrasting arithmetic and geometric
sequences through graphs
When discrete variables are presented graphically some distinct features may be evident.
This is especially so for discrete variables that have an arithmetic or geometric pattern.
Arithmetic patterns
Arithmetic patterns are distinguished by a straight line or a constant increase or decrease.
An increasing pattern or a positive A decreasing pattern or a negative
common difference gives an upward common difference gives a downward
straight line. straight line.
Geometric patterns
Geometric patterns are distinguished by a curved line or a saw form.
An increasing pattern or a positive A decreasing pattern or a positive
common ratio greater than 1 (r > 1) fractional common ratio (0 < r < 1)
gives an upward curved line. gives a downward curved line.
An increasing saw pattern occurs when A decreasing saw pattern occurs when
the common ratio is a negative value the common ratio is a negative fraction
less than 1 (r < 1). (1 < r < 0).
V
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d is positive
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Term n
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d is negative
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Term n
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Term n
5 4 3 2 1
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Term n
5 4 3 2 1
+
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t
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Term n
5 4 3 2 1
+
On the graph at right, the rst 5 terms of a sequence
are plotted.
State whether the sequence could be arithmetic or
geometric and give the value of a and the value of
either d or r.
THINK WRITE
Examine the difference between the
value of each of the terms. In each case,
they are the same, that is, 10.
There is a constant difference between each
successive term so the graph shows an
arithmetic sequence.
Find a. Now, t
1
= 40, so a = 40.
Find d. Now, t
2
= 30 and t
1
= 40.
So, d = t
2
t
1
= 10.
1
2
3
22
WORKEDExample
Term number
3 4 5 2 1
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
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An amount of $10 000 is invested for 5 years and earns interest. Consider the following
two cases:
ii simple interest of 10% per annum
ii compound interest of 10% per annum compounding yearly.
a If the investment is earning simple interest, calculate the amount in the account at the
end of each of the 5 years.
b If the investment is earning compound interest, calculate the amount in the account at
the end of each of the 5 years.
c For each of the above cases, graph, on the same set of axes, the total assets over the
5 years. Use your graph or calculations to calculate the difference between the
accounts after 4 years.
THINK WRITE
a Calculate how much is in the account
earning simple interest at the end of
each of the 5 years.
a After 1 year, amount in account
= 10 000 + 10% of 10 000
= 10 000 + 1000
= $11 000
After 2 years, amount in account
= 10 000 + 2 10% of 10 000
= 10 000 + 2000
= $12 000
= $13 000
= $14 000
= $15 000
23
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
A graphics calculator can be used to compare the yearly amounts in an account earning
both simple interest and compound interest. Consider the scenario in Worked example
23 where the amounts are compared over the rst 5 years. The steps are shown below.
Then investigate this scenario further by drawing the graphs for both cases over the rst
10 years.
1. Press and select STAT. Enter 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
into List 1 to indicate the 5 years to be considered.
Enter a title for List 1 if you wish.
THINK WRITE
b Calculate the amount in the account
earning compound interest at the end of
each of the 5 years using A = PR
n
where
R = 1 + (that is, 1 + 10% = 1.1).
b After 1 year, amount in account
= 10 000 1.1
1
= $11 000
= 10 000 1.1
2
= $12 100
= 10 000 1.1
3
= $13 310
= 10 000 1.1
4
= $14 641
= 10 000 1.1
5
= $16 105
c Draw the graphs of the amount in the
account earning simple interest and the
amount in the account earning
compound interest on the same set of
axes.
c
Use the values calculated for the end of
the fourth year.
Difference in amounts = 14 641 14 000
= $641
Write your answer. The compound interest account earned an
extra $641 in interest after 4 years.
r
100
---------
1
Number of years invested (n)
3 4 5 2 1 0
16000
15000
13000
12000
11000
10000
14000
17000
A
m
o
u
n
t

i
n

a
c
c
o
u
n
t

(
$
)
Compound interest
Simple interest
2
3
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Comparison of simple and
compound interest
MENU
2. Press and select RUN-MAT. Use the Seq
function to enter the yearly amounts for the simple
interest case. The rule is t
n
= 10 000 + n 1000.
Press then (List) and followed by
to store these 5 terms as List 2.
3. Use the Seq function again to enter the yearly
amounts for the compound interest case. The rule is
t
n
= 10 000 1.1
n
. Press then (List) and
followed by to store these 5 terms as
List 3.
4. Press and select STAT. The amounts at the
end of each of the rst 5 years are displayed. Enter
a title for each list if you wish.
5. Press (GRPH) then (SET). Press
(GPH1) to display the properties of Statgraph1.
This graph is to display the yearly amounts for the
simple interest case, so set Graph Type as a
scatterplot (press (Scat)), XList as List 1 and
YList as List 2. Keep Frequency as 1 and adjust
the Mark Type if you wish.
6. Press to accept the changes you have made to
StatGraph1. Press (SET) again and then press
(GPH2) to display the properties of
Statgraph2. This graph is to display the yearly
amounts for the compound interest case, so set
Graph Type as a scatterplot, XList as List 1 and
YList as List 3. Keep Frequency as 1 and adjust
the Mark Type so it is different from the rst
graph.
7. Press to accept the changes you have made to
StatGraph2. Press (SEL) and ensure that both
StatGraph1 and StatGraph2 show DrawOn (and
StatGraph3 shows DrawOff).
8. Press (DRAW) to display both graphs on the
same set of axes. Use the Trace function to
investigate the graphs. Press (TRCE)
and use the arrow keys to move to different points
on the graphs. The coordinates of the point and the
title of the graph are displayed.
MENU
F1 2
EXE
F1
3 EXE
MENU
F1 F6 F1
F1
EXE
F6
F2
EXE
F4
F6
SHIFT F1
1. Open a new Lists & Spreadsheet document. Enter
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 into Column A to indicate the 5 years
to be considered. Enter a title or variable name
(say, n) for this column.
2. We wish to generate terms of the sequence for the
simple interest case in Column B and the compound
interest case in Column C. Increase the width of
Columns B and C, and enter a title for each. Then
return to Column B.
3. Press b, then 3: Data followed by 1: Generate
Sequence. Enter the rule 10 000 + n 1000 with a
rst term of 11 000 and a maximum number of terms
of 5 to generate the yearly amounts for the simple
interest case. Press euntil OK is highlighted and
then press .
Move to Column C and again press b, then 3: Data
and 1: Generate Sequence. Enter the rule
10 000 1.1
n
with a rst term of 11 000 and a
maximum number of terms of 5 to generate the
yearly amounts for the compound interest case. Press
euntil OK is highlighted and then press .
4. Press /Ito insert a new document and select
2: Add Graphs & Geometry. Press /band
select 4: Scatter Plot.
5. Click the abutton to bring up an option screen and
highlight the variable n for the x entry.
6. Press and then press eto move to the y entry.
Again click the abutton, highlight the variable
simple and press . This has entered the
information for Scatterplot 1. Press d. Now press
b and select 4: Window followed by A: Zoom - Fit
to best display the graph for the simple interest case.
7. Now press eto highlight the x entry for Scatterplot
2. Enter the information for the compound interest case
in the same way. That is, select the variable n for x and
the variable compound for y. Press /Gto hide the
function entry line. (Press /Gagain to bring it
back.) Use the Trace function to investigate the graphs.
Press band select 5: Trace followed by 1: Graph
Trace and use the NavPad to move to different points
on the graphs to display the coordinates.
1. Arithmetic patterns
An increasing pattern or a positive A decreasing pattern or a negative common
common difference gives an upward difference gives a downward straight line.
straight line.
2. Geometric patterns
An increasing pattern or a positive A decreasing pattern or a positive fractional
common ratio greater than 1 (r > 1) common ratio (0 < r < 1) gives a downward
gives an upward curved line. curved line.
An increasing saw pattern occurs An decreasing saw pattern occurs when the
when the common ratio is a negative common ratio is a negative fraction
value less than 1 (r < 1). (1 < r < 0).
V
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Term n
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d is positive
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d is negative
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remember
Contrasting arithmetic and
geometric sequences through
graphs
1 On the graph at right, the rst ve terms of a
sequence are plotted.
either d or r.
either d or r.
either d or r.
either d or r.
either d or r.
9E
WORKED
Example
22
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Term number
5 4 3 2 1 0
1
2
3
4
5
0
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
EXCEL Spreadsheet
Sequences and series
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Term number
5 4 3 2 1 0
2
4
6
8
10
0
12
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Term number
5 4 3 2 1 0
10
20
30
40
50
0
60
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Term number
5 4 3 2 1 0
5
10
15
20
0
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Term number
5 4 3 2 1 0
1
2
3
4
5
0

Arithmetic sequence with

a

=

0 and

d

=

1

a

=

10 and

d

=

2
Geometric sequence with

a

=

10 and

r

=

1.5

a

=

20 and

r

=

0.5

a

=

4 and

d

=

0.5
State whether the sequence could be arithmetic
or geometric and give the value of a and the
value of either d or r.
7 Draw a graph showing the rst 8 terms of each
of the following sequences:
a arithmetic, a = 7, d = 2 b geometric, a = 5, r =
c arithmetic, a = 14, d = 3.5 d arithmetic, a = 32, d = 5
e geometric, a = 12, r = f geometric, a = 0.02, r = 6
8
On the graph at right, the rst ve terms of a
The sequence could be described by which one of
the following?
A Arithmetic sequence with a = 10 and d = 10
B Arithmetic sequence with a = 10 and d = 0.5
C Geometric sequence with a = 10 and r = 0.5
D Geometric sequence with a = 10 and r = 2
E Geometric sequence with a = 10 and r = 1.5
9
On the graph at right, the rst ve
terms of a sequence are plotted.
The sequence could be described
by which one of the following?
B Arithmetic sequence with a = 10 and d = 20
C Geometric sequence with a = 10 and r = 10
E Geometric sequence with a = 10 and r = 1
10 An amount of $5000 is invested for 3 years and earns interest. Consider the following
two cases:
i simple interest of 10% per annum
ii compound interest of 10% per annum compounding yearly.
a If the investment is earning simple interest, calculate the amount in the account at
the end of each of the 3 years.
b If the investment is earning compound interest, calculate the amount in the
account at the end of each of the 3 years.
c On the same set of axes, plot points showing the amount in each account at the
end of each of the 3 years.
11 An amount of $100 000 is invested for 3 years and earns:
a simple interest of 15% per annum
b compound interest of 15% per annum compounding yearly.
On the same set of axes, plot points showing the amount in each account at the end of
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m
Term number
5 4 3 2 1 0
20
40
60
80
100
0
1
2
---
10
3
------
multiple choice
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m
Term number
5 4 3 2 1 0
30
60
90
120
150
0
180
multiple choice
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m
Term number 5 4 3 2 1
10
5
0
5
10
WORKED
Example
23


a

=

100 and

r

=

0.8
$5500, $6000, $6500
$5500, $6050, $6655

7

a

3
4
5
6
7
8
2
1
0
2
0
1
5
1
05
3
0
2
5
n
t
n

7

b
3
4
5
6
7
8
2
1
0
4321 65
n
t
n

7

c
3
4
5
6
7
8
2
1
1
5 50
1
0
1
5
1
0
n
t
n

1
0

c

A m o u n t ( $ )
Y
e
a
r
3
2
1
5
5
0
0
6
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
5
0
0
0
L
e
g
e
n
d
U
n
V
n
12 An amount of $10 000 is invested for 3 years and earns:
a simple interest of 20% per annum
b compound interest of 20% per annum compounding yearly.
On the same set of axes, plot points showing the amount in each account at the end of
13 On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of the sequences with the rule u
n
= 10n and
v
n
= 10 1.5
n 1
. Use your graph to decide for how many of the rst ve terms u
n
is
greater than v
n
.
14 On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of the sequences with the rule
u
n
= 120 20n and v
n
= 100 0.8
n 1
. Use your graph to decide for how many of the
rst ve terms u
n
is greater than v
n
.
15 On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of the sequences with the rule u
n
= 120n
and v
n
= 120 1.5
n 1
. Use your graph to decide for how many of the rst ve terms
u
n
is greater than v
n
.
16 On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of the sequences with the rule
u
n
= 150 30n and v
n
= 100 0.5
n 1
. Use your graph to decide for how many of the
rst ve terms u
n
is greater than v
n
.
Reward time
A teacher decides to give students lollies at an end-of-year party. He wishes to give
different amounts to each student based on worst to best attendance record.
1 He decides to give 1 lolly to the student with the highest absence, 2 lollies to the
student with the next highest absence, 4 to the next, then 8 and so on.
a If there are 30 students in the class, show how much each of the rst
6 students will receive.
b How many lollies will the 30th student (with the best attendance record)
expect to receive?
2 The teacher realises this is not practical. He investigates a distribution
summarised as follows: 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .
a What type of pattern is this? Explain why.
b How much will the 30th student expect to receive?
c How many lollies will the teacher need to give to the whole class?
d The value in c was still unacceptable to the teacher. What is the least total
possible number of lollies required if each student is to receive a whole lolly
using an arithmetic pattern. Show the pattern clearly.
3 The teacher decides against giving lollies. He now prefers to share one single
cake. He decides to give out the pieces using the rule: cake to rst student,
cake to second student, to third student and so on.
a How many cakes will he need if he continues the pattern for all 30 students?
b How much of the cake will go to:
i the 4th student?
ii the 6th student?
iii the last student?
c Using this method the teacher realises there is something in it for him. Why?
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 9.2
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
8
---

3 terms
0 terms
3 terms
4 terms
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32
2

29

Arithmetic sequence
59
900
465
1
1
16
------
1
64
------
1
2
30
-------

There is some cake left.

12
Legend
U
n
V
n
A
m
o
u
n
t

(
$
)
Year
3 2 1
14 000
13 000
12 000
11 000
16 000
15 000
18 000
17 000
Changing shape
In this investigation you will study how the area and perimeter of a closed shape
change as you systematically modify the shape.
Consider a square of side length 1 unit as shown in diagram (a) below. Consider now
making one change to each of the four sides as shown in the diagram where the side
length, AB (b), is transformed into the articulated side length, AB (c). The new side
length can be thought of as being composed of ve sections all of equal length.
1 Draw all the different shapes which can be made if all side lengths of the
original square undergo one transformation. (Hint: The new articulated edge
length can be oriented two ways on each of the four sides. One way is to have
the shape point out.)
2 For each of the ve different shapes, calculate the area and perimeter of the
shape. Construct a table which details the area and perimeter of each of the
ve shapes, arranging the values in ascending order. What pattern do you
notice, if any?
3 Take the shape with the greatest area and now to each of the 20 sides apply
the transformation a second time to make a new shape of maximum area.
Draw a diagram depicting the new shape. Calculate the perimeter and the
area of this new shape.
4 We are now going to look for a pattern in the value of the perimeter and area
for successive applications of the transformation when applied to all sides.
Let n be the number of times the transformation is applied to the original
square. For example, when n = 0 the area is 1 unit
2
and the perimeter is 4
units. Investigate the value of the area and perimeter for n = 1 (question 2),
2 (question 3), 3, 4, 5, . . .
5 Can you nd a method for calculating the area and perimeter for n = x?
6 What happens to the value of the perimeter as n gets very large?
7 What happens to the value of the area as n gets very large?
8 If time permits you could extend this investigation to a new shape, for
example, an equilateral triangle or a cube. In the case of the cube you would
investigate the surface area and volume.
A
B A B A
B
1 unit 1 unit
(a) (b) (c)
P
e
r
i
m
e
t
e
r

=

4

(
)

x

A
r
e
a

=

1

+

(
)

x

1
5 3-
--
4 9-
--
4 9-
--
5 9-
--

Perimeter tends to infinity.
Area tends to 2.

1

A
B
C
D
E
F

2

The area increases in an
arithmetic progression. The
perimeter stays constant.

Shape Area Perimeter

F
E
C, D
B
A
5
9
---
20
3
------
7
9
---
20
3
------
9
9
---
20
3
------
11
9
------
20
3
------
13
9
------
20
3
------

Perimeter

=

=

Area

=

1

+

+

5

=

3
20
3
------
5
3
---
100
9
---------
4
9
---
1
9
2
-----
137
81
---------
Fibonacci Sequence
Consider the two sequences:
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . and 2, 5, 11, 23, . . .
Both are sequences whose terms can be predicted using a simple formula. However, the
rst sequence is considered fundamental and worthy of detailed study, whereas the
second is not.
The rst sequence has numerous applications ranging from population growth to the
study of investments. The second sequence has no such applications.
Another sequence considered worthy of detailed examination is the Fibonacci Sequence:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . .
This sequence takes the name of a mathematician, Fibonacci (better known as
Leonardo of Pisa) who lived in Italy around AD 1200. The sequence arose as a result of
the problem Fibonacci posed:
If you had a pair of rabbits and it took a month for them to mature, and then pro-
duce a new pair after that, how many pairs would you have in twelve months?
At the start of the rst month No. of pairs = 1
At the start of the second month No. of pairs = 1
At the start of the third month No. of pairs = 2
At the start of the fourth month No. of pairs = 3
At the start of the fth month No. of pairs = 5

SLE 8: Investigate the way in
which a sequence can be
dened recursively.
This process can be continued and will reveal that the number of pairs at any stage
can be obtained by adding the number of pairs at the two preceding stages. The
resulting sequence is:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . .
In general then, if F
n
stands for the number of pairs at the nth stage then
F
n + 1
= F
n
+ F
n 1
with F
0
= 1 and F
1
= 1.
A sequence that species the general term by referring to the preceding terms is called
recursive.
An explict formula for the nth term is
F
n
=
The Fibonacci Sequence has been used to describe patterns in nature from shells to
pine cones.
A graphics calculator can be used to generate Fibonacci-type sequences in a number of
ways.
A spreadsheet approach is shown in the steps below.
1. Press and select S-SHT to open a
spreadsheet. Consider the rst column, A, as F
n 1
,
the second column, B, as F
n
and the third column, C,
as F
n + 1
. Enter the two starting values in cells A1 and
B1. That is, enter 1 in cell A1 and 1 in cell B1.
2. In cell C1, type the formula = A1 + B1. This will
generate the third term.
3. Press to display the 3rd term in cell C1. Next
we need to repeat the last 2 terms (2nd and 3rd
terms) in row 2 so they can be added to produce the
next term. In cell A2, type the formula = B1 and
press . In cell B2, type the formula = C1 and
press .
4. Highlight cell C1 and press (EDIT) followed by
(COPY) to copy the formula. Move to cell C2
and press (PASTE) to paste the formula into this
cell. This generates the 4th term of the sequence.
5. We can use this copy and paste technique to complete each column down to, say, the
10th row. For Column A, highlight cell A2, press to display the Copy option
and then (COPY) to copy the formula. Move to cell A3 and press (PASTE)
to paste the formula into this cell.
1
5
-------
1 5 +
2
----------------

n
1
5
-------
1 5
2
----------------

n
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Generating terms in the
Fibonacci Sequence
MENU
EXE
EXE
EXE
F2
F2
F1
EXIT
F2 F1
Now move to cell A4 and press (PASTE) to paste the formula into this cell.
Continue repeating this paste step as you move down the cells of this column to row 10.
Repeat the same process for Column B and then for
Column C. Note that some cells may show a value of
0 until all the pasting has been completed. The rst 10
terms of the Fibonacci sequence can be seen in
Column A.
On this calculator, we can use the Generate Sequence function to display the terms of
any Fibonacci-style sequence. The rule for a Fibonacci Sequence is F
n + 1
= F
n
+ F
n 1
with F
0
= 1 and F
1
= 1 (or any two initial values). An equivalent rule to this is
F
n
= F
n 1
+ F
n 2
with F
1
= 1 and F
2
= 1. The second version of the rule suits this
calculator as the rule needs to be expressed as u(n) =.
So the rule becomes u(n) = u(n1) + u(n2) with
u(1) = 1 and u(2) = 1.
b, then 3: Data and 1: Generate Sequence. Enter
the rule as u(n1) + u(n2) with initial terms of 1
and 1. Press euntil OK is highlighted.
2. Press to display the list of terms.
Note that you can also use a spreadsheet approach to
generate a Fibonacci Sequence. Follow the steps given
for the Casio fx-9860G AU calculator above and use
/Cto copy a cell and /Vto paste the formula
into another cell.
The golden ratio
An interesting, if mysterious, product of the Fibonacci Sequence is the golden ratio
(or golden mean).
For centuries, artists have recognised in painting and architecture that some shapes
are, of themselves, more appealing than others.
F1
The ratio of height to width (or width to height) of rectangles that appeal to the eye is
called the golden ratio and its value is 1.6 : 1. More exactly the golden ratio is taken
to be
: 1
How is this number connected with the Fibonacci Sequence?
We can write the Fibonacci Sequence as follows:
F
1
, F
2
, F
3
, . . . F
n 1
, F
n
, F
n + 1
where F
n
is the nth term in the Fibonacci Sequence.
Consider the ratio of successive terms, . As n increases, this fraction tends to a
xed value, the golden ratio. For proof of this:
Let = r.
By denition of the Fibonacci Sequence this means
= r
+ = r
1 + = r
r + 1 = r
2
r
2
r 1 = 0
r = (We reject the negative solution.)
Thus the ratio of terms in the Fibonacci Sequence tends to the golden ratio.
Fibonacci numbers
1 Use your graphics calculator to develop a table of the Fibonacci Sequence.
a Find the ratio of the 20th and 21st terms.
b How close is this ratio to the golden ratio?
2 Verify that the formula for the nth Fibonacci number is:
F
n
=
for the rst 5 terms of the sequence. Only use your calculator as a last resort
and use techniques such as difference of squares to do the calculations.
3 Consider a population of rabbits where each pair produces another pair each
month. However, after a pair of rabbits produces a sixth pair, both rabbits die.
a Produce a spreadsheet to model the number of rabbits over time.
b Produce a formula (either explicit or recursive) to model the number of
rabbits in the population over time.
1 5 +
2
----------------
F
n 1 +
F
n
------------
F
n 1 +
F
n
------------
F
n
F
n 1
+
F
n
-------------------------
F
n
F
n
------
F
n 1
F
n
------------
1
r
---
1 5 +
2
----------------
1
5
-------
1 5 +
2
----------------

n
1
5
-------
1 5
2
----------------

n

SLE 8: Investigate the way in
which a sequence can be
dened recursively.
10 946
6765
---------------- 1.618 034 =
1 5 +
2
---------------- 1.618 034 =

See Solutions Manual
See Solutions
Manual
The Mandelbrot Set
Now that we have developed some of the key concepts of sequences let us return to the
development of the Mandelbrot Set.
First recall that complex numbers can be represented as points on the complex plane.
For each point c in the complex plane, consider the sequence formed by z
n + 1
z
2
n
+ c
where z
n
and c are complex numbers and z
0
= 0.
If the sequence converges to a point for a particular c then c belongs to the Mandel-
brot Set. If the sequence diverges, then c does not belong to the Mandelbrot Set.
If the sequence, for a particular c, does not diverge, this point in the complex plane
is coloured black. Otherwise this point is assigned a colour.
A two-colour (black and red) version of the Mandelbrot Set is arranged thus:
Colour versions of the Mandelbrot Set are arranged thus:
Consider, for example, the complex number:
c = 0.2 + 0.3i
Does the sequence diverge?
No
colour the point black.
Yes
colour the point red.
Does the sequence diverge?
No
colour the point black.
Yes assign a colour
depending on how quickly
the divergence occurs.

SLE 8: Investigate the way in which
a sequence can be dened
recursively.
SLE 12: (Real and complex number
systems): Investigate fractals;
for example, the Mandelbrot Set,
using a CAS calculator.
Using your graphics calculator or a spreadsheet it is possible to determine
whether or not this value of c belongs to the Mandelbrot Set. (That is, whether the
sequence formed by z
n + 1
z
2
n
+ c converges with a given value of c.) The
following spreadsheet shows that 0.2 + 0.3i converges and hence belongs to the
Mandelbrot Set.
For the complex number c = 0.8 + 0.1i we obtain the following spreadsheet screen.
The number diverges and hence does not belong to the Mandelbrot Set.
This spreadsheet approach can also be used with a graphics calculator. Use the for-
mulas shown in the spreadsheet above.
Alternatively, a CAS graphics calculator can be used to generate a sequence of the
type z
n + 1
= (z
n
)
2
+ c and enable you to check for the convergence of the sequence for
given values of c.
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
EXCEL Spreadsheet
Mandelbrot Set
1. Open a new Calculator document (press /Nand
select 1: Add Calculator). So that we can use
different values for c, we shall rst dene c. Press
band select 1: Actions and 1: Dene. Enter
c = 0.2 + 0.3i and press .
2. Insert a new Lists & Spreadsheet document (press
/Iand select 3: Add Lists & Spreadsheet). To
generate a sequence, press band select 3: Data
and 1: Generate Sequence. Notice that the formula
needs to be of the form u(n) =.
3. The formula z
n + 1
= (z
n
)
2
+ c can also be written as
z
n
= (z
n 1
)
2
+ c. So, in terms of u rather than z, the
formula to be entered into the calculator needs to be
u(n) = [u(n 1)]
2
+ c.
Enter the formula in the rst line and then press e
to move to the next line. Enter 0 and c as the initial
terms. Continue to press euntil OK is highlighted.
4. Press to generate the sequence. Resize column A
to clearly view the terms.
5. Use the NavPad to scroll down the column. You will
see that the terms converge to a value of
approximately 0.0792 + 0.3565i.
6. To try other values of c, return to the Calculator
document (press /and the left arrow on the
NavPad). Again, press band select 1: Actions and
1: Dene. This time dene c as 0.8 + 0.1i.
7. Return to the Lists & Spreadsheet document (press
/and the right arrow on the NavPad). The new
terms of the sequence will be automatically
displayed. Use the NavPad to scroll down the column
to check whether the terms converge or diverge.
Draw the Mandelbrot Set
In groups of four, use four sheets of 1-centimetre grid paper and proceed as
follows.
Assign each member of the group a portion of the Mandelbrot Set for which he or
she is responsible. Ensure each member uses the same scale so that the four
individual sheets can be collated to form a coherent picture.
For each square on the grid paper:
1 Calculate the coordinates of the midpoint.
2 Use a graphics calculator or a spreadsheet to determine if the sequence
z
n + 1
z
2
n
+ c diverges with this value of c.
3 If it diverges, colour the square white, otherwise colour the square black.
4 Repeat until all squares are coloured.
Recognising arithmetic sequences
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers for which the difference between
successive terms is the same.
Given an arithmetic sequence, identify:
the rst term, a
and the common difference, d = t
2
t
1
.
Given an unspecied sequence, establish whether it is arithmetic by testing all
terms for a common difference: d = t
2
t
1
= t
3
t
2
= t
4
t
3
= . . .
Finding the terms of an arithmetic sequence
t
n
= a + (n 1) d where t
n
is the nth term.
The sum of a given number of terms of an arithmetic sequence
A series is the sum of terms in a sequence.
S
n
is the sum of the rst n terms in series, for example, S
25
represents the sum of the
rst 25 terms.
Given a number of terms in a series, n, the rst term, a, and the last term, l, use
.
Given a number of terms in a series, n, the rst term, a, and the common difference,
d, use .
Geometric sequences
Recognising geometric sequences
A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers for which the ratio of successive
terms is the same.
Given a geometric sequence, identify:
the rst term, a
and the common ratio, .
Given an unspecied sequence, establish whether it is geometric by testing all
terms for a common ratio,
Finding the terms of a geometric sequence
t
n
= ar
n 1
where t
n
is the nth term
a is the rst term
The sum of a given number of terms of a geometric sequence
2, 4, 8, 6, 32, 64 is a nite geometric sequence.
2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 is a nite geometric series.
summary
S
n
n
2
--- a l + ( ) =
S
n
n
2
--- 2a n 1 ( )d + [ ] =
r
t
2
t
1
---- =
r
t
2
t
1
----
t
3
t
2
----
t
4
t
3
---- = = = =
The sum of n terms, S
n
if r > 1 or r < 1 for example, r = 2, , +2 or +4.5
or
if 1 < r < 1, for example, r = 0.2, or 0.25.
Geometric growth
Growth or increase is expressed as a percentage increase.
Common ratio, r = 1 + percentage increase
r values are greater than 1, for example, an 8% increase gives r = 1.08.
Geometric decay
Decay or decrease is expressed as a percentage decrease.
Common ratio, r = 1 percentage decrease
r values are less than 1, for example, an 8% decrease gives r = 0.92.
Compound interest
A = PR
n
where R = 1 +
P = principal, $
r = interest rate per period (that is, per year or quarter etc.) as a percentage
Finding the sum of an innite geometric sequence
For decreasing or decaying geometric series, the sum of an innite number of terms
approaches a nite sum.
The sum to innity of a geometric sequence for which 1 < r < 1 is given by
.
Contrasting arithmetic and geometric sequences through graphs
Arithmetic patterns are distinguished by a straight line.
An increasing pattern or a positive A decreasing pattern or a negative
common difference gives an upward common difference gives a downward
straight line. straight line.
S
n
a r
n
1 ( )
r 1
---------------------- =
3
2
---
S
n
a 1 r
n
( )
1 r
---------------------- =
1
8
---
r
100
---------
S
a
1 r
----------- =
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m

t
n
Term n
5 4 3 2 1
d is positive
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m

t
n
Term n
5 4 3 2 1
d is negative
Geometric patterns are distinguished by a curved line or a saw form.
An increasing pattern or a positive A decreasing pattern or a positive
common ratio greater than 1 (r > 1) fractional common ratio (0 < r < 1) gives
gives an upward curved line. a downward curved line.
An increasing saw pattern occurs A decreasing saw pattern occurs when
when the common ratio is a negative the common ratio is a negative fraction
value less than 1 (r < 1). (1 < r < 0).
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m

t
n
Term n
5 4 3 2 1
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m

t
n
Term n
5 4 3 2 1
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m

t
n
Term n
5 4 3 2 1
+
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m

t
n
Term n
5 4 3 2 1
+
1
Which of the following could be the rst 5 terms of an arithmetic sequence?
2
For the following sequence, 3.6, 2.1, 0.6, 0.9, 2.4, . . ., it is true to say that it is:
A an innite sequence with a = 3.6 and d = 0.15
B an innite sequence with a = 3.6 and d = 1.5
C an innite sequence with a = 0.15 and d = 3.6
D a nite sequence with a = 0.15 and d = 3.6
E a nite sequence with a = 3.6 and d = 0.15.
3 For the sequences below, state whether or not they are an arithmetic sequence. If they are,
give the value of a and d.
a 123, 23, 77, 177, 277, . . .
b 5 , 2 , , 3 , 6 , . . .
4
For the arithmetic sequence, 1, 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . the value of a, the value of d and the rule for
the sequence are given respectively by:
5
The 43rd term of the arithmetic sequence 7, 2, 11, 20, 29, . . . is:
6
The 3rd term of an arithmetic sequence is 3.1 and the 7th term is 1.3. The value of the
31st term is:
7 If the second term of an arithmetic sequence is 5 and the 5th term is 16, which term in the
sequence is equal to 226?
8 Blood donations at a suburban location increased by 40 each year. If there were
520 donations in the rst year:
a how many donations were made in the 15th year?
b what was the total number of donations made over those 15 years?
A 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, . . . B 3, 3, 6, 6, 9, . . . C 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, . . .
D 5, 5, 10, 15, 20, . . . E 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . .
A a = 1, d = 2, t
n
= 3 + 2n B a = 1, d = 2, t
n
= 3 n
C a = 1, d = 1, t
n
= 2 n D a = 2, d = 1, t
n
= 3 n
E a = 2, d = 1, t
n
= 3 n
A 327 B 243 C 371 D 380 E 387
A 153.7 B 27.7 C 28.9 D 38.3 E 157.9
CHAPTER
review
9A
multiple choice
9A
multiple choice
9A
1
4
---
1
4
---
3
4
---
3
4
---
3
4
---
9A
multiple choice
9A
multiple choice
9A
multiple choice
9A
9A
Yes,

a

=

123,

d

=

100
Yes,

a

=

5 ,

d

=

3
1
4
---

Term number 35
1080
12 000
9
The sum of the rst 24 terms of the sequence 16, 12, 8, 4, 0, . . . is:
10
The rst term of an arithmetic sequence is 14 and the 3rd is 8. The sum of the rst 30 terms
of the sequence is:
11
There is a geometric sequence for which a = 3 and r is a negative number. We can be certain
that:
A r is a fraction less than 1
B the 3rd term will be a positive number
C the 3rd term will be greater than the 1st term
D only one number in the sequence is positive
E the 4th term will be greater than the 3rd term.
12
Which of the following is a geometric sequence?
13 For each of the sequences below, state whether or not they are a geometric sequence. If they
are, state the value of a and r.
a 5, , , , , . . .
b 700, 70, 7, 7, 70, . . .
14
The 19th term of the geometric sequence 3.25, 6.5, 13, 26, 52, . . . is:
15
The 3rd term of a geometric sequence is 19.35 and the 6th is 522.45. The 12th term of the
sequence is:
16
The rst 3 terms of a geometric sequence are 2.25, 4.5, 9. The rst term which would
exceed 1000 is:
A 720 B 912 C 1344 D 1440 E 1488
A 1770 B 1095 C 885 D 1725 E 2190
A 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, . . . B 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . C 1, , , , , . . .
D 4, 4, 2, 2, 1, . . . E 100, 10, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, . . .
A 425 984 B 851 968 C 1 703 936 D 41 978 243 E 3 272 883 098
A 16 539.15 B 417 629.75 C 126 955.35 D 380 866.05 E 1 142 598.15
A t
9
B t
10
C t
11
D t
12
E t
13
9A
multiple choice
9A
multiple choice
9B
multiple choice
9B
multiple choice
1
3
---
1
9
---
1
27
------
1
81
------
9B
5
2
---
5
4
---
5
8
---
5
16
------
9B
multiple choice
9B
multiple choice
9B
multiple choice

Yes,

a

=

5,

r

=

1
2
---

No
17 The amount of garbage (in tonnes) collected in a particular area by the local council each
year is recorded over 3 successive years.
If the amount collected each year were to continue to follow a geometric sequence:
a Write down a rule for the amount of garbage, t
n
, which would be collected in the area in
year n.
b How much garbage would be collected in the 8th year? (Answer correct to 2 decimal
places.)
c In which year would the amount of garbage collected exceed 30 tonnes?
18
The sum of the rst 10 terms of the geometric sequence 8, 4, 2, 1, , . . . is closest to:
19
The 3rd term of a geometric sequence is 0.9 and the 6th is 7.2. The sum of the rst 12 terms
of the sequence is closest to:
20 How many terms of the geometric sequence 164, 131.2, 104.96, 83.968, 67.1744, . . . are
required for the sum to exceed 800?
21
A tree increases in height each year by
5%. If it was 1.2 m high in its 1st year,
in its 6th year its height would be closest
to:
A 1.53 m
B 1.61 m
C 5.5 m
D 9.11 m
E 3750 m
22
Prots in a company are projected to increase by 8% each year. If the prot in the rst year
was $60 000, in which year could a prot in excess of $100 000 be expected?
A 15 B 16 C 17 D 18 E 20
A 2 B 122 C 921 D 4122 E 8190
A year 6 B year 7 C year 8 D year 9 E year 10
9B
Year number
Amount of
garbage
(tonnes)
1 7.2
2 8.28
3 9.522
9B
multiple choice
1
2
---
9B
multiple choice
9B
9C
multiple choice
9C
multiple choice

t

n

=

7.2

1.15

n

1

19.2 tonnes
Year 12
17
23 Anya invests $25 000 in an account earning
compound interest of 10% per annum
compounding quarterly.
a Find the amount in the account after 3 years.
b Find how long it would take to have
$40 965.41 in her account.
24
The sum to innity of the geometric sequence
1, , , , , . . . is:
25
The rst term of the geometric sequence for which r = 0.5 and S
= 5 is:
26 Express as a fraction.
27 The batteries in a toy soldier are running down. The toy soldier marches 50 cm in the rst
minute, 30 cm in the second minute, 18 cm in the next and so on. By how much does the toy
soldier fall short of marching 1.5 m?
28
The rst ve terms of a sequence are plotted
on the graph at right.
The sequence could be described by which of the
following?
C Geometric sequence with a = 50 and r = 0.5
D Geometric sequence with a = 50 and r = 1.5
E Geometric sequence with a = 50 and d = 2
29
The rst ve terms of a sequence are plotted
on the graph at right.
The sequence could be described by which of
the following?
C Geometric sequence with a = 10 and r = 5
E Geometric sequence with a = 10 and d = 5
30 On the same set of axes, sketch the graph of the sequence with the rule:
a u
n
= 10n
b v
n
= 10 2
n 1
A B C 1
D 4 E 5
A 1
B 2 C 2
D 8
E 10
9C
9D
multiple choice
4
5
---
16
25
------
64
125
---------
256
625
---------
1
5
---
5
4
---
4
5
---
9D
multiple choice
1
3
---
1
3
---
2
3
---
2
3
---
9D
3.7
9D
9E
multiple choice
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m
Term number
5 4 3 2 1 0
50
100
150
200
250
0
300
9E
multiple choice
V
a
l
u
e

o
f

t
e
r
m
Term number 5 4 3 2 1
10
5
0
5
10
15
15
9E

$33 622.22
5 years
3
7
9
---

25 cm

30
A
m
o
u
n
t

(
$
)
Term number (n)
3 2 1
40
30
20
10
4
60
50
80
70
Legend
V
n
= 10 2
n 1
U
n
= 10n
1 A newly established quarry produces crushed rock for the building of roads and freeways.
The amount of crushed rock, in tonnes, it produces increases by 3 tonnes each month and its
production for the rst 3 months of operation is shown below.
a Write down the amount of crushed rock produced in the 4th month.
b Write down a rule for t
n
, the amount of crushed rock produced in month n, expressed in
terms of n, the nth month.
c Write down the amount of crushed rock produced in the 60th month.
d During which month will the amount of crushed rock coming from the quarry exceed
100 tonnes?
e The local council has ordered that after a total of 3050 tonnes of crushed rock has been
extracted from the quarry, an environmental impact survey must be completed. After how
many months will that happen?
1
2
---
Month Crushed rock produced (tonnes)
1 8
2 11.5
3 15

18.5 tonnes

t

n

=

4.5

+

3.5

n

214.5 tonnes
28th month
40 months
2 The amount of crushed rock produced each month at a second quarry is shown below.
Given that production at this quarry increases geometrically, nd:
a the common ratio, r
b a rule for the amount of crushed rock produced, t
n
, in tonnes, expressed in terms of the
number of months, n
c the amount of crushed rock produced in the 5th month
d in which month the amount of crushed rock produced exceeds 30 tonnes
e the total amount of crushed rock produced by the quarry in its rst year of operation.
3 During its rst month of production, the second quarry produced more crushed rock than the
rst quarry. In the months after that, however, the rst quarry produced more crushed rock
than the second quarry.
After how many months does the second quarry produce more than the rst quarry again?
4 One bank offers a simple interest rate of 5% per annum on an investment of $100. For the
same investment, another bank offers 5% interest compounded annually. When will the value
of the investment earning compound interest be twice as much as the value of the investment
earning simple interest?
Month Crushed rock produced (tonnes)
1 10
2 11
3 12.1
Digital doc:
Test Yourself
Chapter 9
eBookplus eBookplus

1.1

t

n

=

10

1.1

n

1

14.641 tonnes
13th month
213.84 tonnes
24th month
35 years
syllabus
reference
Core topic:
Structures and patterns
In this
chapter
10A The addition and
multiplication principles
10B Factorials and
permutations
10C Arrangements involving
restrictions and like
objects
10D Combinations
10E Applications of
permutations and
combinations
10F Pascals Triangle, the
binomial theorem and the
pigeonhole principle
10
Permutations
and
combinations
Introduction
Combinatorics deals with determining the number of ways in which activities or events
may occur.
The study of combinatorics provides ways of
answering questions such as:
1. How many doubles teams can be selected from
a group of 6 volleyball players?
2. From a group of 4 candidates, in how many
ways can a class captain and deputy class cap-
tain be selected?
3. How many different outts can be chosen from
3 skirts and 5 tops?
4. If a Lotto ticket consists of a choice of 6 numbers
from 45, how many different tickets are there?
5. How many different car number plates of 3 digits
and 3 letters can be made using the digits 0 to 9
and the letters A, B and C?
The addition and multiplication
principles
To count the number of ways in which an activity can occur, rst make a list. Let each
outcome be represented by a letter and then systematically list all the possibilities.
Consider the following question:
In driving from Melbourne to Sydney I can take any one of 4 different roads and in
driving from Sydney to Brisbane there are 3 different roads I can take. How many
different routes can I take in driving from Melbourne to Brisbane?
To answer this, let M
1
, M
2
, M
3
, M
4
stand for the 4 roads from Melbourne to Sydney
and B
1
, B
2
, B
3
stand for the 3 roads from Sydney to Brisbane.
Use the gure to systematically list the roads:
M
1
B
1
, M
1
B
2
, M
1
B
3
M
2
B
1
, M
2
B
2
, M
2
B
3
M
3
B
1
, M
3
B
2
, M
3
B
3
M
4
B
1
, M
4
B
2
, M
4
B
3
Hence, there are 12 different ways I can drive from Melbourne to Brisbane.
In the above example it can be argued logically that if there are 4 ways of getting
from Melbourne to Sydney and 3 ways of getting from Sydney to Brisbane then there
are 4 3 ways of getting from Melbourne to Brisbane.
This idea is formalised in the multiplication principle.
The multiplication principle should be used when there are two operations or events
(say, A and B), where one event is followed by the other.
It states:
If there are n ways of performing operation A and m ways of performing
operation B, then there are n m ways of performing A and B.
Note: In this case and means to multiply.
M
2
M
3
M
4
M
B
S
M
1
B
1
B
2
B
3

permutations and combinations and their use in purely mathematical and life-related situations
C h a p t e r 1 0 P e r m u t a t i o n s a n d c o m b i n a t i o n s 461
A useful technique for solving problems based on the multiplication principle is to
use boxes. In the example above we would write
The value in the 1st column represents the number of ways the rst operation
the trip from Melbourne to Sydney can be performed.
The value in the 2nd column stands for the number of ways the second operation
the trip from Sydney to Brisbane can be performed.
To apply the multiplication principle you multiply the numbers in the lower row of boxes.
Now consider a different situation, one in which the two operations do not occur one
after the other.
I am going to travel from Melbourne to either Sydney or Adelaide. There are 4 ways
of travelling from Melbourne to Sydney and 3 ways of travelling from Melbourne to
Adelaide.
How many different ways can I travel to either Sydney or Adelaide?
It can be seen from the gure that there
are 4 + 3 = 7 ways of completing the
journey. This idea is summarised in the
addition principle.
The addition principle should be used when two distinct operations or events occur
in which one event is not followed by another.
It states:
operation B then there are n + m ways of performing A or B.
Note: In this case or means to add.
1st 2nd
4 3
2
3
4
M
A S
1
1
2
3
Two letters are to be chosen from A, B, C, D and E, where order is important.
a List all the different ways that this may be done.
b State the number of ways that this may be done.
THINK WRITE
a Begin with A in rst place and make a list of
each of the possible pairs.
Make a list of each of the possible pairs with B
in the rst position.
Make a list of each of the possible pairs with C
Make a list of each of the possible pairs with D
Make a list of each of the possible pairs with E
Note: AB and BA need to be listed separately as
order is important.
a AB AC AD AE
BA BC BD BE
CA CB CD CE
DA DB DC DE
EA EB EC ED
1
2
3
4
5
1
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
A selection where order is important is called an arrangement.
THINK WRITE
b Method 1
Count the number of ordered pairs and answer
the question.
b There are 20 ordered pairs.
Alternatively, the multiplication principle could have
been used to determine the number of ordered pairs.
b Method 2
Rule up two boxes which represent the pair.
b
Write down the number of letters which may
be selected for the rst box. That is, in rst
place any of the 5 letters may be used.
Write down the number of letters which may be
selected for the second box. That is, in second place,
any of the 4 letters may be used.
Note: One less letter is used to avoid repetition.
Evaluate. 5 4 = 20 ways
Answer the question. There are 20 ways in which 2 letters
may be selected from a group of 5
where order is important.
1
5 4
2
3
4
5
How many ways could an arrangement of 5 letters be chosen from A, B, C, D, E and F?
THINK WRITE
Instead of listing all possibilities, draw 5 boxes to
represent the 5 letters chosen.
Label each box on the top row as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th
and 5th.
Note: The word arrangement implies order is
important.
Fill in each of the boxes showing the number of
ways a letter may be chosen.
(a) In the 1st box there are 6 choices for the rst
letter.
(b) In the 2nd box there are 5 choices for the
second letter as 1 letter has already been used.
(c) In the 3rd box there are 4 choices for the third
letter as 2 letters have already been used.
(d) Continue this process until each of the 5 boxes
is lled.
Use the multiplication principle as this is an
and situation.
No. of ways = 6 5 4 3 2
= 720
Answer the question. An arrangement of 5 letters may be
chosen 720 ways.
1
2
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
6 5 4 3 2
3
4
2
WORKEDExample
One or two letters are to be chosen from 6 letters A, B, C, D, E and F. In how many ways
can this be done?
THINK WRITE
Determine the number of ways of choosing 1 letter. No. of ways of choosing 1 letter = 6.
Rule up two boxes for the rst and second letters.
Determine the number of ways of choosing 2 letters
from 6.
(a) In the 1st box there are 6 choices for the rst letter.
(b) In the 2nd box there are 5 choices for the second
letter as 1 letter has already been used.
Use the multiplication principle (as this is an
and situation) to evaluate the number of ways of
choosing 2 letters from 6.
No. of ways of choosing 2 letters
= 6 5
= 30
Determine the number of ways of choosing 1 or 2
letters from 6 letters. Use the addition principle as
this is an or situation.
The number of ways of choosing
1 or 2 letters is 6 + 30 = 36.
Answer the question. There are 36 ways of choosing 1 or 2
letters from 6.
1
2
3
1st 2nd
6 5
4
5
6
3
WORKEDExample
Jeannines restaurant offers its patrons a choice
of 3 entrees, 9 main courses and 4 desserts.
a How many choices of 3-course meals
(entree, main, dessert) are available?
b How many choices of entree and main
course are offered?
c How many choices of main course and
dessert are offered?
d How many choices of 2- or 3-course meals
are available (assuming that a main course
is always ordered)?
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a Rule up 3 boxes to represent each course
entree, main, dessert. Label each box on the
top row as E, M and D.
a
Determine the number of ways of choosing
each meal: entree = 3, main = 9, dessert = 4.
Use the multiplication principle (as this is an
and situation) to evaluate the number of
choices of 3-course meals.
No. of choices = 3 9 4
= 108
Answer the question. There are 108 choices of 3-course
meals.
1
E M D
3 9 4
2
3
4
4
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
b Rule up 2 boxes to represent each course
entree, main. Label each box on the top row as
E and M.
b
each meal: entree = 3, main = 9.
Use the multiplication principle (as this is
an and situation) to evaluate the number
of choices of entree and main courses.
No. of choices = 3 9
= 27
Answer the question. There are 27 choices of entree and
main course.
c Rule up 2 boxes to represent each course
main and dessert. Label each box on the top
row as M and D.
c
each meal: main = 9, dessert = 4.
Use the multiplication principle (as this is
an and situation) to evaluate the number
of choices of main course and dessert.
No. of choices = 9 4
= 36
Answer the question. There are 36 choices of main
course and dessert.
d Determine the number of ways of choosing
2- or 3-course meals, assuming that a main
course is always ordered.
Use the addition principle as this is an
or situation.
d The number of ways of choosing
2- or 3-course meals, assuming
that a main course is always
ordered, is:
108 + 27 + 36 = 171
Answer the question. There are 171 ways of choosing
2- or 3-course meals, assuming
that a main course is always
ordered.
1
E M
3 9
2
3
4
1
M D
9 4
2
3
4
1
2
1. The multiplication principle should be used when there are two operations or
events (say, A and B) where one event is followed by the other. It states:
operation B, then there are n m ways of performing A and B.
2. The addition principle should be used when two distinct operations or events
occur in which one event is not followed by another. It states:
operation B, then there are n + m ways of performing A or B.
3. A selection where order is important is called an arrangement.
remember
The addition and
1 Two letters are to be chosen from A, B and C, where order is important.
a List all the different ways that this may be done.
b State the number of ways that this may be done.
2 List all the different arrangements possible for a group of 2 colours to be chosen from
B (blue), G (green), Y (yellow) and R (red).
3 List all the different arrangements possible for a group of 3 letters to be chosen from
A, B and C.
4 a In how many ways can an arrangement of 2 letters be chosen from A, B, C, D, E,
F and G?
b In how many ways can an arrangement of 3 letters be chosen from 7 different
letters?
c In how many ways can an arrangement of 4 letters be chosen from 7 different
letters?
d How many different arrangements of 5 letters can be made from 7 letters?
5 a A teddy bears wardrobe consists of 3 different hats, 4 different shirts and 2 dif-
ferent trousers. How many different outts can the teddy bear wear?
b A surfboard is to have 1 colour on its top and a different colour on its bottom. The
3 possible colours are red, blue and green. In how many different ways can the
surfboard be coloured?
c A new computer system comes with a choice of 3 keyboards, 2 different monitors
and 2 different mouse attachments. With these choices, how many different
arrangements are possible?
d Messages can be sent by placing 3 different coloured ags in order on a pole. If
the ags come in 4 colours, how many different messages can be sent?
e A yacht race has a eld of 12 competitors. In how many different ways can rst,
second and third place be lled by these 12 yachts?
6 a One or 2 letters are to be chosen from the letters A, B, C, D, E, F and G. In how
many ways can this be done?
b Two or 3 letters are to be chosen from the letters A, B, C, D, E, F and G. In how
c How many 1- or 2-digit numbers can be made using the digits 1, 3, 5 and 7 if no
digit can be used more than once?
7 Nadia is in a race with 10 other girls.
a If we are only concerned with the rst, second and third placings, in how many
ways can:
i Nadia nish rst?
ii Nadia nish second?
b In how many ways can Nadia nish rst or second?
8 White Wolf is a horse in a race with 7 other runners. If we are concerned only with
the rst, second and third placings, in how many ways can White Wolf nish rst or
second or third?
10A
WORKED
Example
1
WORKED
Example
2
WORKED
Example
3
6

a

AB BA CA AC BC CB
BG GB YB RB
BY GY YG RG
BR GR YR RY

2
3

ACB BAC CAB
ABC BCA CBA
42
210
840
2520
24
6
12
24
1320
49
252
16
90
90
180
126
9
There are 12 people on the committee at the local softball club. In how many ways
can a president and a secretary be chosen from this committee?
10
Phone numbers consist of 8 digits. The rst must be a 9. The second digit can be a 3,
4, 5 or 8. There are no restrictions on the remaining digits.
How many different telephone numbers are possible?
11
A TV station runs a cricket competition called Classic Catches. Six catches, A to F,
are chosen and viewers are asked to rank them in the same order as the judges. The
number of ways in which the six catches can be ranked:
A 1 B 6 C 30 D 720 E 128
12 The local soccer team sells doubles at each of their games to raise money. A
double is a card with 2 digits on it representing the score at full time. The card with
the actual full time score on it wins a prize. If the digits on the cards run from 00 to
99, how many different tickets are there?
13 Marcus has a briefcase that has a 4-digit security code. He remembers that the rst
number in the code was 9 and that the others were 3, 4 and 7 but forgets the order of
the last 3 digits. How many different trials must he make to be sure of unlocking the
briefcase?
14 Julia has a briefcase that has two 4-digit locks. She
remembers that she used the digits 1, 3, 5 and 7 on the
left lock and 2, 4, 6 and 8 on the right lock, but can not
remember the order. What is the maximum number of
trials she would need to make before she has opened
both the left lock and the right lock?
A 2 B 23 C 132 D 144 E 66
A 4320 B 499 999 C 4 000 000 D 4 999 999 E 10 000 000
multiple choice
multiple choice
multiple choice

100
6
48
15 How many different 4-digit numbers can be made from the numbers 1, 3, 5 and 7 if
the numbers can be repeated (that is 3355 and 7777 are valid)?
16 How many 4-digit numbers can be made from the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 2 if the
numbers can be repeated?
17 How many 4-digit numbers can be made from the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 0 if the
numbers can be repeated? (Remember a number cannot start with 0.)
18 How many numbers less than 5000 can be made using the digits 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9 if
repetition is not permitted?
19 A combination lock has 3 digits each from 0 to 9.
a How many combinations are possible?
The lock mechanism becomes loose and will open if the
digits are within one either side of the correct digit. For
example if the true combination is 382 then the lock will
open on 271, 272, 371, 493 and so on.
b How many combinations would unlock the safe?
c List the possible combinations that would open the
lock if the true combination is 382.
20 Hani and Marys restaurant offers its patrons a choice of 4 entrees, 10 main courses
and 5 desserts.
a How many choices of 3-course meals (entree, main, dessert) are available?
b How many choices of entree and main course are offered?
c How many choices of main course and dessert are offered?
d How many choices of 2- or 3-course meals are available (assuming that a main
course is always ordered)?
21 Jake is able to choose his work outts from the following items of clothing: 3 jackets,
7 shirts, 6 ties, 5 pairs of trousers, 7 pairs of socks and 3 pairs of shoes.
a How many different outts are possible if he wears one of each of the above
items? (He wears matching socks and shoes.)
b If Jake has the option of wearing a jacket and each of the above items, how many
different outts are possible? Explain your answer.
Factorials and permutations
Factorials
The Physical Education department is to display 5 new trophies along a shelf in the
school foyer and wishes to know how many ways this can be done.
Using the multiplication principle from the previous section, the display may be
done in the following way:
That is, there are 5 4 3 2 1 = 120 ways.
Position 1 Position 2 Position 3 Position 4 Position 5
5 4 3 2 1
2
1
0
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5
4
3
2
1
0
9
8
7
6
WORKED
Example
4

256
1296
1080
133
1000
27
271
272
273
281
282
283
291
292
293
371
372
373
381
382
383
391
392
393
471
472
473
481
482
483
491
492
493

c

200
40
50
290
13 230
17 640 Jack may wear 13 230 outts with a
jacket or 4410 outts without a jacket.
Therefore he has a total of 17 640
outts to choose from. The assumption
made with this problem is that no item
of clothing is exactly the same; that is,
none of the 7 shirts is exactly the same.
Depending on the number of items we have, this method could become quite time
consuming.
In general when we need to multiply each of the integers from a particular number,
n, down to 1, we write n!, which is read as n factorial.
Hence: 6! = 6 5 4 3 2 1
= 720
8! = 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
= 40 320
n! = n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) . . . 3 2 1
1. The number of ways n distinct objects may be arranged is n! (n factorial) where:
n! = n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) . . . 3 2 1
That is, n! is the product of each of the integers from n down to 1.
2. A special case of the factorial function is: 0! = 1.
The following steps show how to calculate 12! using a graphics calculator.
1. From the select RUN-MAT. Press
and then ( ) for more options.
2. Press (PROB) and you will be able to see the
function x!. Enter 12 and press (x!). Press
to display the value of 12!.
1. Open a new Calculator document. Enter 12 and
then press /and kto access the symbol palette.
Use the arrow keys to highlight the factorial symbol
(exclamation mark).
2. Press to insert the factorial symbol into the
entry line. Press to display the value.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Calculating
factorials
MENU OPTN
F6
s
F3
F1
EXE
Evaluate the following factorials.
a 7! b 13! c d e
THINK WRITE
a Write 7! in its expanded form and
evaluate.
a 7! = 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
= 5040
Verify the answer obtained using
the factorial function on the
calculator.
b Write 13! in its expanded form
and evaluate.
b 13! = 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
3 2 1
= 6 227 020 800
calculator.
c Write each factorial term in its
expanded form.
c
=
Cancel down like terms. = 8 7 6
Evaluate. = 336
calculator.
d Write each factorial term in its
expanded form.
d
=
Cancel down like terms. = 9 8 7 6 5 4
Evaluate. = 60 480
calculator.
e Write each factorial term in its
expanded form.
e
=
Cancel down like terms. = (n 1)(n 2)
18!
5!
--------
9!
3!
-----
n 1 ( )!
n 3 ( )!
-------------------
1
2
1
2
1
8!
5!
-----
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------
2
3
4
1
9!
3!
-----
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3 2 1
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
3
4
1
n 1 ( )!
n 3 ( )!
------------------
n 1 ( ) n 2 ( ) n 3 ( ) n 4 ( ) 3 2 1
n 3 ( ) n 4 ( ) 3 2 1
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
5
WORKEDExample
In parts c, d and e of Worked example 5, there was no need to fully expand each fac-
torial term.
The factorial could have rst been simplied to and then the
5! terms cancelled.
The factorial could have rst been simplied to and
then the 3! terms cancelled.
The factorial could have rst been simplied to and
then the (n 3)! terms cancelled.
Permutations
The term permutation is often used instead of the term arrangement and in this section
we begin by giving a formal denition of permutation.
Previously, we learned that if you select 3 letters from 7 where order is important,
the number of possible arrangements is:
The number of arrangements = 7 6 5
= 210
This value may also be expressed in factorial form: 7 6 5 = =
Using more formal terminology we say that in choosing 3 things from 7 things
where order is important the number of permutations is
7
P
3
= 7 6 5. The letter P is
used to remind us that we are nding permutations.
The number of ways of choosing r things from n distinct things is given by the rule:
n
P
r
= n (n 1) . . . (n r + 1)
=
=
The denition of
n
P
r
may be extended to the cases of
n
P
n
and
n
P
0
.
n
P
n
represents the number of ways of choosing n objects from n distinct things.
n
P
n
= n (n 1) (n 2) . . . (n n + 1)
= n (n 1) (n 2) . . . 1
= n!
From the denition:
n
P
n
=
=
Therefore, equating both sides, we obtain: n! = .
This can occur only if 0! = 1.
1st 2nd 3rd
7 6 5
8!
5!
-----
8 7 6 5!
5!
--------------------------------
9!
3!
-----
9 8 7 6 5 4 3!
3!
------------------------------------------------------------
n 1 ( )!
n 3 ( )!
------------------
n 1 ( ) n 2 ( ) n 3 ( )!
n 3 ( )!
-----------------------------------------------------
7 6 5 4!
4!
--------------------------------
7!
4!
-----
n n 1 ( ) n r 1 + ( ) n r ( )!
n r ( )!
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
n!
n r ( )!
------------------
n!
n n ( )!
------------------
n!
0!
-----
n!
0!
-----
n
P
0
=
=
= 1
In summary, the two special cases are:
1.
n
P
n
= n!
2.
n
P
0
= 1
n!
n 0 ( )!
------------------
n!
n!
-----
a Calculate the number of permutations for
6
P
4
by expressing it in expanded form.
b Write
8
P
3
as a quotient of factorials and hence evaluate.
THINK WRITE
a Write down the rst 4 terms beginning with 6. a
6
P
4
= 6 5 4 3
Evaluate. = 360
b Write down the rule for permutations.
b
n
P
r
=
Substitute the given values of n and r into the
permutation formula.
8
P
3
=
=
Use a calculator to evaluate 8! and 5!
=
Evaluate. = 336
1
2
1
n!
n r ( )!
------------------
2 8!
8 3 ( )!
------------------
8!
5!
-----
3
40 320
120
----------------
4
6
WORKEDExample
The netball club needs to appoint a president, secretary and treasurer. From the
committee 7 people have volunteered for these positions. Each of the 7 nominees is happy
to ll any one of the 3 positions. In how many different ways can these positions be lled?
THINK WRITE
Write down the rule for permutations.
Note: Order is important, so use permutations.
n
P
r
=
Substitute the given values of n and r
into the permutation formula.
7
P
3
=
=
Use a calculator to evaluate 7! and 4! =
Evaluate. = 210
Answer the question. There are 210 different ways of lling
the positions of president, secretary
and treasurer.
1
n!
n r ( )!
------------------
2
7!
7 3 ( )!
------------------
7!
4!
-----
3
5040
24
------------
4
5
7
WORKEDExample
To nd the number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time, we need to calculate
n
P
r
.
5
P
3
1. From the select RUN-MAT. Press and
function nPr. Enter 5 (for n), then press (nPr)
and enter 3 (for r). Press to display the value.
1. Open a new Calculator document. Press kto
access the catalog and press 1for the list of
functions. Scroll down to select nPr(. You can do this
more quickly by rst pressing N.
nPr(5,3). Press to display the value.
(Alternatively, you can use the letter keys to type npr
followed by directly into the calculator screen
instead of accessing it from the catalog. Press
NPRfollowed by (, then complete the entry line
and press .)
Arrangements in a circle
Consider this problem: In how many different ways can 7 people be seated, 4 at a time,
on a bench?
By now you should quickly see the answer:
7
P
4
= 840.
Let us change the problem slightly: In how many different ways can 7 people be
seated, 4 at a time, at a circular table?
The solution must recognise that when people are seated
on a bench, each of the following represents a different
arrangement:
ABCD BCDA CDAB DABC
However, when sitting in a circle, each represents the
same arrangement.
In each case B has A on the left and C on the right.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Calculating
permutations
MENU OPTN
F6
s
F3
F2
EXE
(
A
B
C
D
D
A
B
C
C
D
A
B
B
C
D
A
We conclude that the number
7
P
4
gives 4 times the number of arrangements of 7 people
in a circle 4 at a time. Therefore, the number of arrangements is .
In general, the number of different ways n people can be seated, r at a time, in a
circle is:
7
P
4
4
--------- 210 =
n
P
r
r
---------
How many different arrangements are possible if, from a group of 8 people, 5 are to be
seated at a round table?
THINK WRITE
Write down the rule for the number of
arrangements in a circle.
into the formula.
=
Use a calculator to evaluate
8
P
5
. =
Evaluate. = 1344
Answer the question. The number of ways of seating 5 from a group
of 8 people at a round table is 1344.
1
n
P
r
r
--------
2
8
P
5
5
---------
3
6720
5
------------
4
5
8
WORKEDExample
1. (a) The number of ways n distinct objects may be arranged is n! (n factorial)
where:
n! = n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) . . . 3 2 1
(b) 0! = 1
(c) 1! = 1
2. (a) The number of different arrangements (permutations) when r things are
chosen from n things and order is important is given by the rule
n
P
r
,
where:
n
P
r
=
(b)
n
P
n
= n!
(c)
n
P
0
= 1
3. The number of different ways n people can be seated, r at a time, in a
circle is:
n!
n r ( )!
------------------
n
P
r
r
--------
remember
1 Write each of the following in expanded form.
2 Evaluate the following factorials.
5 Calculate each of the following by expressing it in expanded form.
6 Write each of the following as a quotient of factorials and hence
evaluate.
7 Use your calculator to nd the value of:
8 A soccer club will appoint a president and a vice-president. Eight people have
volunteered for either of the two positions. In how many different ways can these
positions be lled?
9 The school musical needs a producer, director, musical director and script coach. Nine
people have volunteered for any of these positions. In how many different ways can
the positions be lled? (Note: One person cannot take on more than 1 position.)
10 There are 14 horses in a race. In how many different ways can the 1st, 2nd and 3rd
positions be lled?
11 There are 26 horses in a race. How many different results for 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th can
occur?
12 A rowing crew consists of 4 rowers who sit in a denite order. How many different
crews are possible if 5 people try out for selection?
a 4! b 5! c 6! d 7!
a 4! b 5! c 6! d 10!
e 14! f 9! g 7! h 3!
a b c d
a b c d
a
8
P
2
b
7
P
5
c
8
P
7
a
9
P
6
b
5
P
2
c
18
P
5
a
20
P
6
b
800
P
2
c
18
P
5
10B
WORKED
Example
5a, b
WORKED
Example
5c, d
9!
5!
-----
10!
4!
--------
7!
3!
-----
6!
0!
-----
WORKED
Example
5e
n!
n 5 ( )!
------------------
n 3 + ( )!
n 1 + ( )!
-------------------
n 3 ( )!
n!
------------------
n 2 ( )!
n 2 + ( )!
-------------------
WORKED
Example
6a
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital docs:
SkillSHEET 10.1
Calculating
n
P
r
EXCEL Spreadsheet
Permutations
WORKED
Example
6b
WORKED
Example
7
Producer Director Coach Musical
Director
4

1
5

1 6

1
7

1
24

120 720
3 628 800
8.717 829 12

10

10

362 880 5040 6
3024 151 200 840 720

n

(

n

1)(

n

2)(

n

3)(

n

4)
1
n 2 + ( ) n 1 + ( )n n 1 ( )
-------------------------------------------------------
1
n n 1 ( ) n 2 ( )
-------------------------------------

(

n

+

3)(

n

+

2)
8

7

=

56
7

6

5

4

3

=

2520 8

7 6 5 4 3 2 = 40 320
9!
3!
----- 60 480 =
5!
3!
----- 20 =
18!
13!
-------- 1 028 160 =

27 907 200 639 200 1 028 160
56
3024
2184
358 800
120
13 How many different arrangements are possible if, from a group of 15 people, 4 are to
be seated in a circle?
14 A round table seats 6 people. From a group of 8 people, in how many ways can 6 people
be seated at the table?
15 At a dinner party for 10 people all the guests were seated at a circular table. How
many different arrangements were possible?
16 At one stage in the court of Camelot, King Arthur and 12 knights would sit at the
round table. If each person could sit anywhere how many different arrangements were
possible?
17
Which one of the following permutations cannot be calculated?
18
The result of 100! is greater than 94!.
Which of the following gives the best comparison between these two numbers?
A 100! is 6 more than 94!
B 100! is 6 times bigger than 94!
C 100! is about 6! times bigger than 94!
D 100! is about 10 000 more than 94!
E 100! is
100
P
6
times bigger than 94!
For questions 19 to 21 show your answers in the form
n
P
r
and then evaluate.
19 In how many ways can the letters of the word TODAY be arranged if they are used
once only and taken:
a 3 at a time? b 4 at a time? c 5 at a time?
20 In how many ways can the letters of the word TUESDAY be arranged if they are used
once only and taken:
a 3 at a time? b 4 at a time? c 7 at a time?
21 In how many ways can the letters of the word NEWTON be arranged if they are used
once only and taken 6 at a time, assuming:
a the rst N is distinct from the second N?
b there is no distinction between the two Ns?
A
1000
P
100
B
1
P
0
C
8
P
8
D
4
P
8
E
5
P
4
WORKED
Example
8
multiple choice
multiple choice

8190
3360
362 880
479 001 600

5

P

3

=

60

5

P

4

=

120

5

P

5

=

120

7

P

3

=

210

7

P

4

=

840

7

P

7

=

5040

6

P

6

=

720
6
P
6
2
--------- 360 =
Arrangements involving restrictions
and like objects
A 5-letter word is to be made from 3 As and 2 Bs. How many different arrangements
can be made?
If the 5 letters were all different, it would be easy to calculate the number of arrange-
ments. It would be 5! = 120. Perhaps you can see that when letters are repeated, the
number of different arrangements will be less than 120. To analyse the situation let us
imagine that we can distinguish one A from another. We will write A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, B
1
and
B
2
to represent the 5 letters.
As we list some of the possible arrangements we notice that some are actually the
same, as shown in the table.
The number of repetitions is 3! for the As and 2! for the Bs. Thus, the number of
different arrangements is .
The number of different ways of arranging n things made up of groups of
indistinguishable things, n
1
in the rst group, n
2
in the second group and so on is:
.
Note: If there are elements of the group which are not duplicated, then they can be
considered as a group of 1. It is not usual to divide by 1!; it is more common to show
only those groups which have duplications.
A
1
A
2
B
1
A
3
B
2
A
1
A
3
B
1
A
2
B
2
A
2
A
1
B
1
A
3
B
2
A
2
A
3
B
1
A
1
B
2
A
3
A
1
B
1
A
2
B
2
A
3
A
2
B
1
A
1
B
2
A
1
A
2
B
2
A
3
B
1
A
1
A
3
B
2
A
2
B
1
A
2
A
1
B
2
A
3
B
1
A
2
A
3
B
2
A
1
B
1
A
3
A
1
B
2
A
2
B
1
A
3
A
2
B
2
A
1
B
1
Each of these 12
arrangements is the
same AABAB.
B
2
A
1
A
2
B
1
A
3
B
2
A
1
A
3
B
1
A
2
B
2
A
2
A
1
B
1
A
3
B
2
A
2
A
3
B
1
A
1
B
2
A
3
A
1
B
1
A
2
B
2
A
3
A
2
B
1
A
1
B
1
A
1
A
2
B
2
A
3
B
1
A
1
A
3
B
2
A
2
B
1
A
2
A
1
B
2
A
3
B
1
A
2
A
3
B
2
A
1
B
1
A
3
A
1
B
2
A
2
B
1
A
3
A
2
B
2
A
1
Each of these 12
arrangements is the
same BAABA.
5!
3! 2!
----------------
n!
n
1
!n
2
!n
3
!n
r
!
--------------------------------------
How many different arrangements of 8 letters can be made from the word PARALLEL?
THINK WRITE
Write down the number of letters in the
given word.
The word PARALLEL contains 8 letters;
therefore n = 8.
Write down the number of times any of
the letters are repeated.
The letter A is repeated twice; therefore n
1
= 2.
The letter L is repeated 3 times; therefore n
2
= 3.
Write down the rule for arranging
groups of like things.
Substitute the values of n, n
1
and n
2
into
the rule.
=
Evaluate each of the factorials.
=
Simplify the fraction.
=
Evaluate. = 3360
Answer the question. 3360 arrangements of 8 letters can be made
from the word PARALLEL.
1
2
3 n!
n
1
!n
2
!n
3
!n
r
!
------------------------------------
4
8!
2! 3!
----------------
5 40 320
2 6
----------------
6 40 320
12
----------------
7
8
9
WORKEDExample
How many different arrangements of 7 counters can be made from 4 black and
3 white counters?
THINK WRITE
Write down the total number of
counters.
There are 7 counters in all; therefore n = 7.
Write down the number of times any of
the coloured counters are repeated.
There are 3 white counters; therefore n
1
= 3.
There are 4 black counters; therefore n
2
= 4.
Write down the rule for arranging
groups of like things.
Substitute the values of n, n
1
and n
2
into
the rule.
=
Evaluate each of the factorials.
=
=
Evaluate. = 35
Answer the question. Thirty-ve different arrangements can be made
from 7 counters, of which 3 are white and 4 are
black.
1
2
3 n!
n
1
!n
2
!n
3
!n
r
!
------------------------------------
4
7!
3! 4!
----------------
5
5040
6 24
---------------
6
5040
144
------------
7
8
10
WORKEDExample
A rowing crew of 4 rowers is to be selected, in order from the rst seat to the fourth seat,
from 8 candidates. How many different arrangements are possible if:
a there are no restrictions?
b Jason or Kris must row in the rst seat?
c Jason must be in the crew, but he can row anywhere in the boat?
THINK WRITE
a Write down the permutation formula.
Note: 4 rowers are to be selected from
8 and the order is important.
a
8
P
4
=
=
Use a calculator to evaluate 8! and 4!.
=
Evaluate. = 1680
Answer the question. There are 1680 ways of arranging 4 rowers
from a group of 8.
b Apply the multiplication principle
since two events will follow each
other; that is, Jason will ll the rst
seat and the remaining 3 seats will be
lled in 7 6 5 ways or Kris will
ll the rst seat and the remaining
3 seats will be lled in 7 6 5 ways.
b No. of arrangements
= no. of ways of lling the rst seat no. of
ways of lling the remaining 3 seats.
= 2
n
P
r
Substitute the values of n and r into
the formula and evaluate.
= 2
7
P
3
= 2 210
= 420
Answer the question. There are 420 ways of arranging the 4 rowers
if Jason or Kris must row in the rst seat.
c Apply the addition principle, since
Jason must be in either the rst,
second, third or fourth seat. The
remaining 3 seats will be lled in
7 6 5 ways each time.
c No. of arrangements =
No. of arrangements with Jason in seat 1
+ No. of arrangements with Jason in seat 2
+ No. of arrangements with Jason in seat 3
+ No. of arrangements with Jason in seat 4.
the formula.
No. of arrangements
= 1
7
P
3
+ 1
7
P
3
+ 1
7
P
3
+ 1
7
P
3
= 4
7
P
3
= 4 210
Evaluate. = 840
Answer the question. There are 840 ways of arranging the 4
rowers if Jason must be in the crew of 4.
1
n
P
r
n!
n r ( )!
------------------ =
2
8!
8 4 ( )!
------------------
8!
4!
-----
3
40 320
24
----------------
4
5
1
J 7 6 5 or K 7 6 5
2
3
1
J 7 6 5 + 7 J 6 5 +
7 6 J 5 + 7 6 5 J
2
3
4
11
WORKEDExample
a How many permutations of the letters in the word COUNTER are there?
b In how many of these do the letters C and N appear side by side?
c In how many permutations do the letters C and N appear apart?
THINK WRITE
a Count the number of letters in the
given word.
a There are 7 letters in the word COUNTER.
Determine the number of ways the
7 letters may be arranged.
The 7 letters may be arranged 7! = 5040
ways.
Answer the question. There are 5040 permutations of letters in the
word COUNTER.
b Imagine the C and N are tied together
and are therefore considered as 1 unit.
Determine the number of ways C and
N may be arranged: CN and NC.
b Let C and N represent 1 unit.
They may be arranged 2! = 2 ways.
Determine the number of ways 6 things
can be arranged.
Note: There are now 6 letters: the CN
unit along with O, U, T, E and R.
Six things may be arranged 6! = 720 ways.
Determine the number of permutations in
which the letters C and N appear together.
The number of permutations = 2 6!
Evaluate. = 2 720
= 1440
Answer the question. There are 1440 permutations in which the
letters C and N appear together.
c Determine the total number of
arrangements of the 7 letters.
c Total number of arrangements = 7!
= 5040
Write down the number of
arrangements in which the letters C and
N appear together, as obtained in a.
Arrangements with C and N together = 1440
Determine the difference between the
values obtained in steps 1 and 2.
Note: The number of arrangements in
which C and N are apart is the total
number of arrangements less the number
of times they are together.
The number of arrangements = 5040 1440
= 3600
Answer the question. The letters C and N appear apart 3600 times.
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
12
WORKEDExample
1. The number of different ways of arranging n things made up of groups of
1
in the rst group, n
2
in the second group and so
on is: .
2. When restrictions apply to arrangements, use the multiplication and addition
principles as well as
n
P
r
.
n!
n
1
!n
2
!n
3
!n
r
!
------------------------------------
remember
Arrangements involving
restrictions and like objects
1 How many different arrangements can be made using the 6 letters of the
word NEWTON?
2 How many different arrangements can be made using the 11 letters of
the word ABRACADABRA?
3 How many different arrangements of 5 counters can be made using 3
red and 2 blue counters?
4 How many different arrangements of 9 counters can be made using 4 black, 3 red and
2 blue counters?
5 A collection of 12 books is to be arranged on a shelf. The books consist of 3 copies of
Great Expectations, 5 copies of Catcher in the Rye and 4 copies of Huntin, Fishin
and Shootin. How many different arrangements of these books are possible?
6 A shelf holding 24 cans of dog food is to be stacked using 9 cans of Yummy and 15 cans
of Ruff for Dogs. In how many different ways can the shelf be stocked?
7 A cricket team of 11 players is to be selected, in batting order, from 15. How many
different arrangements are possible if:
b Mark must be in the team at number 1?
c Mark must be in the team but he can be anywhere from 1 to 11?
8 The Student Council needs to ll the positions of president, secretary and treasurer
from 6 candidates. Each candidate can ll only one of the positions. In how many
ways can this be done if:
b Jocelyn must be secretary?
c Jocelyn must have one of the 3 positions?
9 The starting 5 in a basketball team is to be picked, in order, from the 10 players in the
squad. In how many ways can this be done if:
b Jamahl needs to play at number 5?
c Jamahl and Anfernee must be in the starting 5?
10 a How many permutations of the letters in the word MATHS are there?
b In how many of these do the letters M and A appear together?
c In how many permutations do the letters M and A appear apart?
10C
WORKED
Example
9
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Spreadsheet
Permutations
WORKED
Example
10
WORKED
Example
11
WORKED
Example
12

360
83 160
10
1260
27 720
1 307 504
5.4

10

10

3.6

10

9

4.0

10

10

120
20
60
30 240
3024
6720
120
48
72
11 A rowing team of 4 rowers is to be selected in order from 8 rowers.
a In how many different ways can this be done?
b In how many of these ways do 2 rowers, Jane and Lee, sit together in the boat?
c In how many ways can the crew be formed without using Jane or Lee?
12 A horse race has 12 runners.
a In how many ways can 1st, 2nd and 3rd be lled?
b In how many ways can 1st, 2nd and 3rd be lled if Najim nishes rst?
13
If the answer is 10, which of the following statements best matches this answer?
A The number of ways 1st and 2nd can occur in a race with 5 entrants.
B The number of distinct arrangements of the letters in NANNA.
C The number of permutations of the letters in POCKET where P and O are
together.
D The number of permutations of the letters in POCKET where P and O are apart.
E
10
P
2

4
P
2
14
If the answer is 480, which of the following statements best matches this answer?
A The number of ways 1st and 2nd can occur in a race with 5 entrants.
B The number of distinct arrangements of the letters in NANNA.
C The number of permutations of the letters in POCKET where P and O are
together.
D The number of permutations of the letters in POCKET where P and O are apart.
E
10
P
2

4
P
2
15 The clue in a crossword puzzle says that a particular answer is an anagram of
STOREY. An anagram is another word that can be obtained by rearranging the letters
of the given word.
a How many possible arrangements of the letters of STOREY are there?
b The other words in the crossword puzzle indicate that the correct answer is O--T--
How many arrangements are now possible?
c Can you see the answer?
16 There are 30 students in a class. The students are arranged in order and asked to give
the month and date of their birthday.
a How many different arrangements of these dates are possible?
b How many arrangements of these dates are possible if no 2 students have the same
birthday?
multiple choice
multiple choice
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Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 10.1
1680
180
360
1320
110
720
24
OYSTER
365

30
365

P

30
Combinations
A group of things chosen from a larger group where order is not important is called a
combination. In previous sections we performed calculations of the number of ways a
task could be done where order is important permutations or arrangements. We now
examine situations where order does not matter.
Suppose 5 people have nominated for a committee consisting of 3 members. It does
not matter in what order the candidates are placed on the committee, it matters only
whether they are there or not. If order was important we know there would be
5
P
3
, or
60, ways in which this could be done. Here are the possibilities:
The 60 arrangements are different only if we take order into account; that is, ABC is
different from CAB and so on. You will notice in this table that there are 10 distinct
committees corresponding to the 10 distinct rows. Each column merely repeats, in a
different order, the committee in the rst row. This result (10 distinct committees) can
be arrived at logically:
1. There are
5
P
3
ways of choosing or selecting 3 from 5 in order.
2. Each choice of 3 is repeated 3! times.
3. The number of distinct selections or combinations is
5
P
3
3! = 10.
This leads to the general rule of selecting r things from n things:
1. The number of ways of choosing or selecting r things from n distinct things
where order is not important is given by the rule
n
C
r
, where:
n
C
r
=
2. The letter C is used to represent combinations.
ABC ABD ABE ACD ACE ADE
BDE BCD BCE CDE CAB DAB
EAB DAC EAC EAD EBD DBC
EBC ECD BCA BDA BEA CDA
CEA DEA DEB CDB CEB DEC
CBA DBA EBA DCA ECA EDA
EDB DCB ECB EDC BAC BAD
BAE CAD CAE DAE DBE CBD
CBE DCE ACB ADB AEB ADC
AEC AED BED CDB BEC CED
n
P
r
r!
---------
Write these combinations as statements involving permutations, then calculate them.
a
7
C
2
b
20
C
3
THINK WRITE
a Write down the rule for
n
C
r
. a
n
C
r
=
into the combination formula.
7
C
2
=
1
n
P
r
r!
--------
2
7
P
2
2!
---------
13
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
=
=
=
=
=
Evaluate.
=
=
= 21
b Write down the rule for
n
C
r
. b
n
C
r
=
the formula.
20
C
3
=
=
=
=
=
=
Evaluate. =
=
= 1140
3
7!
5!
-----

2!
----------
7!
5!
----- 2!
7!
5!
-----
1
2!
-----
7!
5!2!
----------
7 6 5!
5! 2 1
-----------------------
4
7 6
2 1
------------
42
2
------
1
n
P
r
r!
--------
2
20
P
3
3!
-----------
3
20!
17!
--------

3!
-------------
20!
17!
-------- 3!
20!
17!
--------
1
3!
-----
20!
17!3!
-------------
20 19 18 17!
17! 3 2 1
--------------------------------------------
4
20 19 18
3 2 1
------------------------------
6840
6
------------
The formula we use to determine the number of ways of selecting r things from n
distinct things, where order is not important, is useful but needs to be simplied.
n
C
r
=
=
=
n
C
r
=
Note:
n
C
r
may also be written as .
In how many ways can a basketball team of 5 players be selected from a squad of 9 if the
order in which they are selected does not matter?
THINK WRITE
Write down the rule for
n
C
r
.
Note: Since order does not matter use the
n
C
r
rule.
n
C
r
=
Substitute the values of n and r into the
formula.
9
C
5
=
=
=
=
=
=
Evaluate.
=
=
= 126
1
n
P
r
r!
--------
2
9
P
5
5!
---------
3
9!
4!
-----

5!
----------
9!
4!
----- 5!
9!
4!
-----
1
5!
-----
9!
4!5!
----------
9 8 7 6 5!
4 3 2 1 5!
------------------------------------------
4
9 8 7 6
4 3 2 1
------------------------------
3024
24
------------
14
WORKEDExample
n
P
r
r!
--------
n!
n r ( )!
------------------
r!
-----------------------
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
n
r

Determine the value of the following. a
12
C
5
b
THINK WRITE
n
C
r
. a
n
C
r
=
12
C
5
=
=
Simplify the fraction. =
=
Evaluate. =
= 792
b Write down the rule for .
b =
n
C
r
=
=
=
Simplify the fraction. =
=
Evaluate.
=
= 45
10
2

1
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
2
12!
12 5 ( )!5!
---------------------------
12!
7!5!
----------
3
12 11 10 9 8 7!
7! 5 4 3 2 1
------------------------------------------------------------
12 11 10 9 8
5 4 3 2 1
-------------------------------------------------
4
95 040
120
----------------
1
n
r

n
r

n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
2
10
2

10!
10 2 ( )!2!
---------------------------
10!
8!2!
----------
3
10 9 8!
8! 2 1
--------------------------
10 9
2 1
---------------
4
90
2
------
15
WORKEDExample
A committee consisting of 3 men and 4 women is to be chosen from 7 men and 9 women.
In how many ways can this be done?
THINK WRITE
Write down the rule for
n
C
r
.
Note: Since order does not matter, use
the
n
C
r
rule.
n
C
r
=
Write down the number of ways of
choosing 3 men from 7.
Number of ways of choosing 3 men =
7
C
3
.
1
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
2
16
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
To nd the number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time, we need to calculate
n
C
r
. The following steps show how to calculate
5
C
3
1. From the select RUN-MAT. Press and
function nCr. Enter 5 (for n), then press (nCr)
and enter 3 (for r). Press to display the value.
1. Open a new Calculator document. Press kto
access the catalog and press 1for the list of
functions. Scroll down to select nCr(. You can do this
more quickly by rst pressing N.
THINK WRITE
Write down the number of ways of
choosing 4 women from 7.
Number of ways of choosing 4 women =
9
C
4
.
Evaluate each of the combinations
obtained in steps 2 and 3.
7
C
3
=
9
C
4
=
= =
= =
= =
= =
= 35 = 126
Use the multiplication principle to nd
the number of ways of choosing men
and women.
The number of ways of choosing 3 men and
4 women =
7
C
3

9
C
4
= 35 126
= 4410
Answer the question. There are 4410 ways of choosing 3 men and
4 women.
3
4
7!
7 3 ( )!3!
------------------------
9!
9 4 ( )!4!
------------------------
7!
4!3!
----------
9!
5!4!
----------
7 6 5 4!
4!3 2 1
--------------------------------
9 8 7 6 5!
5! 4 3 2 1
------------------------------------------
7 6 5
3 2 1
---------------------
9 8 7 6
4 3 2 1
------------------------------
210
6
---------
3024
24
------------
5
6
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Calculating
combinations
MENU OPTN
F6
s
F3
F3
EXE
nCr(5,3). Press to display the value.
(Alternatively, you can use the letter keys to type ncr
followed by directly into the calculator screen
instead of accessing it from the catalog. Press
NCRfollowed by (, then complete the entry line
and press .)
For each of the preceding examples, it can be seen that
n
C
r
=
n
C
n r
. This may be
derived algebraically:
n
C
n r
=
=
=
= (n r)!
=
=
=
=
n
C
r
(
Evaluate the following using your calculator and comment on your results.
a
9
C
3
b
9
C
6
c
15
C
5
d
15
C
10
e
12
C
7
f
12
C
5
THINK WRITE
a-f Use a graphics calculator (see above for steps)
to evaluate the listed combinations.
a
9
C
3
= 84
b
9
C
6
= 84
c
15
C
5
= 3003
d
15
C
10
= 3003
e
12
C
7
= 792
f
12
C
5
= 792
Comment on your results. So
9
C
3
=
9
C
6
,
15
C
5
=
15
C
10
and
12
C
7
=
12
C
5
.
17
WORKEDExample
n
P
n r
n r ( )!
------------------
n!
n n r ( ) [ ]!
--------------------------------

n r ( )!
-------------------------------------
n!
r!
-----

n r ( )!
------------------
n!
r!
-----
n!
r!
-----
1
n r ( )!
------------------
n!
r! n r ( )!
-----------------------
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
Combinations
1 Write each of the following as statements in terms of permutations.
2 Write each of the following using the notation
n
C
r
.
3 A committee of 3 is to be chosen from a group of people. In how many
ways can this be done if the group contains:
4 A cricket team of 11 players is to be chosen from a squad of 15 players. In how many
ways can this be done?
5 A basketball team of 5 players is to be chosen from a squad of 10 players. In how
6 Determine the value of the following:
7 From a pack of 52 cards, a hand of 5 cards is dealt.
a How many different hands are there?
b How many of these hands contain only red cards?
c How many of these hands contain only black cards?
d How many of these hands contain at least one red and one black card?
8 A committee of 3 men and 3 women is to be chosen from 5 men and 8 women. In
how many ways can this be done?
9 A mixed netball team must have 3 women and 4 men in the side. If the squad has
6 women and 5 men wanting to play, how many different teams are possible?
10 A rugby union squad has 12 forwards and 10 backs in training. A team consists of
8 forwards and 7 backs. How many different teams can be chosen from the squad?
a
8
C
3
b
19
C
2
c
1
C
1
d
5
C
0
a b c
d
a 3 people? b 6 people? c 10 people? d 12 people?
a
12
C
4
b
11
C
1
c
15
C
0
d
12
C
12
e f g h
1. The number of ways of selecting r things from n things when order is
important is
n
P
r
.
2. The number of ways of selecting r things from n things when order is not
important is
n
C
r
.
3.
n
C
r
=
=
4.
n
C
r
5.
n
C
r
=
n
C
n r
n
P
r
r!
--------
n!
n r! ( )r!
-----------------------
n
r

remember
10D
WORKED
Example
13
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EXCEL
Spreadsheet
Combinations
8
P
2
2!
---------
9
P
3
3!
---------
8
P
0
0!
---------
P
10
4
4!
----------
WORKED
Example
14
WORKED
Example
15
21
15

10
7

100
1

17
14

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SkillSHEET 10.2
Listing possibilities
WORKED
Example
16

a
b
c
d
8
P
3
3!
---------
19
P
2
2!
-----------
1
P
1
1!
---------
5
P
0
0!
---------

1

8

C

2
9

C

3
8

C

0
10

C

4

1 20 120 220
1365
252
495
11 1 1
54 264 120
100 680
2 598 960
65 780
65 780
2 467 400
560
100
59 400

SLE 9: Investigate permutations and
combinations which arise in games of chance
such as, in poker, the number of hands
containing two aces, the number of hands
that are a full house.
11 A quinella is a bet made on a horse race which pays a win if the punter selects the rst
2 horses in any order. How many different quinellas are possible in a race that has:
a 8 horses? b 16 horses?
12 A CD collection contains 32 CDs. In how many ways can 5 CDs be chosen from the
collection?
13
At a party there are 40 guests and they decide to have a toast. Each guest clinks
glasses with every other guest. How many clinks are there in all?
14
On a bookshelf there are 15 books 7 geography books and 8 law books. Jane
selects 5 books from the shelf 2 geography books and 3 law books. How many dif-
ferent ways can she make this selection?
Questions 15, 16 and 17 refer to the following information. The Maryborough Tennis
Championships involve 16 players. The organisers plan to use 3 courts and assume that
each match will last on average 2 hours and that no more than 4 matches will be played on
any court per day.
15 In a round robin each player plays every other player once. If the organisers use a
round robin format:
a How many games will be played in all?
b For how many days does the tournament last?
16 The organisers split the 16 players into two pools of 8 players each. After a round
robin within each pool, a nal is played between the winners of each pool.
a How many matches are played in the tournament?
b How long does the tournament last?
17 A knock out format is one in which the loser of every match drops out and the win-
ners proceed to the next round until there is only one winner left.
a If the game starts with 16 players how many matches are needed before a winner
is obtained?
b How long would the tournament last?
18 Lotto is a gambling game played by choosing 6 numbers from 45. Gamblers try to
match their choice with those numbers chosen at the ofcial draw. No number can be
drawn more than once and the order in which the numbers are selected does not matter.
a How many different selections of 6 numbers can be made from 45?
b Suppose the rst numbers drawn at the ofcial draw are 42, 3 and 18. How many
selections of 6 numbers will contain these 3 numbers?
c Suppose the rst numbers drawn at the ofcial draw are 42, 3, 18 and 41. How
many selections of 6 numbers will contain these 4 numbers?
Note: This question ignores supplementary numbers. Lotto is discussed further in the
next section.
19 a Calculate the value of:
b What do you notice? Give your answer as a general statement such as The value
of
n
C
r
is . . ..
A 39 B 40 C 40! D 780 E 1560
A 3003 B 360 360 C 1176 D 366 E 15
i
12
C
3
and
12
C
9
ii
15
C
8
and
15
C
7
iii
10
C
1
and
10
C
9
iv
8
C
3
and
8
C
5
v
10
C
0
and
10
C
10
multiple choice
multiple choice
WORKED
Example
17

28 120
120
10 days
57
4 days 6 hours
15
1 day 4 hours
8 145060
11 480
820
220, 220
6435, 6435
10, 10
56, 56
1, 1
The value of

n

C

r

is the same as

n

C

n

r

.

SLE 6: Search for patterns in
Pascals Triangle and verify
any claims algebraically or
otherwise.

201 376
Applications of permutations and
combinations
Counting techniques, particularly those involving permutations and combinations, can
be applied in gambling, logistics and various forms of market research. In this section
we investigate when to use permutations and when to use combinations as well as
examining problems associated with these techniques.
Permutations are used to count when order is important. Some examples are:
1. the number of ways the positions of president, secretary and treasurer can be lled
2. the number of ways a team can be chosen from a squad in distinctly different
positions
3. the number of ways the rst three positions of a horse race can be lled.
Combinations are used to count when order is not important. Some examples are:
1. the number of ways a committee can be chosen
2. the number of ways a team can be chosen from a squad
3. the number of ways a hand of 5 cards can be dealt from a deck.
An interesting application of combinations as a technique of counting is a game that
Australians spend many millions of dollars on each week Lotto. To play, a player
selects 6 numbers from 45 numbers. The ofcial draw chooses 6 numbers and 2 sup-
plementary numbers. Depending on how the players choice of 6 numbers matches the
ofcial draw, prizes are awarded in different divisions.
Division 1: 6 winning numbers
Division 2: 5 winning numbers and one of the supplementary numbers
Division 5: 3 winning numbers and one of the supplementary numbers
If the ofcial draw was:
A player who chose:
8 34 13 12 20 45
would win a Division 4 prize and a player who chose:
8 34 13 12 22 45
would win a Division 5 prize.
Lotto systems
A player may have 7 lucky numbers 4, 7, 12, 21, 30, 38 and 45, and may wish
to include all possible combinations of these 7 numbers in a Lotto entry.
This can be done as follows:
4 7 12 21 30 38
4 7 12 21 30 45
4 7 12 21 38 45
4 7 12 30 38 45
4 7 21 30 38 45
4 12 21 30 38 45
7 12 21 30 38 45
Winning numbers Supplementaries
13 42 6 8 20 12 2 34
3 3
8 8
11 11
40 40
25 25

SLE 9: Investigate permutations and combinations which arise in games of chance.
The player does not have to ll out 7 separate entries to enter all combinations of these
7 numbers 6 at a time but rather can complete a System 7 entry by marking 7 numbers
on the entry form.
A System 9 consists of all entries of 6 numbers from the chosen 9 numbers.
a Ten points are marked on a page and no three of these points are in a straight line.
How many triangles can be drawn joining these points?
b How many different 3-digit numbers can be made using the digits 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9
without repetition?
THINK WRITE
n
C
r
.
Note: A triangle is made by choosing 3
points. It does not matter in what order
the points are chosen, so
n
C
r
is used.
a
n
C
r
=
10
C
3
=
=
=
=
Evaluate.
=
= 120
Answer the question. 120 triangles may be drawn by joining
3 points.
Verify the answer obtained by using the
combination function on the calculator.
n
P
r
.
Note: Order is important here.
b
n
P
r
=
5
P
3
=
=
Evaluate.
=
= 5 4 3
= 60
Answer the question. Sixty 3-digit numbers can be made without
repetition from a group of 5 numbers.
Verify the answer obtained by using the
permutation function on the calculator.
1
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
2
10!
10 3 ( )!3!
---------------------------
10!
7!3!
----------
3 10 9 8 7!
7! 3 2 1
-----------------------------------
10 9 8
3 2 1
------------------------
4
720
6
---------
5
6
1
n!
n r ( )!
------------------
2
5!
5 3 ( )!
------------------
5!
2!
-----
3
5 4 3 2!
2!
--------------------------------
4
5
18
WORKEDExample
Jade and Kelly are 2 of the 10 members of a basketball squad. In how many ways can a
team of 5 be chosen if:
a both Jade and Kelly are in the 5?
b neither Jade nor Kelly is in the 5?
c Jade is in the 5 but Kelly is not?
THINK WRITE
n
C
r
.
Note: Order is not important, so
n
C
r
is
used.
a
n
C
r
=
Note: If Jade and Kelly are included
then there are 3 positions to be lled
from the remaining 8 players.
8
C
3
=
=
=
=
Evaluate.
=
= 56
Answer the question. If Jade and Kelly are included, then there are
56 ways to ll the remaining 3 positions.
n
C
r
.
n
C
r
is
used.
b
n
C
r
=
Note: If Jade and Kelly are not
included then there are 5 positions to
be lled from 8 players.
8
C
5
=
=
=
=
Evaluate.
=
= 56
Answer the question. If Jade and Kelly are not included, then there
are 56 ways to ll the 5 positions.
1
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
2
8!
8 3 ( )!3!
------------------------
8!
5!3!
----------
3 8 7 6 5!
5! 3 2 1
--------------------------------
8 7 6
3 2 1
---------------------
4
336
6
---------
5
1
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
2
8!
8 5 ( )!5!
------------------------
8!
3!5!
----------
3 8 7 6 5!
3 2 1 5!
--------------------------------
8 7 6
3 2 1
---------------------
4
336
6
---------
5
19
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
c Write down the rule for
n
C
r
.
n
C
r
is used.
c
n
C
r
=
Note: If Jade is included and Kelly is
not then there are 4 positions to be lled
from 8 players.
8
C
4
=
=
=
=
Evaluate.
=
= 70
Answer the question. If Jade is included and Kelly is not, then
there are 70 ways to ll the 4 positions.
Verify each of the answers obtained by
using the combination function on the
calculator.
1
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
2
8!
8 4 ( )!4!
------------------------
8!
4!4!
----------
3 8 7 6 5 4 !
4 3 2 1 4!
------------------------------------------
8 7 6 5
4 3 2 1
------------------------------
4
1680
24
------------
5
6
Use the information on Lotto systems given on page 490.
A player uses a System 8 entry with the numbers 4, 7, 9, 12, 22, 29, 32 and 36.
The ofcial draw for this game was 4, 8, 12, 15, 22, 36 with supplementaries 20 and 29.
a To how many single entries is a System 8 equivalent?
b List 3 of the players entries that would have won Division 4.
c How many of the players entries would have won Division 4?
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
n
C
r
.
n
C
r
is used.
a
n
C
r
=
Substitute the given values of n and r into
the combination formula.
Note: A System 8 consists of all entries
consisting of 6 numbers chosen from 8.
8
C
6
=
=
=
=
1
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
2
8!
8 6 ( )!6!
------------------------
8!
2!6!
----------
3 8 7 6!
2 1 6!
-----------------------
8 7
2 1
------------
20
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Evaluate.
=
= 28
Answer the question. A System 8 is equivalent to 28 single
entries.
calculator.
b List 3 of the players entries that would have
won Division 4.
Note: Division 4 requires 4 winning
numbers. The players winning numbers are
4, 12, 22 and 36. Any of the other 4 numbers
can ll the remaining 2 places.
b Some of the possibilities are:
4 12 22 36 7 9
4 12 22 36 7 29
4 12 22 36 7 32
c Write down the rule for
n
C
r
.
n
C
r
is
used.
c
n
C
r
=
Substitute the given values of n and r into
the combination formula.
Note: To win Division 4 the numbers 4,
12, 22 and 36 must be included in the
entry. The other 2 spaces can be lled
with any of the other 4 numbers in any
order.
4
C
2
=
=
=
=
Evaluate.
=
= 6
Answer the question. Six of the players entries would have
won Division 4.
calculator.
4
56
2
------
5
6
1
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
2
4!
4 2 ( )!2!
------------------------
4!
2!2!
----------
3 4 3 2!
2 1 2!
-----------------------
4 3
2 1
------------
4
12
2
------
5
6
1. Permutations are used to count when order is important.
2. Combinations are used to count when order is not important.
remember
Applications of permutations
and combinations
1 How many ways are there:
a to draw a line segment between 2 points on a page with 10 points on it?
b to make a 4-digit number using the digits 2, 4, 6, 8 and 1 without repetition?
c to allocate 5 numbered singlets to 5 players?
d to choose a committee of 4 people from 10 people?
e for a party of 15 people to shake hands with one another?
2 How many ways are there:
a for 10 horses to ll 1st, 2nd and 3rd positions?
b to give only 5 players in a group of 10 an unnumbered singlet?
c to choose a team of 3 cyclists from a squad of 5?
d to choose 1st, 2nd and 3rd speakers for a debating team from 6 candidates?
e for 20 students to seat themselves at 20 desks arranged in rows?
3 The French ag is known as a tricolour
ag because it is composed of the 3 bands
of colour. How many different tricolour
ags can be made from the colours red,
white, blue and green, if each colour can
be used only once in one of the 3 bands?
4 In a taste test a market research company has asked people to taste 4 samples of coffee
and try to identify each as one of four brands. Subjects are told that no 2 samples are
the same brand. How many different ways can the samples be matched to the brands?
5 In the gambling game roulette, if a
gambler puts $1 on the winning number
he will win $35. Suppose a gambler
wishes to place ve $1 bets on 5 different
numbers in one spin of the roulette wheel.
If there are 36 numbers in all, in how
many ways can the ve bets be placed?
6 A volleyball team of 6 players is to be
chosen from a squad of 10 players. In
how many ways can this be done if:
b Stephanie is to be in the team?
c Stephanie is not in the team?
d two players, Stephanie and Alison, are not both in the team together?
7 A cross-country team of 4 runners is to be chosen from a squad of 9 runners. In how
many ways can this be done if:
b Tony is to be one of the 4?
c Tony and Michael are in the team?
d either Tony or Michael but not both are in the team?
10E
WORKED
Example
18
WORKED
Example
19
45
120
120
210
105
720
252
10
120
2.4

10

18

24
24
376 992
210
126
84
140
126
56
21
70
8 A soccer team of 11 players is to be chosen from a squad of 17. If one of the squad is
selected as goalkeeper and any of the remainder can be selected in any of the pos-
itions, in how many ways can this be done if:
b Karl is to be chosen?
c Karl and Andrew refuse to play in the same team?
d Karl and Andrew are either both in or both out?
9
A netball team consists of 7 different positions: goal defence, goal keeper, wing
defence, centre, wing attack, goal attack and goal shooter. The number of ways a
squad of 10 players can be allocated to these positions is:
10
A secret chemical formula requires the mixing of 3 chemicals. A researcher does not
remember the 3 chemicals but has a shortlist of 10 from which to choose. Each time
she mixes 3 chemicals and tests the result, she takes 15 minutes.
How long does the researcher need, to be absolutely sure of getting the right combi-
nation?
11 Use the information on Lotto given on page 490.
A player uses a System 8 entry with the numbers 9, 12, 14, 17, 27, 34, 37 and 41. The
ofcial draw for this game was 9, 13, 17, 20, 27, 41 with supplementaries 25 and 34.
A 10! B 7!
C
D
10
P
7
E
10
C
7
A 1 hour B 7.5 hours C 15 hours D 30 hours E 120 hours
multiple choice
10!
7!
--------
multiple choice
WORKED
Example
20

8008
5005
4004
5005
28
9 17 27 41 12 14,
9 17 27 41 12 37,
9 17 27 41 12 34
6

b
12 Use the information on Lotto given on page 490.
A player uses a System 9 entry with the numbers 7, 10, 12, 15, 25, 32, 35, 37 and
41. The ofcial draw for this game was 7, 11, 15, 18, 25, 39 with supplementaries
23 and 32.
Questions 13 and 14 refer to the following information: Keno is a popular game in clubs
and pubs around Australia. In each round a machine randomly generates 20 numbers from
1 to 80. In one entry a player can select up to 15 numbers.
13 Suppose a player selects an entry of 6 numbers.
The payout for a $1 bet on 6 numbers is:
Match 6 $1800 Match 5 $80
Match 4 $5 Match 3 $1
a In how many ways can an entry of 6 numbers contain 6 winning numbers?
Suppose an entry of 6 numbers has exactly 3 winning numbers in it.
b In how many ways can the 3 winning numbers be chosen?
c In how many ways can the 3 losing numbers be chosen?
d How many entries of 6 numbers contain 3 winning numbers and 3 losing numbers?
14 Suppose a player selects an entry of 20 numbers.
The payout for a $1 bet on 20 numbers is:
Match 20 $250 000
Match 16 $50 000
Match 14 $15 000
Match 12 $450
Match 10 $20
Match 8 $2
Match 2 $2
Match 0 $100
a In how many ways can an entry of 20 numbers contain 20 winning numbers?
b Suppose an entry of 20 numbers has exactly 14 winning numbers in it.
i In how many ways can the 14 winning numbers be chosen?
ii In how many ways can the 6 losing numbers be chosen?
iii How many entries of 20 numbers contain 14 winning numbers and 6 losing
numbers?
iv How many entries of 20 numbers contain no winning numbers?
Pascals triangle, the binomial theorem
and the pigeonhole principle
Combinations are useful in other areas of mathematics, such as probability and
binomial expansions. If we analyse the
n
C
r
values closely, we notice that they produce
the elements of any row in Pascals triangle or each of the coefcients of a particular
binomial expansion.
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Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 10.2

84 7 15 25 32 10 12,
7 15 25 32 10 35,
7 15 25 32 10 37
10
38 760
1140
34 220
39 010 800
1
38 760
50 063 860
1 940 475 213 600
4 191 844 505 805 495

b
Counting paths
Dorothy and Toto enter a maze, and they have a compass. To prevent themselves
from going round in circles they decide that they will only travel south or east and
never north or west. The maze is shown below left and each intersection is labelled.
Dorothy and Toto enter the maze at A1.
There are 2 ways to get to B2:
A1 A2 B2 or A1 B1 B2
Are you able to list the 6 ways of going from A1 to C3? (Remember that they
can only travel south or east.)
If you answered: A1 A2 A3 B3 C3
A1 A2 B2 B3 C3
A1 A2 B2 C2 C3
A1 B1 B2 B3 C3
A1 B1 B2 C2 C3
A1 B1 C1 C2 C3
then you are correct.
How many different ways can they
travel to get to D6, E5 and E6?
If you answered 56, 70 and 126
respectively, then you are correct.
Can you devise a method of
counting the number of ways of
getting to each intersection and so
show that there are 924 ways of
getting to G7? Use the grid at right
to help record your results.
This activity provides a link
between two apparently separate
ideas combinations and Pascals
Triangle. Let us consider Pascals
Triangle and then look at its
connection with combinations.
A B C D E F G
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
A B C D E F G
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2
6
70
126 56
Pascals Triangle
The triangle below was named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal. He was
honoured for his application of the triangle to his studies in the area of probability.
Each element in Pascals Triangle can be calculated using combinations. For
example, 10 is the 2nd element in the 5th row of Pascals Triangle; that is,
5
C
2
= 10
(this assumes 1 is the zeroth (0th) element).
Compare the values from Pascals Triangle with the number of ways of getting to
each intersection in the investigation Counting paths. What do you notice?
Pascals Triangle shows that the rth element of the nth row of Pascals Triangle is
given by
n
C
r
. It is assumed that the 1 at the beginning of each row is the 0th element.
Another application of combinations is the binomial theorem. This theorem gives a
rule for expanding an expression such as (a + b)
n
. Expanding expressions such as this
may become quite difcult and time consuming using the usual methods of algebra.
(a + b)
1
= a + b
(a + b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
(a + b)
3
= a
3
+ 3a
2
b + 3ab
2
+ b
3
(a + b)
4
= a
4
+ 4a
3
b + 6a
2
b
2
+ 4ab
3
+ b
4
To use the binomial theorem you will need to recall the following conventions and
terminology of algebra:
1. In the term 3a
2
b, 3 is called the coefcient of the term.
2. In the term a
2
b, the coefcient of the term is 1 even though it is not written.
3. In the term 3a
2
b, the power of a is 2 and the power of b is 1.
The binomial theorem is dened by the rule:
(a + b)
n
=
n
C
0
a
n
+
n
C
1
a
n 1
b +
n
C
2
a
n 2
b
2
+ . . . +
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
+ . . . +
n
C
n
b
n
= a
n
+
n
C
1
a
n 1
b +
n
C
2
a
n 2
b
2
+ . . .
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
+ . . . + b
n
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
This 5 is in the
1st position in
the 5th row.
The next entry here is 21.
It is the sum of the 2 numbers
above it 6 and 15.
1st row
2nd row
0th position
0th row
When expanding brackets which are in the form (a +b)
n
using the binomial theorem, recall:
1. The power of a in the rst term of the expansion corresponds to the power of n and
in each successive term decreases by 1 until it corresponds to the power of 0.
2. The power of b starts at 0 and in each successive term increases by 1 until it
corresponds to the power of n.
3. The coefcient of the rth term is
n
C
r
.
4. The rth term is obtained by using
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
.
Again, this assumes that the initial term of the expansion is the 0th element.
The binomial theorem is particularly useful in probability calculations.
Refer to Pascals Triangle on page 499 and answer the following questions.
a What number is in the 4th position in the 6th row?
b Complete the 7th row in Pascals Triangle.
c The numbers 7 and 21 occur side by side in the 7th row. What element in the 8th row
occurs below and in between these numbers?
THINK WRITE
a Locate the 6th row and the 4th position.
Note: Remember the 0th row is 1 and the
rst row is 1 1. In the 6th row the 1 on
the left is in the 0th position.
a 6th row 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
Answer the question. The number in the 4th position in the 6th
row is 15.
b Write down the elements of the 6th row. b 6th row 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
Obtain the 7th row.
(a) Place the number 1 at the beginning of
the row.
(b) Add the rst 2 adjacent numbers from
the 6th row (1 and 6).
(c) Place this value next to the 1 on the
new row and align the value so that it
is in the middle of the 2 numbers
(directly above) which created it.
(d) Repeat this process with the next 2
adjacent numbers from the 6th row
(6 and 15).
(e) Once the sums of all adjacent pairs
from the sixth row have been added,
place a 1 at the end of the row.
7th row 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
Answer the question. The 7th row is
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1.
c Add the numbers 7 and 21 in order to
obtain the element in the 8th row which
occurs below and in between these
numbers.
c 7 21
28
Answer the question. The element in the 8th row which occurs
below and in between 7 and 21 is 28.
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
21
WORKEDExample
Use combinations to calculate the number in the 5th position in the 9th row of Pascals
Triangle.
THINK WRITE
Write down the combination rule.
n
C
r
Substitute the values for n and r into
the rule.
Note: The row is represented by n = 9.
The position is represented by r = 5.
9
C
5
= 126
Evaluate using a calculator.
Answer the question. The value of the number in the 5th position in
the 9th row is 126.
1
2
3
4
22
WORKEDExample
Use the binomial theorem to expand (a + 2)
4
.
THINK WRITE
Write down the rule for the binomial
theorem.
(a + b)
n
= a
n
+
n
C
1
a
n 1
b
1
+ . . .
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
+ . . . b
n
Substitute the values for a, b and n into
the rule: a = a, b = 2 and n = 4.
(a + 2)
4
= a
4
+
4
C
1
a
3
2
1
+
4
C
2
a
2
2
2
+
4
C
3
a
1
2
3
+ 2
4
Simplify. = a
4
+ 4 a
3
2 + 6 a
2
4 + 4 a 8 + 16
= a
4
+ 8a
3
+ 24a
2
+ 32a + 16
1
2
3
23
WORKEDExample
What is the 4th term in the expansion of (x + y)
7
?
THINK WRITE
Write down the rule for the rth term.
Note: The rule for the 4th term is obtained
from the binomial theorem:
(a + b)
n
= a
n
+
n
C
1
a
n 1
b
1
+ . . .
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
+ . . . b
n
rth term =
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
Substitute the values for a, b, n and r into
the rule: a = x, b = y, n = 7 and r = 4.
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
=
7
C
4
x
7 4
y
4
Simplify.
Note: The 0th term corresponds to the
rst element of the expansion.
= 35x
3
y
4
Answer the question.
The 4th term is equal to 35x
3
y
4
.
1
2
3
4
24
WORKEDExample
Pigeonhole principle
Henri Poincar, a famous mathematician, once described mathematics as the art of
giving the same name to different things. Consider three phenomena, which on the
surface appear different population growth, the value of investments and radioactive
decay. Each can be described by one mathematical concept: exponential change. The
mathematician gives three seemingly different things the same name.
The pigeonhole principle is a good example of how mathematics gives the same
name to different things.
The pigeonhole principle states that:
If there are (n + 1) pigeons to be placed in n pigeonholes then there is at least one
pigeonhole with at least two pigeons in it.
In this statement:
1. Note the precise use of language; in particular the importance of the phrase at least.
2. Some may view the pigeonhole principle as an obvious statement, but used cleverly
it is a powerful problem-solving tool.
Generalised pigeonhole principle:
If there are (nk + 1) pigeons to be placed in n pigeonholes then there is at least one
pigeonhole with at least (k + 1) pigeons in it.
In a group of 13 people show that there are at least 2 whose birthday falls in the same
month.
THINK WRITE
Think of each person as a pigeon
and each month as a pigeonhole.
There are 12 months and 13 people.
If there are 13 pigeons to be
placed in 12 holes at least one
hole must contain at least two
pigeons.
Using the pigeonhole principle:
13 people to be assigned to 12 months.
At least one month must contain at least two people.
That is, at least two people have birthdays falling in
the same month.
1
2
25
WORKEDExample
In a group of 37 people show that there are at least 4 whose birthdays lie in the same month.
THINK WRITE
Think of each person as a pigeon and
each month as a pigeonhole.
There are 12 months and 37 people.
Use the generalised pigeonhole
principle.
Using the generalised pigeonhole principle:
37 people to be assigned to 12 months.
(nk + 1) pigeons to be allocated to n
holes;
n = 12 k = 3
The value of n is 12 and k is 3. So at least one
month has at least (k + 1) or 4 people in it.
That is, at least 4 people have birthdays falling
in the same month.
1
2
3
26
WORKEDExample
SLE 17: Apply the pigeonhole principle to solve problems in situations such
as showing there are at least 2 in a group of 8 people whose birthdays fall on
the same day of the week in any given year.
On resuming school after the
Christmas vacation, many of the
22 teachers of Eastern High
School exchanged handshakes.
Mr Yisit, the social science
teacher said Isnt that unusual
with all the handshaking, no
two people shook hands the same
number of times.
Not wanting to spoil the fun,
the mathematics teacher, Mrs
Pigeon said respectfully, I am
afraid you must have counted
incorrectly. What you say is not
possible.
How can Mrs Pigeon make this
statement?
THINK WRITE
Think of the possible number of
handshakes by a person as a pigeonhole.
For each person there are 22 possible
numbers of handshakes; that is 0 to 21.
If two or more people have 0 handshakes,
the problem is solved. Consider the cases
where there is 1 person with 0 handshakes
or 0 persons with 0 handshakes.
1 person with 0 handshakes:
If there is 1 person with 0 handshakes
there can be no person with 21
handshakes. Thus there are 21 people to
be assigned to 20 pigeonholes. Therefore
there must be at least one pigeonhole with
at least two people in it.
0 people with 0 handshakes:
If there is no person with 0 handshakes
there are 22 people to be assigned to
21 pigeonholes. Therefore there must be
at least one pigeonhole with at least two
people in it (at least two people have
made the same number of handshakes).
Conclude using a sentence. Thus, there are at least two people who
have made the same number of
handshakes.
1
2
3
27
WORKEDExample
Pascals Triangle, the
binomial theorem and the
pigeonhole principle
1 Write the rst 8 rows in Pascals Triangle.
2 Refer to Pascals Triangle on page 499 and answer the following
questions.
a What number is in the 4th position in the 8th row?
b Complete the 9th row in Pascals Triangle.
c If 9 and 36 occur side by side in the 9th row, what element in the
10th row occurs below and in between these numbers?
3 Use combinations to:
a calculate the number in the 7th position of the 8th row of Pascals Triangle
b calculate the number in the 9th position of the 12th row of Pascals Triangle
c generate the 10th row of Pascals Triangle.
4 Use the binomial theorem to expand:
a (x + y)
2
b (n + m)
3
c (a + 3)
4
1. Pascals Triangle shows that the rth element of the nth row of Pascals Triangle
is given by
n
C
r
.
2. Each new row in Pascals Triangle is obtained by rst placing a 1 at the
beginning and end of the row and then adding adjacent entries from the
previous row.
3. Row 1 is the row containing the elements 1 and 1.
4. The 1 on the left-hand side of each row is in the 0th position of that row.
5. The binomial theorem is dened by the rule:
(a + b)
n
= a
n
+
n
C
1
a
n 1
b +
n
C
2
a
n 2
b
2
+ . . . +
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
+ . . . + b
n
6. When expanding brackets which are in the form (a + b)
n
using the binomial
theorem, recall:
(a) The power of a in the rst term of the expansion corresponds to the power
of n and in each successive term decreases by 1 until it corresponds to the
power of 0.
(b) The power of b starts at 0 and in each successive term increases by 1 until
it corresponds to the power of n.
(c) The coefcient of the rth term is
n
C
r
.
(d) The rth term is obtained by using
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
.
Again, this assumes that the initial term of the expansion is the 0th element.
7. The pigeonhole principle: If there are (n + 1) pigeons to be placed in n
pigeonholes then there is at least one pigeonhole with at least two pigeons in it.
0th term
rth term
remember
10F
WORKED
Example
21
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Spreadsheet
Pascals Triangle
WORKED
Example
22
WORKED
Example
23

1

R
o
w

0

1

1

1
1

2

1
2
1

3

1
3
3
1

4

1
4
6
4
1

5

1
5
1
0
1
0
5
1

6

1
6
1
5
2
0
1
5
6
1

7

1
7
2
1
3
5
3
5
2
1
7
1

8

1
8
2
8
5
6
7
0
5
6
2
8
8
1

70
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
45
8
220

10

C

0

10

C

1

10

C

2

10

C

3

10

C

4

10

C

5

10

C

6

10

C

7

10

C

8

10

C

9

10

C

10

1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1

x

2

+

2

xy

+

y

2

n

3

+

3

n

2

m

+

3

nm

2

+

m

3

a

4

+

12

a

3

+

54

a

2

+

108

a

+

81
5 a What is the 4th term in the expansion of (x + 2)
5
?
b What is the 3rd term in the expansion of (p + q)
8
?
c What is the 7th term in the expansion of (x + 2)
9
?
6
x
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
A row of Pascals Triangle is given above. What number is located at position x?
7
16x
3
is denitely a term in the binomial expansion of:
8 a In Pascals Triangle, calculate the sum of all elements in the:
b i What do you notice?
ii Complete the statement: The sum of the elements in the nth row of Pascals
Triangle is . . .
9 Use the result from question 8 to deduce a simple way of calculating:
6
C
0
+
6
C
1
+
6
C
2
+
6
C
3
+
6
C
4
+
6
C
5
+
6
C
6
10 In a cricket team consisting of 11 players, show that there are at least 2 whose phone
numbers have the same last digit.
11 Two whole numbers add to give 21. Show that at least one of the numbers is greater
than 10.
12 A squad of 10 netballers is asked to nominate when they can attend training. They can
choose Tuesday only, Thursday only or Tuesday and Thursday. Show that there is at
least one group of at least 3 players who agree with one of these options.
13 S&M lollies come in ve great colours green, red, brown, yellow and blue. How
many S&Ms do I need to select to be sure I have 6 of the same colour?
14 The new model WBM roadster comes in burgundy, blue or yellow with white or black
trim. That is, the vehicle can be burgundy with white or burgundy with black and so
on. How many vehicles need to be chosen to ensure at least 3 have the same colour
combination?
15 Is it possible to show that in a group of 13 people, there are at least 2 whose birthdays
fall in February?
16 Nineteen netball teams entered the annual state championships. However, it rained
frequently and not all games were completed. No team played the same team more
than once. Mrs Organisit complained that the carnival was ruined and that no two
teams had played the same number of games. Show that she is incorrect in at least
part of her statement and that at least two teams played the same number of games.
A 8 B 28 C 45 D 120 E 136
A (x + 2)
3
B (x + 4)
3
C (x + 2)
4
D (x + 4)
4
E (x + 2)
5
i 0th row ii 1st row iii 2nd row
iv 3rd row v 4th row vi 5th row
WORKED
Example
24
multiple choice
multiple choice
WORKED
Example
25
WORKED
Example
26
WORKED
Example
27

80

x

56

p

5

q

3

4608

x

2

S
L
E

6
:

S
e
a
r
c
h

f
o
r

p
a
t
t
e
r
n
s

i
n

P
a
s
c
a
l
s

T
r
i
a
n
g
l
e

a
n
d

v
e
r
i
f
y

a
n
y

c
l
a
i
m
s

a
l
g
e
b
r
a
i
c
a
l
l
y

o
r

o
t
h
e
r
w
i
s
e
.

8 16 32
2 1 4
The sum of the elements in the

n

th row of Pascals triangle is 2

n

.

b i

The sum of the
elements in each row
of Pascals triangle
is a power of 2:
Row Sum
0 2

0

=

1
1 2

1

=

2
2 2

2

=

4
3 2

3

=

8
4 2

4

=

16
5 2

5

=

32
2

6

=

64
26
13
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician
and physicist who studied combinatorics and
developed the theory of probability.
He was born in the town of Clermont in
France. His father was a taxation ofcer. His
mother died when he was only 4. Pascal was
a sickly child and so was not sent to school
initially but was educated at home by his
father. Because he was not healthy his father
forbad him from studying mathematics. It
took about 5 years before Blaise could
convince his father to let him try.
When Blaise was 16, his father was in
trouble with the courts because he would not
set any more taxes. He had to leave Paris, and
the family moved to Rouen.
Blaise Pascal discovered and proved a
major theorem of geometry when he was only
16 years old. This theorem was about the
intersections of points on a conic plane.
When he was 18 he became very ill. He
eventually recovered, after being temporarily
paralysed and close to death. After this scare
he became very religious and started to study
philosophy and religion. His research into
mathematics and science often conicted
with his religious beliefs.
At age 19, Pascal invented a calculating
machine that could do simple addition and
subtraction. He sold many of these machines
and they were so well made that some still
exist today.
He demonstrated that air pressure
decreases with height by taking accurate
measurements at various levels on the side of
the Puy de Dme mountain. He persuaded his
brother to climb the mountain and take
measurements using a heavy barometer.
Like many mathematicians, Blaise Pascal
had arguments with other mathematicians,
including Ren Descartes, who came to visit
him. Descartes did not believe that Pascal
was capable of such difcult mathematics and
claimed that Pascal had stolen some of his
ideas from Descartes himself. Blaise Pascal
developed the pattern of numbers now known
as Pascals Triangle that is used in
probability, permutations and combinations.
When Blaise Pascals father died, his
unmarried sister went into a convent and he
was left to live free of family and spiritual
conicts. His health improved and he took up
an active social life including gambling and
driving a fast, horse-drawn carriage!
In late 1654 he was involved in an
accident. His horses went over the edge of a
bridge and were killed, but he survived.
Pascal was shaken up by this and again saw
the event as a message from God. In 1655 he
moved in with his married sister. Later that
year, Pascal became ill and eventually died
from the effects of a brain tumour and
stomach ulcer in 1662.
The computer language Pascal is named
after him.
Questions
1. How old was Pascal when he proved
his theorem on conics?
2. What did he develop at age 19 that
earned him a lot of money?
3. Upon which mountain was his work on
air pressure done and who did the real
work?
4. What is Pascals Triangle used for?
5. What did he die from?
Construction of
the Taj Mahal is
started.
Rembrandt
completes many
of his famous
paintings.
Oliver Cromwell
governs England.
History
of mathematics
BLAI SE PASCAL ( 1 6 2 3 1 6 6 2 )

16
Calculating machine
Puy de Dme; his brother
Probability
Brain tumour
The addition and multiplication principles
Combinatorics is often called counting and deals with counting the number of
ways in which activities or events can happen.
The multiplication principle should be used when there are two operations or events
(say, A and B) where one event is followed by the other. It states that: If there are n
ways of performing operation A and m ways of performing operation B, then there
are n m ways of performing A and B.
The addition principle should be used when two distinct operations or events occur
in which one event is not followed by another. It states that: If there are n ways of
performing operation A and m ways of performing operation B then there are n + m
ways of performing A or B.
A selection where order is important is called an arrangement.
The number of ways in which n distinct objects may be arranged is n! (n factorial)
where:
n! = n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) . . . 3 2 1
0! = 1
1! = 1
The number of different arrangements or permutations when r things are chosen
from n things and order is important is given by the rule
n
P
r
, where:
n
P
r
=
n
P
n
= n!
n
P
0
= 1
The number of different ways in which n people can be seated, r at a time, in a
circle is:
.
Arrangements involving restrictions and like objects
The number of different ways of arranging n things made up of groups of
1
in the rst group, n
2
in the second group and so
on is:
.
When restrictions apply to arrangements use the multiplication and addition
principles as well as
n
P
r
.
summary
n!
n r ( )!
------------------
n
P
r
r
--------
n!
n
1
!n
2
!n
3
!n
r
!
------------------------------------
Combinations
The number of ways of selecting r things from n things when order is not important
is
n
C
r
.
n
C
r
=
=
n
C
r
n
C
r
=
n
C
n r
Applications of permutations and combinations
Permutations are used to count when order is important.
Combinations are used to count when order is not important.
Pascals Triangle and the binomial theorem
Pascals Triangle shows that the rth element of the nth row of Pascals Triangle is
given by
n
C
r
.
Each new row in Pascals Triangle is obtained by rst placing a 1 at the beginning
and end of the row and then adding adjacent entries from the previous row.
The top row is row 0.
Row 1 is the row containing the elements 1 1.
The 1 on the left-hand side of each row is in the 0th position of that row.
The binomial theorem is dened by the rule:
(a + b)
n
= a
n
+
n
C
1
a
n 1
b +
n
C
2
a
n 2
b
2
+ . . . +
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
+ . . . + b
n
When expanding brackets which are in the form (a + b)
n
using the binomial
theorem, recall:
1. The power of a in the rst term of the expansion corresponds to the power of n
and in each successive term decreases by 1 until it corresponds to the power of
0.
2. The power of b starts at 0 and in each successive term increases by 1 until it
corresponds to the power of n.
3. The coefcient of the rth term is
n
C
r
.
4. The rth term is obtained by using
n
C
r
a
n r
b
r
.
Points 3 and 4 both assume that the initial term of the expansion is the 0th element.
The pigeonhole principle
If there are (n + 1) pigeons to be placed in n pigeonholes then there is at least one
pigeonhole with at least two pigeons in it.
The generalised pigeonhole principle:
If there are (nk + 1) pigeons to be placed in n pigeonholes then there is at least one
pigeonhole with at least (k + 1) pigeons in it.
n
P
r
r!
---------
n!
n r ( )!r!
-----------------------
n
r

0th term rth term
1
Barbies wardrobe consists of 5 different tops, 4 different skirts and 3 different pairs of
shoes. The number of different outts Barbie can wear is:
2
How many different 3-digit numbers can be made from the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 if the
numbers can be repeated?
3
There are 7 candidates seeking election to the positions of either president or secretary of
the Soccer Club Committee. If one of these candidates, George, is to be either president or
secretary, in how many ways can positions be lled?
4 How many 4-digit numbers less than 4000 can be made using the digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9 if:
a repetition is not permitted?
b repetition is permitted?
5
The permutation
9
P
6
is equal to:
6
There are 12 horses in a race. In how many different ways can the 1st, 2nd and 3rd positions
be lled?
A
12
P
3
B 12
3
C 3
12
D
12
C
3
E
12
C
12
7
A round table seats 5 people. From a group of 8 people, in how many ways can 5 people be
seated at the table:
8 Use your calculator to place these in ascending order:
19
P
6
,
12
P
9
,
2000
P
2
.
A 5 B 12 C 60 D 80 E 120
A 60 B 125 C 243 D 729 E 999
A 12 B 21 C 42 D 49 E 56
A 9 8 7 B 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
C D E
A
B
8
P
5 C D
E
8
C
5
CHAPTER
review
10A
multiple choice
10A
multiple choice
10A
multiple choice
10A
10B
multiple choice
9!
6!
-----
9!
3!
-----
9!
4!
-----
10B
multiple choice
10B
multiple choice
9!
6!
-----
8
P
5
5
---------
8
P
5
5!
---------
10B

180
648

2000

P

2

,

19

P

6

,

12

P

9
9
How many different arrangements can be made using the 8 letters of the word NONSENSE?
10 How many different arrangements of 4 letters can be made from the letters of the word
PILL?
11
Which of the following is equivalent to
8
C
2
?
12
A committee of 4 men and 3 women is to be formed from 5 men and 8 women. In how
13 Use your calculator to place these in ascending order:
19
C
6
,
22
C
15
,
2000
C
2
.
14 A committee of 3 men and 4 women is to be formed from 7 men and 5 women. In how
15 Two cards are dealt from a pack of 52. What is the number of ways that:
a both are black?
b both are aces?
c the cards are of different colours?
16
A cycling team of 3 riders is to be chosen from a squad of 8 riders. In how many ways can
this be done if one particular rider, Jorge, must be in the team?
17 A ward in a city
hospital has 15 nurses
due to work on
Friday. There are
3 shifts that need to
be staffed by 5 nurses
on each shift. How
many different
arrangements for
stafng these 3 shifts
are possible, assuming
that each nurse only
works 1 shift?
A 1680 B 2520 C 3360 D 5040 E 40 320
A B C D E
A 61 B 280 C 1320 D 20 160 E 40 320
A 56 B 336 C 21 D 210 E 420
10C
multiple choice
10C
10D
multiple choice
6
P
2
2!
---------
8
P
6
2!
---------
8
P
2
6!2!
----------
8
P
2
6!
---------
8
P
2
2!
---------
10D
multiple choice
10D
10D
10D
10E
multiple choice
10E

12

19

C

6

,

22

C

15

,

2000

C

2

175
325
6
676
756 756
18
What is the 4th term in the expansion of (p + 1)
7
?
19
A row of Pascals Triangle is given below. What number is located at position x?
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
x
20 a In the 10th row of Pascals Triangle, what is the 6th entry?
b Write the 10th row of Pascals Triangle using combinations.
c What is the sum of the elements of the 10th row?
21 In the expansion of (x + 3)
10
, what is the:
1 Assume that car number plates are sequenced as follows: DLV334 DLV335 ... DLV339
DLV340 ... DLV999 DLW000 and so on. Using this sequence, how many number
plates are there between DLV334 and DNU211 inclusive?
2 How many paths are there from A to B if you are only allowed to move either down or to the
right on the lines of the grid?
A
B
A p
4
B 35p
3
C 35p
4
D 21p
3
E 21p
4
A 48 B 120 C 56 D 210 E 252
a 2nd term? b 3rd term? c 9th term?
10F
multiple choice
10F
multiple choice
10F
10F
210

10

C

0

10

C

1

10

C

2

10

C

3

10

C

4

. . .

10

C

10

1024
50 878
2 944 656
405

x

8

3240

x

7

196 830

x
3 Poker is a card game in which initially each
person is dealt 5 cards.
a How many different hands are possible?
(Order is not important.)
b How many hands contain only diamonds?
c How many hands contain only red cards?
d When Wild Bill Hickock died at Deadwood,
Dakota, he was holding in his hand 2 pairs
aces and eights. This is called the dead mans
hand. In how many ways can you be dealt the
dead mans hand?
4 From a group of 20 female students, 2 female staff, 18 male students and 3 male staff, a
committee of 6 is to be formed. Find the number of different committees if:
a there are no restrictions
b all committee members must be students
c one female staff member, one male staff member and 4 students must be on the committee
d there is an equal number of males and females on the committee
e one particular student must be on the committee
f one particular student must not be on the committee
g the committee must comprise 2 male staff members, 2 male students, 1 female staff
member and 1 female student.
5 Two women and three men approach an ATM at the same time.
a How many different queues are possible if the position of each person in the queue is
taken into account?
b How many queues of at least two people are possible if the position of each person in the
queue is not taken into account?
6 A school is using identication cards (ID cards) that consist of 2 letters selected from A to D
inclusive followed by 3 digits chosen from 0 to 9 inclusive.
a How many different ID cards can be issued to students if a digit may be used more than
once but all 2 letters of each ID are different?
b New ID cards are issued to all students each year and the old cards discarded. However,
the old ID numbers are not used again. If, on average, the schools population increases by
10% each year and was 2000 during the year when the ID cards were rst used, how many
years will elapse before cards with numbers already used will have to be issued?
Digital doc:
Test Yourself
Chapter 10
eBookplus eBookplus

2 598 960
1287
65 780
1584
6 096 454
2 760 681
442 890
2 048 200
850 668
5 245 786
18 360
120
26
12 000
5 years
In this
chapter
11A Displacement, velocity
and acceleration
11B Projectile motion
11C Motion under constant
acceleration
syllabus
reference
11
Option topic:
Dynamics
Dynamics
acceleration
To explore the motion of a particle in a plane, we must consider both its magnitude and
direction. As this motion may not be in a straight line, it is convenient to use a vector
approach to calculate the displacement, velocity and acceleration at time t.
To illustrate this vector approach, consider the point P in the following diagram.
Relative to the origin, O, the position vector of the displacement of P from
the origin, at time t, may be written as = x + y where x and y denote
magnitude of the displacement along the Ox and Oy axes respectively. The
position of P varies with time so it is appropriate to think of as a vector
which is time dependent. Displacement at time t is the change in position of
the point P, and as the reference point is the origin, the displacement of P can
be represented by the position vector.
If we write (t) to represent at time t, then we may say that (t) = x(t) + y(t)
where x(t) and y(t) are the respective horizontal and vertical components of this
displacement at time t. As a general rule, when we write the magnitude of the displace-
ment or position vector (t), we will write r where it is understood that r = .
Vector expressions for velocity and acceleration
If the position vector (t) = x(t) + y(t) represents the displacement of P at time t,
then represents the instantaneous velocity and represents the acceleration at
time t. (It is often convenient to make use of the time-derivative notation of (t) for
velocity and (t) for the acceleration at time t.) We calculate the speed of a particle at
time t as = and the magnitude of the acceleration at time t as = . In our
work, the distance or magnitude of the displacement will be measured in metres (m),
the speed or magnitude of the velocity in metres per second (m/s) and the magnitude of
the acceleration in metres per second per second (m/s
2
).
x
y
P (x, y)
O
OP i
OP
r
OP r
t ( )
r
dr
dt
-----
d
2
r
dt
2
--------
r
r r
t ( ) r r
t ( )
Relative to the origin, O, the displacement (in metres) of a particle at time t seconds is
given by (t) = 4t + (10t - 5t
2
) .
a Find expressions for the velocity and acceleration vectors at time t seconds.
b Determine the initial position and speed of the particle.
c When t = 4 seconds, calculate
i the distance of the particle from the origin
ii the velocity (both magnitude and direction) of the particle
iii the measure of the angle between the velocity and displacement vectors.
d Is the acceleration constant for this motion?
r
1
WORKEDExample

derivatives and integrals of vectors
Newton's laws of motion in vector form
applied to objects of constant mass
application to:
straight line motion in a horizontal plane
with variable force
vertical motion under gravity without air
resistance
projectile motion without air resistance
C h a p t e r 1 1 D y n a m i c s 515
THINK WRITE
a Write the position vector.
a (t) = 4t + (10t 5t
2
)
Find (t) = for the velocity
vector.
(t) =
= 4 + (10 10t)
So (t) = 4 + (10 10t) m/s
Find (t) = or (t) = for the
acceleration vector.
(t) =
= 10
So (t) = 10 m/s
2
b The initial position occurs when
t = 0. Substitute t = 0 into the
displacement vector expression.
b When t = 0,
(0) = (4 0) + (10 0 5 0
2
)
= 0 + 0
This means that the initial position of the
particle is at the origin.
The initial speed occurs when t = 0.
Substitute t = 0 into the velocity
vector expression. Remember that
speed is the magnitude of velocity.
When t = 0,
(0) = 4 + (10 10 0)
= 4 + 10
The initial speed of the particle is the
magnitude of the initial velocity.
=
= 2
The initial speed is 2 m/s.
c i Distance is the magnitude of
displacement, so rst calculate (4)
to nd the displacement at t = 4.
c i (t) = 4t + (10t 5t
2
)
(4) = 16 40
Find the magnitude of the
resulting vector expression to
calculate the distance.
The required distance is the magnitude of
the displacement.
=
= 8
State the answer. The distance of the particle from the
origin at t = 4 s is 8 m.
ii Calculate (4) to nd the velocity
vector at t = 4.
ii (t) = 4 + (10 10t)
(4) = 4 30
Find the magnitude of the velocity.
=
= 2
30.27 m/s
1 r
2
.
r
dr
dt
-----
.
r
dr
dt
-----
i
3
..
r
d
.
r
dt
-----
..
r
d
2
r
dt
2
--------
..
r
d
.
r
dt
-----
j
1
r
2
v
0 ( ) 4
2
10
2
+
29
29
1
r
2
r
4 ( ) 16
2
40 ( )
2
+
29
3
29
1
v
2
v
4 ( ) 4
2
30 ( )
2
+
229
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
To nd the direction, draw a
diagram to represent the velocity
vector (4) = 4 30 .
Let be the angle the velocity vector
makes with the horizontal.
Use trigonometry to obtain an
equation to solve for .
tan =
8224
Write the answer. When t = 4 s, the velocity of the particle
is 2 m/s (or approx. 30.27 m/s)
downwards at an angle of 8224 to the
horizontal.
iii Write the two vectors for velocity
and displacement at t = 4 s.
iii When t = 4,
(4) = 16 40 and (4) = 4 30
To calculate the angle between the
velocity and displacement vectors
we can use the dot product of the
two vectors.
The dot product of two
vectors and is given as
= cos where is the
angle included by and .
Let be the angle between the two
vectors.
Using the dot product:
(4) (4) = cos
Calculate the product on the left of
the equation by multiplying the
corresponding components of
and , and substitute the
magnitudes of (4) and (4) on
the right of the equation.
(16)(4) + (40)(30) =
(8 )(2 ) cos
Solve the equation to nd . cos =
1412
Write the answer. The angle between the velocity and
displacement vectors is 1412.
d Consider the vector expression for
acceleration found in part a.
d (t) = 10
Since 10 does not contain t, it is a
constant. State the answer.
Since 10 is a constant, the acceleration is
constant for this motion.
3
v
x
y
v (4) = 4i 30j
O
229 2
4
30
~
~
~
4 30
4
------
5
229
1
r
2
a
4 ( ) v
4 ( )
3
i
29 229
4
1264
16 6641
----------------------
5
1
a
2
j
At time t seconds, a particle has a position vector given by the expression
(t) = 2t + (25 t
2
) metres.
a Use a graphics calculator to plot the trajectory of this particle across the interval
0 t 5 seconds.
b Repeat part a above using an Excel spreadsheet.
c Determine the equation of this trajectory in the form y = f (x).
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
a Consider the components of the position
vector. Assign x to the horizontal
component and y to the vertical. This
produces two parametric equations that
we can use to graph the trajectory.
a (t) = 2t + (25 t
2
)
Let x = 2t and y = 25 t
2
Use a graphics calculator to generate a
graph of the particles motion.
(a) Press and select GRAPH.
Press (TYPE) followed by
(Parm) to select the parametric
equations option.
(b) Enter the x-component by completing
the entry line for Xt1 with 2t. (Press
to enter t.) Similarly, enter the
y-component by completing the entry
line for Yt1 with 25 t
2
. Press
after each entry.
(c) Press (DRAW) to display the
graph. To obtain a clearer view of the
graph, you can adjust the View
Window settings. Press
(V-WIN) and adjust the values for
Xmin, Xmax, Ymin and Ymax.
(d) Press until you return to the
equations screen and then press
(DRAW) to display the graph with this
new setting. To display the t, x and y
values at different points on the
graph, press (TRCE) and
use the arrow keys to move along the
line.
r
1 r
2
MENU
F3 F3
X,q,T
EXE
F6
SHIFT F3
EXE
F6
SHIFT F1
2
WORKEDExample
Continued over page

SLE 9: Use the parametric facility of a graphing
calculator to model the ight of a projectile.
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
(a) Open a new Graphs & Geometry
document. Press band select
3: Graph Type followed by
2: Parametric. In the entry panel, enter
x = 2t and y = 25 t
2
. Change the
domain for t to 0 t 5.
(b) Press to display the graph of the
particles trajectory. To adjust the
viewing window, press b, then select
4: Window and 1: Window Settings.
Enter the settings as shown.
(c) Highlight OK and press . To see
more of the screen, press /Gto hide
the entry panel. (Press /Gagain to
bring the entry panel back.)
To investigate the coordinates of the
points along the graph, press b,
select 5: Trace and 1: Graph Trace.
b Set up a spreadsheet with 3 columns titled
t, x and y. In the rst column, enter values
from 0 to 5 for t. Enter the appropriate
formula for both x and y and generate
corresponding values in columns 2 and 3.
b
Generate a graph of the particles trajectory.
c Write the parametric equations for the
position vector.
c x = 2t [1]
y = 25 t
2
[2]
1
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Digital doc:
EXCEL Spreadsheet
Plotting the trajectory
of a particle
2
0
0
10
20
30
2 10 4 6 8
M
e
t
r
e
s
y
x
12
5
15
25
Trajectory
1
t x y
0 0 25
1 2 24
2 4 21
3 6 16
4 8 9
5 10 0

SLE 16: Use spreadsheets to investigate problems.
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Eliminate the shared parameter t between
x = 2t and y = 25 t
2
. Simplify to obtain an
equation in the form y = f (x).
Rearranging equation [1]: t =
Substituting for t in equation [2]:
y = 25
= 25
= (100 x
2
)
Write the answer. The equation of the trajectory is
y = (100 x
2
).
2
x
2
---
x
2
---

2
x
2
4
-----
1
4
---
3
1
4
---
At time t seconds, the displacement (in metres) of a particle A is given by
A
(t) = (8 t) + (8 4t + t
2
) and the displacement (in metres) of a particle B is given by
B
(t) = (t + 2) + (2 2t + t
2
) .
a If these particles collide, determine when they collide.
b What are the coordinates of the impact point?
c Find the Cartesian equations of the trajectories of the particles.
d Use a graphics calculator to verify the coordinates of the impact point.
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
a If the particles collide, they meet at a
common point. So the horizontal
components of the two vectors will
be equal and the vertical components
will be equal. Produce two equations
to reect this.
a At impact point, horizontal components are
equal:
8 t = t + 2 [1]
At impact point, vertical components are
equal:
8 4t + t
2
= 2 2t + t
2
[2]
Solve equation [1] to nd t. Rearranging equation [1]:
2t = 6
2t = 3
Check the solution by substituting
t = 3 into the left and right sides of
equation [2].
Check by substituting t = 3 into equation [2]:
LHS = 8 4t + t
2
= 8 12 + 9 = 5
RHS = 2 2t + t
2
= 2 6 + 9 = 5
LHS = RHS so solution is correct.
Write the answer. Particles A and B collide after three
seconds.
r
1
2
3
4
3
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
b Substitute for t in the expression
for the displacement of either
particle A or B. (In this case, select
particle A.)
b
A
(t) = (8 t) + (8 4t + t
2
)
At the point of impact, t = 3.
So
A
(3) = (8 3) + (8 12 + 9)
So
A
(3) = 5 + 5
Write the answer. The coordinates of the impact point are (5, 5).
c In both expressions, assign the
variables x and y respectively to the
horizontal and vertical components.
Eliminate the shared parameter t to
obtain each Cartesian equation.
c Let x represent the horizontal component and
y the vertical component of the displacement.
For particle A:
x = 8 t and y = 8 4t + t
2
Hence, t = 8 x and so
y = 8 4(8 x) + (8 x)
2
= x
2
12x + 40
y
A
= (x 6)
2
+ 4
For particle B:
x = t + 2 and y = 2 2t + t
2
Hence, t = x 2 and so
y = 2 2(x 2) + (x 2)
2
= x
2
6x + 10
y
B
= (x 3)
2
+ 1
d Verify that the coordinates of the
impact point are (5, 5) by drawing the
graphs of the displacement for each
particle and locating the point of
intersection.
d
(a) Press and select GRAPH.
Press (TYPE) followed by
(Y=) to select the function
option. Complete the entry line for
Y1 with the equation for particle A.
Similarly, complete the entry line
for Y2 with the equation for
particle B.
(b) Press (DRAW) to display the
graph. (Adjust the View Window
settings if necessary.)
Press (G-SLV)
followed by (ISCT) to display
the coordinates of the intersection
point.
Point of intersection is (5, 5) as required.
1 r
2
MENU
F3
F1
F6
SHIFT F5
F5
acceleration
1 Relative to the origin, O, the displacement (in metres) of a particle at time t seconds is
given by (t) = 6t + (3t 7t
2
) .
b Determine the initial displacement and speed of the particle.
c When t = 2 seconds, calculate:
d Is the acceleration constant for this motion?
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
(a) Open a new Graphs & Geometry
document. Complete the entry line for
f1(x) with the equation for particle A.
Press . Similarly, complete the
entry line for f2(x) with the equation
for particle B and press . Adjust the
Window Settings if necessary.
(b) To display the point of intersection,
press b, select 6: Points & Lines
and 3: Intersection Point(s). Navigate
the pointer to each line and press .
(Press dto x any errors.) The
coordinates of the point of intersection
will be displayed.
Point of intersection is (5, 5) as required.
1. If the position vector (t) = x(t) + y(t) represents the displacement of P at
time t, then represents the instantaneous velocity and represents the
instantaneous acceleration at time t.
2. For the magnitude of a vector x + y : =
3. The dot product of two vectors and is given as = cos where
is the angle included by and .
r
dr
dt
-----
d
2
r
dt
2
--------
i
xi
y + j
x
2
y +
2
a
remember
11A
WORKED
Example
1
r
(

t

)

=

6

+

(3

14

t

) , (

t

)

=

14 v

(0)

=

m,

v

(0)

=

m/s r
3 5

(2)

=

12

22 m r

25.7 m/s downwards at an
angle of 13

30

to the vertical
15

Yes, 14

m/s

2

downwards

SLE 1: Given the position
vector of a point as a
function of time such as

r
~

`
(

t

)

=

t

i
~

`

+

t

2

j
~

`

+

sin

t

k
~

`
determine the velocity and
acceleration vectors.
SLE 9: Use the parametric
facility of a graphing
calculator to model the
ight of a projectile.
SLE 16: Use spreadsheets to
investigate problems.
2 At time t seconds, a particle has a position vector given by the expression
(t) = 5t + (49 t
2
) metres.
0 t 7 seconds.
c Determine the equation of this trajectory in the form y = f(x).
3 For each of the following position vectors (a to h) for a particle, where the displace-
ment is measured in metres and time in seconds,
i calculate the corresponding vector expressions for the velocity and acceleration
ii nd the initial position and speed
iii determine the Cartesian equation of the trajectory of the particle.
a (t) = 2t + (5 t)
b (t) = t + (6t t
2
)
c (t) = t + (10 3t
2
)
d (t) = 3t + (5t 2t
2
)
e (t) = (4 + t) + 3t
2
f (t) = t
2
t
g (t) = t
2
4t
h (t) = 3t
2
4 At time t seconds, the displacement (in metres) of a particle A is given by
A
(t) = (2 t) + (3 2t + t
2
) and the displacement (in metres) of a particle B
is given by
B
(t) = (t 8) + (t
2
+ t 12) .
5 The displacement (in metres) of a particle at time t seconds is given by
(t) = 2t + (4 + 2t t
2
) .
b Determine the initial velocity of the particle.
c When t = 3 seconds, calculate
iii the measure of the angle between the velocity and acceleration vectors.
d Show that (t) + (t) = 2 2t .
(t) = 2t + (5 t)
2
metres.
0 t 10 seconds.
b Repeat part a using an Excel spreadsheet.
c For what values of t are the velocity vectors and acceleration vectors perpendicular?
WORKED
Example
2
r
t i
WORKED
Example
3
r
..
r
.
r


y

=

(1225

x

2

)

1
25
------

3 a i

(

t

)

=

2

, (

t

)

=

ii

(0)

=

5 m,

v

(0)

=

m/s

iii

y

=

5

x

b i

(

t

)

=

+

(6

2

t

) ,
(

t

)

=

2

ii

(0)

=

m,

v

(0)

=

m/s

iii

y

=

6

x

x

2
v
5
1
2
---
v
37

c i

(

t

)

=

6

t

, (

t

)

=

6

ii

(0)

=

10 m,

v

(0)

=

1 m/s

iii

y

=

10

3

x

2

d i

(

t

)

=

3

+

(5

4

t

) ,
(

t

)

=

4

ii

(0) = m, v(0) = m/s
iii y = (15 2x)
v
34
x
9
---
3

e
i
(
t
)

=

+

6
t
,

(
t
)

=

6
i
i

(
0
)

=

4

m
,

v
(
0
)

=

1

m
/
s
i
i
i
y

=

3
(
x

4
)
2

f
i
(
t
)

=

2
t

,

(
t
)

=

2
i
i

(
0
)

=

m
,

v
(
0
)

=

1

m
/
s
i
i
i
y
2

=

x
v
i
j
a
j
r
i
v
i
j
a
i
r
0
t = 5 seconds
(3, 18)
y
A
= (x 1)
2
+ 2,
m 37
2 m/s downwards at
an angle of 2634 to the
vertical
5
2634
t = 5 seconds
g
i
(
t
)

=

2
t

4
,

(
t
)

=

2
i
i

(
0
)

=

m
,

v
(
0
)

=

4

m
/
s
i
i
i
y
2

=

1
6
x
h
i
(
t
)

=

6
t
,

t

0
;
(
t
)

=

6
,

t

0
i
i

(
0
)

=

m
,

v
(
0
)

i
s

u
n
d
e
f
i
n
e
d
i
i
i

y

=

3
x
4
v
i
j
a
i
r
0
v
1
2
t
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
i
j
a
1
4
t
t
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
i
j
r
0
y
B
= (x + 8.5)
2
12.25
(t) = 2 + 2(1 t) , (t) = 2 v
2 m/s upwards at an angle of 45 to the vertical 2

7 P and Q are particles with displacements (in metres) at time t seconds given by
P
(t) = (t + 2) + (5 t)
3
and
Q
(t) = + (t 3) .
a If these particles collide, determine when and where they collide.
b Verify your response to part a by using suitable technology.
c Express the displacement of Q as an equation written in Cartesian form.
8 The displacement (in metres) of a particle at time t seconds is given by
(t) = + 3t .
a Use a graphics calculator to plot the path of this particle across the interval
1 t 10 seconds.
b Calculate the average velocity across the interval 1 t 10 seconds.
c Calculate the instantaneous velocity and acceleration of the particle when
t = 5 seconds.
d What can be said about the acceleration as t increases?
9 The displacement (in metres) of an object at time t seconds is given by
(t) = (2 + t) + (3 + 12t 5t
2
) .
a From what position is this object projected?
b Calculate the speed of projection.
c At what angle to the horizontal is this object projected?
d When t = 2 seconds,
i calculate the velocity (both magnitude and direction) of the object
ii determine the position of the object relative to the origin.
10 Two particles are projected from the origin, O, such that at time t seconds the dis-
placement (in metres) of the rst particle is given by
1
(t) = 20t + (15t 5t
2
) and
the displacement (in metres) of the second particle is given by
2
(t) = (80 12t) +
(a + 9t 5t
2
) where a is a real number.
a What are the initial positions of the particles?
b If these two particles meet after 2 seconds of ight, what is the value of a in the
expression for
2
(t)?
c Locate the point of collision.
d Calculate the angle between the velocity vectors at this time.
11 A particle is projected from the origin so that at time t seconds its displacement
(in metres) is given by (t) = 20t + (c + bt 5t
2
) where both b and c are real
numbers.
The point Q is a point on an inclined plane OQ where Q
has coordinates (80, 15). When the particle reaches Q, its
velocity vector is given by (t) = 20 15 m/s.
a What are the values of b and c?
b Find the equation of the trajectory of the particle.
c How far up the incline does the projectile land?
12 A particle is projected from the origin up a plane that is
inclined at an angle of to the horizontal such that at
time t seconds, its displacement (in metres) is given by
(t) = 35 cos t + (35 sin t 5t
2
) where is the
angle of projection of the particle.
r
12
t 2
---------- i
2
t
--- i
1
2
---
r
.
r
x
Q
O
y
x
y
Q
O
r
P and Q do not collide.

y = 1
12
x
------
+ 3 m/s
1
5
--- i
(5) = + 3 , (5) = v
2
25
------ i
4
125
--------- i
Approaches zero
2 + 3 i
m/s 145
8514
m/s downwards
at an angle of 708
to the vertical
65
4 + 7 i
1
(0) = ,
2
(0) = 80 + a r
a = 15
(50, 6.25)
10018
b = 25, c = 5
y = (x 50)
2
+ 26
1
80
------
1
4
---
81.4 m
a If the point Q is located a distance R metres along the incline, show that
R cos = 35 cos t and that R sin = 35 sin t 5t
2
.
b Deduce that if tan = , then t = .
c Now show that (4 sin 3 cos ) cos = .
d By making suitable use of a graphics calculator, nd the greatest value that R may
have and the value of when this occurs if 0 < < 90. Give your answer correct
to the nearest minute.
e Use an Excel spreadsheet to validate your solution obtained in part d above.
Projectile motion
A projectile is a body that is projected at or near the Earths surface, and which has no
mechanical means of propulsion after leaving a ring mechanism. The only external
force acting on such a body is its weight force. For speeds that are relatively low, we
will assume that air-resistance is negligible and that the projectile behaves like a point
mass. (In reality, shape, size, mass and speed are indeed signicant, particularly so for
high-speed motion.) It should be understood that the motion of a projectile occurs in
the vertical plane containing an initial velocity vector, and that the motion is parabolic.
When the projectile is set in motion, the only external force is the particles weight
force (by Newtons Second Law of Motion, force = mass acceleration). If we write g
to represent gravitational acceleration, then weight = mass g; that is, W = mg.
In the ideal situation where there are no resisting forces
acting on the projectile, the net force of the system is zero.
Hence, if F represents the upwards force of motion, then the
equation F + W = 0 describes the sum of the forces acting ver-
tically on the projectile.
Since we can write F = ma, then F + W = 0 becomes ma + mg = 0 so a = g m/s
2
.
Note: Various approximations for g exist, and in our work we shall use g = 9.8 m/s
2
unless stated otherwise. The unit of force is the newton (N).
In the vertical plane, we may express the sum of the forces acting using vector notation.
+ mg = 0
m + mg = 0
m = mg
= g .
Since = a
x
+ a
y
, the horizontal component of acceleration (a
x
) is zero and hence
the horizontal component of the velocity is always a constant.
Now if (t) represents the displacement of a particle at time t, then (t) represents the
associated velocity vector and (t) represents the acceleration vector.
Since = g and = (t)
(t) = g
(t) = (g ) dt = gt +
1
so (t) = gt +
1
This is the velocity vector at time t where
1
is a vector constant of integration.
3
4
---
4R
175 cos
------------------------
16R
1225
------------
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
Introduction to
Integral Calculus
F
mg
F
.
r
..
r
..
r
..
r
.
r
R
max
= 76 m
when 6326
9
16
------
SLE 8: Model the path of a
projectile without air resistance,
using the vector form of the
equations of motion starting
with a
~
`
= g j
~
`
where upwards
is positive.
If we integrate this expression for velocity, we obtain an expression for the displace-
ment of the particle.
(t) = gt
2
+
1
t +
2
The constant vectors
1
and
2
can be determined by any initial data.
Components of velocity and displacement
For projectile motion where resistance to motion is ignored, we have established that
= g and hence = gt + . The initial velocity data will determine the vector
constant, .
r
1
2
--- j
A particle moves so that its acceleration at time t is given by = 2 + (3 + 4t) . Find

vector expressions for the velocity and displacement of the particle given that the initial
velocity is 3 + 4 and the initial position is 0 + 0 .
THINK WRITE
Integrate the expression for to
nd .
= dt
= (2 + (3 + 4t) ) dt
= 2t + (3t + 2t
2
) +
1
Apply the initial condition (initial
velocity) to determine the constant
vector of integration.
When t = 0, = 3 + 4 and so
3 + 4 = 0 + 0 +
1
1
= 3 + 4
Substitute the expression for
1
into . = 2t + (3t + 2t
2
) + 3 + 4
Simplify to write the vector expression
for the velocity of the particle.
Hence the velocity vector is
= (2t + 3) + (4 + 3t + 2t
2
)
nd .
= dt
= [(2t + 3) + (4 + 3t + 2t
2
) ] dt
= (t
2
+ 3t) + (4t + t
2
+ t
3
) +
2
Apply the initial condition (initial
position) to determine the constant
When t = 0, = 0 + 0 and so
0 + 0 = 0 + 0 +
2
2
= 0 + 0
2
into
and write the vector expression for the
displacement of the particle.
Hence the displacement vector is
= (t
2
+ 3t) + (4t + t
2
+ t
3
)
a
1
a
2
v
3
c
4
v
5
v
3
2
---
2
3
--- j
6
r
7
c
3
2
---
2
3
--- j
4
WORKEDExample
a
x
v
v
x
v
y
O
v
y
~
For an object projected at an angle of to the horizontal, the velocity vector can be
expressed as = v
x
+ v
y
.
Using trigonometric ratios, the initial velocity (at t = 0) can be written as
= v cos + v sin .
To nd , we substitute t = 0 and the initial velocity into = gt + .
So v cos + v sin = 0 +
= v cos + v sin
Hence = gt + becomes
= gt + v cos + v sin
= v cos + (v sin gt)
The horizontal component of the velocity, v
x
, is given by v
x
= v cos and the vertical
component of the velocity, v
y
, is given by v
y
= v sin gt.
In a similar way, the components of the displacement can be established by inte-
grating = v cos + (v sin gt) with respect to t.
That is,
= [v cos + (v sin gt) ] dt
= vt cos + (vt sin gt
2
) +
If the origin is the launch point of the projectile, then
(0) = 0 + 0 and so = 0 + 0 .
Hence = vt cos + (vt sin gt
2
) .
The horizontal component of the displacement, r
x
, is given by r
x
= vt cos and the
vertical component of the displacement, r
y
, is given by r
y
= vt sin gt
2
.
What do we do if the launch point is not at the origin?
Now if the launch point is at (a, b), then (0) = a + b
and so = a + b .
= vt cos + (vt sin gt
2
) + becomes
= (a + vt cos ) + (b + vt sin gt
2
)
Characteristics of ight
The launch velocity and angle of projection determine such things as the time of ight,
greatest height reached above the point of projection and the range.
The period of time for which the projectile is moving under the inuence of gravity
alone is called the time of ight of the projectile. The range is the horizontal displace-
ment of the projectile from its launch point. To determine the greatest height reached,
we must nd when the vertical component of velocity is zero; that is, solve
for t. The vertical component of the displacement using this value for t determines the
greatest height reached.
v
1
2
--- j
1
2
--- j
1
2
---
x
y
O
P
a
b
v
r
1
2
--- j
1
2
--- j
v
y
0 =
A projectile is red from the foot of a cliff and its displacement (in metres) at time
t seconds is given by (t) = 10t + (24t - gt
2
) .
Use g = 9.8 m/s
2
in your calculations.
a Determine an expression for the velocity vector of the projectile at time t seconds.
b Calculate the launch speed and angle of projection of the projectile.
c Find the greatest height reached and the time of ight of the projectile.
d Calculate the impact velocity of the projectile when it returns to the ground (as a
horizontal plane through the origin).
THINK WRITE
a Find the derivative of the displacement
vector to obtain an expression for the
velocity vector.
a (t) = 10t + (24t gt
2
)
(t) = (t)
(t) = 10 + (24 gt)
b To nd the launch speed, substitute
t = 0 into the velocity vector and
then calculate the magnitude.
b At launch, t = 0. Therefore,
(0) = 10 + 24
=
= 26
Draw a diagram of the velocity
vector at t = 0 to assist in
calculating the angle of projection
or launch angle.
Let be the angle of projection.
Use trigonometry to obtain an
equation to solve for .
tan =
6723
Write the answer.
The projectile is launched with a speed of
26 m/s upwards at an angle of 6723 to the
horizontal.
c The greatest height occurs when
the vertical component of the
velocity is 0.
c If the vertical component of is v
y
then
v
y
= 24 gt
At the greatest height, v
y
= 0.
0 = 24 gt
t =
2.45 s
r
1
2
--- j
1
2
--- j
.
r
1
v
(0) 10
2
24
2
+
2
x
(0) = 10i + 24j
y
O 10
24
26
v
~ ~
~
3
24
10
------
4
1 v
24
g
------
5
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
To calculate the greatest height,
substitute for t in the expression for the
vertical component of the displacement
vector.
When t = , the vertical component of
displacement, r
y
, becomes:
r
y
= 24 g
2
=
=
29.4 m
The greatest height reached is 29.4 m.
For the time of ight, calculate when
the vertical component of the
displacement is 0; that is, the time when
the projectile returns to the ground.
Note that there are two solutions for t
when the displacement is 0.
Projectile returns to the ground when
r
y
(t) = 0.
24t gt
2
= 0
t(24 gt) = 0
t = 0 or t =
The solution t = 0 gives the time when the
projectile is launched from the ground so
the projectile returns to the ground at
t = s (or 4.90 s).
Hence, the time of ight of the projectile
is 4.90 s.
d Since we know that the projectile returns
to the ground at t = s, substitute for t in
the velocity vector.
d (t) = 10 + (24 gt)
= 10 + (24 g )
= 10 24
Calculate the magnitude of the velocity
at this time. (This is the speed.)
The magnitude of the velocity
=
= 26 m/s
Find the direction of the projectile at
impact. Use a diagram showing the
velocity vector at t = s and
trigonometry to nd the required angle.
Let be the angle the velocity vector at
t = s makes with the horizontal.
tan =
6723
Write the answer.
At impact, the velocity of the projectile is
26 m/s downwards at an angle of 6723
to the horizontal.
2
24
g
------
24
g
------

24
g
------
1
2
---
24
g
------

288
g
---------
288
9.8
---------
3
1
2
---
1
2
---
48
g
------
48
g
------
1
48
g
------
v
48
g
------

i
48
g
------ j
2
10
2
24 ( )
2
+
3
48
g
------
48
g
------
x
= 10i 24j
y
O
10
24
26
v
g
48 ( )
~ ~
~
24
10
------
4
Consider the calculations in Worked example 5. What conclusions can you draw when
you compare the launch velocity and the impact velocity of the projectile? What can
you conclude about the time taken for the projectile to reach its greatest height com-
pared with the total time of the ight? What condition must you have for these observ-
ations to be true in other situations?
A particle is red from the top of a 125 m high cliff with a velocity of 50 m/s inclined at an
angle of 60 to the horizontal. Use g = 9.8 m/s
2
a Show that the velocity vector of the projectile at time t seconds is given by
(t) = 25 + (25 gt) m/s.
b Develop a vector expression for the displacement, (t), of the particle at time t seconds.
c Determine if this projectile will clear a 150 m high building situated 200 m from the
base of the cliff and in the same horizontal plane.
THINK WRITE
a Write an expression for the acceleration
vector. In projectile motion, the
horizontal component of is 0 and the
vertical component is g. (The negative
signies a downward direction.)
a For projectile motion,
= g
Integrate the expression for to nd .
= dt
= (g ) dt
= gt +
1
Determine the initial velocity. Draw a
diagram to represent the launch
velocity and its horizontal and vertical
components.
Write expressions for the horizontal
component, v
x
, and the vertical
component, v
y
.
v
x
= 50 cos 60
v
y
= 50 sin 60
x
y
O
A
B
200 m
150 m
125 m
60
50 m/s
v
3 j
1
a
2
a
3
60
50
v
x
v
y
4
6
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Use the components to write the
expression for the velocity vector at
t = 0. This is the initial or launch
velocity of the particle.
Since = v
x
+ v
y
(0) = 50 cos 60 + 50 sin 60
= 25 + 25
Apply the initial condition (launch
velocity) to determine the constant
When t = 0, = 25 + 25 and so
25 + 25 = 0 +
1
1
= 25 + 25
1
into .
= gt + 25 + 25
Simplify to write the vector expression
for the velocity of the particle.
= 25 + (25 gt)
b Integrate the expression for to nd . b = dt
= [25 + (25 gt) ] dt
= 25t + (25 t gt
2
) +
2
Apply the initial condition to determine
the constant vector of integration. The
initial position of the particle is at the
point (0, 125).
When t = 0, = 0 + 125 and so
0 + 125 = 0 + 0 +
2
2
= 0 + 125
2
into
and write the vector expression for the
displacement of the particle.
= 25t + (125 + 25 t gt
2
)
c Write an expression for the range of the
projectile. The horizontal component of
gives the range.
c Range = r
x
= 25t
Calculate when the range is 200 m. When the range is 200 m,
25t = 200
t = 8 s
Write an expression for the height of
the projectile. The vertical component
of gives the height.
Height of projectile = r
x
= 125 + 25 t gt
2
Substitute t = 8 to calculate the height
of the projectile at this time.
When t = 8,
r
y
= 125 + 25 8 g 8
2
157.8 m
Write the answer. Since the height of the projectile is
about 157.8 m when it reaches a range
of 200 m, the projectile easily clears the
150 m high building.
5 v
3 j
6
v
3 j
3 j
3 j
7
c
3 j
8
v
3 j
1
v
3 j
3
1
2
--- j
2 r
3
c
3
1
2
--- j
1
r
2
3
r
3
1
2
---
4
3
1
2
---
5
In the next worked example, we examine how to nd the angle of projection of a par-
ticle, given prescribed data. Even though the principles and techniques are the same as
those used in solving purely numeric problems, we need to employ some trigonometry
in order to reach the solution.
Note: The angle of projection that gives a projected particle its greatest range is often
intuitively accepted as an angle of elevation of 45 but this is true only when the
point of projection and point of impact are on the same horizontal plane (or more accu-
rately, at the same elevation).
A missile is red from a point on level ground with a
velocity V m/s and an angle of elevation of q to the
horizontal. The target is positioned on top of an 80 m high
tower which is located 100 m away. The base of the tower
is in the same horizontal plane as the point of projection
of the missile.
a If g is the gravitational acceleration of the missile, then show that the motion of this
missile satises V
2
cos q (5 sin q 4 cos q) = 250g.
b Use a graphics calculator to show those values of q in the domain 0 < q < 90 for which
the expression cos q (5 sin q 4 cos q) is positive. State the greatest possible value this
expression has and the value of q which produces it. Provide supporting argument for
your solutions.
c Extend from your answer to part b above to nd the least value of V for which the
missile can reach the target. (Use g = 9.8 m/s
2
.)
d Generate a spreadsheet to validate the solution obtained using a graphics calculator.
THINK WRITE
a Use a rst principles approach to
develop an expression for the
velocity of the missile at time t
seconds after launch.
a = g
= dt
= (g ) dt
= gt +
1
Determine the initial velocity. Draw
a diagram to represent the launch
velocity and write expressions for
its horizontal and vertical
components.
v
x
= V cos and v
y
= V sin
Since = v
x
+ v
y
(0) = V cos + V sin
1 a
2
v
y
V
v
x
v
7
WORKEDExample
x
V
80 m
100 m
Target
y
O
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Apply the initial condition
(launch velocity) to determine the
constant vector of integration in
= gt +
1
.
When t = 0, = V cos + V sin and
= (g 0) +
1
so
V cos + V sin = 0 +
1
1
= V cos + V sin
1
into = gt +
1
.
= gt + V cos + V sin
Simplify to write the vector
expression for the velocity of the
missile at time t seconds.
(t) = V cos + (V sin gt)
nd .
= dt
= [V cos + (V sin gt) ] dt
= Vt cos + (Vt sin gt
2
) +
2
Apply the initial condition to
determine the constant vector of
integration. The initial position
of the missile is at the
point (0, 0).
When t = 0, = 0 + 0 and so
0 + 0 = 0 + 0 +
2
2
= 0 + 0
Substitute for
2
and write the
vector expression for the
displacement of the missile at time
t seconds.
(t) = Vt cos + (Vt sin gt
2
)
Write an expression for the range of
the missile at time t. Use the given
information that the range to the
target is 100 m to obtain an
expression for t.
Range of missile is given by
r
x
= Vt cos
When r
x
= 100,
Vt cos = 100
t =
Write an expression for the height
of the missile at time t. Use the
information that the height of the
target at the given range is 80 m
and that this occurs at t =
seconds.
Height of missile is given by
r
y
= Vt sin gt
2
When r
y
= 80, t = and so
Vt sin gt
2
= 80 becomes
V sin g = 80
3
v
4
c
5
v
6
v
1
2
--- j
7 r
8
c
1
2
--- j
9
100
V cos
----------------
10
100
V cos
----------------
1
2
---
100
V cos
----------------
1
2
---
100
V cos
----------------
1
2
---
100
V cos
----------------

2
THINK WRITE
Continue simplifying. Multiply both
sides of the equation by V
2
cos
2
.
= 80
= 80 V
2
cos
2
100V
2
sin cos 5000g = 80 V
2
cos
2
20V
2
cos (5 sin 4 cos ) = 5000g
V
2
cos (5 sin 4 cos ) = 250g
(as required)
b Use a graphics calculator to graph the
function f() = cos (5 sin 4 cos ).
You will need to use x in place of the
variable .
(a) Press and select .
Ensure that your calculator is set to
degrees. (Press [SET UP] to
change the Angle setting.) Press
(TYPE) followed by (Y=) to select
the function option. Complete the entry
line for Y1 with the expression
(cos x) (5 sin x 4 cos x) and press .
b
(b) Press (DRAW) to display the
graph. To obtain a clearer view of the
graph, you can adjust the View
Window settings. Press
(V-WIN) and adjust the values for
Xmin, Xmax, Ymin and Ymax.
(c) Press until you return to the
function screen. Press (DRAW) to
display the graph with the new setting.
The graph shows where the expression
is positive for 0 < x < 90.
Use the Trace function (press
(TRCE)) to investigate
points along the line. (You can also
nd the maximum value for the
expression and the value of x which
produces it in this way.)
(d) To nd the maximum value (other
than using the Trace function), press
(G-SLV) followed by
(MAX). The coordinates of the
required point are displayed.
11 100 sin
cos
--------------------
5000g
V
2
cos
2
--------------------
100 V
2
cos
2
sin
cos
-----------------------------------------------
5000g V
2
cos
2

V
2
cos
2
------------------------------------------
1
MENU GRAPH
SHIFT
F3
F1
EXE
F6
SHIFT F3
EXE
F6
SHIFT F1
SHIFT F5 F2
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
(a) Ensure that your calculator is set to
degrees. (Access the home screen
and select 8: System Info to
change the Angle setting.)
Open a new Graphs & Geometry
document. Complete the entry
line for f1(x) with
cos (x)(5 sin(x) 4 cos(x)).
(b) Press to display the graph of the
function. To adjust the viewing
window, press b, select
4: Window and 1: Window
Settings. Enter the settings as
shown.
(c) Highlight OK and press . The
graph shows where the expression
is positive for 0 < x < 90.
(d) From the home screen (press c),
select 1: Calculator. Press band
select 4: Calculus followed by
7: Function Maximum. Press
F1(X),X), then press
. This gives the value of x (or )
for the maximum value of f(x)
(or f()).
(e) To nd the function value for this x
value, press F1(followed by
/vto copy the answer value
from above and then )to close
the set of brackets. Press to
display the maximum value.
Write a conclusion from your
observations and calculations.
The graph shows where the expression
cos (5 sin 4 cos ) is positive in the
domain 0 < < 90. There is one local
maximum in this domain. The greatest
possible value of this expression is approx.
1.202 when the angle is approx. 64.3.
2
THINK WRITE
c Rearrange the equation from part a to
make V
2
the subject of the equation.
c V
2
cos (5 sin 4 cos ) = 250g
V
2
=
The least value of V
2
occurs when
the denominator is greatest. Use
the maximum value for
cos (5 sin 4 cos )
found in part b.
The least value of V
2
occurs when
cos (5 sin 4 cos ) is greatest.
The maximum value of
cos (5 sin 4 cos ) is 1.202
(from part b).
Substitute the maximum value for the
denominator and the value for g to
calculate the least value for V for
which the missile can reach the target.
V
2
=
Since V > 0, then V 45.1.
Write the answer. The required least velocity of the missile to
reach the target is approx. 45.1 m/s at an
angle of elevation of approx. 64.3.
d Set up a spreadsheet with 3 columns
titled t, x and y. In the rst column,
enter values for t. Enter the
appropriate parametric equations of
the displacement as x = Vt cos and
y = Vt sin gt
2
using the calculated
value for V and and substituting
9.8 for g. Generate corresponding
values in columns 2 and 3.
d
Generate the graph to provide a visual
validation of the results.
1
250g
5 sin 4 cos ( ) cos
-------------------------------------------------------
2
3
250 9.8
1.202
----------------------
4
1
1
2
---
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
EXCEL Spreadsheet
Missile ight
t x y
0 0 0
0.25 4.884 9.856
0.50 9.768 19.099
0.75 14.653 27.730
4.75 92.800 82.525
5.00 97.684 80.744
5.25 102.568 78.350
Theta 64.3299
Velocity 45.1000
Delta t 0.2500
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2
0
0
20
40
60
80
20 100 40 60 80
Metres
M
e
t
r
e
s
y
x
120
10
30
50
70
90
Missile flight
Projectile motion
Unless otherwise stated, use g = 9.8 m/s
2
.
1 Given the following information about the motion of a particle at time t, determine a
vector expression for the particles displacement.
a (t) = and (0) = 3 + 2
b (t) = 2t 3 and (0) = +
c = 4 + 7t and (1) = 2
d = (3 + t) 2 and (2) = + 5
e (t) = 3t + (4 + t) and (0) = +
f (t) = (2 t) + (6 + t
2
) and (0) = 0 + 0
g (t) = 15 + (10 3t) and (0) = 20
h = 2t + and (1) = 2 7
2 Determine vector expressions at time t for the velocity, , and displacement, ,
of a particle which moves according to the following relationships involving
acceleration, .
a (t) = 2 and when t = 0, = 3 and = + 5
b = 3 5 and when t = 0, = 2 and = 0 + 0
c = + t , (0) = 3 4 and (0) = 2 3
d = 2t 3 , (1) = 4 and (0) = +
e = 5 + (t + 1) , (0) = 3 + 4 and (2) = 8 + 3
f (t) = + (6 t) , (0) = 5 + 12 and (1) = + 4
g = (2t + 1) (3 5t) , (0) = 8 and (1) = 3 + 9
h = 3 + (12 5t) , (3) = 3 4 and (5) = 2 3
1. Finding the velocity given the acceleration: = = dt.
2. Finding the displacement given the velocity: = = dt.
Remember that the constant of integration is always a vector constant.
3. The period of time for which the projectile is moving under the inuence of
gravity alone is called the time of ight of the projectile.
4. The range is the horizontal displacement of the projectile from its launch point.
a
dv
dt
------ v
dr
dt
----- r
remember
11B
v
dr
dt
----- i
dr
dt
----- i
.
r
.
r
dr
dt
----- i
5
1
t
2
---- +

j
WORKED
Example
4
v
dv
dt
------ i
..
r
..
r
.
r
dv
dt
------ i
dv
dt
------ i
..
r
(

t

)

=

(

t

+

3)

+

2 r

(

t

)

=

(

t

2

+

1)

+

(1

3

t

) r

(

t

)

=

2(2

t

1)

+

(7

t

2

9) r
1
2
--- j

(

t

)

=

(3

t

+

t

7)

+

(

2

t

+

9) r
1
2
--- i

(

t

)

=

(

t

2

1)

+

(4

t

+

t

2

+

1) r
3
2
--- i
1
2
--- j

(

t

)

=

t

(

t

4)

t

(

t

2

+

18) r
1
2
--- i
1
3
--- j

(

t

)

=

(15

t

)

+

(10

t

t

2

+

20) r
3
2
--- j

(

t

)

=

(

t

2

+

3)

+

(5

t

11) r
1
t
--- j

SLE 3: Given the force on an
object as a function of time
and suitable prescribed
conditions, such as velocity
and displacement at certain
times, use integration to nd
the position vector of the
object.

2
a

(

t

)

=

(
2

t

+

1
)

3
,
(

t

)

=

(

t

2

+

t

1
)

+

(

3

t

+

5
)

b

(

t

)

=

(
3

t

+

2
)

+

(

5
t

1
)
,
(
t
)

=

(
t
2

+

2
t
)

+

(
t
2

t
)
c
(
t
)

=

(
t

+

3
)

+

(
t
2

4
)
,
(
t
)

=

(
t
2

+

3
t

+

2
)

+

(
t
3

4
t

3
)
d
(
t
)

=

(
t
2

1
)

+

(
3
t

1
)
,
(
t
)

=

(
t
3

t

+

1
)

+

(
t
2

t

+

1
)
v
i
j
r
i
j
v
i
j
r
32 -
--
i
52 -
--
j
v
i
12 -
--
j
r
12 -
--
i
16 -
--
j
v
i
j
r
13 -
--
i
32 -
--
j
2
e
(
t
)

=

(
5
t

+

)

+

(
t
2

+

t

)
,
(
t
)

=

(
t
2

+

t

+

3
)

+

(
t
3

+

t
2

t

+

4
)
f
(
t
)

=

(
t

+

)

+

(
t
2

+

6
t

)
,
(
t
)

=

(
t
2

+

t

5
)

+

(
t
3

+

3
t
2

t

+

1
2
)
g
(
t
)

=

(
t
2

+

t

)

+

(
t
2

3
t

+

)
,
(
t
)

=

(
t
3

+

t
2

t
)

+

(
t
3

t
2

+

t

+

8
)
h
(
t
)

=

(
3
t

6
)

+

(
t
2

+

1
2
t

)
,
(
t
)

=

(
t
2

6
t

)

+

(
t
3

+

6
t
2

t

+

)
v
1
5
2
-
-
-
-
--
i
1 2-
--
1
3
6
-
-
-
-
--
j
r
5 2-
--
1
5
2
-
-
-
-
--
i
1 6-
--
1 2-
--
1
3
6
-
-
-
-
--
j
v
7 2-
--
i
1 2-
--
6
5
6
-
-
-
-
--
j
r
1 2-
--
7 2-
--
i
1 6-
--
6
5
6
-
-
-
-
--
j
v
2
3
6
-
-
-
-
--
i
5 2-
--
5 3-
--
j
r
1 3-
--
1 2-
--
2
3
6
-
-
-
-
--
i
5 6-
--
3 2-
--
5 3-
--
j
v
i
5 2-
--
3
5
2
-
-
-
-
--
j
r
3 2-
--
1
1
2
-
-
-
-
--
i
5 6-
--
3
5
2
-
-
-
-
--
1
1
6
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
j
3 A projectile is red from the foot of a cliff and its displacement (in metres) at time
t seconds is given by (t) = 12t + (15t gt
2
) .
d Calculate the impact velocity of the projectile when it returns to the ground in a
horizontal plane through the origin.
4 A projectile is red from the origin, O, and its displacement (in metres) at time t sec-
onds is given by (t) = 15t + (30t gt
2
) .
c Determine the greatest height reached by the projectile.
d Will this projectile clear a 4 m high wall located 90 m from the launch point in the
same horizontal plane?
5 A particle is red from the top of a 50 m high
cliff with a velocity of 36 m/s inclined at an
angle of 30 to the horizontal.
(t) = 18 + (18 gt) m/s.
b Develop a vector expression for the displacement, (t), of the particle at time
t seconds.
c Calculate the greatest height reached by the projectile.
d What is the impact velocity of the projectile when it reaches a point in the hori-
zontal plane through the origin, O?
e At this impact point, what is the range of the projectile?
6 At time t, the velocities of two particles A and B are given by
A
(t) = 4 + (5 2t) and = 3 + (4t 7) .
When t = 0,
A
= 4 + 3 and
B
= 24 + 6 .
a Determine vector expressions for the displacement of both particles at time t.
b Do these particles ever collide? If so, calculate when and where. If not, explain
what happens.
d Use a graphics calculator to verify your response to part b above.
7 The acceleration of a particle , at time t, is given by
(t) = 8 . For this particle,
(2) = 4 + 3 and
(5) = 11 + 15 . The displacement of a second particle, ,

at time t, is given by
(t) = (6 + t) + (15t 10 2t
2
) .
a Determine the vector expression for the displacement of the particle, , at time, t.
b Do these particles ever collide? If so, calculate when and where.
c Validate your response to part b above by using suitable technology.
WORKED
Example
5
r
1
2
--- j
1
2
--- j
WORKED
Example
6
x
y
O
50 m
30
v
3 i
dr
B
dt
-------- i
11.5 m 3.06 seconds

19.2 m/s downwards at an angle of 5120 to the horizontal
19.2 m/s at an
angle of 5120
above the
horizontal
(t) = 12 + (15 gt) v
(t) = 15 + (30 gt) v
33.5 m/s at an angle of

6326 above the
horizontal
45.9 m
No, as it falls short by about 40 cm.
(t) = 18 t + (50 + 18t gt
2
) r
3 i
1
2
--- j
Maximum height is 66.5 m which is

16.5 m

above the launch platform.
47.7 m/s

downwards
at an angle of 4912
to the horizontal
172.1 m
A
(t) = 4(t 1) + (3 + 5t t
2
) ,
B
(t) = 3(8 t) + (6 7t + 2t
2
)
r
Particles dont
collide but they do
pass through two
common points at
different times. At
(13.70, 5.55), one
particle arrives when
t = 4.43 s and the
other when t = 3.43 s.
At the point
(18.20, 0.06),

one
particle arrives when
t = 5.55 s and the
other when t = 1.93 s.
y
A
= 3 + (x + 4)(16 x),
y
B
= 6 + (24 x)(27 2x)
1
16
------
1
9
---
(t) = (5t 14) + (32t 45 4t

2
) r
When t = 5 s, the particles do collide at (11, 15). Particles appear to collide at (9.15, 17.4) but actually pass
through this point at different times; so they dont collide. Particle at t = 4.63 s and particle at time t = 3.15 s.
8 A missile is red from a point on level ground with a velocity V m/s and an angle of
elevation of to the horizontal. The target is positioned on top of a 40 m high tower
which is located 80 m away. The base of the tower is in the same horizontal plane as
the point of projection of the missile.
a If g is the gravitational acceleration of the missile, then show that the motion of
this missile satises V
2
cos (2 sin cos ) = 80g.
b Use a graphics calculator to show those values of in the domain 0 < < 90 for
which the expression cos (2 sin cos ) is positive. State the greatest possible
value this expression has, and the value of which produces it. Provide supporting
argument for your solutions.
2
.)
d Generate a spreadsheet to validate the solutions obtained using a graphics
calculator.
9 A particle is projected with an initial speed
of 35 m/s in such a direction that it just
passes over the top of a 5 m high wall. The
foot of the wall is situated 50 m from the
point of projection of the particle and, as
shown at right, is in the same horizontal
plane through the point of projection.
Determine all possible angles of projec-
tion, .
10 A particle is projected horizontally from
the top of a tower 10 m high with an initial
speed of 15 m/s.
If the surrounding ground is horizontal,
how far from the base of the tower does the
particle land?
11 A projectile is red at an angle below the horizontal, where tan = , from the top
of a cliff, 75.6 m high, which overlooks the sea. If the projectile reaches the sea at the
instant 2 s after projection, nd its initial speed and the distance from the base of the
cliff to the point of impact of the projectile with the sea.
WORKED
Example
7
x
y
O
V
80 m
40 m
x
y
O
35 m/s
5 m
50 m
x
y
O
15 m/s
10 m
7
24
------
0.618 when 5817
35.6 m/s
1746 and 7756
21.429 m
100 m/s, 192 m
SLE 16: Use spreadsheets to
investigate problems.
12 Two particles, P and Q, are red simultaneously from points A and B respectively
which are located 60 m apart on horizontal ground, as shown below. The particle P has
an initial speed of 24 m/s and an angle of projection , where = tan
1
. The particle
Q has an initial speed of 18 m/s with an angle of projection where = tan
1
.
13 Two walls are situated 16 m apart on
level ground. One wall is 7.1 m high
and the other is 4.4 m high. A projec-
tile is to be red from the point on the
ground which is 16 m from the 7.1 m
high wall and on the side remote from
the second wall as seen in the gure at
right.
Determine the initial speed and angle of projection required if this projectile will just
clear both walls.
14 A particle is projected with an initial speed of 35 m/s from the base of a plane
inclined at an angle to the horizontal where = tan
1
. If the projectile is initially
angled at to the horizontal, where tan = , nd how far along the plane the projec-
tile lands, and the time of ight.
15 A particle is projected up a plane
inclined at an angle to the horizontal,
the angle of projection being above
the horizontal.
If the initial speed of projection is V,
a show that the range, R, on this inclined
plane is given by
b determine the maximum range (R
max
) on the plane and the value of for which
this occurs.
16 A sprinkler sprays water symmetrically about its vertical axis at a constant speed of V.
The initial direction of the spray varies continuously between angles of 15 and 60 to
the horizontal.
a Prove that from a xed position, O, on level ground, the sprinkler will wet the sur-
face of an annular region with respective internal and external radii and .
b Now show that if the sprinkler is located appropriately to a rectangular garden bed
of size 6 m by 3 m, the entire garden will be watered provided .
3
4
---

4
3
---

y
x A B
24 m/s 18 m/s
60 m
Do these particles collide? If

so, when and where do they
collide?
y
x
O
V
16 m 16 m
7.1 m 4.4 m
3
4
---

5
2
---
y
x O
V
R
2V
2
( ) cos sin
g cos
2
----------------------------------------------- =
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 11.1
V
2
2g
------
V
2
g
------
V
2
2g
------ 1 7 +
Yes, they meet at (38.4, 9.2)
when t = 2 s.
20 m/s at an angle of approx. 3652
75.431 m, approx. 4.64 s
R
max
= when = 45 +
V
2
(1+sin )g
--------------------------
2
---
Motion under constant acceleration
Even though our study in this course is restricted
to motion involving constant acceleration, this
study does include many situations of practical
signicance.
The common example of bodies in free fall
towards the Earths surface, regardless of their
size, mass or composition, involves motion under
constant acceleration that of acceleration due
to gravity.
Galileo illustrated this property by dropping
various sized cannon balls from the top of the
Leaning Tower of Pisa. Provided the effects of air
resistance are minimised (that is, the object
should not be too large in area or fall too far) all
bodies will fall with constant acceleration. Other
variations will be considered later in your studies.
Since the acceleration due to gravity depends
on the distance from the centre of the Earth, it
varies slightly at different places on the Earths
surface being greater at the poles than at the
equator and less at high altitudes. It is usual to
state the constant of acceleration due to gravity as
9.8 m/s
2
unless you are told otherwise.
Since acceleration is constant, the displacement
of a falling object can be modelled by the general
quadratic expression
lt
2
+ mt + n
This can be used to model the motion of a body in free fall or one tossed upwards.
The important difference is that the velocity and acceleration are in different directions.
When vector notation is used the vertical displacement vector is written as
= (lt
2
+ mt + n)
Because does not depend on t the derivative of this function is as follows:
= (2lt + m)
and = 2l
The following analysis examines the motion of a ball as it rests at the top of a cliff.
As soil falls away the ball begins to move.
(a) At t = 0, nd v.
At t = 0 the ball is at rest, therefore v = 0.
(b) If the bottom of the cliff is the origin and the cliff is h metres high, nd r when
t = 0.
At t = 0, = h
(c) Given the constant acceleration towards the origin equals 9.8 m/s
2
(a negative
value is used to indicate that the direction of the acceleration is downwards), nd
m and l.
r
Use the original equation for displacement and differentiate:
= (lt
2
+ mt + n) [1]
= (2lt + m) [2]
= 2l [3]
From part (a) above when t = 0
= [2l(0) + m] in [2]
but = 0 (initially at rest)
Therefore, m = 0
From part (b) above, if at t = 0, = h
= (lt
2
+ mt + n) [1]
= [l(0)
2
+ m(0) + n]
= h (as given at t = 0)
Therefore, n = h
From (c) g = 9.8 m/s
2
so = 9.8 (as = g )
Also = 2l
So 2l = 9.8
Therefore, l = 4.9
Therefore the general equation for this motion can be written:
= (4.9t
2
+ h)
Do not attempt to memorise these equations. Equations [1], [2] and [3] are the basic
equations and all others are specic rearrangements of these.
In general,
1. l can be readily found if the acceleration is given: a = 2l.
2. m can be readily found if the initial velocity is given: v = 2l(0) + m.
3. n can be readily found if the initial displacement is given: r = l(0)
2
+ m(0) + n
r
Examine the motion of a stone thrown upwards with a velocity of 6 m/s from the top of a
cliff 60 m high. Find the time taken for it to reach the ground and its velocity on impact.
THINK WRITE
As the acceleration is constant, the
vertical displacement is quadratic.
Write the three equations of motion.
= (lt
2
+ mt + n)
= (2lt + m)
= 2l
The position of the origin needs to be
stated. Generally where the motion
begins or nishes can be thought of as
the origin.
Let the origin be the top of the cliff.
Use the given information to nd each
value of n, m and l. First use the initial
position to nd n.
At t = 0, = 0 and
= [l(0)
2
+ m(0) + n]
So 0 = 0 + 0 + n
therefore n = 0
Rewrite the equation for with the
new information.
= (lt
2
+ mt)
1
r
2
3
r
4
r
8
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Use the equations for to nd l.
Constant downwards acceleration away
from the origin so the acceleration is
negative.
= 2l and
= 9.8
So 2l = 9.8
l = 4.9
= (4.9t
2
+ mt)
Use the initial velocity to nd m. Initial
velocity at t = 0 is 6 m/s up (positive
sign).
At t = 0, v = 6 or = 6
6 = [2l(0) + m]
m = 6
Rewrite with all current information. = (4.9t
2
+ 6t)
Find the time when the stone reaches
the ground at = 60 .
Drop the vector notation.
Solve for t using the quadratic formula
where a = 4.9, b = 6 and c = 60.
At = 60
60 = (4.9t
2
+ 6t)
0 = 4.9t
2
+ 6t + 60
t =
=
t = 4.16 s or 2.94 s
Reject the negative solution.
Therefore the stone reaches the ground 4.16 s
after it was thrown upwards.
Find the velocity on impact by nding v
when t = 4.16.
Note that the negative sign indicates a
vector moving downwards, in the same
direction as the negative acceleration.
= (9.8t + 6)
At t = 4.16 s
= [9.8(4.16) + 6]
= 34.81
State the solution. Therefore, the stone reaches the ground
with a velocity of 34.81 m/s downwards 4.16 s
after launching.
5
a
6
v
7
r
8
r
b b
2
4ac
2a
-------------------------------------
6 36 4 4.9 ( ) 60 ( )
2 4.9 ( )
-----------------------------------------------------------
9
v
10
A stone (A) is thrown upwards from a cliff with a velocity of 30 m/s. After stone A has
been in motion for 4 s another stone (B) is dropped from the same point. Find when and
where the two stones will meet.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Draw a diagram and state the origin
position and direction of positive motion.
Write the 3 equations of motion.
The origin is at the top of the cliff and there is
positive motion up.
1
O
A
30 m/s
B
= (lt
2
+ mt + n)
= (2lt + m)
= 2l
r
9
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Stone A:
Substitute the given information to
nd .
Stone A:
At t = 0, = 0 and
= [l(0)
2
+ m(0) + n]
So 0 = 0 + 0 + n
therefore n = 0
= (lt
2
+ mt)
Use information about to nd m. At t = 0, = 30 and
= [2l(0) + m]
So 30 = 0 + m
m = 30
Rewrite . = (lt
2
+ 30t)
Use information about a to nd l. At t = 0, = 9.8 and
= 2l
So 9.8 = 2l
l = 4.9
= (4.9t
2
+ 30t)
For stone B: Repeat the method used
for stone A.
For many of your problems l = 4.9.
Stone B:
At t = 0, a = 9.8 and l = 4.9
At t = 0, = 0 and
= [2l(0) + m]
therefore m = 0
At t = 0, = 0 and
= [l(0)
2
+ m(0) + n]
therefore n = 0
Rewrite the equation for using all
current information.
= 4.9t
2
Find where the two stones meet:
when
A
=
B
; but t
B
= t
A
4.
Express all information in terms of A.
The two stones meet where
A
=
B
(4.9t
A
2
+ 30t
A
) = 4.9t
B
2
4.9t
A
2
+ 30t
A
= 4.9(t
A
4)
2
= 4.9(t
A
2
8t
A
+ 16)
0 = 39.2t
A
30t
A
78.4
= 9.2t
A
78.4
t
A
= 8.52 s
Find the displacement of B at
t
A
= 8.52 s and t
B
= t
A
4 = 4.52 s.
The information for stone B is easier to
use to nd the displacement because A
has had upwards and downwards
motion (both unknown) whereas B has
had downwards motion only.
r
B
= 4.9 (4.52)
2
= 100.1 m
The stones meet about 100 m below the top of
the cliff 8.52 seconds after stone A is thrown.
2
r
3
v
4
r
5
a
6
v
7
r
8
r
9
In general this procedure can be shortened. If an object starts at the origin, n = 0 and m
has the value of the initial velocity (upwards is positive, downwards is negative). If the
body is inuenced by gravity then l = 4.9.
If an object is initially at rest then m = 0, but if an object is part of a system that is itself
moving, and the object is released from that moving system, then the initial velocity (m)
of the object will be the velocity of the whole system at the instant prior to release.
Motion under constant
acceleration
1 A particle moving from rest with constant acceleration reaches a speed of 16 m/s in
4 seconds. Find:
a the acceleration
b the distance travelled.
2 An object travelling at 8 m/s accelerates uniformly over a distance of 20 metres until
it reaches a speed of 18 m/s. Find:
a the acceleration
b the time taken.
3 a A racing car accelerates
constantly from rest
and covers a distance
of 400 metres in
10 seconds. Find its
velocity at the end of
the 400 metres.
b Another car travels the
400 metres with a
constant acceleration of
10 m/s
2
. Find its time
for the 400 metres.
4 A train travelling at a
constant speed decelerates
uniformly for 30 seconds
over a distance of
270 metres, coming to
a stop. Find:
a the initial speed
b the acceleration.
1. If the origin is the starting point, then n = 0.
2. If the body is initially at rest, then m = 0.
3. In vertical motion, displacement up is positive; displacement down is negative.
4. Velocity up is positive; velocity down is negative.
5. Acceleration up is positive; acceleration down is negative.
remember
11C
4 m/s

2

32 m
6.5 m/s

2

Approx. 1.54 s
80 m/s
Approx. 8.94 s
18 m/s

0.6 m/s

2

SLE 5: Model vertical motion under gravity alone.
5 A parachutist free-falls from an aircraft for 6 seconds. If the acceleration due to
gravity is 9.8 m/s
2
, nd:
a the speed of the parachutist after 6 seconds
b the distance travelled after 6 seconds.
6 A ball is thrown up from the ground with an initial velocity of 19.6 m/s. The acceleration
due to gravity is 9.8 m/s
2
downwards, that is, 9.8 m/s
2
. Find:
a the maximum height attained by the ball
b the total time taken for the ball to return to the ground.
7 A stone is dropped from a bridge which is 39.2 metres above a river.
a How long does it take the stone to reach the water?
b What is its speed on impact?
8 A ball is dropped from a tower and reaches the ground in 4 seconds. Find:
a the height of the tower
b the velocity of the ball when it hits the ground.
9 A particle is projected vertically up from the top of a building that is 50 metres above
the ground. If the initial speed of the particle is 28 m/s, nd:
a the maximum height, above the ground, that it reaches
b total time taken to reach the ground
c the speed of the particle when it reaches the ground.
10 A train travels a distance of 1800 metres in 90 seconds while accelerating uniformly
from rest. What is its velocity at the end of 500 metres?
11 A car accelerates uniformly from rest, increasing its speed from 5 m/s to 25 m/s in
10 seconds. Find:
a the acceleration
b the distance travelled, from rest, in 12 seconds
c the time taken to increase its speed from 15 m/s to 30 m/s.
12 A sprinter accelerates uniformly to his top speed after running 30 metres of a 100-metre
race. He maintains this speed for the remainder of the race and takes 10.4 seconds to
complete it. Find:
a the top speed of the athlete
b the time taken to reach the top speed.
13 A bus is travelling at 16 m/s when the brakes are applied, reducing the speed to 6 m/
s in 2 seconds. Assuming the retardation is constant, nd:
a the acceleration
b the distance travelled 2 seconds after the brakes are applied
c how long after applying the brakes the tram comes to a stop
d the braking distance of the bus.
14 A car moving from rest with uniform acceleration takes 12 seconds to travel 144 metres.
What is its speed after 6 seconds?
15 A bus travels 60 metres in 10 seconds and the next 60 metres in 15 seconds. If the
acceleration is constant, nd:
a how much further it will travel before coming to rest
b how many more seconds it takes before coming to rest.
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital docs:
SkillSHEET 11.1
Vertical motion
WORKED
Example
8

58.8 m/s
176.4 m
19.6 m
4 s
2.83 s
27.72

m/s
78.4 m
39.2 m/s
90 m
7.14 s
42 m/s
21.08 m/s or
20 10
3
----------------

2 m/s

2

144 m
7.5 s
12.5 m/s
4.8 s

5 m/s

2

22 m
3.2 s
25.6 m
12 m/s
24.5 m
17.5 s
16 A juggler throws balls vertically
into the air so that they rise to a
height of 4.4 metres above the
ground. He fails to catch one and it hits
the ground with a speed of 1.155 times
that of its initial speed. Find:
a the speed of projection of the ball
b the height from which the ball is thrown
c the total time the ball is in the air.
17 An object is projected vertically up from a
14 metre tower and reaches the ground
4 seconds later.
a What is the projection speed of the
object?
b What is the maximum height
above the ground that is
attained by the object?
18 a An object is dropped from
the top of a building 39.2 m high. Calculate:
i its velocity when it is halfway to the ground
ii its velocity on striking the ground
iii the time taken to each the ground.
b Repeat the above questions for the case when the object
is thrown to the ground with a velocity of 4.9 m/s.
19 a A stone rolls off the top of a cliff and is found to take
4 seconds to reach the sea below. What is the height of
the cliff?
b What is the difference in time to reach the bottom
between part a and if the stone were launched vertically upwards from this cliff
with a velocity of 20 m/s?
20 A vertical slit 1.5 m long is positioned in a stone wall 9.8 m below the top of the wall.
A small object is dropped from the top of the wall so that it falls in line with the slit.
For what length of time is the falling object visible through the slit?
21 A body is dropped from the top of a 100 m high tower at the same time as a body is
launched vertically upwards from the bottom of the tower with a velocity of 25 m/s.
Find when and where the two bodies are at the same height above the ground.
22 A body is rising with a velocity of 20 m/s and it releases a small particle when it is
50 m above the ground. How long will it take for the small particle to reach the ground?
23 A cage is descending into a well at a constant velocity of 2 m/s when an object falls
through the wire of the cage. If the object reaches the water at the bottom of the well
10 seconds before the cage nd the height above the water level at which the object
fell out of the cage.
24 A reworks rocket is red vertically upwards with uniform acceleration of 19.6 m/s
2
.
After 2 seconds a small particle is released from the rocket. How long after release
will the particle fall to the ground?
WORKED
Example
9
eBookplus eBookplus
Digital doc:
WorkSHEET 11.2

8.04 m/s
1.1 m
1.77 s
16.1 m/s
27.23 m

19.6 m/s

27.7 m/s

t

=

s 8

b i

20.2 m/s

ii

28.15 m/s

iii

t

=

2.4 s
78.4 m
2.53 s longer
0.1044 s
4 s, 78.4 m
5.83 s
195 m
8.9 s
Displacement, velocity and acceleration
Displacement gives the position of a particle relative to some reference point
(usually the origin).
Instantaneous velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time
and is represented by the derivative of the displacement variable.
Average velocity during a time interval is the change in velocity across that
interval.
Speed is the magnitude of velocity just as distance is the magnitude of
displacement.
Instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time and
is represented by the derivative of the velocity variable.
Vector relationships
If the position vector (t) = x(t) + y(t) represents the displacement of P at time t,
then (or (t)) represents the instantaneous velocity and (or (t) or )
represents the instantaneous acceleration at time t.
Finding the velocity given the acceleration: = = dt.
Finding the displacement given the velocity: = = dt.
Remember that the constant of integration is always a vector constant.
For the magnitude of a vector x + y : = .
The dot product of two vectors and is given as = cos where is
the angle included by and .
Projectile motion
The period of time for which the projectile is moving under the inuence of gravity
alone is called the time of ight of the projectile.
The range is the horizontal displacement of the projectile from its launch point.
Motion under constant acceleration
= (lt
2
+ mt + n) , = (2lt + m) , = 2l
If the origin is the starting point, then n = 0.
If the body is initially at rest, then m = 0.
In vertical motion, displacement up is positive; displacement down is negative.
Velocity up is positive; velocity down is negative.
Acceleration up is positive; acceleration down is negative.
summary
r
dr
dt
-----
.
r
d
2
r
dt
2
--------
..
r
dv
dt
------
a
dv
dt
------ v
dr
dt
----- r
xi
y + j
x
2
y +
2
a
Questions 1 to 5 refer to a particle that has a displacement (t) at time t seconds, where
(t) = 4t + (8t t
2
) metres.
1
The initial speed of the particle in m/s is:
A 4 B C 0 D E
2
The vector which represents the average displacement (in m) in the rst two seconds is:
A 4 + 6 B 2 + 3.5 C 4 + 7 D 8 + 12 E 4 + 4
3
The particle reaches its greatest height after how many seconds?
A 0 B 2 C 3 D 4 E 5
4
The acceleration of the particle in m/s
2
is given by:
A 2 B 2 C 2 2 D 0 + 0 E 2
5
The Cartesian equation of the trajectory of the particle is:
A y = 4x B y = 8x x
2
C y = (32 x) D y = (2 x) E y = x
2
16x
6 Relative to the origin, O, the displacement of a particle at time t seconds is given by
(t) = 6t + 3t(4 t) metres.
b Determine the initial displacement and speed of the particle.
c When t = 2 seconds, calculate:
7 At time t, a particle A has a displacement given by
A
(t) = t + (4t t
2
) , while a second
particle B has a displacement given by
B
(t) = t + (t 10) .
(t) = (t + 1) + (25 t
2
) metres.
0 t 5 seconds.
b Repeat part a using an Excel spreadsheet.
CHAPTER
review
r
11A
multiple choice
4 5 2 13 2 10
11A
multiple choice
i
11A
multiple choice
11A
multiple choice
i
11A
multiple choice
x
16
------
x
8
---
11A
r
11A
r
11A
r

(

t

)

=

6

+

(
1
2

6

t

)

m
/
s
,
(

t

)

=

6

m
/
s

2
v
i
j
a
j

Origin, m/s 6 5

12 m 2

6

m/s to the right
45

5 seconds
(5,

5)

y

A

=

4

x

x

2

,

y

B

=

x

10

y

=

25

(

x

1)

2

Questions 9 to 11 refer to a projectile that has velocity (t) at time t seconds, where
(t) = 6 + (10 2t) m/s. The initial displacement of this projectile is given by
(0) = 4 m.
9
The angle of projection of this particle, correct to the nearest degree, is:
A 39 B 49 C 51 D 59 E 61
10
The range (in m) of the projectile through the foot of the launch platform is nearest in value to:
A 45 B 50 C 60 D 70 E 75
11
The greatest height (in m) reached by the particle is closest in value to:
A 29 B 32 C 35 D 39 E 95
12 A particle moves so that its acceleration at time t is given by = + (3 2t) . Find vector
expressions for the velocity and displacement of the particle given that = 0 and = 0
when t = 0.
13 A projectile is red from the foot of a cliff and its displacement (in metres) at time t seconds
is given by (t) = 6t + (45t gt
2
) .
Use g = 10 m/s
2
d Calculate the impact velocity of the projectile when it returns to the ground in a
horizontal plane through the origin.
14 A particle is red from the top of a 60 m high building with a velocity of 24 m/s inclined at
an angle of 30 to the horizontal.
(t) = 12 + (12 gt) m/s.
b Develop a vector expression for the displacement, (t) metres, of the particle at time
t seconds.
c Determine if this projectile will clear a 14 m high tower located 94 m from the launch
point and in the same horizontal plane.
15 A missile is red from a point on level ground with a velocity V m/s and with an angle of
elevation of to the horizontal. The target is positioned on top of a cliff 30 m above the
ground in the same horizontal plane as the point of projection of the missile, and with a
range of 60 m from it.
a If g is the gravitational acceleration of the missile, show that the motion of this missile
satises V
2
cos (2 sin cos ) = 60g.
b Use a graphics calculator to nd those values of in the domain 0 < < 90 for which
the expression cos (2 sin cos ) is positive. State the greatest possible value this
expression has, and the value of that produces it. Provide supporting argument for your
solutions.
2
.)
v
11B
multiple choice
11B
multiple choice
11B
multiple choice
11B
a
11B
r
1
2
--- j
11B
v
3 i
11B

(

t

)

=

t

+

(
3

t

t

2

)

m
/
s
,
(

t

)

=

t

2

+

(
9

2

t

)

m
v
i
j
r
12 -
--
i
t
2
6 -
-
--
j

b

3 m/s
at an angle
of elevation
of 82

24

229

(

t

)

=

6

+

(45

gt

) m/s v

101 m, 9 s
1
4
---

3 m/s

downwards at an angle of 736

to the vertical 229

(

t

)

=

12

t

+

(60

+

12

t

gt

2

) r
3i
1
2
--- j

Clears by about 5 cm

Expression is positive for 26

34

< 90

. Maximum is 0.618 when

58

17

.

30.845

m/s
16 A stone is projected vertically up from the ground with an initial velocity of 24.5 m/s.
Taking the acceleration due to gravity to be 9.8 m/s
2
, nd:
a the maximum height reached by the stone
b the times at which its height is 20 metres above the ground.
17
An object is dropped from the top of a 200 metre high building. If the acceleration due to
gravity is 9.8 m/s
2
, what will be the height of the object after 5 seconds?
18
A particle initially moving at 6 m/s is subject to a constant retardation of 2 m/s
2
.
The distance, in metres, travelled before coming to rest is:
19
A bus travels 500 metres in 25 seconds when accelerating uniformly from rest. The
acceleration, in m/s
2
, is:
20 A parachutist drops from an aeroplane so that
the constant acceleration during free fall due
to gravity and air resistance is 8 m/s
2
. The
parachute is released after 6 seconds,
uniformly retarding the parachutist in
28 seconds to a constant speed of 2.5 m/s.
This speed is maintained until the parachutist
reaches the ground which is 1101 metres
below the point of release.
a How long is the parachutist in the air?
b After how long has the parachutist fallen
half the distance (answer to the nearest
tenth of a second)?
21 Jogger A is running in a straight line at a
constant speed of 4 m/s when passing jogger
B who has stopped to tie a lace. Jogger B
heads off in the same direction as jogger A
6 seconds later, accelerating uniformly at
2 m/s
2
until reaching a speed of 5 m/s.
a Sketch a velocitytime graph showing the
motion of both joggers.
b How long is it after jogger A rst passes
jogger B until B catches up to A?
c How far has jogger B travelled to catch
jogger A?
d How far ahead will jogger B be after
jogger B has travelled 225 metres?
A 151 m B 49 m C 122.5 m D 20 m E 77.5 m
A 27 B 8 C 9 D 10 E 12
A 0.4 B 1.6 C 1.25 D 1.2 E 0.625
11C
11C
multiple choice
11C
multiple choice
11C
multiple choice
11C
11C

30.625 m

t

1 s and 4 s
2 min 14 s
16.2 s
36.25 s
145 m
16 m

21 a
t (s)
v (m/s)
B
A 4
5
0 _
6 8.5
1 Car A is 600 metres from the centre of the intersection when it starts from rest and accelerates
uniformly at 4 m/s
2
, reaching a speed of 24 m/s which it maintains. At the instant car A takes
off, car B is 780 metres from the centre of the intersection and travelling at a constant speed
of 28 m/s. When car B is 52 metres from the centre of the intersection it decelerates uniformly
at 5 m/s
2
.
a Which car gets to the centre of the intersection rst?
b How far past the centre of the intersection is the rst car
when the second car reaches it?
c If all other conditions remain the same, what constant
acceleration would:
ii the second car need to have for a collision to occur?
ii the rst car need to have for a collision to occur?
d If all other conditions remain the same, at what constant
speed would:
ii the rst car need to travel for a collision to occur?
(Use a graphics calculator or a numerical method to
assist.)
ii the second car need to travel for a collision to occur?
(Give answers correct to 2 decimal places where appropriate.)
2 Martin is trying out his new spaceship by challenging a local alien to a race. He places his
hand on the throttle and his spaceship starts to accelerate at a constant rate a for a time t.
During that time t, he travels a distance s through space. Martins spaceship has an initial
speed u at the beginning of the time interval and a nal speed v after a time t.
The local space police are on to Martin and want to photograph him just as he breaks the
speed limit. However, they need to set their camera up at the precise point, P, where Martin is
travelling at his average speed. The police know when the average speed will occur; it will
occur at a time . They want to nd out where the average speed will occur. Let x be
the distance travelled when the spaceship reaches its average velocity for the time interval t.
All distances and times are in metres (m) and seconds (s). It is clear that x is a fraction of s,
the total distance covered during the time interval t.
a The initial velocity (u) is 0, the acceleration (a) is 1.0 and the time interval (t) is 10. Find
the value of x and hence state the value of the fraction .
b Find equations for x and s in terms of the acceleration, a; the initial speed, u; and the time
interval t.
c Under what conditions will x = ?
Car A
Car B
600 m
Centre of
intersection
7
8
0

m
T
t
2
----- =
Positive
P
Average speed
occurs here
x
x
s
--
s
2
---
Car A
8.4 m

2

m/s

2

3.58 m/s

2

23.62 m/s
28.33 m/s

=

x
s
--
1
4
---

x

=

+

a

(

t

)

2

s

=

a

(

t

)

2

+

u

t
ut
2
---------
1
8
---
1
2
---

When

a

=

0
3 When a projectile is red from a body out into space, it decelerates due to the gravitational
pull of the body. The general equation for this deceleration is a = where r is the distance
from the centre of the body and k is a positive constant.
a On the surface of the moon (r = 1760 km), the deceleration is a = 1.6 m/s
2
. Find the value
of k.
b If a body is launched from the surface of the moon with a velocity of 500 m/s, nd the
velocity of the body at a distance r from the centre of the moon; that is, nd v(r).
c Find the distance from the centre of the moon when the body is momentarily stationary.
k
r
2
----

k

=

4.96

10

12

1.84

10

6

m

b

v

(

r

)

=

2
4.96 10
12
r
---------------------------- 2.69 10
6

A p p e n d i x 553
Instructions for the TI-89 Titanium graphics calculator
Chapter 1 Number systems: the Real Number System
Graphics Calculator tip: Square, cube and nth roots (page 7) ................................... 555
Graphics Calculator tip: Approximation mode ........................................................... 556
Chapter 2 Number systems: complex numbers
Graphics Calculator tip: Simple algebra of complex numbers (page 93) .................. 557
Graphics Calculator tip: Modulus and Argument (page 101) .................................... 559
Graphics Calculator tip: Expressing complex numbers in polar form (page 105) .... 561
Graphics Calculator tip: Expressing complex numbers in Cartesian form
(page 106) ............................................................................................................... 561
Graphics Calculator tip: Pascals Triangle coefcients (page 115) ............................ 562
Chapter 3 Matrices
Graphics Calculator tip: Solving matrix equations (page 156) .................................. 563
Investigation: Matrix multiplication using a graphics calculator (page 162) ............ 564
Graphics Calculator tip: Alternative method for adding the elements in each row
in a dominance matrix (page 167) ......................................................................... 565
Chapter 5 Matrices and their applications
Investigation: Performing Gaussian elimination using a graphics calculator
(page 217) ............................................................................................................... 566
Graphics Calculator tip: Matrix operations (page 237) .............................................. 568
Chapter 6 Transformations using matrices
Graphics Calculator tip: Graphing the original and its image (page 256) ................. 571
Chapter 7 Introduction to vectors
Graphics Calculator tip: Finding the magnitude and direction of a vector in two
dimensions (page 311) ........................................................................................... 572
Graphics Calculator tip: Finding the x- and y-components of a vector
(page 313) ............................................................................................................... 573
Graphics Calculator tip: Finding the unit vector in the direction of the vector
(page 316) ............................................................................................................... 574
Graphics Calculator tip: Finding the dot product of two vectors (page 326) ............ 574
Graphics Calculator tip: Finding scalar and vector resolutes (page 334) .................. 575
Graphics Calculator tip: Vector functions of time (page 341) ................................... 576
554 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 9 Sequences and series
Graphics Calculator tip: Listing the terms of an arithmetic sequence (page 400) .... 577
Graphics Calculator tip: Finding the sum of an arithmetic sequence (page 402) ..... 578
Worked example 10 (page 410) .................................................................................. 579
Graphics Calculator tip: Comparison of simple and compound interest
(page 434) ............................................................................................................... 582
Graphics calculator tip: Generating terms in the Fibonacci Sequence
(page 443) ............................................................................................................... 584
Chapter 10 Permutations and combinations
Graphics Calculator tip: Calculating factorials (page 468) ........................................ 585
Graphics Calculator tip: Calculating permutations (page 472) .................................. 585
Graphics Calculator tip: Calculating combinations (page 486) ................................. 586
Chapter 11 Dynamics
Worked example 2 (page 517) .................................................................................... 587
A p p e n d i x 555
Chapter 1 page 7
A graphics calculator can be used to nd the square root, cube root or higher root of a
number.
1. From the MENU (press or [QUIT]),
highlight Home.
2. Press . To calculate the square root of a
number (for example, ), press [ ]
followed by the number (8 in this case), close the
brackets and press . Your calculator may give
this answer as a simplied surd, in this case, . If
so, you will need to change the set up of your
calculator to approximation mode. (See the graphics
calculator tip that follows.)
3. To calculate higher order roots you will need to use a
fractional index. That is, for the cube root use ,
for the fourth root use and so on. To calculate
, enter 8 then press and enter (1 3) as the
index.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Square, cube and nth roots
APPS 2ND
ENTER
8 2ND
ENTER
2 2
1
3
---
1
4
---
8
3
556 A p p e n d i x
The following steps show how to set your calculator in approximation mode.
1. From the MENU, highlight Home. (Press to
display the MENU.)
2. Press and then press to display your
set up options. Press (Page 2) to display the
second page of options.
3. Press the down arrow key until the entry next to
Exact/Approx is highlighted and then press the right
arrow to display your options.
4. Select 3: APPROXIMATE for approximation mode
(press or highlight the required mode and press
). Your selection will be ashing.
5. Press to save this setting. Notice that the
bottom of the display shows APPROX.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Approximation mode
APPS
ENTER MODE
F2
3
ENTER
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 557
Chapter 2 page 93
Operations with complex numbers, nding the real and imaginary parts of a complex
number and nding the complex conjugate can be achieved with a graphics calculator.
You may not need to use a graphics calculator with simple complex numbers but it can
be useful in more complicated questions.
display the MENU.)
2. Press . To perform simple algebra on
complex numbers, use the standard keys to enter the
expression. To enter i, press [i].
For example:
(a) input (2 2i)(1 + 3i) and then press .
(b) input (2 2i) (1 + 3i) and then press .
(c) input (2 2i)^3 and then press .
Notice that a multiplication symbol (a dot) appears
on the screen for any multiplication operations in
these examples. The calculator has assumed that 2i
means 2 i.
Input 2 2i and then press followed by
to store this expression as the variable z. Press
.
Input 1 + 3i and then press followed by
[W] to store this expression as the variable
w. Press .
We can now calculate expressions involving z and/or w,
for example, z w, z w and z
3
. Press to
obtain each answer.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Simple algebra of
complex numbers
APPS
ENTER
2ND
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
STO
Z
ENTER
STO
ALPHA
ENTER
ENTER
558 A p p e n d i x
press . You may then access conj( for the
conjugate, real( for the real part and imag( for the
imaginary part of a complex number as required. The
screen at right shows conj( highlighted.
2. Press to display the selection in the entry
line of the Home screen. Enter the complex number,
close the brackets and press .
example, (2 2i)(1 + 3i), and then press
followed by [A] to store the output as the
variable a. Press .
(a) To nd , press and
select conj(. (To select conj(, highlight conj( and
then press .) Key in the variable assigned
to the stored data (a in this case, so press
[A]) and close the brackets. Press .
(b) To nd Re ((2 2i)(1 + 3i)), press
and select real(. Key in the variable assigned to
the stored data and close the brackets. Press
.
(c) To nd Im ((2 2i)(1 + 3i)), press
and select imag(. Key in the variable assigned to
the stored data and close the brackets. Press
.
CATALOG
ENTER
ENTER
STO
ALPHA
ENTER
2 2i ( ) 1 3i + ( ) CATALOG
ENTER
ALPHA
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 559
Chapter 2 page 101
Your graphics calculator is also able to calculate the modulus and Argument of a com-
plex number. Consider + i and 1 i from Worked example 23.
Modulus (magnitude, or absolute value) of a complex number
For this activity your calculator will need to be changed into AUTO or EXACT mode
and must not be in APPROX mode.
1. From the Home screen, press and access
abs(.
2. (a) Press to display abs( in the entry line of
the Home screen, then enter + i and close the
brackets. Press to obtain the answer.
(b) The modulus of 1 i is also shown in the
screen at right.
(c) The modulus of a stored complex number can
also be calculated. For example, using the
expression from the previous graphics
calculator tip where we assigned the variable a to
(2 2i)(1 + 3i), we can obtain the magnitude as
1. Decide whether you want the angle shown in radians
or degrees. See the instructions below for changing
the system settings for Angle.
2. Press and access angle(.
3. Press to display angle( in the entry line of
the Home screen, then enter the required complex
number + i and close the brackets. Press
to obtain the answer. If the calculator is set to
radians, the answer will be shown as . If the
calculator is set to degrees, the answer will be shown
as 30 for 30.
4. (a) The Argument of 1 i is shown as an exact
answer in radians in the screen at right.
(b) For an approximate answer, switch the calculator
back to approximation mode as shown earlier on
page 556.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Modulus and Argument
3 2
CATALOG
ENTER
3
ENTER
2
CATALOG
ENTER
3 ENTER
6
---
2
560 A p p e n d i x
(c) To convert this angle in radians to degrees,
minutes and seconds, rst press [ANS].
Then press and select DMS. Now
that you are back in the Home screen, press
Note: You can convert degrees to radians by selecting
Rad in the CATALOG.
5. (a) The Argument of a stored complex number can
also be calculated. See the screen at right for the
Argument of the variable a where a is assigned to
(2 2i)(1 + 3i). The exact answer is shown.
(b) For the approximate answer, set the calculator
back to approximation mode. The calculator is set
to degrees for this example.
The following steps show how to set your calculator in degrees mode.
display the MENU.)
2. Press and then press to display your
set up options.
3. Press the down arrow until the entry next to Angle is
highlighted and then press the right arrow to display
your angle options.
4. Select 2: DEGREE for degree mode (press or
highlight the required mode and press ). Your
selection will be ashing.
5. Press to save this setting. Notice that the
bottom of the screen displays DEG.
The same method is used to change back to radians.
2ND
CATALOG
ENTER
APPS
ENTER MODE
2
ENTER
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 561
Chapter 2 page 105
Complex numbers in Cartesian form (also known as rectangular form) can be written in
polar form if we know the modulus and the Argument. Consider 1 + i and 1 i from
Worked example 24.
To begin this activity, have your calculator set in DEGREES and EXACT form.
1. From the MENU, select Home. Enter the complex
number in Cartesian form. Press and
select Polar. Press to show the modulus
and Argument.
For 1 + i, we can see that the modulus is and the
Argument is 45 (as the calculator is set to degrees).
For 1 i, the modulus is 2 and the Argument is
60.
2. If the calculator is set to radians, the answer is
shown in a different format but we can still see the
modulus and Argument. Another way of
expressing cis (the polar form of 1 + i) is .
(This is beyond the scope of this course.)
Chapter 2 page 106
Complex numbers in polar form can be written in Cartesian form by entering both the
modulus and the Argument into the calculator. Consider 3 cis from Worked example
25. The modulus is 3 and the Argument is or 45.
1. From the MENU, select Home. To enter the complex
number 3 cis , rst open a set of brackets and press
to enter the modulus of 3. Then press []
to enter the function. Complete the entry line by
entering the angle in radians ( in this case) or
degrees (45) as appropriate to the calculator setting.
The screen at right shows the angle in radians. Close
the set of brackets and press .
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Expressing complex numbers
in polar form
3
CATALOG
ENTER
2
3
2

4
--- 2 e
i
4
-----
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Expressing complex numbers
in Cartesian form
4
---
4
---
4
---
3 2ND
4
---
ENTER
562 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 2 page 115
The coefcients of each term of the expansion of (a + bi)
n
can be found using your
graphics calculator. For example, the coefcients of the expansion of (a + bi)
5
can also
be written as:
5
C
0
a
5
+
5
C
1
a
4
(bi)
1
+
5
C
2
a
3
(bi)
2
. . .
5
C
5
(bi)
5
where
5
C
0
,
5
C
1
, . . .,
5
C
5
represent the coefcients.
5
C
3
1. From the Home screen, press and access
nCr(. You can nd nCr( more quickly by rst
pressing [N].
2. Press and then complete the entry line to
obtain nCr(5, 3). Press to display the value.
Note that with this calculator, we can obtain the actual
expansion of (a + bi)
5
.
1. From the MENU, select Home. Press [F6] and
press to select 1: Clear a-z.... This sets the
variables a-z to their default values and makes them
ready for use.
2. Press to indicate YES. Enter (a + bi)^5
and press . You will see a small arrow at the
end of the answer line indicating that there are more
terms. Use the arrow keys to see more of the
expansion. The full expansion is shown as
a(a
4
10a
2
b
2
+ 5b
4
) + (5a
4
10a
2
b
2
+ b
4
)bi.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Pascals Triangle coefficients
CATALOG
ALPHA
ENTER
ENTER
2ND
1
ENTER
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 563
Chapter 3 page 156
Most graphics calculators provide a facility for calcu-
lating inverses of matrices. To solve the equations in
Worked example 12, follow these steps.
1. From the MENU, highlight Data/Matrix Editor.
2. Press and select 3: New... to open a new
matrix.
3. Ensure that Type is shown as Matrix (to change,
press the right arrow to display the options and select
2: Matrix), then enter a for the variable (press
[A]), 2 for the Row dimension and 2 for
Col dimension to dene the matrix as a 2 2 matrix
with variable name a.
4. Press to accept the settings. Fill in the 2 2
matrix. Press after each number to move the
cursor from cell to cell.
5. Press (Tools) and select 3: New... to dene a
second matrix.
6. Enter the settings shown at right to dene a 2 1
matrix with variable name b.
7. Enter the values 16 and 5 for matrix b as shown.
8. Press to return to the MENU and select
Home. Enter the calculation a
-1
b as shown to
obtain the result.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Solving matrix equations
ENTER
ALPHA
ENTER
ENTER
F1
APPS
564 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 3 page 162
Matrix multiplication using a
graphics calculator
Worked example 13 may be solved using a graphics
calculator as follows.
1. From the MENU, highlight Data/Matrix Editor.
2. Press and select 3: New... to open a
new matrix.
3. Enter the settings shown at right to dene the
matrix as a 3 3 matrix with variable name a.
4. Press and complete the matrix.
5. Press (Tools) and select 3: New... to dene
a second matrix.
6. Enter the settings shown at right to dene a 3 1
matrix with variable name b.
7. Enter the values for matrix b as shown.
Home. Enter the calculation a

b as shown to
obtain the result.
ENTER
ENTER
F1
APPS
A p p e n d i x 565
Chapter 3 page 167
Multiplying a square matrix by a column vector with the same number of rows and all
entries shown as 1 has the effect of adding the elements in each row of the matrix. In
the example on page 165, the dominance vector V
1
could have been obtained using the
following steps. (The main advantage is if the dominance matrix is 5 5 or larger. You
dont need to arrow across the screen to see the elements when you are adding them.)
1. From the MENU, select Data/Matrix Editor and
establish a 4 4 dominance matrix with a variable
name m. (Refer to the graphics calculator tip on page
563 if you are unsure how to do this.) Note that you
will need to use the arrow keys to display the fourth
column of the matrix.
2. Press (Tools) and select 3: New... to create a
new 4 1 vector with variable name n. Enter 1 as
shown for every element.
Home. Perform the multiplication m n as shown.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Alternative method for adding the
elements in each row in a
dominance matrix
F1
APPS
566 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 5 page 217
Performing Gaussian elimination
Matrix row operations can be performed on your graphics calculator. To demonstrate
this, we will repeat the steps of Worked example 4 to nd the inverse of
.
1. Enter Matrix A.
(a) From the MENU, select Data/Matrix Editor.
Select 3: New... and enter the settings shown
to create a 3 3 matrix with variable a (to
represent matrix A).
(b) Press and then enter the values for
matrix A as shown.
2. Set up an augmented matrix B = [A|I]. Enter the
augmented matrix [A|I] rst and then save as
matrix B.
(a) Press to return to the MENU and
select Home.
(b) Press and select augment(. Press
[A] for matrix A and then the
comma key . To enter the identity matrix,
press and select identity(. Press
(for a 3 3 identity matrix) and press
twice to close the two sets of brackets.
Press and then press [B] to
save the augmented matrix as matrix B. Press
3. Replace R
2
with R
2
R
1
(or R
1
+ R
2
).
(a) To perform the required row operation, press
and access mRowAdd(.
A
1 2 1
1 0 1
0 1 3
=
ENTER
APPS
CATALOG
ALPHA
,
CATALOG
3
)
STO
ALPHA
ENTER
CATALOG
A p p e n d i x 567
(b) Press to display mRowAdd( in the
entry line of the Home screen. Input the
scalar multiplier, the matrix name, the row
number to be multiplied and then the row
number for the result to be added to, each
separated by a comma. In this case, enter 1,
B, 1, 2. Press to close the set of brackets.
Then press and [C] to save
the matrix as matrix C. Press to
display the matrix.
Compare this screen with the matrix obtained in
Step 2 of Worked example 4.
4. Swap R
2
and R
3
.
and access rowSwap(.
(b) Press to display rowSwap( in the
entry line of the Home screen. Input the
matrix name and the two row numbers to be
swapped, each separated by a comma. In this
case, enter C, 2, 3. Press to close the set
of brackets. Then press and
[D] to save the matrix as matrix D. Press
5. Replace R
3
with R
3
+ 2R
2
.
(a) As before, press and select
mRowAdd(.
(b) Enter 2, D, 2, 3 to represent 2 R
2
+ R
3
in
matrix D. Press to close the set of
brackets. Then press and [E]
to save the matrix as matrix E. Press
6. Multiply R
3
by .
and access mRow(.
ENTER
)
STO
ALPHA
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
)
STO
ALPHA
ENTER
CATALOG
)
STO
ALPHA
ENTER
1
6
---
CATALOG
568 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 5 page 237
The graphics calculator can perform a number of matrix operations and can provide
quick and reliable answers to some of the problems that you have encountered in this
chapter. A number of operations are shown below, some of which have already been
covered in earlier graphics calculator tips.
Consider the matrix A = .
Entering a matrix
(a) From the MENU, select Data/Matrix Editor.
Select 3: New... and enter the settings shown to
create a 3 3 matrix with variable a (to represent
matrix A).
(b) Press and then enter the values for matrix A
as shown.
(b) Press to display mRow( in the entry
line of the Home screen. Enter , E, 3 to
represent R
3
in matrix E. Press to
close the set of brackets. Then press
and [F] to save the matrix as matrix
F. Press to display the matrix.
performing operations until reduced row-echelon
form is achieved.
ENTER
1
6
---
1
6
---
)
STO
ALPHA
ENTER
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Matrix operations
2 3 2
0 1 4
2 1 1
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 569
Inverse of A
Press to return to the MENU and select Home.
With matrix A entered in the calculator, press
[A] then the power key, , and type in the index of 1
to specify the matrix A
1
. Press to display the
required matrix.
Powers of A
(a) From the Home screen, and with matrix A entered in
the calculator, press [A] to recall matrix A
to the entry line. To nd A
2
, press the power key,
, and type in the required index of 2. Press
to display the required matrix.
(b) Similarly, press [A] followed by and
then to specify A
3
. Press to display the
required matrix.
Determinant of A
(a) From the Home screen, press and access
det(.
(b) Press to display det( in the entry line and
then press [A] to specify matrix A. Close
the set of brackets and press to display the
answer.
The identity matrix
(a) From the Home screen, press and access
identity(.
(b) Press to display identity( in the entry line
of the Home screen. For a 3 3 identity matrix,
press . Close the set of brackets and press
to display the required matrix.
APPS
ALPHA
ENTER
ALPHA
ENTER
ALPHA

3 ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
ALPHA
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
3
ENTER
570 A p p e n d i x
Calculate (I A)
1
and store it as B
(a) Press to open a set of brackets and specify the
3 3 matrix I as shown above. Press the subtraction
key () and then press [A] to specify the
matrix A. Press to close the set of brackets and
then press the power key ( ) and type in 1 as the
index to specify the inverse matrix.
(b) Press and then [B] to store the
matrix as matrix B. Press to display the
resulting matrix B.
Alternatively, you can store the resulting matrix after
the calculation has been performed. Input (I A)
1
and
press to display the resulting answer matrix. To
store this as matrix B, press and then
[B]. Press .
1
by entering as a list
From the MENU, select Data/Matrix Editor and create a
new matrix of dimension 3 2 and store it as matrix B.
Return to the Home screen and enter A
1
as previously
shown, then multiply by B.
(a) From the MENU, select Data/Matrix Editor and set
up a new matrix A with specied dimensions. (Lets
use 3 3.) Press to return to the MENU and
select Home. Press and access Fill.
(b) Press to display Fill in the entry line of the
Home screen. Enter the given value. (Lets use 5.)
Press the comma key ( ) and then press
[A] to enter matrix A. Press .
You will see a message on the screen indicating
that this command has been done. To display
matrix A, press [A] and then .
(
ALPHA
)
STO
ALPHA
ENTER
ENTER
STO
ALPHA
ENTER
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 2
3 4
5 6
APPS
CATALOG
ENTER
,
ALPHA ENTER
ALPHA ENTER
A p p e n d i x 571
Chapter 6 page 256
We can use a graphics calculator to draw the original
function and its image on the same axes. Consider the
function y = x
2
and its image y = x
2
2x 3 found in
Worked example 4.
1. From the MENU, highlight Graph.
2. Press . To draw the graph of y = x
2
, press
[Y=] and enter x
2
in the function entry line next
to y1(x).
3. Press [GRAPH] to view the graph of this curve.
4. For the second equation, press [Y=] and enter
x
2
2x 3 in the function entry line next to y2(x)
and press [GRAPH] to view the graphs.
5. To see the two curves more clearly, alter the scale
settings of the axes. Press [WINDOW] and enter
the settings shown.
6. Press [GRAPH] to redraw the graph with the new
scale.
7. The TI-89 Titanium does not show the function
names on the screen as other calculator models may
do. However, you can trace each function by pressing
(Trace). The coordinates of the cursor are shown
and the number of the function (1 or 2) is displayed
in the top right of the screen.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Graphing the original and
its image
ENTER
F3
572 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 7 page 311
Consider the vector shown in Worked example 6. The vector can be expressed in com-
ponent form (or rectangular form) as 3 5 . One way of nding the magnitude and
direction (the angle the vector makes with the positive x-axis) is to convert the vector
from rectangular form to polar form using a graphics calculator.
1. From the MENU, select Home. Decide whether you
want the angle displayed in degrees or radians. In
this example we want degrees. Press and
select 2: DEGREE at the Angle line.
2. Press until you return to a blank Home
screen. We will rst dene 3 5 as the vector u
and then convert this to polar form. Press
to access Dene.
3. Press to display Dene in the entry line and
then press [U] to name the vector as u. Press
and then open a set of square brackets (press
[[].) Enter the components 3 and 5, separated
by a comma (press ), then close the set of square
brackets (press []]) and press .
4. Press [U] for vector u. Then press
to access Polar.
5. Press to display Polar in the entry line
and then press again to display the exact
value of the vector in polar form.
6. To obtain the approximate values, change to
approximation mode (press and select
3: APPROXIMATE at the Exact/Approx line). Press
to recalculate in APPROX mode.
Note that if no other operations are required, you can
enter the vector directly by using square brackets. You
then continue in the same way to convert to polar form.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the magnitude and direction
of a vector in two dimensions
i
MODE
ENTER
i
CATALOG
ENTER
ALPHA
=
2ND
,
2ND ENTER
ALPHA
CATALOG
ENTER
ENTER
MODE
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 573
Chapter 7 page 313
Vectors can be expressed in different forms. In the previous graphics calculator tip on
page 572, we converted a vector in rectangular form to polar form so we could obtain
the magnitude and direction of the vector. The reverse process can also be performed.
Consider the vector in Worked example 7 where the magnitude is 30 and the angle to
the positive x-axis is 140. To nd the x- and y-components, we convert the vector to
rectangular form.
Before beginning this activity, check that the calculator is set to degrees and is in AUTO
mode.
1. From the MENU, select Home. To enter the vector in
polar form, open a set of square brackets, enter 30
for the magnitude followed by a comma. Press
[] and enter 140 for the angle. Close the set of
square brackets and press to display the
vector in polar form.
2. Move the cursor to the right of the expression in the
entry line. Press to access Rect and
press .
3. Press to perform the conversion. The exact
values for the x- and y-components are shown.
4. To obtain the approximate values, switch the
calculator to APPROX mode and press
to perform the calculation again.
Hence = 22.98 + 19.28 .
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the x- and y-components
of a vector
2ND
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
u
574 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 7 page 316
As seen previously, the unit vector is obtained by dividing each component by the mag-
nitude of the vector. We can also use a graphics calculator to achieve this. Consider the
vector in Worked example 9 which can be expressed in component form as 6 + 3 .
To begin this exercise, set your calculator to EXACT
mode.
1. From the MENU, select Home. To dene the vector
[6, 3] as u, rst press and select Dene.
Press [U] (to name the vector as u) followed by
and then [[] to open a set of square brackets.
Enter the digits 6 and 3 separated by a comma. Close
the set of square brackets and press .
2. Press to access unitV(.
3. Press to display unitV( in the entry line of
the Home screen and then press [U] to
enter the required vector. Close the set of brackets
and press . The exact values for the
components of the unit vector are shown.
Hence .
These steps also apply to nding the unit vector for a three-dimensional vector.
Chapter 7 page 326
The following steps show how a graphics calculator can
be used to nd the dot product of two vectors. Consider
the vectors = 3 + 4 + 2 and = 6 4 + in
Worked example 13.
1. From the MENU, select Home. Dene the vector
and the vector by entering each set of components
within square brackets.
2. Press and select dotP(. Press [U]
then the comma key ( ) followed by [V].
Close the set of brackets and press to obtain
the value of the dot product.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the unit vector in the
direction of the vector
u
CATALOG
ALPHA
=
2ND
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
ALPHA
ENTER
u
2 5
5
---------- i
5
5
------- j
+ =
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the dot product of
two vectors
u
CATALOG ALPHA
,
ALPHA
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 575
Chapter 7 page 334
Finding the dot product and the unit vector on a graphics calculator can be used to
nd a scalar resolute or a vector resolute. Consider the vectors = 2 + 3 + and
= 3 + 4 in Worked example 18.
1. From the MENU, select Home. Dene the vector
and the vector by entering each set of components
within square brackets.
and the vector . Access the dot product function
(press and select dotP(). To enter , rst
access the unit vector function (press and
select unitV() and then press [U]. Press
to close the set of inner brackets and then press the
comma key ( ) followed by [V]. Close the
set of outer brackets and press to display the
value of the scalar resolute.
3. To nd the vector resolute of parallel to , we need
to calculate . Press [ANS] to show the
previous answer then press the multiplication key.
Repeat the steps above to access the unit vector
function and press [U]. Close the set of
brackets and press to display the
components of the required vector resolute.
4. The vector resolute can be found straight after
dening the vectors and (without nding the
scalar resolute rst) as seen in the screen at right.
to (calculated in step 4) from . Press [V]
then followed by [ANS] to show the
previous answer. Press to display the
components of the required vector resolute.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding scalar and vector resolutes
u
CATALOG u
CATALOG
ALPHA
)
,
ALPHA
ENTER
v
( )u
2ND
ALPHA
ENTER
u
ALPHA
2ND
ENTER
576 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 7 page 341
To draw the graph of a time-varying vector, we need to express the components in
terms of parametric equations. Consider drawing the graph of the position vector
= 2cos t + 3sin t from Worked example 22 using a graphics calculator.
1. From the MENU, highlight Graph.
2. Press . First ensure that the angle setting is
shown as radians. Press and select
1: RADIAN at the Angle line.
3. Before leaving this screen, select 2: PARAMETRIC at
the Graph line.
4. Press to save the settings. Press [Y=]
and enter the x-component by completing the entry
line for xt1(t) with 2cos t and then press .
Similarly, enter the y-component by completing the
entry line for yt1(t) with 3sin t and press .
5. Press [GRAPH] to display the graph.
To obtain a clearer view of the graph, you can adjust the window settings. Press
[WINDOW]. Adjust the values for xmin, xmax, ymin and ymax.
Alternately, press (Zoom) and select 2: ZoomIn. Use the arrow keys to dene the
centre point of the zoom and press . This will increase the size of the graph.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Vector functions of time
u
ENTER
MODE
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
F2
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 577
Chapter 9 page 400
If you know the rule for an arithmetic sequence, successive terms can be listed using a
graphics calculator. The steps for generating these terms are shown below. Consider an
example where the rst term is 3 and the difference is 2 so the rule is t
n
= 3 + (n 1) 2.
1. From the MENU, select Data/Matrix Editor and then
3: New....
2. Adjust the settings with Type shown as Data and
Variable as n.
3. Press to accept the settings. With the cursor
in the cell containing c1, press to access
seq(.
4. Press to display seq( in the entry line.
The sequence function has four parts each separated
by a comma (,). The rst part is the formula
(enter 3 + (n 1) 2), the second part is to dene the
variable (enter n), while the third and fourth parts
dene the value of n for the initial term (enter 1) and
the ceiling value of n (enter 255). Enter this
information as shown in the entry line and press
.
5. Use the arrow keys to scroll down the list.
6. If you wish to widen the column, press (Tools)
and select 9: Format. Press and select a cell
width of 10.
7. Press to display the table with wider
columns.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Listing the terms of an
arithmetic sequence
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
ENTER
F1
ENTER
ENTER
578 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 9 page 402
For the arithmetic sequence 4, 10, 16, 22, . . . , 58 considered in Worked example 5, we
can use a graphics calculator to nd the sum of the rst 10 terms. The rule for this
sequence is 4 + (n 1) 6.
3: New.... Enter the settings shown with variable n.
2. Press to accept the settings. With the cursor
in the cell containing c1, press and select
seq(. Enter the sequence 4 + (n 1) 6 as shown in
the entry line.
3. To calculate the sum of the rst 10 terms, we can add
the terms in the sequence. Move the cursor to an
empty cell in column 2 (say, r1 c2). Press
and select sum(. Again press the function
and select seq(.
4. Re-enter the sequence, the variable, the starting value
of n (enter 1) and the last value of n (enter 10) as
shown in the entry line.
5. Press to display the sum of the term.
Note that the sum of the sequence could have been calculated without actually dis-
playing the sequence rst.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the sum of an
arithmetic sequence
ENTER
CATALOG
CATALOG
CATALOG
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 579
Chapter 9 page 410
The rst three terms of a geometric sequence are 2, 6 and 18. Which numbered term
would be the rst to exceed 1 000 000 in this sequence?
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Find the rule for the sequence. See Method 1
on page 410.
a = 2 and r = 3
t
n
= 2 3
n1
Locate the term that equals or exceeds
1 000 000. Two methods are shown for this
example.
sequence
(a) From the MENU, select Data/Matrix Editor
and then 3: New... with variable n as
shown.
(b) Press to accept the settings. Press
and select seq( to enter the
sequence 2 3
n1
into column 1 (c1) as
shown.
(c) Press and scroll down until you
reach the term that exceeds 1 000 000. You
will need to widen the column to see this
number. (Refer to page 577 for instructions
on widening a column.)
From the Home screen, press
and select solve(. Enter the equation
2 3
n1
= 1 000 000 to be solved and then the
variable, separated by a comma. Close the set
of brackets and press .
2 3
n1
= 1 000 000
Write your answer. The rst term to exceed 1 000 000 is the
13th.
1
2
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
3
10
WORKEDExample
580 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 9 page 418
A city produced 100 tonnes of rubbish in the year 2008. Forecasts suggest that this may
increase by 2% each year. If these forecasts are true,
a what will be the citys rubbish output in 2012?
b in which year will the rubbish reach 120 tonnes?
c what was the total amount of rubbish produced by the city in the years 2008, 2009,
2010?
For the solution to part a, refer to page 418.
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
b Method 3: Using a graphics calculator
Use t
n
= ar
n1
to write the rule.
b
t
n
= 100(1.02)
n1
Locate the term that equals or exceeds 120.
Two methods are shown for this example.
sequence
(a) From the MENU, select Data/Matrix
Editor and 3: New... with variable n as
shown.
(b) Press to accept the settings.
Press and select seq( to
enter the sequence 100 1.02
n1
into
column 1 (c1) as shown. Press
to display the terms.
(c) Scroll down until you reach the term
that exceeds 120. You may need to
widen the column to see this number.
(Refer to page 577 for instructions on
widening a column.)
From the Home screen, press
and select solve(. Enter the equation
100 1.02
n1
= 120 to be solved and then
the variable, separated by a comma. Close
Write your answer. The rst term to exceed 120 tonnes is
the 11th term or year 2018.
1
2
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
CATALOG
ENTER
3
12
WORKEDExample
A p p e n d i x 581
Chapter 9 page 422
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
c We need to nd the sum of the rst 3 terms.
Return to the Data/Matrix Editor used
earlier. With the cursor in row 1 of column
2 (r1c2), press and select sum(
and then press again and select
seq( to nd the sum the rst three terms of
the sequence. The entry line should display
sum(seq(100 1.02^(n1), n, 1, 3)).
c
Write your answer. The total output of rubbish for the
years 2008, 2009 and 2010 will be
306.04 tonnes.
1
CATALOG
CATALOG
2
Jim invests $16 000 in a bank account which earns compound interest at the rate of 12%
per annum compounding every quarter.
At the end of the investment, there is $25 616.52 in the account.
For how many years did Jim have his money invested?
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
Use t
n
= PR
n
to write the rule for the sequence. P = 16 000
r = = 3% per quarter
and so R = 1 +
= 1.03
t
n
= 16 000(1.03)
n
Locate the term that equals or exceeds 25 616.52.
You may wish to generate the sequence and scroll
down to the required term (see page 577).
Alternatively, an equation can be set up to be solved.
This method is shown here. From the Home screen,
press and select solve(. Enter the
equation 16 000 1.03
n1
= 25 616.52 to be solved
and then the variable, separated by a comma. Close
Write your answer. Jim has invested money for
16 periods where a period is 3
months. So it will take 48 months or
4 years.
1
12
4
------
3
100
---------
2
CATALOG
ENTER
3
15
WORKEDExample
582 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 9 page 434
A graphics calculator can be used to compare the yearly amounts in an account from
earning both simple interest and compound interest. Consider the scenario in Worked
example 23 where the amounts are compared over the rst 5 years. The steps are shown
below. Then investigate this scenario further by drawing the graphs for both cases over
the rst 10 years.
3: New... with variable n. Each row of the table can
be considered as a year of the investment.
2. We wish to generate terms of the sequence for the
simple interest case in column 1 (c1) and the
compound interest case in column 2 (c2). Increase
the width of the columns to 10 (see page 577 for
instructions) and then return to column 1.
3. With the cursor in the cell containing c1, press
and select seq(. Enter the rule
10 000 + n 1000 with variable n, initial value for n
of 1 and a maximum number of terms of 5 to
generate the yearly amounts for the simple interest
case.
4. Move to column 2 and repeat step 3 using the rule
10 000 1.1
n
to generate the yearly amounts for the
compound interest case.
5. To see the graph of the two functions, rst press
and select Graph from the MENU. Press
[Y=] to display the function editor.
6. Enter the functions y1 = 10000 + 1000x and
y2 = 10000 1.1
x
. Press after each function
is entered.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Comparison of simple and
compound interest
CATALOG
APPS
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 583
7. Press [WINDOW] and enter the following
settings.
8. Press [GRAPH] to display both graphs.
9. Press (Trace) and use the arrow keys to compare
the value of each investment at various points in
time. The number displayed in the top right of the
screen indicates which graph is being traced.
F3
584 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 9 page 443
On this calculator, we can use the Sequence form of entering a function to display
the terms of any Fibonacci style sequence. The rule for a Fibonacci Sequence is
F
n + 1
= F
n
+ F
n 1
with F
0
= 1 and F
1
= 1 (or any two initial values). An equivalent
rule to this is F
n
= F
n 1
+ F
n 2
with F
1
= 1 and F
2
= 1. The second version of the rule
suits this calculator as the rule needs to be expressed as u(n) =. So the rule becomes
u(n) = u(n1) + u(n2) with u(1) = 1 and u(2) = 1.
1. From the MENU, highlight Table.
2. Press and then press . Select
4: SEQUENCE at the Graph line.
3. Press to return to the Table screen and then
press [Y=]. Enter u1(n1) + u1(n2) in the entry
line for u1(n) and press . Also set the initial
values of 1 and 1 by entering {1, 1} for ui1 and press
.
4. Press [TBLSET] and dene the table beginning
at 1 and with increments of 1. Press to save
the settings.
5. Press [TABLE] to display the table. The required
sequence is shown in the second column.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Generating terms in the
Fibonacci Sequence
ENTER MODE
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 585
Chapter 10 page 468
The following steps show how to calculate 12! using a graphics calculator.
1. From the MENU, select Home. Enter 12 and then
press to access ! (factorial symbol).
2. Press to insert the factorial symbol into the
entry line of the Home screen and then press
again to perform the calculation.
Chapter 10 page 472
To nd the number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time, we need to calculate
n
P
r
5
P
3
1. From the MENU, select Home. Press to
access nPr(.
obtain nPr(5, 3). Press to display the value.
(Alternatively, you can use the letter keys to enter npr followed by ( directly into the
entry line of the Home screen instead of accessing it from the . Press
[N] then [P] and [R] followed by , then complete the
entry line and press .)
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Calculating factorials
CATALOG
ENTER
ENTER
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Calculating permutations
CATALOG
ENTER
ENTER
CATALOG
ALPHA ALPHA ALPHA
(
ENTER
586 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 10 page 486
To nd the number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time, we need to calculate
n
C
r
5
C
3
1. From the MENU, select Home. Press to
access nCr(.
obtain nCr(5, 3). Press to display the value.
(Alternatively, you can use the letter keys to enter ncr followed by ( directly into the
entry line of the Home screen instead of accessing it from the . Press
[N] then [C] and [R] followed by , then complete the
entry line and press .)
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Calculating combinations
CATALOG
ENTER
ENTER
CATALOG
ALPHA ALPHA ALPHA
(
ENTER
A p p e n d i x 587
Chapter 11 page 517
For the solution to parts b and c, refer to pages 518 and 519.
At time t seconds, a particle has a position vector given by the expression
(t) = 2t + (25 t
2
) metres.
0 t 5 seconds.
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
a Consider the components of the position
vector. Assign x to the horizontal component
and y to the vertical. This produces two
parametric equations that we can use to
graph the trajectory.
a (t) = 2t + (25 t
2
)
Let x = 2t and y = 25 t
2
Use a graphics calculator to generate a
graph of the particles motion.
(a) From the MENU, select Graph. Press
and select 2: PARAMETRIC at
the Graph line.
(b) Press to return to the graphing
screen and then press [Y=]. In the
entry line, enter 2t for xt1(t) and press
. Similarly, enter 25 t
2
for
yt1(t) and press .
(c) Press [WINDOW] to adjust the
viewing window. Enter the settings as
shown.
(d) Press [GRAPH] to draw the graph
of the function. Press (Trace) to
investigate points on the curve.
r
1
r
2
MODE
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
F3
2
WORKEDExample
588 A p p e n d i x
Chapter 11 page 519
At time t seconds, the displacement (in metres) of a particle A is given by
A
(t) = (8 t) + (8 4t + t
2
) and the displacement (in metres) of a particle B is given by
B
(t) = (t + 2) + (2 2t + t
2
) .
For the solution to parts a, b and c, refer to pages 519 and 520.
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
d Verify that the coordinates of the impact point are (5, 5)
by drawing the graphs of the displacement for each
particle and locating the point of intersection.
d
(a) From the MENU, select Graph. Ensure that the
Graph mode is set to FUNCTION (press and
select 1: FUNCTION at the Graph line).
Complete the entry line for y1(x) with the equation
for particle A. Press . Similarly, complete
the entry line for y2(x) with the equation for particle
B and press .
(b) Adjust the WINDOW settings as shown at right.
(c) To display the graphs, press [GRAPH].
(d) To display the point of intersection, rst press
(Math) and select 5: Intersection.
(e) Navigate the pointer to each line and press .
Then navigate the pointer to set a lower and upper
bound. This is done by pressing at any point
either side of the intersection point. The coordinates
of the point of intersection will be displayed.
r
MODE
ENTER
ENTER
F5
ENTER
ENTER
3
WORKEDExample
A p p e n d i x 589
Chapter 11 page 531
A missile is red from a point on level ground with a
velocity V m/s and an angle of elevation of q to the
horizontal. The target is positioned on top of an 80 m high
tower which is located 100 m away. The base of the tower
is in the same horizontal plane as the point of projection
of the missile.
a If g is the gravitational acceleration of the missile, then show that the motion of this
missile satises V
2
cos q (5 sin q 4 cos q) = 250g.
b Use a graphics calculator to show those values of q in the domain 0 < q < 90 for which
the expression cos q (5 sin q 4 cos q) is positive. State the greatest possible value this
expression has and the value of q which produces it. Provide supporting argument for
your solutions.
2
.)
For the solution to parts a, c and d, refer to pages 531 to 535.
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
b Use a graphics calculator to graph the function
f() = cos (5sin 4 cos). You will need to
use x in place of the variable .
b
(a) Ensure that your calculator is set to
degrees.
From the MENU, select Graph.
Complete the entry line for y1(x) with
cos(x)(5sin(x) 4cos(x)).
(b) Press [WINDOW] to enter the settings as
shown.
(c) Press [GRAPH]. The graph shows
where the expression is positive for
0 < x < 90.
7
WORKEDExample
x
V
80 m
100 m
Target
y
O
Continued over page
590 A p p e n d i x
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
(d) To display the maximum point, rst press
(Math) and select 4: Maximum.
(e) Navigate the pointer to set a lower and
upper bound. This is done by pressing
at any point either side of the
maximum. The coordinates of the maximum
point will be displayed.
F5
ENTER
A n s w e r s 591
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
CHAPTER 1 Number systems: the
Real Number System
Exercise 1A Classication of
numbers
1
2
7
8
Exercise 1B Recurring decimals
1 c d e f g j k l n o p q r t u v w x y
2
7 Irene. It can also be written as .
a Q b Q c Q d I
e I f Q g Q h I
i Q j Q k Q l Q
m I n Q o I p Q
q Q r I s I t I
u Q v I w I x Q
y I
a Q b Q c Q d Q
e Q f I g I h Q
i I j Undened k I l I
m I n Q o Q p Q
q I r I s Q t Q
u I v Q w Q x Q
y I
3 B 4 E 5 C 6 D
a Z
+
b Q c Q d Q
e Z
+
f Q g Z
+
h Z
+
i Z
+
j Z
k Z
l Q
m Z
n Z
+
o Q p Q
q Z
+
r Z
s Z
+
t Q
u Z
v Q w Z
+
x Z
+
y Z
a Z
+
b I c I d Q
e Z
f I g Z
h I
i Q j Q k Z
+
l Z
m Q n Q o Z
+
p I
q Z
r I s I t Z
u I v Z
+
w Q x I
y Z
+
9 C 10 C 11 B 12 D
a b c d
e f g h
i j k 2 l
m n 1 o 3 p
q r s t 3
u v w x
y
3 E 4 D 5 C 6 E
2
9
---
7
9
---
8
9
---
5
9
---
4
9
---
1
6
---
17
45
------
19
45
------
31
45
------
32
45
------
28
45
------
53
99
------
4
33
------
34
99
------
367
495
---------
361
999
---------
427
999
---------
868
1665
------------
323
999
---------
152
333
---------
13
18
------
157
300
---------
1237
1980
------------
5611
9000
------------
2
13
------
0.02
Exercise 1C Surds
1 b d f g h i l m o q s t w
Exercise 1D Simplifying surds
1
2
3
Exercise 1E Addition and subtraction
of surds
1
2 A 4 E 5 B 6 C
7 2 (when a = 64) 8 m = 4
a b c d
e f g h
i j k l
m n o p
q r s t
u v w x
y
a b c d
e f g h
i j k l
m n o
p 5
q r s t
u
v
w x
y
a 4a b 9ab
c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m n o
p q r
s t u
v
w
x
y z
4 E 5 C 6 D 7 C
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m n o
p
2 3 3 2 2 6 2 14
3 3 5 3 5 5 3 11
3 6 2 15 4 7 7 2
2 17 5 6 6 5 13 2
2 22 3 15 9 2 10 2
7 5 8 5 8 7 7 15
9 5
4 2 15 2 24 10 24 7
36 5 10 17 21 6 40 2
30 3 18 7 28 5 18 30
64 3 10 2 2
2 2 6 2 3 2 2
1
3
--- 15
20 5
3
2
--- 7
7
2
--- 11
8 3
6a 2
3ab 6 3a 10b 4a 3ab
13a
2
2 5a
2
b 6 13ab 2ab
2a
2
b
3
3ab 2ab
2
17ab 4x
3
5y
5x
3
y
2
5 24x y 20xy 5x
14xy 7xy 54c
3
d
2
2cd 9c
2
d
2
14d
18c
3
d
4
5cd 28c
5
d
5
6 22ef
2
3
--- e
2
f
3
30
7e
5
f
5
2ef
3
4
--- e
6
f
2
7 f
1
9
--- xy
4
6xy
1
3
--- x
5
y
6
3
7 5 17 2 8 3
19 7 15 5 5 3 + 15 2 7 6 +
4 11 5 13 13 2
10 7 11 5 3 6 7 2 5 6 +
17 3 18 7 5 xy 8 x 3 y +
x 5 y 7 xy +
1A
1E
592 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
2
3
Exercise 1F Multiplication of surds
1
2
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
k l
m 15 10 + 10
n 0
o p
q
r
s
t 0
u
v
w
x
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
k l
4 D 5 E 6 A 7 E 8 B
9 a cm
b cm
c cm d m
e m f m
a b c d
e f
g 10
h
i j
k 27
l
m n o
p 126
q 120 r 144
s t
u v
w 2
x
y
z
a b
c d
e
f
g h
i j
3 a 98 cm
2
b 75 cm
2
c m
2
d m
2
e m
2
f m
2
4 E 5 C 6 D 7 A 8
10 2 3 ( ) 2 2
5 5 6 + ( ) 6 6 2 3 +
7 3 10 2
4 5 5 5
14 3 3 2 + 11 4 11
3 6 6 3 + 17 2
10 15
8 11 22 + 39 3
12 30 16 15
2 5 5 2 2 30 2 15 +
12 ab 7 3ab +
7
2
--- 2 2 3 +
3 2
15 2
5
8
--- 3
34 a 6 2a 52 a 29 3a
6 6ab 32a 2 6a 8a 2 + +
a 2a a 2 2a +
3a a a
2
3a + a
2
a + ( ) ab
4ab ab 3a
2
b b + 3 ab 2a 1 + ( )
6ab 2a 4a
2
b
3
3a + 2a b
12 2
6 6 8 3 + ( )
18 2 3 2 5 + ( ) 3 5
18 2 2 5 + ( ) 21 11
14 55 42 2 6
4 3 6 2 5 15
3 7 4 10 30 3
10 33 96 6 180 5
120 3 360 3
2 6 6
2
3
---
4
3
--- 5
2
5
--- 6
3 3
x
2
y y x
2
y
3
x
3a
4
b
2
2ab 5abc
2
2abc
6a
5
b
2
2b
6a
3
b
4
3x
2
y
2
10xy 15x
6
y
2
2
9
2
--- a
2
b
4
5ab
1
2
--- a
3
b
2
2ab
20 11
6 6
45 96 10 + ( )
72 15
15 360 2
Exercise 1G The Distributive Law
1
2 a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
3
4
9 a b
Exercise 1H Division of surds
1
a b
c d
e f
g h
i
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
a 46 b 18 c 11
d 50 e 6 f 2
g 10 h 5 i 7
j 51 k 26 l 1
m 7 n 17 o 63
p 44 q 53 r 343
s 76 t 17 u x y
v 2x 3y w 9x 16y x 4x
3
25y
y xy(49x 9y) z xy(81x 25y)
5 A 6 C 7 E 8 D
a b c 2 d
e f g 4 h
i j k
l
m n 1 o 1 p
q 1 r s t 2
u v w x
21 6 3 + 3 10 7 5
2 5 10 6 10 +
126 2 14 3 10 21 4 6
72 14 30 + 30 15 80 6 +
24 2 12 +
3 10 9 2 5 5 15 +
35 11
4 40 3
24 3 18 30 8 10 60 +
112 140 3 24 6 90 2 +
2 55 2 22 4 15 4 6 +
10 35 14 14 15 10 42 +
180 30 3 18 6 9 2 +
15x 26 xy 8y + +
4x 2 5xy 10y +
27 10 2 + 16 4 15 +
18 6 5 + 53 10 6 +
35 12 6 + 53 12 10 +
104 60 3 + 14 6 5
10 2 21 37 8 10
57 12 15 59 12 15 9 5 6 3 +
5 7 2 3
6 15
3
5
---
3
4
-------
4 2
3
----------
5
2
-------
5 6
2 3
1
5
--- 2 6
4
5
--- 3 3 2 17
2
5
---
x
y
--
1
x
3
y
2
----------
2
x
3
y
4
---------- 6x xy
A n s w e r s 593
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
2
7
8
9
Exercise 1I Rationalising
denominators
1
2
7
Exercise 1J Rationalising
denominators using conjugate surds
1 a
b
c
d
e
a
b c
d
e f
3 B 4 E 5 A 6 C
a m b cm c m
d m e cm
f cm
a b c
a cm
b 126 L
a b c d
e f g h
i j k l
m n o
a
b
c d
e f
g h
i j
k
3 B 4 D 5 C 6 A
a b c
2xy 3y
2x
2
3y
------------
4 a
3
----------
3b
2
2b
2a a
-------------------
2 2
3m
3
n m
----------------------
15
2m
2
n
2
---------------
4 13 4 6 7 11
3 7 5 13
15
2
------ 5
4 5
5
3
------- 2 2
35 2
5 2
2
----------
7 3
3
----------
4 11
11
-------------
4 6
3
----------
2 21
7
-------------
10
2
----------
2 15
5
-------------
3 35
5
-------------
5 6
6
----------
4 15
15
-------------
5 7
14
----------
8 15
15
-------------
8 21
49
-------------
8 105
7
----------------
10
3
----------
2 2 +
3 10 2 33
6
---------------------------------
12 5 5 6
10
------------------------------
9 10
5
-------------
3 10 6 14 +
4
---------------------------------
5 6
3
----------
3 22 4 10
6
---------------------------------
21 15
3
--------------------------
14 5 2
6
----------------------
12 10
16
----------------------
6 15 25
70
-------------------------
21
7
----------
15
3
----------
2 6
3
----------
5 2
3 6 +
3
----------------
2 2 5 +
3
------------------------
2 6 7 +
17
------------------------
8 11 4 13 +
31
---------------------------------
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
x
y
z
2 a
b
c
d
2 21 35
14
-----------------------------
15 15 20 6
13
------------------------------------
9 11 9 +
20
----------------------
5 14 2 10 25 7 10 5 +
155
------------------------------------------------------------------------
12 2 17
19 4 21
5
-------------------------
9 2 154 +
4
------------------------------
20 2 9 10 4 30 + + 9 6
2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
3
12
-------
3 3 2 6 +
18
---------------------------
10 3 15 6 9 2 27 + + + ( )
42
----------------------------------------------------------------------
12 3 4 3 6 2 +
52
----------------------------------------------------
60 2 10 30 6 10 5 6 +
35
------------------------------------------------------------------------
115 31 21 +
148
-------------------------------
71 12 33
17
----------------------------
18 2 10 6 9 3 15 +
102 48 6 +
95
----------------------------
9 154 132 42 2 8 77 + +
50
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
7 3 9 +
3
-------------------
21 5 6 14 5 70 20
27
------------------------------------------------------------------
6 6 2 10 2 5 + +
2
---------------------------------------------------------
9 2 8 +
14
-------------------
9 7 13 3
120
------------------------------
16 210 12 14
77
------------------------------------------
6 7 2
1E
1J
594 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e
f
g
h
i
j
3 a
b
4 A
5
6 a
b
c
d
e 44
f
g
h
7 Yes
8 a
b
Exercise 1K Further properties of
real numbers modulus
1
a 2
b c
a 19 b c 0.75 d
e 8 f 2a g 12
h
i 3.21 j 0
k
l 4
m 10 n 10
o a
2
b
2
p 16
q 27 r 15 s 72 t 54
u
v 8 w 11 x 30
y 3a z 6cd
2 C 3 E 4 D 5 B
45 15 14 9 10 6 35 + + + ( )
5
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
66 24 6 +
5
-------------------------
5 4 14
959 281 77 182 7 6 11 + + +
629
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 7 65 16 11 +
28
---------------------------------------------
41 6 30 + ( )
12
---------------------------------
230 257 3 137 5 80 15 +
431
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
6 2 15 3 10 5 6 + +
6
--------------------------------------------------------------
14
19
------
6 35
19
-------------
312 35
361
-------------------
210 2 120
41
-------------------------------
200 2 126
41
-------------------------------
99 238 50 400 2
1681
---------------------------------------------
99 120 50 460 2
1681
---------------------------------------------
103 90 2
7 2 4 +
295 2 382
49
-------------------------------
11 5 +
6
-----------------------
42 5 28 7 +
17
---------------------------------
1
4
--- 15
1
2
---
2
3
---
1
2
---
6 a
b c R and y 0
Exercise 1L Solving equations using
absolute values
1 a x = 5 b x = 4 or x = 6
c x = 1 or x = d x = or x = 2
e x = f x = 9
2 a x = 2 b No solutions
c No solutions d x = 5
3 a x = 6 or x = 1 b x = 10 or x =
c x = 3 or x = d x = 1 or x = 3
Exercise 1M Solving inequations
1 a 1 < x < 2
b x > 2 or x < 2
c 1 < x < 2
d 2 < x < 3
2 a x < 0 or x > 2
b x < 1 or x > 1
c x < 3 or x > 4
d x > 2 or x < 2
3 a 4 < x < 4
b 5 < x < 3
c 2 < x < 3
d 9 < x < 11
4 a x < 1 or x >
b x < 1 or x > 1
c x < 3 or x > 9
d x < 3 or x >
x 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
| y| 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
y = |2x 4| y = 2x 4
y
x
2
4
4
1
2
---
1
2
---
2
3
---
1
2
---
1
3
---
2
5
---
1
5
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
2
---
0 1 1 2 3 4
1

2
1
0 1 2 3 4
0 1 1 2 3 4
1
3
---
0 1 2 3
1

3
1
1
2
---
1 2 3 4 5
1

2
4
1
2
---
0 1 2 3 4
1

2
2
0 4 5 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 5
0 4 5 6 3 1 2
5 2 1 0 3 4
10 0 5 10 5
1
3
---
2
3
---
0 1 2 3 1 2
1

3
1
2

3

1
4
---
3
4
---
2 1 0 3 1

4
1
3

4
1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2
1
3
---
1 1 3 2 0 4 2
1

3
_
A n s w e r s 595
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
e 1 < x < 7, x 3
f 3 < x < 5 , x 4
Chapter review
1 A
2 a Irrational, since equal to non-recurring and non-
terminating decimal
b Rational, since can be expressed as a whole
number
c Rational, since given in a rational form
d Rational, since it is a recurring decimal
e Irrational, since equal to non-recurring and non-
terminating decimal
3 A
4 B
5
6 D
7 E
8
9 E
10 a , , ,
b , ,
11 B 12 C
13
14 A
15
16
17 D
18
19 A 20 D 21 B 22 A
23 E 24 ( ) cm
25 C
26
27
28 E
29 C
30 a
b
c
31
32 m
2
33 A
a Z
b Z
+
c Q d I
a
b c
a
b
a
b
a m
b cm
c m
d 22 cm
a 27 b
a b c 3a
2
3
---
5 3 1 2 4 0 6 7 8
2
3
1
1
5
---
1
3
---
6 4 5 3 7
1
3
5
1
5
3
62
99
------
337
900
---------
157
165
---------
2m
20
m
------ m
3
8m
3
25m
m
16
------
20
m
------
72x
3
y
4
2xy
1
4
--- x
2
y
5
xy
25 3
3ab ab
5
17 4 6 ( )
26 4 2 ( )
720 2
23 6 48
5 7
4
----------
x 5y
2
------------- x
2
y 2
2323 594 14
50
-------------------------------------
2277 606 14
50
-------------------------------------
51 12 14 18 7 27 2 +
3 7 3
40
-----------------------
3
2
-------
34
35 C 36 C 37 C 38 A
39 D 40 B
1
2
3
CHAPTER 2 Number systems:
complex numbers
Exercise 2A Introduction to complex
numbers
1
2
3
4 z = 2 3i, w = 7 + 3i
5
6 4 i
7 a E b C c C d E
8 Check with your teacher.
Exercise 2B Basic operations using
complex numbers
1
a 11 b 3
a amps b amps
c amps d amps
a cm
b cm
3
c cm
3
d cm
3
a cm
3
b cm c cm
a 3i b 5i c 7i
d
e f
g i h i
a 9, 5 b 5, 4 c 3, 8
d 6, 11 e 27, 0 f 0, 2
g 5, 1 h 0, 17
a 1 + i b 1 + i c 1 i d 0 + 0i
e 1 + 2i f 1 + i g 1 + 0i h 1 2i
a 5 b 15 c 0 d 6
e 2 f 0 g 9 h 2
a b
c d
e f
5 10
3
-------------
5 102
6
----------------
135 38
19
-------------------
5 34
2
-------------
2 37
18 37
54 3 18 37 3 3 + ( )
360 10
3 10
-----------------
2 15
-----------------
3 i
11 i 7i
2
3
---
6
5
---
Im (z)
1 2 3
0
1 3 + i
Re (z)
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
5 4 5i
Im (z)
Re (z)
1
2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6 2 6i
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
2
1
7 + 3i
3
Im (z)
Re (z)
1
0
2 3
1
2 2i 5
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
2
1
8
8 + i 3
Im (z)
Re (z)
1J
2B
596 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
2
3
4
5
8
9
10
11 a b
c d
e f
g h
12
Exercise 2C Conjugates and division
of complex numbers
1
2 a
a 4 i b 1 14i c 4 2i
d 9 13i e 12 + 4i f 9 5i
a 12 + 3i b 19 8i c 12 + 23i
d 25 + 3i e 50 48i f 41 28i
a 7 23i b 4 + 45i c 50 13i
d 63 37i e 85 132i f 176 61i
a 111 + 33i b 31 8i c 22 48i
d 61 e 53 f 32 126i
6 14 + 52i 7 3
a 8 b 5 c 9 d 35
e 30 f 115
a x = 5, y = 2 b ,
c x = 1, y = 5 d x = 2, y = 3
a E b B c C
a 7 10i b 5 + 9i c 3 12i
d
e 5 2i
f
x
21
41
------ = y
16
41
------ =
0
4
3
3 + 4i
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
2
11
11 2i
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
2
6
6 2i
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
4
2
2 4i
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
10
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
10 10i
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
24
32
32 24i
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
16
88
88 + 16i
Im (z)
Re (z)
321 3 2 1
3
2
1
1
0
2
3
i
2
z
iz, i
5
z
i
3
z, iz
z, i
4
z, i
2
z
Im (z)
Re (z)
7 3i + 6 11 i +
Im (z)
Re (z)
= 3 i
= 3 + i z
z
b
c
4 + i
5
6
7 10 + 24i
8
12
17
22 x = 2, y = 1; x = 2, y = 1
23 a i 13 ii 5
c i i ii i
d 8 + 16i
e 2 + 10i
f
Exercise 2D Radians and coterminal
angles
1
a 0 i b 0 i
c + i
d i e + i
f
a b c
d e
f
a b c d e
9 + i 10 29 11 33 + 58i
a D b C c B
13, 14 and 15 Check with your teacher. 16 16
a 12 + 11i b 30 19i c 0
18 Check with your teacher. 19 a 4, 16, 64
20 x = 1, y = 21 a = , b =
= 1 + 3i
= 1 3i
Im (z)
z
z
Re (z)
= 4 5i
= 4 + 5i
Im (z)
z
z
Re (z)
1
2
---
1
2
---
7
25
------
26
25
------
14
29
------
23
29
------
43
53
------
18
53
------
2 5 6
7
-----------------------
2 2 15 +
7
---------------------------i +
2 i +
5
-----------
3 i
10
----------
4 3i +
25
--------------
5 4i
41
--------------
3 2i
13
------------------
3 2i +
5
----------------------
23
10
------
9
10
------
17
5
------
16
5
------
14
5
------
17
2
------
9
2
---
2
1
2
---
1
2
---
2
13
------
3
13
------
1
5
---
2
5
---
4 7i +
65
------------------
2
0
Im (z)
Re (z)
A n s w e r s 597
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
2 a b c d e
3 a 210 b 225 c 240 d 300
4
1 Probability
2 He was a foreigner.
3 Tutoring students and writing books
4 Newton
5 De Moivre predicted it.
Exercise 2E Complex numbers in
polar form
1 a b
2 a 13 b 3 c
d e f 5
3 a i ii
b i ii
c i ii 10
d i ii
4
---

3
---
3
4
------
3
2
------
5
6
------
(b)
(a) (d)
(e)
(f)
(c)
Im (z)
Re (z)
4
8
0
z = 4 + 8i
Im (z)
Re (z)
z 4 5 =
65
3 5 5
0
4
1
z w
Im (z)
Re (z)
17
0
6
1
u + z
Im (z)
Re (z)
37
0
8
6
w u
Im (z)
Re (z)
0
2
7
w + z
Im (z)
Re (z)
53
e i ii
f i ii 10
4 a
b 42.5 square units
5 a
b 24 square units
6 a 0.588 b c d 2.034
e f 1.030 g h
i j 0
7 a b c d
e f g h
8
9
a b
c d
e f
g
a b
c d
e cis
f
0
7
9
z + w u
Im (z)
Re (z)
130
0
6
8
z
2
Im (z)
Re (z)
4 2 10 2 4 6 8
4
6
z
3
z
2
z
4
z
1
2
Im (z)
Re (z)
4 2 2 4 6 8
2
0
4
6
8
10
12
z
w
u
Im (z)
Re (z)
6
---

4
---
2
3
------

2
---
2
---
2
---

6
---

8
---
3
4
------
5
6
------
6
7
------
2
5
------
11
12
---------
3 2

4
--- , 5 2
3
4
------ ,
2
2
3
------ , 8

6
--- ,
149 2.182 , 2 10 1.893 ,
4

3
--- ,
2 cis
3
4
------ 2 2 cis
6
---
10 cis
3
4
------

2 5 cis

3
---

2
3
------

2
4
------- cis
3
4
------
2B
2E
598 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
10
Exercise 2F Basic operations on
complex numbers in polar form
1
2
3
4
5
6 a b i c + i
d e 0.171 0.046i f 16
7
8 1
9 a B b C c E
10 11 16 16i
12 64 + 64i 13
14 a (3 + 2i) b (3 2i)
c d (2 i)
a
b (1 + i)
c
d
e (1 + i)
f 8i g
11 C 12 B 13 D 14 E 15 D
a b c
d e
a b
c
d
e
a b
c
a b
c d
e
a i
ii
b i 16 cis ii 16
c i 9 cis ii 9
d i
ii
1 3i +
3 2
2
----------
5
2
------- 3 i + ( )
2 2 3 i
14
2
----------
3
6 cis
3
4
------ 20 cis
3
--- 6 5 cis

4
---

6 cis
2
3
------ 2 7 cis

6
---

3 2 3 2 i + 10 10 3 i +
3 10 3 10 i
6
2
-------
3 2
2
---------- i +
21 7 i
4 2 cis
5
12
------ 8 3 cis

2
---

8 2 cis

12
------

3 cis
2
--- 4 cis
11
12
---------
2 cis
3
10
------

2 2 cis
3
14
------

3 2
4
---------- cis
7
12
------
3 3 cis
4
---
3 6
2
----------
3 6
2
----------i +
32 cis
3
4
------
16 2 + 16 2i
1
4
---
1
8
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
3
64
-------
1
64
------i
64 3 64i
8
9
---

6
--- ,
2
5
---

120
--------- ,
1 2 + 1 2 + i + ( )
Chapter review
1 B 2 B 3 1 2i
4 C 5 E 6 C
7
8
9 C 10 A 11 A
12
13 a b
14
15 B 16 D 17 B
18 19 E 20 A
21 B
22
c (1 2i)
1 a cos + sin i
b z = 1 + i, w = + i
c
d i ii iii
e Check with your teacher.
2 a i 2 ii 0 b x = 3
3 a iz = 2 + 3i, i
2
z = 3 2i, i
3
z = 2 3i, i
4
z = 3 + 2i
b i
4
z = z
c d
e
f i, ii and iii One-quarter turn (rotation by 90) in an
anticlockwise direction.
g One-quarter turn in an anticlockwise direction
h Circle with centre at the origin and radius
a 48 b a = 549, b = 296
a 11 i
b c
a 135 b 210
a 527336i b i
29 6 5
1
17
------ 12 14i ( )
6
---
7 2 cis
3
4
------

117
15 625
----------------
44
15 625
---------------- +
12
------

12
------
3 2 2
2 6 6 2 ( )i + +
4
------------------------------------------------------
6 2 +
4
--------------------
6 2
4
-------------------- 2 3
Re z
Im z
3
4
1
2
2
1
3
4
i
4
z
i
3
z i
2
z
iz
2 3 4 2 3 4 1 1
0
Re z
Im z
3
4
1
2
2
1
3
4
i
4
z
i
3
z
i
2
z
iz
2 3 4 2 3 4 1 1
0
13
r x
2
y
2
+ =
Re z
Im z
z = x + yi
r
y
x
zi
3
zi
2
zi
A n s w e r s 599
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
CHAPTER 3 Matrices
Exercise 3A Operations with
matrices
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 Different orders
8
9
10
11
12
Matrix Order 2, 1 element 1, 3 element
A 2 2 8
B 3 1 5
C 1 4 10
D 2 3 4 4
E 3 3 1 2
a b c d
a b c
d e
a C b D c E d A e B
a b c
d e f
a b c d
a b
a b
a True b True c False d True
3 3
0 9
7 3
8 5
6 3
2 8
3 6
2 1
4 6
8 14
9 6
12 12
11 6
4 20
9 9
0 27
7 18
12 4
2 0 14
4 0 0
6 0 18
0 8 0
0 10 16
0 12 0
2 8 14
4 10 16
6 12 18
3 4 21
6 5 8
9 6 27
4 0 28
8 0 0
12 0 36
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
2 0
3 1
2 0
6 2
1 0 1
2 3 1
2 6
1 12
2 1
0 1 3 1
1 0 2 2
3 2 0 1
1 2 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 2
1 1 0 3
1 2 3 0
82 54
75 68
91 82
15 14 104
7 10 52
13 7 5 1 31 18 26
12 4 4 4 17 15 16
14 8 5 1 35 19 29
13 4 4 5 18 19 16
Exercise 3B Multiplying matrices
1 a A (2 2), B (2 2), C (3 2), D (1 2),
E (2 3), I (2 2)
b CA, DB, AE, AI, IA, IB, A
2
, EC
c (3 2), (1 2), (2 3), (2 2), (2 2), (2 2),
(2 2), (2 2)
d
2
3
4 a i ii iii
b All are I
c Multiplicative inverses
5
6
7 a b
c Southport 120, Broadbeach 99, Lions 74,
Eagles 70
8 a
b Shop A = $820, Shop B = $345
1 Matrix theory and number theory
2 Computer development
3 Cross of Honour
4 Caltech
a b No
a b c d
e f g h
i j
a A b C c D d B
a
b Sharks have a total of 32 points. Dolphins
have a total of 31 points.
20 14
44 22
4 5
2 2
4 18 8
8 8 6
2 3
4 5
2 3
4 5
1 1
1 0
8 21
28 13
14 15
24 30
10 20
5 10
8 26
4 12
4 3
0 9
2 7
24 9
0 0
0 0
3 2
8 5
2 0
0 3
10 4
24 9
31 0
0 31
10 11
16 1
0 0
0 0
3 2
8 5
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
3
1
0
32
31
18 12
14 15
10 14
9 16
6
1
10
25
12
2E
3B
600 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
Exercise 3C Powers of a matrix
1 a b c
2 a b c
3 a b
4 a
Exercise 3D Multiplicative inverse
and solving matrix equations
1 a b
2
3
4
5
6 Answers will vary.
7
8 a D det = 0 b E det = 0
c F Not a square matrix
9
10, 11 Check with your teacher.
12
a 5 b 12 c 2 d 8 e 7 f 14
a
b c
d e f
a C b E c D d A
a b
c
d e
f
a b
a b c
d e f
4 2
0 0
8 4
0 0
16 8
0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
8 9 0
2 4 1
1 0 0
26 27 0
10 13 1
1 1 1
1 1 2
1 1 1
AB 6
1 0
0 1
= A
1
1
6
---B = B
1
1
6
--- A =
MN 2
1 0
0 1
M
1
,
1
2
---N N
1
,
1
2
---M = = =
1
5
---
10 3
5 2
1
12
------
0 3
4 2
1
2
---
1 6
0 2
1
8
---
1 3
4 4
1
7
---
5 1
3 2
1
14
------
4 1
6 2
1
2
---
1 6
0 2
1
4
---
1 2
2 0
12 2
2 1
1
8
---
1 2
2 12
1
8
---
11 2
4 0
1
8
---
1 2
2 12
0 8
1 2
1
8
---
2 8
1 0
1
2
---
31 22
24 18
1
2
---
5 5
14 8
1
6
---
6 2
6 4
1
2
---
18 23
12 16
1
30
------
78 103
24 34
1 0
0 1
13
14
Exercise 3E The transpose of a
matrix
Exercise 3F Applications of matrices
1
2 a and b Answers will vary. c det = 0
d i ii
e In i there are parallel lines; in ii there is only one
line.
3 a E b B
4 a C b D
5 16, 4 6 15, 10 7 Anh 8 $51 070
Exercise 3G Dominance matrices
1 a
b Cameron, Breanna, Kayley, Teagan
2 Mair, Ann, Janine
3 a Hamilton, Leslie, Cunningham, Barnes
b 20 points to Hamilton, 15 to Leslie, 10 to
Cunningham, 5 to Barnes
4 a M =
b 5 points to Warwick, 4 points to Ipswich, 3 points
to Stanthorpe, 2 points to Clifton, 1 point to
Goondiwindi
Chapter review
6 a b c
g h or
a b
a x = 2, y = 1 b x = 1, y = 2
c x = 2, y = 3 d x = 7, y = 4
a (5, 1) b (3, 0) c (10, 2)
d (0, 0) e (4, 4) f (2, 3)
1 D 2 B 3 C 4 B 5 a, f, g, i
1
15
------
1 5
2 5
1
15
------
132 114
186 162
1
5
---
44 38
62 54
2
1
2
3
x
y
0
2 3
3
2
1
4
3
Both lines
x
y
0 2
3
B
C
K T
0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0
3 2
2 4
7 6
6 4
5 14
14 12
A n s w e r s 601
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
7 a b c
8 a A b B
16 a [0.25 0.40 0.20 0.15] [800] = [a b c d]
b A = 800B
c [200 320 160 120]
17 a b
18 James, Cameron, Glen, William
1 a 1: Despatch for Deluxe model takes 1 hour.
b 14: Packaging at Plant 1 has a wage rate of $14 per
hour.
c 3 3, 3 2, 3 2
d
e The total costs for the Standard model at Plants 1
and 2
f The assembly costs for each model at Plant 1
g i $529.50 ii $514.00
2 a 145x + 103y + 121z = 20 260
130x + 110y + 90z = 18 400
142x + 115y + 80z = 19 200
b
c A
1
=
d The cost of an adults ticket is $75, a childs ticket
is $50 and a pensioners ticket is $35.
3 A =
4 A =
9 D 10 C 11 C
12 A 13 14 B
15 a b (5, 1)
1 0 0
1 4 2
1 0 0
1 0 0
3 8 4
1 0 0
1 0 0
7 16 8
1 0 0
9 3
6 0
1
10
------
1 2
3 4
1.12
0
0 0.95
278.88 27.55
761.60 46.55
433.25 420.50
529.50 514.00
605.25 587.50
145 103 121
130 110 90
142 115 80
x
y
z
20 260
18 400
19 200
=
0.025 544 0.093 523 0.066 579
0.039 222 0.091 991 0.044 166
0.011 042 0.033 767 0.042 189
a b
a
2
b
----- a
a b
a a
2
b
-------------- 1 a
CHAPTER 4 An introduction to
groups
Exercise 4A Modulo arithmetic
1 a 4, 12, 20, 28, 36 b 4, 10, 16, 22
2 a 0, 1, 2 b 0, 1, 2, 8
c 0, 1, 10
3 a
b
c
1 He tutored students.
2 Abelian groups are those that have the property of
commutativity.
Exercise 4B The terminology of
groups
1 = 2 and 2 is not an element of the set of
whole numbers.
2 1
3 = =
Not a whole number, not closed.
3 a IE = 1 b b = 2 a
4 IE = 0 a
0 = a + 0 a 0
5 No identity. 4a ( )
2
= a but
a a
6 Assuming this operation has an identity then let
= a
a + b = a
2
b
a = a
2
b b
But a a
2
b b therefore the operation has no
identity.
7 Let (0, 1) = (a, b) = IE. Therefore, (0, 1)
(c, d) =
(0 d + 1 c, 0 c + 1 d) = (c, d) and (a, b)
(0, 1) = (a 1 + b 0, a 0 + b 1) = (a, b).

8 Let (a + b)
2
= a where b = IE
Take the square root of both sides: a + b =
If a is negative then R. Since an identity must
be applicable to all elements of the set, there is no IE
for a
b.
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
0
2
3
4
5
0
1
3
4
5
0
1
2
4
5
0
1
2
3
5
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3
0
1
2
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
3
0
2
0
2
0
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4
0
1
2
3
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
3
4
0
2
4
1
3
0
3
1
4
2
0
4
3
2
1
3 2 +
2
------------
1
2
---
1
2
---
1 9 + 10
1
2
---
1
2
---
a b +
ab
------------
a
a
3C
4B
602 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
Exercise 4C Properties of groups
1 a [R, +] It is closed, associative, IE+ = 0,
inverse = a, therefore it is a group.
b It is Abelian.
2 a Closed, associative, no IE since
0 {even numbers}, there is an inverse; therefore
not a group.
b Closed, associative, no IE since
1 {even numbers}, no inverse; therefore not a
group.
3 a 1
2
+ 1
3
is not closed; not a group.
b 1
2
1
3
is closed, and associative, IE = 1, there is
an inverse; so it is a group.
5
Closed, associative, IE = 1 and there is an inverse;
therefore it is a group.
6 a
b Under addition: not closed, associative, no IE+
since 0 2
2n
, no inverse (always +ve); not a
group.
c Under multiplication: closed, associative, IE = 1
is not present as no 2
0
(0 {even numbers}),
inverse is 2
2n
; not a group.
7
It is closed and associative, IE = 1; inverse does not
exist since there are no 1s in the rst row or column.
This is not a group; therefore, it is not Abelian, even
though the commutative law does apply.
8 a Yes b No, not closed
c No, no inverse for b d Yes
9 a
b It is closed, associative, IE
= 5, no inverse; so
not a group.
10
Closed, associative, IE
= N, there is an inverse,
N appears in every row and column.
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
2
4
1
3
3
1
4
2
4
3
2
1
+ 4 16 64 256
4
16
64
256
.
.
.
8
20
68
260
.
.
.
20
32
80
272
.
.
.
68
80
128
320
.
.
.
260
272
320
512
.
.
.
0 1 2
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
2
1
5 10 20
5
10
20
5
10
20
10
10
20
20
20
20
N L R A
N
L
R
A
N
L
R
A
L
A
N
R
R
N
A
L
A
R
L
N
Exercise 4D Cyclic groups and
subgroups
1 Closed, IE+ = 0, inverses exist (3 + 9 0 mod 12,
6 + 6 0 mod 12), therefore subgroup. Generators are
3 and 9.
2 Closed, IE = , the inverse of is
which is a member of M, therefore a subgroup.
3 a <3> = [{0, 3, 6, 12}, + mod 12];
<6> = [{0, 6}, + mod 12];
<9> = [{0, 3, 6, 12}, + mod 12]
b Generators are 3 and 9.
4 a Cyclic. Generators are 1 and 1.
b Not cyclic.
c Cyclic. Generators are 6 and 6.
d Cyclic. Generators are 3 and .
1 He worked towards having women accepted at
Cambridge University.
2 Abstract algebra, group algebra, n-dimensional
geometry, matrices and determinants
Exercise 4E Further examples of
groups transformations
1
a
b IE = R
0
, Inverse exists for all elements. It is an
Abelian group because the table is symmetrical
about the leading diagonal.
2
a
b Does not form a group.
3 Not Abelian.
0 0
0 0
a 0
0 b
a 0
0 b
1
3
---
R
120
R
0
R
240
A
B C
B
C A
C
A B
R
0
R
120
R
240
R
0
R
120
R
240
R
0
R
120
R
240
R
120
R
240
R
0
R
240
R
0
R
120
R
V
B C
R
L
R
R
A
R
0
R
V
R
L
R
R
R
0
R
V
R
L
R
R
R
0
R
V
R
L
R
R
R
V
R
0
R
L
R
0
R
R
R
0
A n s w e r s 603
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
4 a
b
c
5 H H H H R
V
H H H H
R
H
R
180
H H H H
H H H H R
0
H H H H
6
7 a
b Not a group
4 3 2 1
3 4
R
V
R
H
R
180
1 2
2 1
3 4
2
3 4
1
4
1 2
3
R
0
1 2 3 4
1 4
4 3
2 3 2 3
1 4
2 1
R
L
R
R
2 1
3 4
R
0
R
180
R
V

R
0

R
H

R
180
2
4
4
1 3
2
4
3 1
2
2
3 1
4
2
1 3
4
1 3
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
f
2
f
1
f
3
f
4
f
4
f
3
8 a Closed: addition of 2 2 matrices results in a

2 2 matrix.
Associative: matrix addition is associative.
Identity exists: is the identity element.
Inverses exist: the inverse of A is A.
b i ii iii The set of 2 2, non-
singular matrices.
9 Identity = I. Inverse is present as I is present in each
row and column. Closed and associative
10 a IE+ = (Remember 0 is a complex number.)
Inverse =
b IE = I Inverse = where the
determinant is real. The inverse exists if the
determinant 0.
11 b Yes.
Closed, associative, IE, Inverse of is
12 a , , ,
b Yes.
Chapter review
1 a
b
2 a Yes b No, not closed
3 a Yes
b No, 0 does not have an inverse
c Yes d Yes
4 a No, no identity b No, not associative
6 a Commutativity
b There is only element x such that p
x = q and
x
q = p.
c Each element has a unique inverse.
7 a Yes b No, 0
1
doesnt exist
c No, inverses dont always exist
d Yes
9 a No, there is no generator.
0 0
0 0
1 2
3 4
1 2
1 2
0 0
0 0
z
1
z
2
z
2
z
1
1
z
1
2
z
2
2
+
---------------
z
1
z
2
z
2
z
1
0 0
z z
0 0
1
z
---
1
z
---
i 0
0 i
1 0
0 1
i 0
0 i
1 0
0 1
+ 0 1 2 3 4
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
0
2
3
4
0
1
3
4
0
1
2
4
0
1
2
3
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
2
4
0
0
4
0
3
0
3
0
3
0
4
2
0
4
2
0
5
4
3
2
1
4C
4E
604 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
b No, the operation is not closed on these elements.
c <a> = {0, a}, <b> = {0, b}, <c> = {0, c}
10, 11 and 12 Check with your teacher.
1 and 2 Check with your teacher.
CHAPTER 5 Matrices and their
applications
Exercise 5A Inverse matrices and
systems of linear equations
1 2 3 4
5 6 7
8 c d
Exercise 5B Gaussian elimination
1 x = 1, y = 1 2 a = 3, b = 1
3 x = 2, y = 1, z = 3 4 x = 1, y = 2, z = 0
5 x = 2, y = 1, z = 0 6 x = 3, y = 5 , z = 3
7 a b
c d
8 a x = 2.7, y = 0.6
b x = 2 , y = 1 , z =
c x = 2 , y = 2 , z = 1
3 Science of determining the size and shape of the Earth.
Exercise 5C Introducing determinants
1 2 2 13 3 4
5 a 5 b 33 c 81 d 3
e 61 f 0 g 0 h 24
i 24 j 122
Exercise 5D Properties of
determinants
1 a 3 b 3 c Property 1
2 a 0 b Property 2
3 a 0 b Property 3
7 a 8 b Property 7
8 a 1 b Property 8
9 a 6 b 4 c 3 d 8 e 3 f 40
26
9
42
36
10.38
17.31
400
370
17
1
100.29
92.06
98.04
108.82
3.18 0.681
1.81 1.81
480.68
481.82
1
4
---
3
4
---
3 2
2 1
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
2
---
3
4
---
2
1
3
---
2
3
--- 1
1
3
---
1 0 1
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
2
---
1
4
--- 0
0
1
2
--- 0
1
1
2
--- 1
1
5
---
1
5
---
3
5
---
1
7
---
3
7
---
3
7
---
1
2
---
3
4
---
Exercise 5E Inverse of a 3 3 matrix
1 a iii 1 iii
iii iv
b iii 12 iii
iii iv
c iii 8 iii
iii iv
d iii 33 iii
iii iv
2 a b
c d
3 X =
4 a b
5 x =
6 a (y z)(v u)
b xy
2
xz x
2
y + yz
2
+ x
2
y
2
z
c (1 x)(1 y) + y + x 1
d 2a
3
3a
2
b + b
3
7 a a = 1, 2 b a = c a = 0, 3
d a = 0, 1, 2 e x = 3, 4 f x = 1, 3
3 2
1 1
3 1
2 1
3 1
2 1
9 6
5 2
9 5
6 2
3
4
---
5
12
------
1
2
---
1
6
---
8 2 4
12 2 8
8 2 4
8 12 8
2 2 2
4 8 4
1 1
1
2
--- 1
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
2
--- 1
1
2
---
13 5 11
12 3 0
4 1 11
13 12 4
5 3 1
11 0 11
13
33
------
12
33
------
4
33
------
5
33
------
1
11
------
1
33
------
1
3
--- 0
1
3
---
3 1 5
1 0 1
6 2 9
1 3 2
0 0 0.5
1 4 2.5
0.16 0.08 0.44
0.52 0.24 0.68
0.28 0.36 0.52
1.5 0.5 0.5
0.85 0.45 0.25
0.6 0.2 0
1.5 1 1.25
0.5 0 0.25
1.5 1 0.75
19
2
15
2
3
4
1
0
3
3
1
2
---
A n s w e r s 605
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
8
9 a 189 b c
11 a A =
a A =
12 a 1 + i b 0 c 4 7i
Exercise 5F Cramers Rule for
solving linear equations
1 x = 2, y = 3 2 x = 1, y = 4
3 x = 2, y = 5 4 x = 0, y = 3
5 x = 3, y = 1, z = 2
6 x = 11 , y = 5 , z =
Chapter review
1 G = 50, H = 10
2 X = (15.15 tonnes of aluminium, 14.1 tonnes
of gold)
3 x = 1, y = 8, z = 9
4 a b
5 a 2 b 10 c 2
6 a 0 Property 3
b 30 Property 7
c 52 Property 4
d 13 Property 1
e 24 Property 5 (twice)
f 0 Property 2
g 15 Property 6
7 a iii 2 iii
iii iv
b iii 12 iii
1
3
---
5
6
--- 1
2
3
---
1
6
---
7
12
------
2
3
---
0
1
2
--- 1
0.3 0.05 0.03
0.15 0.06 0.07
0.24 0.03 0.13
1
2
---
1
0
0.25 0.5 0.75
0.5 0 0.5
0.25 0.5 0.25
0.25 0.5 0.25
0.5 0 0.5
0.75 0.5 0.25
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
15.15
14.1
0.2 0.4
0.2 0.6
1 1 0
5 7 1
2 3 0
4 3
2 1
4 2
3 1
2 1
1.5 0.5
7 4 5
5 8 7
1 4 1
iii iv
8 x = , y = 2 , z =
9 a y = and x =
where ax + by = u and cx + dy = v
b x = 2, y = 1
1 B =
2 C =
3 a = 3
4 a b
c
7 5 1
4 8 4
5 7 1
1
12
------
7 5 1
4 8 4
5 7 1
17
27
------
2
27
------
2
9
---

a u
c v

a b
c d
-----------------------

u b
v d

a b
c d
-----------------------
0 0 1 0
0 4 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 2 1
0 3 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 2 0
1 0 0 0
D
2 413
1 692
56 524
3 313
8 382
8 844
7 433
25 989
13 159
16 487
7 195
= X
4 532
4 273
81 609
8 570
14 100
10 501
17 256
48 238
13 756
19 116
10 168
=
3713
4532
------------ 0
1160
81 609
---------------- 0
17
14 100
----------------
93
10 501
---------------- 0
2
48 238
----------------
2
13 756
----------------
3
19 116
----------------
6
10 168
----------------
0
3945
4273
------------
1716
81 609
----------------
195
8570
------------
285
14 100
----------------
41
10 501
----------------
7
17 256
----------------
2
48 238
----------------
3
13 756
---------------- 0
4
10 168
----------------
821
4532
------------
383
4273
------------
69 438
81 609
----------------
107
8570
------------
1 918
14 100
----------------
1 982
10 501
----------------
939
17 256
----------------
1 511
48 238
----------------
2 979
13 756
----------------
1 601
19 116
----------------
672
10 168
----------------
24
4532
------------
106
4273
------------
778
81 609
----------------
4733
8570
------------
15
14 100
----------------
83
10 501
----------------
36
17 256
----------------
78
48 238
----------------
141
13 756
----------------
127
19 116
----------------
33
10 168
----------------
48
4532
------------
136
4273
------------
136
81 609
----------------
209
8570
------------
16 713
14 100
----------------
78
10 501
----------------
128
17 256
----------------
1 415
48 238
----------------
628
13 756
----------------
286
19 116
----------------
41
10 168
----------------
100
4532
------------
52
4273
------------
97
81 609
----------------
64
8570
------------
82
14 100
----------------
10 194
10 501
----------------
150
17 256
----------------
373
48 238
----------------
216
13 756
----------------
152
19 116
----------------
64
10 168
----------------
130
4532
------------
416
4273
------------
981
81 609
----------------
103
8570
------------
106
14 100
----------------
1 587
10 501
----------------
14 203
17 256
----------------
2 140
48 238
----------------
649
13 756
----------------
384
19 116
----------------
274
10 168
----------------
209
4532
------------
915
4273
------------
2 120
81 609
----------------
522
8570
------------
1 370
14 100
----------------
2 606
10 501
----------------
1 226
17 256
----------------
39 454
48 238
----------------
2 302
13 756
----------------
848
19 116
----------------
1 348
10 168
----------------
4
4532
------------
9
4273
------------
34
81 609
----------------
9
8570
------------
14
14 100
----------------
7
10 501
----------------
25
17 256
----------------
452
48 238
----------------
13 719
13 756
----------------
1
19 116
----------------
5
10 168
----------------
29
4532
------------
18
4273
------------
75
81 609
----------------
38
8570
------------
11
14 100
----------------
39
10 501
----------------
61
17 256
----------------
349
48 238
----------------
365
13 756
----------------
17 543
19 116
----------------
71
10 168
----------------
23
4532
------------
42
4273
------------
192
81 609
----------------
44
8570
------------
11
14 100
----------------
88
10 501
----------------
113
17 256
----------------
423
48 238
----------------
438
13 756
----------------
129
19 116
----------------
8 699
10 168
----------------
(I A) =
5A
5F
606 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
CHAPTER 6 Transformations
using matrices
Exercise 6A Geometric
transformations and matrix algebra
1 a (0, 0) b (0, 26) c (0, 4) d (51, 7)
2 a (2, 5) b (4, 9) c (5, 0) d (2, 4)
3 a A(4, 2), B(7, 7), C(11, 4)
b A(4, 0), B(7, 5), C(11, 2)
c A(0, 2), B(3, 3), C(7, 0)
d A(0, 0), B(3, 5), C(7, 2)
5 y = 2x + 7
6 a y = (x 3)
2
1 b y = (x 5)
2
5
c y = x
2
+ 3x 4 d x
2
4x + y
2
4y + 4 = 0
e x
2
+ 8x + y
2
+ 2y + 8 = 0
7 a b c
Exercise 6B Linear transformations
1 a c
2 a iii A(0, 1), B(4, 2), C(5, 2)
iii A(1, 2), B(2, 0), C(3, 1)
iii A(2, 4), B(4, 0), C(6, 2)
iv A(1, 2), B(2, 0), C(3, 1)
b iii
iii
iii
iv No change
3.5 1.5
y' = 2x' + 7
7
3
0
x
y
y = 2x + 3
2
3
1
6
4
7
1 1
2 1
2 3
3 2
x
y
B'(4, 2)
C'(5, 2)
A'
B(2, 0)
A(1, 2)
C(3, 1)
0
x
B(2, 0)
A(1, 2)
B'(2, 0)
C'(3, 1)
A'(1, 2)
y
C(3, 1)
0
C'(6, 2)
B'(4, 0)
A'(2, 4)
x
y
A
B
C
0
3 a A(8, 7) b B(1, 5) c C(2, 7)
4 A(7, 6), B(1, 2), C(15, 10)
5 a b
c d
Exercise 6C Linear transformations
and group theory
1 a P(9, 5) b P(5, 1) c
d Check with your teacher.
2 a P(1, 4) b Check with your teacher.
3 a Non-singular b Singular
4 a P(31, 18)
b det A = 1 (non-singular)
d iii y = x ii y = x +
iii 10x
2
34xy + 29y
2
= 2
5 y = x 2
6 a 17x
2
26xy + 10y
2
= 9
b 10y
2
+ x
2
2xy = 81
c 13x
2
+ 10xy + 2y
2
= 9
3
2 2 4 6 8
x
y
B
C
5
4
3
2
1
A
A'
C'
B'
2
3
4
5
6
7
A' (7, 6)
C' (15, 10)
B' (1, 2)
B(4, 1)
A(4, 1)
C(0, 5)
10
y
x
5
5
4 1 45 7 10 15
1
3
--- 1
2
3
---
1
1
3
---
1
6
---
1.5 1
1.5 1
1 1
1.75 2.5
1
3
--- 1.5
2
2
3
--- 2
0 1
2 1
4
7
---
10
17
------
2
17
------
1
2
---
y
y = 3x + 2
x
2
0
4
y' = x' 2
1 _
2
2
2 _
3
A n s w e r s 607
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
7 a y = x b y = x c y = x
9 a, c i
a, c ii
b i y = x + ii y = 4
10 a x
2
6xy + 9y
2
2x + 5y = 0
b 11y = 4x 5
Exercise 6D Rotations
1 a b c d
2 a (1 , + ) b (0, 4)
c ( , ) d ( , )
e (3, 2) f ( , + )
3 a iii y = +
a iii y = +
a iii y =
b iii
3
2
---
1
2
---
y
y = 2x 1
y' = 0.3x' + 0.2
x
1
2 _
3
1 _
2
0.2
0
x
y
y = x + 4
4
4
y' = 4
0
3
10
------
1
5
---
0 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
3
2
------- 3
1
2
---
3 2
2
----------
9 2
2
----------
1
2
---
3 3
2
----------
3
2
-------
3
2
---
3
2
-------
1
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
-------
x
2
----
2
4
-------
x
3
---
1
3
---
x
3
---
1
3
---
y
y = 3x + 1
x
1
0.35
0
0.7 1
y= +
x _
2
2 _
4
1 _
3
b iii, iii
4 No change, rotation about the centre of the circle.
Exercise 6E Reections
1 a b c
d and then
e f
2 a iii (3, 1) ii (4, 2) iii (1, 3)
iv (2, 4) v (3, 0) vi (2, 1)
b iii (3, 1) ii (4, 2) iii (1, 3)
iv (2, 4) v (3, 0) vi (2, 1)
c iii (1, 3) ii (2, 4) iii (3, 1)
iv (4, 2) v (0, 3) vi (1, 2)
d iii ( , + ) iii (2 + , 2 1)
y
y = 3x + 1
x
1
0
1 1
y' = +
x' _
3
1 _
3
1 _
3
1 _
3
1 _
3
()
()
y' =
x' _
3
1 _
3
1 0
0 1
1 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
0
4
1
2
---
3
2
-------
3
2
-------
1
2
---
0 1
1 0
x
y
m
x = 0
(i)'
(v)'
(ii)'
(iv)'
(iii)'
(vi) (vi)' (i)
(ii)
(iv)
(v)
(iii)
0
x
y
m
y = 0 (v)'
(i)'
(iii)'
(iii)
(iv)'
(ii)'
(vi)'
(vi)
(i)
(ii)
(iv)
(v)
0
x
y
m
y = x
(vi)' (ii)
(iii)'
(iv)'
(v)'
(i)'
(ii)'
(i)
(iii)
(iv)
(vi)
(v)
0
3
2
---
3
2
-------
3 3
2
----------
1
2
--- 3 3
6A
6E
608 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
iii ( , + )
iv (1 + 2 , 2) iv ( , )
vi (1 , + )
3 a iii y = x iii y = x iii y = x
iv y = ( 1)
2
x or y 0.268x
b iii y = x
2
iii y = x
2
iii y =
c iii y = 2x
2
+ 1 iii y = 2x
2
1
iii y =
d iii y = x
2
iii y = x
2
iii y =
Exercise 6F Dilations
1 a i (4, 1)
ii (8, 3)
iii (0, 3)
iv (6, 0)
v (4, 5)
vi (1, 3)
b i (2, 3)
ii (4, 9)
iii (0, 9)
iv (3, 0)
v (2, 15)
vi ( , 9)
2 a y = x 2
b y = 3x + 2
1
2
------
3 3
2
----------
3
2
----------
3
2
---
3 3
3
2
---
3 3
2
----------
3
2
------- 3
1
2
---
x
y
(ii)
(i)
(v)
(iii)'
(iv)
(v)'
(vi)
(iii)
(vi)'
(iv)'
(ii)'
(i)'
0
m
y =
3
3

1
2
--- 3
x
x 1
2
-----------------
x
(iii) (ii) (iii)' (ii)'
(iv)'
(i)'
(vi)' (vi)
(iv)
(i)
(v)' (v)
x
y
0
x
y
0
(iii) (ii)
(iii)'
(v)'
(ii)'
(iv)'
(i)'
(vi)'
(vi)
(i)
(iv)
(v)
1
2
---
3
2
---
(a)
(b)
x
y
y = 3x 2
0
3 a + = 1
b + = 1
4 a y = x
2
b y = 8x
2
5 y = 3x
6 a iii (1, ) ii (2, 1 ) iii (0, 1 )
iv (1 , 0) v (1, 2 ) vi ( , 1 )
b i (8, 4)
ii (16, 12)
iii (0, 12)
iv (12, 0)
v (8, 20)
vi (2, 12)
7 a + = 1
b 4x
2
+ = 1
x
2
4
-----
4y
2
9
--------
(b)
(a)
x
y
x
2
4
y
2
9
+ = 1
x
2
64
------
y
2
9
-----
1
8
---
y
y = 2x
2
x
y' = x'
2
1
8
y
y = 2x
2
y' = 8x'
2
x
1
2
---
(c)
x
y
y = 3x 2
0
y' = 3x'
1
2
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
2
---
x
y
0
(v)
(v)'
(i)
(iv) (iv)'
(vi)'
(vi)
(i)'
(iii)'
(ii)'
(ii)
(iii)
x
y
0
(iii)'
(vi)
(iv)
(i)
(iii)
(iv)'
(i)'
(v)'
(v)'
(ii)'
(ii)
(vi)'
x
2
16
------
y
2
36
------
16y
2
9
-----------
(a)
(b)
x
y
x
2
4
y
2
9
+ = 1
A n s w e r s 609
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
Exercise 6G Shears
1 ii a (3, 6) b (2, 5)
a
c (4, 7) d (3, 4)
a
e (2, 9) f (0, 5)
a
1 ii a (3, 0) b (2 , 1)
a
c (3 , 1) d (2 , 2)
a
e (3 , 5) f (1 , 5)
a
6
x
y
P'
P
3
0
P' 5
1
x
P
y
0
2
P
P'
y
x 0
4
7
y
P' 4
2
0
3
x
P
0
2
5
9
x
y
P'
P
0
5
x
P = P'
y
1
4
---
x
P = P'
(3, 0)
y
0
1 2
P P'
y
x 0
1
3
4
---
1
2
---
x
y
P P'
1
0
4321
P
x
y
3
0
2
P'
1
4
---
1
4
---
P
x
y
0
2
5
P'
y
0
1
5
P' P
x
2 a b
c d
3 ii a b
c d
ii a b
c d
Chapter review
1 Translations, rotations and reflections
2 a (1, 3) b (2, 4) c (3, 1)
4 y = 2x
2
8x + 7
5 A(3, 0) C(12, 3)
6
7 y = 2x + 3
x
y
B(1, 3)
B'(10, 3)
C(6, 3)
C'(15, 3)
A = A' D(5, 0)
x
y
B'(1, 6)
C
C'(6, 21)
B
A = A' D(5, 0)
D'(5, 15)
x
y
B'(2, 3)
B(1, 3) C(6, 3)
C'(3, 3)
A = A' D(5, 0)
D'(5, 5)
D(5, 0)
x
y
B'
B(1, 3) C(6, 3)
A = A'
C'(6, 3)
y = x
x
y
y' = 4x'
x
y
y = x
y' = 2x'
y' = x'
2
+ 3x'
y
y = x
2
x
y
y' = 5x' + 5
y = 2x + 5
x
x
y = x
y
y' = x'
1
4
y = x
y
y' = x'
1
2
x
x
y' = (x'

3y')
2
y
y = x
2
y' = x' +
2
7
5
7
y = 2x + 5
y
x
2
1
3
--- 2
2
3
---
2
2
3
--- 2
1
3
---
x
y
y = x + 1
y' = 2x' + 3
6E
6G
610 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
8 a (2, 1) b ( , )
c ( , )
d (1 + , + 2 )
9 y = + 1
10 a (3, 1) b (2, 2)
c ( + , + 1) d (2, 3)
11 y = x
12 a (2, 2) b (1, 2)
c (16, 4) d (0, 2)
13 y = x
14 a (3, 2 ) b (2,1)
15 y = 2x
2
+ 2x
1 Rotation of 90:
or reection in y-axis:
or translation 4 left:
2 Dilation of 3 about the origin followed by reection
in the y-axis:
CHAPTER 7 Introduction to vectors
Exercise 7A Vectors and scalars
1 a i ii
iii
b i Same as 1 a i except scaled by a factor of 2.
ii Same as 1 a ii except scaled by a factor of 2.
iii
3
2
---
3 3
2
----------
5 2
2
----------
3 2
2
----------
5
2
--- 3 3
1
2
---
x
2
---- y
y = 2x + 2
x
y' = x'

+ 1
1
2
1
2
--- 3
3
2
-------
1
3
---
y = 3x
y
x
y' = x'
1
3
1
2
---
0 1
1 0
1 0
0 1
4
0
3 0
0 3
s
~
s
~
r
~
r + s
~ ~
s
~
s
~
r
~
r s
~ ~
s
~
r
~
s r
~ ~
s
~
3s
~
r
~
4r
~
3s 4r
~ ~
2
3 C
4
5 D
6
7 a, b
c 500 km
d 53.1 clockwise from N
8 512.1 km; nd bearing using
trigonometry
9 721.1 km, 326.3 (clockwise from N)
10 Each part of answer has
coordinate labelled a, b, . . . j.
The original vectors and
are also drawn.
11 Magnitude = 10.77, direction
68.2 True.
19 One can deduce that x and y
components can be added/subtracted/multiplied
separately.
23 Displacement, velocity, force
24 Speed, time, length
25 1 magnitude and 2 angles
Exercise 7B Position vectors in two
and three dimensions
1
2
3
8 615 km at 49.8 south of east
9 36 steps 11.3 south of east
10 20.8 km
11
12 B 13 Check with your teacher.
14 15
17
a b c
d e
a A to C b D to B c B to D d A to C
a b c
d e f
g h
20 B 21 D 22
a 3, 4, 2 b 6, 0, 3 c 3.4, ,
a i
ii 45
b i
ii 119.7
c i 4.88 ii 225.8
d i 320.16 ii 358.2
a 045 b 330.3 c 224.2 d 091.8
4 5 C
6 7
a b c
d e f
a i ii
b i ii
c i ii
d i ii
e i ii 2
f i ii 4
s
+ s
+ + + s
+ s
+ r
+ t
+
r
+ + s
Flight
path
a
~
a
g
e
d
b
h
b
~
f
15 5
5
15
5
5
15
15
j
i
c
a
2
1
2
---
72
65
50i
50 3 j
248.9i
383.3 j
60.6i
109.3 j
+
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
+
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
4
5
--- i
3
5
--- j
+
4
5
--- i
3
5
--- j
+
1
3
------- i
2
3
------- j
+ 0.792i
0.611 j
+
0.98i
0.20 j

1
2
--- i
3
2
------- j
4i
7 j
65
3i
+ 10
4i
7 j
+ 65
3i
10
2i
4i
A n s w e r s 611
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
18
19
20
21
22
23
24 329.0
25
26
27 ,
28
29 53.1, 36.9
Difference = 90
30
Exercise 7C Multiplying two vectors
the dot product
1 23.99
2 Dot product = 24; more accurate, since no angle
needed
3
14
15
a b c
d
e f
a b
c d
e f
a i ii
iii iv
v
vi
b Reject, because magnitudes different.
a i 5
ii
iii iv
v
vi
b Reject, because magnitudes different.
a b
a
b c
d 031.0
e km /h
a b
c 3.64
d e f
a b c d
a , ,
b 25 c 053.1
a
b 341.6
c 0.0417 h or 2.5 minutes
a 45 b 12 c 36 d 26
e 1 f 20 g 0 h 0
4 E 5 C 6 36 8 12
9 and 10 Check with your teacher.
11 D 12 B 13 D
a 12 b 2 c 7 d 25
a 107 b 87 c 81 d 109
16 D 17 E 18 a = 1
19 a = 20
21
4i
7 j
+ 3i
4i
7 j
3i
+
2i
4i
4
65
---------- i
7
65
---------- j
3
10
---------- i
1
10
---------- j
+
4
65
---------- i
7
65
---------- j
+
3
10
---------- i
1
10
---------- j
29 13
5
29
---------- i
2
29
---------- j
2
13
---------- i
3
13
---------- j
+
3i
+
10
26
3
5
--- i
4
5
--- j
+
5
26
---------- i
1
26
---------- j
2i
3 j
+
13
2 58
3i
5 j
3i
5 j
+
34
5 2 5 2
11 7 14 3
35 13 2 6 62
CD i
7 j
2k
= EF 2i
14 j
= 4k
20i
15 j
20i
15 j
+
4i
12 j
+
3
5
--- 4i
8 j
+
64
5
------ i
48
5
------ j
1 Mathematics lecturer
2 Alices Adventures in Wonderland and Through the
Looking-Glass
3 The daughter of the Dean of his college
4 12 cats
Exercise 7D Resolving vectors
scalar and vector resolutes
1
2
3
4 316 metres
Exercise 7E Time-varying vectors
1
2 B
3 a y = 4x
2
+ 2x b
4 a y = x
2
4x + 3 b
a i ii
b i ii
c i ii
d i ii
e i
ii
a i
ii iii
b i
ii iii
c i 0 ii iii
d i
ii
iii
e i
ii
iii
f i
ii
iii
a 3.6 km b 0.2 km or 200 metres
a
b
c
d
23 13
13
----------------
23 41
41
----------------
17 29
29
----------------
17 10
10
----------------
13 10
10
----------------
26 17
17
----------------
6 13
13
-------------
6
5
---
23
5
------
23 26
13
----------------
1
10
----------
v
||
3
10
------ i
1
10
------ j
= v
17
10
------ i
51
10
------ j
+ =
82
41
----------
v
||
8i
10 j
+ = v
=
v
|| 0
= v
3 i
4 j
+ =
2
3
-------
v
||
2
3
--- i
2
3
--- j
2
3
--- k
+ + =
v
4
3
--- i
1
3
--- j
5
3
--- k
+ =
21
29
----------
v
||
21
29
------ 2i
3 j
4k
+ + ( ) =
v
4
29
------ 25i
6 j
8k
( ) =
5
11
----------
v
||
15
11
------ i
5
11
------ j
5
11
------ k
+ =
v
15
11
------ i
17
11
------ j
28
11
------ k
+ =
y
x
2
--- =
y 3x 3 =
y 4 x 3 ( )
2
=
y
x
3
8
----- =
0
y
x
0
1
1
3
y
x
(2, 1)
Note: x 1
7A
7E
612 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
5 a x
2
+ y
2
= 1 b c Period =
6 a x
2
+ y
2
= 9 b c Period =
7 a (x 1)
2
+ (y + 2)
2
= 1 b
c Period = 2
8
9
10 a ; ; t = 2,
b y = (x 1)
2
,
c
11 x = , y =
12 y = x
2
; No, since is always ahead of .
Chapter review
10 E
11 1.3909
12
13 56.1, 111.8, 42.0
14
15 B 16 B
17 a
b ,
1 A 2
3 B 4 A
5 a b 17.07 km
6 D 7 E 8 C 9 D
a b
c 17
d
e 135
0
y
x
1
1
1
1
0
y
x
3
3
3
3
0
y
x
2 1
2
3
1
x
2
9
----- y
2
+ 1 =
0
y
x
3
1
1
3
x
2
4
-----
y
2
16
------ + 1 =
0
y
x
2
4
4
2
y 1 x = u
0 ( ) i
= u
1
2
--- i
1
2
--- j
+ =
x 2
x 3 ( )
2
4
-------------------
y 1 + ( )
2
9
------------------- + 1 =
19
7
------
2
7
---
v
200 3i
200 j
40k
+ +
5 5 2 + ( )i
5 5 2 + ( ) j
+
i
4 j
7i
6 j
3
34
---------- i
5
34
---------- j
9 69
2
-------------------
2
14
---------- i
3
14
---------- j
1
14
---------- k
+
v
||
1
2
--- 2i
3 j
+ ( ) = v
1
2
--- j
3k
+ ( ) =
18 D
19 , hyperbolic
1 a b
c
d
e 7.28 km f 1080 km/h g 720 km/h
2 a (3, 5.5, 0) b
d 66 cm
3
= 0.066 litres
e f 7.43 cm g 84.5
3 a
b c
d e 74.1 f
g (2, 7) h 35 square units
4 a
b 5.83 m/s c 059 d 360 m e 600 m
f Same result, except bearing = 180 059 = 121
5 a 14.34 + 20.48 + 8 b 26.25 m c 21.3
6 a 3 9 8 b (3 9 8 )
c km d 744.6 km/h
CHAPTER 8 Vector applications
Exercise 8A Force diagrams and the
triangle of forces
1
a b
c d
y
2
x
2
----- = 2
0
y
x
1
2
6i
12 j
12k
+
1
3
--- i
2 j
2k
+ ( )
2i
8 j
m
3
---- i
2 j
2k
+ ( ) + + +
1
3
--- 10i
16 j
11k
+ + ( )
3i
4k
+
3i
5.5 j
4k
+ +
O
Z 5i
y
x
2i + 7j
Y(7, 7) X
~
~
~
2i
7 j
+ 5i
, 7i
7 j
+ 3i
7 j
+ ,
2 29
29
------------- 2i
N
5
3
i
1
154
------------- i
5 2
N
W
Book
~
~
D
W
Ball
~
~
N
W
A F
Car
~
~
~ ~
N
W
A F
Boat
~
~
~
~
A n s w e r s 613
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 79.2
9
1 Bubonic plague broke out and the university closed.
2 Leibniz
3 The laws of mechanics and gravitation
4 He reformed the coinage and introduced measures to
prevent counterfeiting.
Exercise 8B Newtons First Law
of Motion
1
2
3 a
4 a
e
f
g h
i j
a C b E
a C b E
a i ii
iii
b i ii
iii
c i ii
iii
a i
ii
b i ii
c i 63.4 ii 0
d i
ii
a i 61.4 N at N9.4W ii 61.4 N at S9.4E
b i ii
c i ii
d i 2.9 N at N26.9W ii 2.9 N at S26.9E
a 10 N b 120
a 77 b 37.6 N c
a 23.5 N b 8.6 N c 23.5 N
a D b B c C d A
N
W
Sliding object
~
~
N
W
A F
Accelerating car
~
~
~
~
W
N
F
Body at rest
~
~
~
W
N
F
Sliding
body
~
~
~
D
W
Ball moving
up
~
~
D
W
Ball moving
down
~
~
9i
4 j
+ 6i
3 j
(2 2 3 5 )i
97 3 5
54 12 10
9 i
4 j
6i
3 j
+
(3 5 2 2 )i
+
i
2 j
+
( 2 1) i
5 2 1
i
2 j
(1 2 )i
50i
5 j
50 i
5 j
+
4 i
12 j
+ 4i
12 j
2 sin 60 X
=
Tugboat
Ship
Tugboat
Drag force
due to
water
T
~
T
~
F
~
b 0 N
c 39 392.3 N
T
1
8g N
30 60
T
2
~
~
~
j
~
~
i
b T
1
= 4g N;
T
2
= g N 4 3
5 a
6 a
7 a
8 a
9 0.77
10 a 7600 N b 18 620 N c 0.41
11 0.07
12 a 58.8 N b 45.04 N c 37.8 N d 0.84
13 0.7
14 9.6 N
Exercise 8C Momentum
1 a 40 N s east b 600 N s south
c 7.5 N s north d 32 500 N s west
e 978 N s north f 113 333 N s north
2 a 80 m/s b 37 500 m/s c 20 m/s
3 a 50 kg b 1980 kg
4 a 38 N s east b 22 N s east
c 31 N s 14.9 N of E
d 37.1 N s 6.2 N of E
e 25 N s 13 N of E
5 2700 N s
6 a 1000 kg m/s b 500 kg m/s
7 a 40 kg m/s b 48 kg m/s
c 9500 kg m/s d 3556 kg m/s
8 5.3 m/s at 44 to Alans current direction.
9 a 6.6 m/s N b 6 m/s N
c 3.4 m/s S
10 3.7 m/s at 58.6 to Alans current direction.
11 a 2.2 at 47.9 b 5.9 at 71.4
c 1.67 at 65.4 d 2.4 at 234
12 a 4.5 N s b 3 m/s
Exercise 8D Relative velocity
1 16.5 km/h at 14 S of E
2 301.5 km/h at 5.7 E of N
b A
v
= 91.9 N down
A
H
= 77.1 N left
c
with all forces in N.
d 77.1 N e 483.9 N
Speaker
T
left
T
right
W
~
~
~
b 41.4 c 245 N
d 278 + 245 N;
278 + 245 N
e 370.6 N f 8.0 m
i
N
W = 40g
F
A = 120 N at
40 to
vertical
~
~
~
~
~
R
F
friction
77.1 ( )i
N 483.9 ( ) j
+ 0 = =
W
N
T
Mass
~
~
~
b
c N
d 7.4 N
e 12.7 N
0i
0 j
+
7.4 i
12.7 j
W
N
H
Mass
~
~
~
b
c N
d N
7.4i
12.7 j

7.4i
4.3 j
17 j
7E
8D
614 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
3 17.3 m/s at 52.1 N of W
4 72.5
5 13 km/h
6 a 44.7 m/s at 26.6 W of N
b 5 m/s N
c 17.8 m/s at 7.5 W of N
d 32.95 m/s at 4.9 S of E
e 7.7 m/s at 52 S of E
7 15 km/h W
8 19.4 km/h 78 W of S
9 68.3 km/s at 2.5 with the vertical.
Exercise 8E Using vectors in geometry
4 a
b +
c
d . =
2
+
2
. =
2
+
2
Chapter review
1 B 2 A 3 B
4 89.4 N at 153.4 to
5 138.6
6 b 26.3 N, 52.6 N c 26.6, 63.4
7 17.7 N
8 D 9 B 10 C 11 D
12 3 N s away from the wall
13 6.0 m/s at 43.7 with As original motion
14 B 15 C
16 12.1 km/h at 65.6 to the bank
17 8.7 km/h from the north
18 D
1 7 minutes 46 seconds
2 60 m
3 a 2.96 N down b 1.96 N down c 0.96 N down
4 a 0.038 b 193.5 m
5 a Check with your teacher. b 109.5
c i p = ; r = ii units
6 a
b = 6 ; = 3 + 5
c = 9 + 5 ; = 3 + 5
d 91.9 e 29.1 f 5
g (12 , 10 ) h 31 square units
v
1
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
5 2
3
----------
y
x O
X (3, 5) Y (9, 5)
Z (6, 0)
YX i
ZY i
OY i
ZX i
3
8
---
5
8
---
7
8
---
CHAPTER 9 Sequences and
series
Exercise 9A Arithmetic sequences
1 a, c, d, g, h
2 a a = 2, d = 5 c a = 0, d = 100
d a = 123, d = 100 g a = , d = 1
h a = , d =
3
4
5
6 A 7 B 8 B 9 B
10 a, d, e
11 a a = 2, d = 2 d a = not specied, d = 2
e a = 8, d = 8
12 a 7th b 7th c 8th d 5th
13 t
n
= 13 + 10n
14 t
n
= 37 + 3n
15 a t
n
= 8.5 + 3.5n b 358.5 metres
16
17
21 1135
22 a $10 600 b $136 000
Exercise 9B Geometric sequences
1 b, c, e, f, h, i, j
2 b a = 1, r = 4 c a = 1, r = 2
e a = 4, r = 3 f a = 6, r = 10
h a = 1.2, r = 2 i a = 7, r =
j a = , r =
3
4
5
6
7 D 8 D 9 B 10 A
11 a 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 b 2 c 2048
12 20 million, 10 million, 5 million, 2 million,
1 million, 625 000, 312 500
13
14
15
16
Exercise 9C Applications of
geometric sequences
1
2
3 P
n
= 10 000 (0.9)
n 1
a 122 b 2900 c 219
a 103 b 1777 c 60
d 217 e 152
a 820 b 270 c 667
a 56 b 2, 5, 8
a 170 b 4, 2, 8
18 $9375 19 $414 000 20 363.8 cm
a 20 155 392 b 1 048 576 c 295 245
d 11.867 494 81 e 131 072
a 39 366 b 6144 c 32 768
d 32 768 e 12 582 912 f 708 588
a 12th b 13th c 9th d 16th
a 531 440 b 686 285 c 36 043.7
d 274 576.3
a t
n
= 2
n 1
b 2048
a t
n
= 10 000 0.85
n 1
b $2724.91
a t
n
= 6
n 1
b 1296 c 6
a t
n
= 60 1.08
n 1
b 88.16 m c 8th year
a 5.67 b 17th year c 12.7 tonnes
a $2146.53 b Year 9 c $5646.65
1
2
---
1
4
---
2
4
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
A n s w e r s 615
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
4
5
6
7
8
9 C
10
11
12
13
Exercise 9D Finding the sum of an
innite geometric sequence
1
2
3
4
7 Yes
8 $500 000
9 25 mm too much
10 a
b $1 000 000, $920 000, $846 400, $778 688,
$716 392.96
c $7 070 144.32
Exercise 9E Contrasting arithmetic
and geometric sequences through
graphs
1 Arithmetic sequence with a = 0 and d = 1
2 Arithmetic sequence with a = 10 and d = 2
3 Geometric sequence with a = 10 and r = 1.5
5 Arithmetic sequence with a = 4 and d = 0.5
a $19 317.32 b $6317.32
a 14 147 b 16th year
a 123 b 10 weeks
a 2.85 m b Year 11
a 0.96 m b 32nd beam
a $400 640.74 b Year 9 c 2 636 196.56
a 55 773 b 9th year
a $16 105.10 b $16 288.95
c $16 386.16 d $16 453.09
a $22 076.26 b $26 897.78
c $32 772.33 d $53 701.28
14 $8376.76 15 3 years 16 2 years
17 3 years 18 10 months 19 2 years
a 100 b 100 c 10 d
e f 3
g 2.5 h 7.5
i 200
j 45
a 10, 6, 3.6 b 40, 8, 1.6
c 6, 1.5, 0.375 d 12, 10.8, 9.72
e 4, 0.8, 0.16 f 6, 3, 1.5
g 9, 7.2, 5.76 h 6, 1.2, 0.24
i 24, 14.4, 8.64 j 15, 4.5, 1.35
a 12.5, 6.25, 3.125 b 12.5, 9.375, 7.031 25
c 6, 1.5, 0.375 d 48, 28.8, 17.28
e 2 , ,
a b c d 1
e 3 f 8 g h
i j 1
5 No falls short by 3 metres 6 192.5 m
3
2
---
5
4
---
1
3
---
5
11
------
4
9
---
22
27
------
22
81
------
5
9
---
8
9
---
4
9
---
1
3
---
7
9
---
2
3
---
14
99
------
57
99
------
262
495
---------
321
999
---------
1
3
---
23
25
------
7 a
b
c
d
e
f
3 4 5 6 7 8 2 1
0
20
15
10
5
30
25
n
t
n
3 4 5 6 7 8 2 1
0
4
3
2
1
6
5
n
t
n
3
4
5 6 7 8 2 1
15
5
0
5
10
15
10
n
t
n
3 4 5 6 7 8 2 1
20
15
10
5
0
5
40
30
35
25
n
t
n
0
4 10
4
2 10
4
8 10
4
6 10
4
n
t
n
3 4 5 6 7 8 2 1
0
4000
3000
2000
1000
6000
5000
n
t
n
3 4 5 6 7 8 2 1
8D
9E
616 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
8 D
9 E
10 a $5500, $6000, $6500
b $5500, $6050, $6655
c
11
12
13 3 terms
14 0 terms
15 3 terms
16 4 terms
Chapter review
1 C 2 B
3 a Yes, a = 123, d = 100 b Yes, a = 5 , d = 3
4 A 5 C 6 B
7 Term number 35
8
9 A 10 C 11 B 12 A
13
14 B 15 D 16 B
17
18 B 19 C 20 17
21 A 22 C
23 a $33 622.22 b 5 years
24 E
25 D
26 3
27 25 cm
28 D
29 A
a 1080 b 12 000
a Yes, a = 5, r = b No
a t
n
= 7.2 1.15
n 1
b 19.2 tonnes
c Year 12
A
m
o
u
n
t

(
$
)
Year
3 2 1
5500
6000
6500
5000
Legend
U
n
V
n
A
m
o
u
n
t

(
$
)
Year
3 2 1
140 000
130 000
120 000
110 000
160 000
150 000
Legend
U
n
V
n
Legend
U
n
V
n
A
m
o
u
n
t

(
$
)
Year
3 2 1
14000
13 000
12 000
11 000
16000
15 000
18000
17 000
1
4
---
1
2
---
7
9
---
30
1 a 18.5 tonnes
b t
n
= 4.5 + 3.5n
c 214.5 tonnes
d 28th month
e 40 months
2 a 1.1
b t
n
= 10 1.1
n 1
c 14.641 tonnes
d 13th month
e 213.84 tonnes
3 24th month
4 35 years
CHAPTER 10 Permutations and
combinations
Exercise 10A The addition and
1 a AB BA CA
AC BC CB
b 6
2 BG GB YB RB
BY GY YG RG
BR GR YR RY
3 ACB BAC CAB
ABC BCA CBA
4
5
6
7 a i 72 ii 72
b 144
8 126
9 C
10 C
11 D
12 100
13 6
14 48
15 256
16 1296
17 1080
18 48
19
a 42 b 210 c 840 d 2520
a 24 b 6 c 12 d 24 e 1320
a 49 b 252 c 16
a 1000 b 27
A
m
o
u
n
t

(
$
)
Term number (n)
3 2 1
40
30
20
10
4
60
50
80
70
Legend
V
n
= 10 2
n 1
U
n
= 10n
A n s w e r s 617
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
20 a 200 b 40 c 50 d 290
21 a 13 230
b 17 640
Jack may wear 13 230 outts with a jacket or 4410
outts without a jacket. Therefore he has a total of
17 640 outts to choose from. The assumption made
with this problem is that no item of clothing is
exactly the same; that is, none of the 7 shirts is
exactly the same.
Exercise 10B Factorials and
permutations
1 a 4 3 2 1
b 5 4 3 2 1
c 6 5 4 3 2 1
d 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
2
3
4 a n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3)(n 4)
b (n + 3)(n + 2)
c
d
5 a 8 7 = 56
b 7 6 5 4 3 = 2520
c 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 = 40 320
6
7
8 56
9 3024
10 2184
11 358 800
12 120
13 8190
14 3360
15 362 880
16 479 001 600
17 D
18 E
19
20
21
c 271
272
273
281
282
283
291
292
293
371
372
373
381
382
383
391
392
393
471
472
473
481
482
483
491
492
493
a 24 b 120 c 720
d 3 628 800 e 8.717 829 12 10
10
f 362 880
g 5040 h 6
a 3024 b 151 200 c 840 d 720
a b c
a 27 907 200 b 639 200 c 1 028 160
a
5
P
3
= 60 b
5
P
4
= 120 c
5
P
5
= 120
a
7
P
3
= 210 b
7
P
4
= 840 c
7
P
7
= 5040
a
6
P
6
= 720 b
1
n n 1 ( ) n 2 ( )
-------------------------------------
1
n 2 + ( ) n 1 + ( )n n 1 ( )
-------------------------------------------------------
9!
3!
----- 60 480 =
5!
3!
----- 20 =
18!
13!
-------- 1 028 160 =
6
P
6
2
--------- 360 =
Exercise 10C Arrangements
involving restrictions and like objects
1 360
2 83 160
3 10
4 1260
5 27 720
6 1 307 504
7
8
9
10
11
12
13 B 14 D
15
16
Exercise 10D Combinations
1
2
3
4 1365
5 252
6
7
8 560
9 100
10 59 400
11
12 201 376
13 D
14 C
15
16
17
18
19
b The value of
n
C
r
is the same as
n
C
n r
.
Exercise 10E Applications of
permutations and combinations
1
2
3 24
4 24
5 376 992
6
7
8
9 D
10 D
a 5.4 10
10
b 3.6 10
9
c 4.0 10
10
a 120 b 20 c 60
a 30 240 b 3024 c 6720
a 120 b 48 c 72
a 1680 b 180 c 360
a 1320 b 110
a 720 b 24 c OYSTER
a 365
30
b
365
P
30
a b c d
a
8
C
2
b
9
C
3
c
8
C
0
d
10
C
4
a 1 b 20 c 120 d 220
a 495 b 11 c 1 d 1
e 54 264 f 120 g 100 h 680
a 2 598 960 b 65 780 c 65 780 d 2 467 400
a 28 b 120
a 120 b 10 days
a 57 b 4 days 6 hours
a 15 b 1 day 4 hours
a 8 145060 b 11 480 c 820
a i 220, 220 ii 6435, 6435 iii 10, 10
iv 56, 56 v 1, 1
a 45 b 120 c 120 d 210 e 105
a 720 b 252 c 10 d 120 e 2.4 10
18
a 210 b 126 c 84 d 140
a 126 b 56 c 21 d 70
a 8008 b 5005 c 5005 d 4004
8
P
3
3!
---------
19
P
2
2!
-----------
1
P
1
1!
---------
5
P
0
0!
---------
9E
10E
618 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
11 a 28
b 9 17 27 41 12 14, 9 17 27 41 12 37,
9 17 27 41 12 34
c 6
12 a 84
b 7 15 25 32 10 12, 7 15 25 32 10 35,
7 15 25 32 10 37
c 10
13 a 38 760 b 1140 c 34 220 d 39 010 800
14 a 1
b i 38 760 ii 50 063 860
iii 1 940 475 213 600 iv 4 191 844 505 805 495
Exercise 10F Pascals triangle, the
binomial theorem and the pigeonhole
principle
1
2 a 70
b 1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
c 45
3 a 8
b 220
c
10
C
0

10
C
1

10
C
2

10
C
3

10
C
4

10
C
5

10
C
6

10
C
7

10
C
8

10
C
9

10
C
10
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
4 a x
2
+ 2xy + y
2
b n
3
+ 3n
2
m + 3nm
2
+ m
3
c a
4
+ 12a
3
+ 54a
2
+ 108a + 81
5
6 B 7 D
8
b i The sum of the elements in each row of Pascals
triangle is a power of 2:
Row Sum
0 2
0
= 1
1 2
1
= 2
2 2
2
= 4
3 2
3
= 8
4 2
4
= 16
5 2
5
= 32
ii The sum of the elements in the nth row of
Pascals triangle is 2
n
.
9 2
6
= 64 13 26 14 13
1 16
2 Calculating machine
3 Puy de Dme; his brother
4 Probability
5 Brain tumour
Row
0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
8 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
a 80x b 56p
5
q
3
c 4608x
2
a i 1 ii 2 iii 4
iv 8 v 16 vi 32
Chapter review
1 C 2 B 3 A
4 a 180 b 648
5 D 6 A 7 C
8
2000
P
2
,
19
P
6
,
12
P
9
9 A 10 12 11 E
12 B 13
19
C
6
,
22
C
15
,
2000
C
2
14 175
15 a 325 b 6 c 676
16 C 17 756 756 18 B 19 D
20 a 210 b
10
C
0

10
C
1

10
C
2

10
C
3

10
C
4
. . .
10
C
10
c 1024
21 a 405x
8
b 3240x
7
c 196 830x
1 50 878 2 2 944 656
3 a 2 598 960 b 1287
c 65 780 d 1584
4 a 6 096 454 b 2 760 681
c 442 890 d 2 048 200
e 850 668 f 5 245 786
g 18 360
5 a 120 b 26
6 a 12 000 b 5 years
CHAPTER 11 Dynamics
Exercise 11A Displacement, velocity
and acceleration
1 a (t) = 6 + (3 14t) , (t) = 14
b (0) = m, v(0) = m/s
c i (2) = 12 22 m
ii 25.7 m/s downwards at an angle of 1330 to
the vertical
iii 157
d Yes, 14

m/s
2
downwards
2 a, b Check with your teacher.
c y = (1225 x
2
)
3 a i (t) = 2 , (t) =
ii (0) = 5 m, v(0) = m/s
iii y = 5 x
b i (t) = + (6 2t) , (t) = 2
ii (0) = m, v(0) = m/s
iii y = 6x x
2
c i (t) = 6t , (t) = 6
ii (0) = 10 m, v(0) = 1 m/s
iii y = 10 3x
2
d i (t) = 3 + (5 4t) , (t) = 4
ii (0) = m, v(0) = m/s
iii y = (15 2x)
e i (t) = + 6t , (t) = 6
ii (0) = 4 m, v(0) = 1 m/s
iii y = 3(x 4)
2
v
3 5
r
1
25
------
v
5
1
2
---
v
37
v
34
x
9
---
v
A n s w e r s 619
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
f i (t) = 2t , (t) = 2
ii (0) = m, v(0) = 1 m/s
iii y
2
= x
g i (t) = 2t 4 , (t) = 2
ii (0) = m, v(0) = 4 m/s
iii y
2
= 16x
h i (t) = 6t , t 0;
(t) = 6 , t 0
ii (0) = m, v(0) is undefined
iii y = 3x
4
4 a t = 5 seconds b (3, 18)
c y
A
= (x 1)
2
+ 2, y
B
= (x + 8.5)
2
12.25
5 a (t) = 2 + 2(1 t) , (t) = 2
b 2 m/s upwards at an angle of 45 to the
vertical
c i m
ii 2 m/s downwards at an angle of 2634 to
the vertical
iii 2634
6 a, b Check with your teacher. c t = 5 seconds
7 a P and Q do not collide. c y = 1
8 a Check with your teacher. b + 3 m/s
c (5) = + 3 , (5) =
d Approaches zero
9 a 2 + 3 b m/s c 8514
d i m/s downwards at an angle of 708 to
the vertical
ii 4 + 7
10 a
1
(0) = ,
2
(0) = 80 + a b a = 15
c (50, 6.25) d 10018
11 a b = 25, c = 5 b y = (x 50)
2
+ 26
c 81.4 m
12 d R
max
= 76 m when 6326
Exercise 11B Projectile motion
1 a (t) = (t + 3) + 2
b (t) = (t
2
+ 1) + (1 3t)
c (t) = 2(2t 1) + (7t
2
9)
d (t) = (3t + t 7) + (2t+ 9)
e (t) = ( t
2
1) + (4t + t
2
+ 1)
f (t) = t(t 4) t(t
2
+ 18)
g (t) = (15t) + (10t t
2
+ 20)
h (t) = (t
2
+ 3) + (5t 11)
2 a (t) = (2t + 1) 3 ,
(t) = (t
2
+ t 1) + (3t + 5)
b (t) = (3t + 2) + (5t 1) ,
(t) = ( t
2
+ 2t) + ( t
2
t)
c (t) = (t + 3) + ( t
2
4) ,
(t) = ( t
2
+ 3t + 2) + ( t
3
4t 3)
v
1
2 t
--------- i
1
4t t
----------- i
2
37
5
12
x
------
1
5
--- i
2
25
------ i
4
125
--------- i
145
65
i
1
80
------
1
4
---
9
16
------
r
1
2
--- j
1
2
--- i
3
2
--- i
1
2
--- j
1
2
--- i
1
3
--- j
3
2
--- j
1
t
--- j
3
2
--- i
5
2
--- j
1
2
--- j
1
2
--- i
1
6
--- j
d (t) = (t
2
1) + (3t 1) ,
(t) = ( t
3
t + 1) + ( t
2
t + 1)
e (t) = (5t + ) + ( t
2
+ t ) ,
(t) = ( t
2
+ t + 3) + ( t
3
+ t
2
t + 4)
f (t) = (t + ) + ( t
2
+ 6t ) ,
(t) = ( t
2
+ t 5) + ( t
3
+ 3t
2
t + 12)
g (t) = (t
2
+ t ) + ( t
2
3t + ) ,
(t) = ( t
3
+ t
2
t) + ( t
3
t
2
+ t + 8)
h (t) = (3t 6) + ( t
2
+ 12t ) ,
(t) = ( t
2
6t ) + ( t
3
+ 6t
2
t + )
3 a (t) = 12 + (15 gt)
b 19.2 m/s at an angle of 5120 above the
horizontal.
c 11.5 m 3.06 seconds
d 19.2 m/s downwards at an angle of 5120 to the
horizontal
4 a (t) = 15 + (30 gt)
b 33.5 m/s at an angle of 6326 above the
horizontal
c 45.9 m
d No, as it falls short by about 40 cm.
5 b (t) = 18 t + (50 + 18t gt
2
)
c Maximum height is 66.5 m which is 16.5 m

above the launch platform.
d 47.7 m/s

horizontal
e 172.1 m
6 a
A
(t) = 4(t 1) + (3 + 5t t
2
) ,
B
(t) = 3(8 t) + (6 7t + 2t
2
)
b Particles dont collide but they do pass through
two common points at different times. At
(13.70, 5.55), one particle arrives when t = 4.43 s
and the other when t = 3.43 s. At the point
(18.20, 0.06),

one particle arrives when
t = 5.55 s and the other when t = 1.93 s.
c y
A
= 3 + (x + 4)(16 x),
y
B
= 6 + (24 x)(27 2x)
7 a
(t) = (5t 14) + (32t 45 4t

2
)
b When t = 5 s, the particles do collide at (11, 15).
Particles appear to collide at (9.15, 17.4) but
actually pass through this point at different times;
so they dont collide. Particle at t = 4.63 s and
particle at time t = 3.15 s.
8 b 0.618 when 5817
c 35.6 m/s
9 1746 and 7756
10 21.429 m
11 100 m/s, 192 m
12 Yes, they meet at (38.4, 9.2) when t = 2 s.
13 20 m/s at an angle of approx. 3652
14 75.431 m, approx. 4.64 s
15 b R
max
= when = 45 +
v
1
3
--- i
3
2
--- j
15
2
------ i
1
2
---
13
6
------ j
5
2
---
15
2
------ i
1
6
---
1
2
---
13
6
------ j
7
2
--- i
1
2
---
65
6
------ j
1
2
---
7
2
--- i
1
6
---
65
6
------ j
23
6
------ i
5
2
---
5
3
--- j
1
3
---
1
2
---
23
6
------ i
5
6
---
3
2
---
5
3
--- j
5
2
---
35
2
------ j
3
2
---
11
2
------ i
5
6
---
35
2
------
116
3
--------- j
3 i
1
2
--- j
1
16
------
1
9
---
r
V
2
(1+sin )g
--------------------------

2
---
10E
11B
620 A n s w e r s
a
n
s
w
e
r
s
Exercise 11C Motion under constant
acceleration
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 21.08 m/s or
11
12
13
14 12 m/s
15
16
17
18 a i 19.6 m/s ii 27.7 m/s iii t = s
b i 20.2 m/s ii 28.15 m/s iii t = 2.4 s
19 a 78.4 m b 2.53 s longer
20 0.1044 s
21 4 s, 21.6 m above the ground
22 5.83 s
23 24.04 m
24 8.9 s
Chapter review
1 B 2 A 3 D 4 B
5 C
6 a (t) = 6 + (12 6t) m/s, (t) = 6 m/s
2

b Origin, m/s
c i 12 m ii 6

m/s to the right iii 45
7 a 5 seconds b (5, 5)
c y
A
= 4x x
2
, y
B
= x 10
a 4 m/s
2
b 32 m
a 6.5 m/s
2
b Approx. 1.54 s
a 80 m/s b Approx. 8.94 s
a 18 m/s
b 0.6 m/s
2
a 58.8 m/s b 176.4 m
a 19.6 m b 4 s
a 2.83 s b 27.72 m/s
a 78.4 m b 39.2 m/s
a 90 m b 7.14 s c 42 m/s
a 2 m/s
2
b 144 m c 7.5 s
a 12.5 m/s b 4.8 s
a 5 m/s
2
b 22 m c 3.2 s d 25.6 m
a 24.5 m b 17.5 s
a 8.04 m/s b 1.1 m c 1.77 s
a 16.1 m/s b 27.23 m
20 10
3
----------------
8
v
6 5
2
8 c y = 25 (x 1)
2

9 D 10 C 11 A
12 (t) = t + (3t t
2
)

m/s,
(t) = t
2
+ (9 2t) m
13 a (t) = 6 + (45 gt) m/s
b 3 m/s at an angle of elevation of 8224
c 101.25, 4.5 s
d 3 m/s

vertical
14 b (t) = 12t + (60 + 12t gt
2
)
c Clears by about 5 cm
15 b Expression is positive for 2634 < 90.
Maximum is 0.618 when 5817.
c 30.845

m/s
16 a 30.625 m b t 1 s and 4 s
17 E
18 C
19 B
20 a 2 min 14 s b 16.2 s
21 a
2 a = b x = + a(t)
2
s = a(t)
2
+

ut
c When a = 0
3 a k = 4.96 10
12
b v(r) =
c 1.84 10
6
m
1 a Car A b 8.4 m
c i 2 m/s
2
ii 3.58 m/s
2
d i 23.62 m/s ii 28.33 m/s
v
1
2
--- i
t
2
6
---- j
229
229
r
3i
1
2
--- j
t (s)
v (m/s)
B
A 4
5
0 _
6 8.5
b 36.25 s
c 145 m
d 16 m
x
s
--
1
4
---
ut
2
---------
1
8
---
1
2
---
2
4.96 10
12
r
--------------------------- 2.69 10
6

I n d e x 621
Abel, Niels Henrik 183
Abelian groups 185, 265
absolute value of a number 4950
solving equations using 514
acceleration
motion under 5404
vector expressions for 51421
addition principle 4614
adjoint matrix 229
algebraic structures 178
applied forces 355
Argand diagrams 801, 97
argument of complex number 95, 97103
arithmetic sequences
denition 3968
nding terms rule 3989
graphs of 432
listing terms of 400
simple interest 4337
sum of terms 4013
arrangements 462
in a circle 4723
involving restrictions and like objects 4769
see also permutations
associativity of operations 181, 264
augmented matrices 210
axioms related to operations and whole numbers 188
binary number systems 17
binary operations 180
binomial theorem 499501
Cartesian form of complex numbers 106
Cayley, Arthur 194
Cayley table 17980, 1868
circle, number of arrangements in 4723
cis 103
closure of operations 181, 263
coefcient of friction 369
coefcient matrix 155
cofactor matrix 228
collision momentum 381
combinations 4827
applications of 4904
combinatorics 460
common differences 396
common ratio 407
commutativity of operations 182
complex conjugate numbers 878
complex number multiplication
by constant (scalar) 82
by i 85
in polar form 111
of two numbers 834
complex numbers
addition 812
applications 1201
Argand diagrams 801
argument 959, 100
in Cartesian form 1067
conjugates 878
denition 769
division 889
equality of two numbers 845
geometrical representation 956
imaginary part 77
modulus 967, 100
multiplicative inverses 8990
Pascals Triangle 11415
plotting 84
polar form 1036
powers 11417
in quadratic equations 80
real part 77
simple algebra 935
subtraction 812
composition of transformation 263
composition and transformations 1923
compound interest 4213
compared with simple interest 4347
conformable matrix 137
congruent transformations 270, 276
conjugate pairs of surds
product of pair 34
rationalising denominators using 447
conjugates of complex numbers 878
conservation of momentum 3758
constant acceleration, motion under 5404
coterminal angles 96
counting paths 498
Cramers rule 2347
cryptography 199200
cube roots 7
curves, images of 2668
translation of 255
cyclic groups and subgroups 18991
De Moivre, Abraham 108
decimals, recurring 1113, 42930
determinants of matrices 148
2 2 and 3 3 matrices 2223
Cramers rule 2347
expansion of 2256
nding area of triangle 243
622 I n d e x
determinants of matrices (continued)
nding equation of line 243
properties 2245
dilations 2849
about origin 2889
dilation factor 284
parallel to x- and y-axes 2858
displacement, velocity and acceleration 51421
Distributive Law 324
division
of complex numbers 889
of surds 368
Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge 331
dominance matrices 1648
dot product of two vectors
angle between vectors 327
calculation 324
perpendicular and parallel vectors 3278
properties 3245
and unit vectors 325
using calculator 326
DOTS (difference of two squares) identity 34
equation solving
using absolute values 514
using matrices 1334
equilibrium state 364
equilibrium values in inputoutput analysis 2068
Escher, Maurits Cornelius 290
factorials 46770
Fibonacci numbers 445
Fibonacci Sequence 4423
generating terms in 4434
golden ratio 4445
eld forces 354
FOIL method 32
force diagrams 3569
force vector diagrams 364
forces
resolving into components 3659
resultant of 356
triangle of 35960
types 3545
friction force 36970
functions in groups 1934
Gauss, Carl Friedrich 216
to nd inverse of matrix 21315
to solve simultaneous equations 20913
geometric sequences
common ratio 407
in compound interest 4214, 4337
denition 4068
nding terms of 40812
graphs of 432
in growth and decay 41821
sum of terms 413
see also innite geometric sequences
geometric transformations, and matrix algebra 2506
geometry, vectors in 3858
golden ratio (golden mean) 4445
graphics calculator use
addition of elements in dominance matrices 1678
combinations 4867
comparison of simple and compound
interest 4347
complex numbers 935
complex numbers in Cartesian form 1067
complex numbers in polar form 1056
compound interest 4347
dot product of two vectors 326
factorials 468
Gaussian elimination 21721
graphing original and translated image 2568
listing terms of arithmetic sequence 400
Mandelbrot Sets 4479
matrix equations 1568
matrix multiplication 1624
matrix operations 23742
modulus and argument of complex numbers 1013
Pascals Triangle coefcients 115
permutations 472
plotting missile ight 5335
plotting particle trajectory 51719, 5201
roots 7
scalar and vector resolutes 3346
simultaneous equations 242
sum of arithmetic sequence 4023
terms in Fibonacci Sequence 4434
terms of geometric sequence 41112, 41920
unit vector in direction of vector 31617
vector functions of time 3413
vector magnitude and direction in two
dimensions 31112
x- and y-components of vector 31314
gravity, acceleration under 5404
group theory
applications 1978
and linear transformations 2638
groups
Abelian 185
cyclic 18991
inner and outerfunctions 1934
permutations 191
properties 1848
terminology 1803
transformations of shapes 1923
Hamilton, William Rowan 118
I n d e x 623
idempotent matrices 14950
identity element (IE) 1813, 264
identity matrix, multiplicative 13940
images, graphing using calculator 2568
images of curves
non-singular transformations 2667
singular transformations 2678
images as result of translation 251
imaginary number i 76
multiplication by 85
imaginary part of complex numbers 77
inequations, solving 5562
inertial mass 364
innite geometric sequences
converting recurring decimals to fractions 42930
sum of 4279
see also geometric sequences
inputoutput analysis 2068
integers 4
interest, simple and compound 4214, 4337
inverse
of 3 3 matrix 22832
of set elements 1812
inverse of matrix 1479
by Gaussian elimination 21315
inverse transformations 2645
irrational numbers 45
proof by contradiction 1819
surds 1718
Leontief matrix 207
linear equation solving
using Cramers rule 2347
using determinants 22237
using inverse matrices 20621
linear transformation matrix 261
linear transformations 25962
and group theory 2638
Lotto systems 4901, 4934
Mandelbrot Set 4469
mass and weight 3645
matrices
addition 130
adjoint 229
applications 1456
augmented 210
coefcient 155
cofactor 228
conformable 137
determinants of 148, 2227
dilation 285
dominance 1648
equality of 133
Gaussian elimination in 20915
identity 13940
information summarising using 1589
introduction 1289
inverse of 1479, 22832
linear transformation 261
multiplication by scalar 1313
multiplication of 13740, 1624
multiplicative inverse 1467, 1501
powers of 1434
reection 276
simple equation solving using 1334
simultaneous equation solving using 1558
singular 14950
subtraction of 131
transition 159
transpose of 154
and vectors 3378
matrix algebra
transformations 2501
translations 2515
matrix applications
inputoutput analysis 2068
modelling and problem solving 2478
matrix equations 1334, 1502
matrix operations, using calculator 23742
maze, paths through 498
mediator 276
missile ight 5315
modular arithmetic 17
modulo arithmetic 17980
modulus
of complex number 967, 1003
of a number 4950
momentum
conservation of 3758
denition 3745
motion
Newtons First Law of 36470
Newtons Second Law of 524
of projectiles 51435
under constant accleration 5404
multiplication
of complex numbers 824, 85, 11114
of matrices 13740, 1501, 1624
of matrix by scalar 1313
of surds 2730
multiplication principle 4604
multiplicative identity matrix 13940
multiplicative inverse 1467
of complex number 8990
negative numbers, square root of 76
Newton, Isaac (Sir) 363
First Law of Motion 36470
Second Law of Motion 524
Newtonian dynamics, assumptions made in 356
nilpotent matrices 14950
624 I n d e x
non-singular transformations 2667
n
th
roots 7
number systems, other 1617
real 35
operations on numbers 180
operations and whole numbers, axioms relating to 188
particles, in Newtonian dynamics 355
Pascal, Blaize 506
Pascals triangle 114, 499501
Pauli matrices 198
perfect square identities 33
permutations 191, 4702
applications of 4904
see also arrangements
pigeonhole principle 5023
(pi) 5
approximations for 63
place value number system 16
polar form, of complex numbers 96106
position vectors
direction 310
locating 31718
magnitude 30910
magnitude and direction using calculator 31112
magnitude in three dimensions 31819
relationship with matrices 309
resultant 31415
in two and three dimensions 3089
unit vectors 31213, 31517
x- and y-components using calculator 31314
powers
of complex numbers 11417
of a matrix 1434
projectile motion 52436
proof by contradiction 18
quadratic equations, complex numbers in 80
quaternions 1978
radian measure 956
rational numbers 34
recurring decimals 1113
rationalising denominators of surds 402
using conjugate surds 447
Real Number System
classication 35
relationships between subsets 5
real numbers
application and modelling 645
investigations 15
modulus 4950
real part of complex number 77
recurring decimals 1113
conversion to fractions 42930
reection matrix 276
reection transformation 276
reections
in line y + x tan 2801
in line y = x 27980
with mediator not through origin 2823
in x-axis where y = 0 276, 277
in y-axis where x = 0 277, 278
relative velocity 3824
resistive forces 355
resolution of forces 3659
resolution of vectors
scalar resolute 3323, 334
vector resolutes 333, 334
resultant force 356, 364
rewards allotment 440
roots, square, cube and n
th
7
rotations
general 2725
special 2701
scalar quantities 300
scalar resolutes 3323
sequences
arithmetic 396403
geometric 40613
Mandelbrot Set 4469
set notation 78
shapes, changes in area and perimeter 441
shears, denition 2912
parallel to x- and y-axes 2925
simultaneous equations
in inputoutput analysis 2068
simultaneous equations solving
using calculator 1568, 242
using Gaussian elimination 20913
using inverse matrices 206
using matrices 1556
singular matrices 14950
singular transformation 2678
square roots 7
of negative numbers 76
statics 364
subgroups 18990
successive translations 2535
surds, addition and subtraction 245
conjugate pairs 34
denition 1718
Distributive Law applied to multiplication of 324
division 368
multiplication 2730
proof of irrationality 1819
rationalising when denominator of fraction 402,
447
simplifying 212
squaring 2930
I n d e x 625
Taussky-Todd, Olga 142
ternary operations 180
time-varying vectors
equation of path 33941, 3434
transformations, congruent 270
denition 2501
dilations 2849
linear 25968
reections 27683
rotations 1923, 2705
shears 2915
transition matrix 159
translations, of a curve 255
denition 2513
successive 2534
transpose of a matrix 154
triangle of forces 35960
unary operations 180
unit vectors 31213, 31517
and dot product 325
vector (force) diagrams 3569
vector quantities 300
vectors
addition of 3015
denition 300
dot product of 3248
equality of 301
expressions for velocity and acceleration 51421
nding angle between 327
in geometry 3858
and matrices 309, 3378
multiplication of 3248
multiplying by a scalar 302
negative of 301
notation 301
properties 301
relationship with matrices 3378
scalar and vector resolutes 3324
three-dimensional non-zero 387
time-varying 33944
see also position vectors
velocity
relative 3824
vector expressions for 51421
weight and mass 3645
whole numbers and operations, axioms relating
to 188
zero matrix 133

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What is the book about?

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YE AR

Number systems: the Real

Number systems: complex

Matrices and their

Introduction to vectors 299

Vector applications 353

Sequences and series 395

The set of negative integers

(a) Use your calculator to nd the value of . = 4.795 831 523 31 . . .

) and 0. Positive whole numbers (Z

32b 12a 32b 8a 4 10a 12b 18a

6cd 6 2cd 6 4cd 6 2cd 6cd 6

Rationalise the denominator and simplify the following.

. (Simplify rst where possible.)

If z = 5 2i and w = 7 i, show that .

b show that iii = +

denotes whatever operation is involved.

], the following properties must hold.

a = a then u is the identity element (IE) for that operation.

has been applied.

a = u where u is the identity element for that operation.

] is a group. If a fth property,

b = 2 (where b is the inverse of a

b = where a and b are

b = is not closed with respect to whole numbers. (Remember you

b is dened as determine whether this is closed if a and b

b = a + b ab if a and b are real

, that is, [S,

if and only if (iff) all of the

; that is, the result is an element of S

Under multiplication: closed, associative, IE = 1 is not present as no 2

b = [{5, 10, 20}, lowest common multiple of a, b]

, meaning followed by, forms a group.

= 5, no inverse; so not a group.

] and let a be one

represents multiplication, that is, G = [S, ], and all elements of S can

Determine whether these permutations form a group under the operation

180 rotation anticlockwise. Locate

is the matrix of rotation.

Consider the points (1, 0) and (0, 1)

can be used to conrm the specic cases of R

3. the x-coordinate of the right-angled triangle is cos 2

4. the y-coordinate of this triangle is sin 2

Substitute for x and y into the original

Substitute for x and y into the original

Let and . Find:

1. Scalar resolute of on is given by:

A body of mass 4 kg rests on a plane inclined at an angle of

3.7 m/s at 58 to Alans current direction.

which is referred to as the sum to innity of a geo-

2 m/s upwards at an angle of 45 to the vertical 2

P and Q do not collide.

A particle moves so that its acceleration at time t is given by = 2 + (3 + 4t) . Find

(t) = 8 . For this particle,

(5) = 11 + 15 . The displacement of a second particle, ,

11.5 m 3.06 seconds