AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS

LEARNING GOALS
SINUSOIDS
Review basic facts about sinusoidal signals
SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS
Behavior of circuits with sinusoidal independent sources
and modeling of sinusoids in terms of complex exponentials

PHASORS
Representation of complex exponentials as vectors. It facilitates
steady-state analysis of circuits.
IMPEDANCE AND ADMITANCE
Generalization of the familiar concepts of resistance and
conductance to describe AC steady state circuit operation

PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Representation of AC voltages and currents as complex vectors
BASIC AC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFF LAWS
ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Extension of node, loop, Thevenin and other techniques

SINUSOIDS
x(t ) X M sin t

Adimensional plot

As function of time

X M amplitude or maximum value

angular frequency (rads/sec)

t argument (radians)
T

" leads by "

Period x (t ) x (t T ), t

frequency in Hertz (cycle/sec)

T 2
2 f
f

" lags by "

BASIC TRIGONOMETRY

ESSENTIAL IDENTITIES
sin( ) sin cos cos sin

RADIANS AND DEGREES

cos( ) cos cos sin sin

sin( ) sin

(rads)

cos( ) cos
SOME DERIVED IDENTITIES
sin( ) sin cos cos sin
cos( ) cos cos sin sin
1
1
sin cos sin( ) sin( )
2
2
1
1
cos cos cos( ) cos( )
2
2
APPLICATIO NS

cos t sin( t )
2

sin t cos( t )
2
cos t cos( t )
sin t sin( t )

2 radians 360 degrees

180

(degrees)

ACCEPTED EE CONVENTION

sin( t ) sin( t 90)

2

LEARNING EXAMPLE

cos( t 45)
cos( t 45 360)

cos( t 45)
cos( t 45 180)

cos( t )

Leads by 45 degrees

Lags by 315

Leads by 225 or lags by 135

LEARNING EXAMPLE

v1 (t ) 12 sin(1000 t 60), v2 (t ) 6 cos(1000 t 30)

FIND FREQUENCY AND PHASE ANGLE BETWEEN VOLTAGES
Frequency in radians per second is the factor of the time variable

f ( Hz )

1000 sec1

159.2 Hz
2

To find phase angle we must express both sinusoids using the same
trigonometric function; either sine or cosine with positive amplitude

take care of minus sign with cos( ) cos( 180)

6 cos(1000t 30) 6 cos(1000t 30 180)

Change sine into cosine with cos( ) sin( 90)

6 cos(1000t 210) 6 sin(1000t 210 90)

We like to have the phase shifts less than 180 in absolute value

6 sin(1000t 300) 6 sin(1000t 60)

v1 (t ) 12 sin(1000t 60) (1000t 60) (1000t 60) 120
v2 (t ) 6 sin(1000t 60)

(1000t 60) (1000t 60) 120

v1 leads v2 by 120
v2 lags v1 by 120

LEARNING EXTENSION

i1 (t ) 2 sin( 377 t 45)

i2 (t ) 0.5 cos(377 t 10)
i3 (t ) 0.25 sin( 377 t 60)
i1 leads i2 by_____?
i1 leads i3 by_____?

cos sin( 90)

0.5 cos(377t 10) 0.5sin(377t 10 90)
(377t 45) (377 100) 55
i1 leads i2 by 55

sin sin( 180)

0.25sin(377t 60) 0.25sin(377t 60 180)

(377t 45) (377t 120) 165

i1 leads i3 by 165

SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

Learning Example

KVL : L

di
(t ) Ri (t ) v (t )
dt

In steady state i (t ) A cos( t ), or

i (t ) A1 cos t A2 sin t
*/ R
If the independent sources are sinusoids
of the same frequency then for any
variable in the linear circuit the steady
state response will be sinusoidal and of
the same frequency

di
*/ L
(t ) A1 sin t A2 cos t
dt
( LA1 RA2 ) sin t ( LA2 RA1 ) cos t

VM cos t
v (t ) A sin( t ) i SS (t ) B sin( t ) LA1 RA2 0 algebraic problem
LA2 RA1 VM
To determine the steady state solution
we only need to determine the parameters A1 RV M , A2 LVM
R 2 (L) 2
R 2 (L) 2
B,
Determining the steady state solution can
be accomplished with only algebraic tools!

FURTHER ANALYSIS OF THE SOLUTION

The solution is i (t ) A1 cos t A2 sin t

The applied voltage is v (t ) VM cos t
For comparison purposes one can write i (t ) A cos( t )
A1 A cos , A2 A sin

A1

RV M
LVM
,
A

2
R 2 (L) 2
R 2 (L) 2

A
i (t )

A A12 A22 , tan

A2
A1

VM
1 L
,

tan
R
R 2 (L) 2
VM
1 L
cos(

tan
)
2
2
R
R (L)

For L 0 the current AL WAYS lags the voltage

If R 0 (pure inductor) the current lags the voltage by 90

SOLVING A SIMPLE ONE LOOP CIRCUIT CAN BE VERY LABORIOUS

IF ONE USES SINUSOIDAL EXCITATIONS
TO MAKE ANALYSIS SIMPLER ONE RELATES SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS
TO COMPLEX NUMBERS. THE ANALYSIS OF STEADY STATE WILL BE
CONVERTED TO SOLVING SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS ...

WITH COMPLEX VARIABLES

ESSENTIAL IDENTITY : e j cos j sin (Euler identity)

v (t ) VM cos t y (t ) A cos( t )
v (t ) VM sin t y(t ) A sin( t ) * / j (and add)
y(t )

VM e j t Ae j (t ) Ae j e j t
If everybody knows the frequency of the sinusoid
then one can skip the term exp(jwt)

VM Ae j

Learning Example

R jL R (L ) e
2

I M e j
v ( t ) V M e j t
Assume i ( t ) I M e ( j t )
di
KVL : L (t ) Ri (t ) v (t )
dt
di
(t ) jI M e ( j t )
dt
di
L (t ) Ri (t ) jLI M e ( j t ) RI M e ( j t )
dt

( jL R) I M e

( j t )

( jL R) I M e j e jt
( j L R ) I M e j e j t V M e j t
VM
R jL
I M e j
*/
jL R
R jL

I M e j

VM ( R jL)
R 2 (L) 2

IM

VM
R 2 (L ) 2

VM
R2 (L )2

tan 1

L
R

tan 1

L
R

, tan 1

L
R

v (t ) VM cos t Re{VM e j t }
i (t ) Re{ I M e ( j t ) } I M cos( t )

C P
x jy re j
r x 2 y 2 , tan 1
x r cos , y r sin

x
y

PHASORS
ESSENTIAL CONDITION
ALL INDEPENDENT SOURCES ARE SINUSOIDS OF THE SAME FREQUENCY
BECAUSE OF SOURCE SUPERPOSITION ONE CAN CONSIDER A SINGLE SOURCE

u(t ) U M cos( t )

THE STEADY STATE RESPONSE OF ANY CIRCUIT VARIABLE WILL BE OF THE FORM

y(t ) YM cos( t )

SHORTCUT 1

u(t ) U M e j ( t ) y(t ) YM e
Re{U M e j ( t ) } Re{YM e

j ( t )

j ( t )

U M e j ( t ) U M e j e jt u U M e j y YM e j
SHORTCUT IN NOTATION

NEW IDEA:

INSTEAD OF WRITING u U M e j WE WRITE u U M

... AND WE ACCEPT ANGLES IN DEGREES
U M IS THE PHASOR REPRESENTA TION FOR U M cos( t )
u(t ) U M cos( t ) U U M Y YM y(t ) Re{YM cos( t )}
SHORTCUT 2: DEVELOP EFFICIENT TOOLS TO DETERMINE THE PHASOR OF
THE RESPONSE GIVEN THE INPUT PHASOR(S)

Learning Extensions

Learning Example

It is essential to be able to move from

sinusoids to phasor representation

A cos(t ) A
A sin(t ) A 90

V VM 0
v Ve jt

I I M

jt
di
i

Ie
L (t ) Ri (t ) v
dt
L( jIe jt ) RIe jt Ve jt
In terms of phasors one has
jLI RI V
V
I
R jL

The phasor can be obtained using

only complex algebra
We will develop a phasor representation
for the circuit that will eliminate the need
of writing the differential equation

v(t ) 12cos(377t 425) 12 425

y(t ) 18sin(2513t 4.2) 18 85.8
Given f 400 Hz
V1 1020 v1 (t ) 10 cos(800 t 20)
V2 12 60 v2 (t ) 12 cos(800 t 60)
Phasors can be combined using the
rules of complex algebra

(V11 )(V2 2 ) V1V2(1 2 )

V11 V1
(1 2 )
V2 2 V2

PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

RESISTORS v (t ) Ri (t )

VM e ( j t ) RI M e ( j t )

VM e j RI M e j

V RI Phasor representation for a resistor

Phasors are complex numbers. The resistor
model has a geometric interpretation

The voltage and current

phasors are colineal

In terms of the sinusoidal signals this

geometric representation implies that
the two sinusoids are in phase

INDUCTORS

d
( I M e ( j t ) )
dt
jLI M e ( j t )

VM e ( j t ) L

Relationship between sinusoids

VM e j jLI M e j

V jLI
Learning Example
The relationship between
phasors is algebraic
For the geometric view
use the result

j 190 e j 90
V LI90

L 20mH , v (t ) 12 cos(377 t 20). Find i (t )

377

1220
I

( A)
V 1220
L90
V
12
I
I

70( A)
jL
377 20 103
i (t )

The voltage leads the current by 90 deg

The current lags the voltage by 90 deg

12
cos(377 t 70)
3
377 20 10

CAPACITORS

I M e ( j t ) C

d
(VM e ( j t ) )
dt

Relationship between sinusoids

I M e j jCe j

I CV90

I jCV
Learning Example

C 100 F , v (t ) 100 cos(314t 15). Find i (t )

The relationship between
phasors is algebraic
In a capacitor the
current leads the
voltage by 90 deg
The voltage lags
the current by 90 deg

314
V 10015

I C 190 10015

I jCV
I 314 100 10 6 100105( A)

i (t ) 3.14cos(314t 105)( A)

LEARNING EXTENSIONS

L 0.05 H , I 4 30( A), f 60 Hz

Find the voltage across the inductor
2 f 120
V jLI
V 120 0.05 190 4 30
V 2460

v(t ) 24 cos(120 60)

Now an example with capacitors

C 150 F , I 3.6 145, f 60 Hz

Find the voltage across the capacitor

2 f 120
I jCV V

I
jC

3.6 145
120 150 106 190
200
V
235

v (t )

200

cos(120 t 235)

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

For each of the passive components the relationship between the voltage phasor
and the current phasor is algebraic. We now generalize for an arbitrary 2-terminal
element

Z ( ) R( ) jX ( )
R( ) Resistive component
X ( ) Reactive component
| Z | R 2 X 2
X
z tan 1
R
(INPUT) IMPEDANCE

V V V
Z M v M ( v i ) | Z | z
I I M i I M
(DRIVING POINT IMPEDANCE)
The units of impedance are OHMS
Impedance is NOT a phasor but a complex
number that can be written in polar or
Cartesian form. In general its value depends
on the frequency

Element Phasor Eq. Impedance

R
V RI
ZR
V jLI
Z jL
L
1
1
V

I
Z

C
j C
j C

KVL AND KCL HOLD FOR PHASOR REPRESENTATIONS

v2 (t )

v1 ( t )

v3 ( t )

i0 (t )

i1 (t )

i2 ( t )

i3 (t )

KVL: v1(t ) v2 (t ) v3 (t ) 0

KCL : i0 (t ) i1 (t ) i2 (t ) i3 (t ) 0

vi (t ) VMie j ( t i ) , i 1,2,3

ik (t ) I Mk e j ( t k ) , k 0,1,2,3
In a similar way, one shows ...

KVL : (VM 1e j1 VM 2e j 2 VM 3e j 3 )e jt 0

VM11 VM 2 2 VM 3 3 0
V1 V2 V3 0 Phasors!

V2

V1

V3

I 0 I1 I 2 I3 0

I0

I1

I2

I3

The components will be represented by their impedances and the relationships

will be entirely algebraic!!

SPECIAL APPLICATION:
IMPEDANCES CAN BE COMBINED USING THE SAME RULES DEVELOPED
FOR RESISTORS

V1
Z1

I
V2

I
Zs Z1 Z2

Z2

Z1

Z2 V

1
1
k
Zp
Zk

Z s k Zk

LEARNING EXAMPLE

Zp

Z1Z 2
Z1 Z 2

f 60 Hz, v (t ) 50 cos( t 30)

Compute equivalent impedance and current

120 , V 5030, Z R 25
ZR R

Z L jL

ZC

1
jC

1
j120 50 106
Z L j 7.54, ZC j53.05

Z L j120 20 103 , ZC

Z s Z R Z L ZC 25 j 45.51

V
5030
5030

( A)
( A)
Z s 25 j 45.51
51.93 61.22

I 0.9691.22( A) i (t ) 0.96 cos(120 t 91.22)( A)

LEARNING EXTENSION

FIND i (t )

377
Z R 20
Z L j 377 40 10 3 j15.08

V 120(60 90)

ZC
Z eq ZC || ( Z R Z L )

j
j53.05
377 50 106

Z eq 30 .5616 + j 4 .9714 30.9639.239

V
120 30

3.876 39.924( A)
Z eq 30.9639.239

Parallel Combination of Admittances

(COMPLEX) ADMITTANCE

Y p Yk

1
G jB (Siemens)
Z
G conductanc e

YR 0.1S

YC

B Suceptanc e
1
1
R jX
R jX

2
Z R jX
R jX R X 2

L
C

V jLI
1
V
I
j C

Series Combination of Admittances

0.1S

Element Phasor Eq. Impedance

V RI

Y p 0.1 j1( S )

1
1

Ys k Yk

R
R2 X 2
X
B 2
R X2

1
j1( S )
j1

ZR
Z j L
Z

1
j C

Admittance
1
Y G
R
1
Y
j L
Y j C

j 0.1S

1
1
1

Ys 0.1 j 0.1
10 j10

(0.1)( j 0.1) 0.1 j 0.1

0. 1 j 0 .1 0 . 1 j 0 . 1
1
10 j10
Ys

10 j10
200
Ys 0.05 j 0.05 S
Ys

LEARNING EXAMPLE VS 6045(V )

LEARNING EXTENSION

FIND Y p , I

Y p YR YL
0.5 j 0.25

Y p 0.5 j 0.5 j1 0.25 0.75 j 0.5( S )

Y p 0.901433.69( S )

2 j4
2 j4
Yp
0.5 j 0.25( S )
2 j4
j8

I Y pV 0.901433.69 1020

I Y pV (0.5 j 0.25) 6045( A)

I 9.01453.79( A)

Zp

I 0.559 26.565 6045( A)

I 33.5418.435( A)

LEARNING EXAMPLE

SERIES-PARALLEL REDUCTIONS

Z3 4 j 2

1
2 j4
2
2 j 4 (2) (4) 2
1
4 j2
Y34

4 j2
20
Y2

Y4 j 0.25 j 0.5 j 0.25

Z 4 1/ Y4 j 4
1 ( j 2)
1 j2
1
Z1
1 j 0.5
Z1

1 j 0.5
Z1
1 (0.5)2
Z1 0.8 j 0.4()

Z4

j 4 ( j 2) 8

j4 j2
j2
Y2 0.1 j 0.2( S )
Y34 0.2 j 0.1

Z2 2 j6 j 2 2 j 4
Z34 4 j 2

Z 234

Y234 0.3 j 0.1( S )

Z 234

1
Y234

1
0.3 j 0.1

0.3 j 0.1
0.1

Z 2 Z34
3 j1
Z 2 Z34

Z eq Z1 Z 234 3.8 j 0.6 3.8478.973

LEARNING EXTENSION FIND THE IMPEDANCE ZT

Z1 4 j 6 j 4
Z1 4 j 2

Y12 Y1 Y2

( R P ) Z1 4.47226.565
Y1 0.224 26.565
( P R)Y1 0.200 j 0.100

Y12 Y1 Y2 0.45 j 0.35

( R P )Y12 0.570 37.875
Z12 1.75437.875
( P R) Z12 1.384 j1.077

Z 2 2 j 2 ( R P ) Z 2 2.82845
Y2 0.354 45
( P R)Y2 0.250 j 0.250
1
4 j2
ZT 2 (1.384 j1077) 3.383 j1.077
Y1
2
4 j 2 (4) (2) 2
1
2 j2
Y2
2
2 j 2 (2) (2) 2
1
1
0.45 j 0.35
Z12

Y12 0.45 j 0.35

0.325

1
Z12
Y12

PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Display all relevant phasors on a common reference frame
Very useful to visualize phase relationships among variables.
Especially if some variable, like the frequency, can change
LEARNING EXAMPLE

SKETCH THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT

Any one variable can be chosen as reference.
For this case select the voltage V

KCL : I S

V
V

jCV
R jL

(capacitive)
| I L || I C |

| I L || I C |

IC jCV

IL

V
jl

(inductive)
INDUCTIVE CASE

CAPACITIVE CASE

LEARNING EXAMPLE

DO THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT

377( s 1 )

2. PUT KNOWN NUMERICAL VALUES

| VL VC || VR |

VR RI
VL jLI

It is convenient to select

1
the current as reference
VC
I
jC
VS VR VL VC
1. DRAW ALL THE PHASORS

| VL || VC |

DIAGRAM WITH REFERENCE VS 12 290

VL 18135(V )

Read values from

diagram!

I 345( A)
VR 1245(V )
(Pythagora s)
VC 6 45

FIND THE FREQUENCY AT WHICH v (t ) AND i (t )

ARE IN PHASE
i.e., the phasors for i (t ), v (t ) are co - lineal
1
V
I jLI RI
jC

LEARNING BY DOING

v (t )

L
PHASOR DIAGRAM

jLI

1
I
jC

RI

V and I are co - lineal iff jL

Notice that I was

chosen as reference

1
I jLI RI
jC

1
1
0 2
jC
LC

1
9
4

10

3
.
162

10
(rad / s)
3
6
10 10
f

5.033 103 Hz
2

LEARNING EXTENSION

Draw a phasor diagram illustrating all voltages and currents

j4
4 90
I
445
2 j4
4.472 63.435
I1 3.57818.435( A)

I1

I2

Current
divider

1
20
I
445
2 j4
4.472 63.435

I 2 1.789108.435 Simpler than I 2 I I1

V 2 I1 7.15618.435(V )
DRAW PHASORS. ALL ARE
KNOWN. NO NEED TO SELECT
A REFERENCE

BASIC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFFS LAWS

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

For relatively simple circuits use

Ohm' s law for AC analysis; i.e., V IZ

The rules for combining Z and Y
KCL AND KVL
Current and voltage divider
For more complex circuits use

Node analysis
Loop analysis
Superposit ion
Source transforma tion
Thevenin' s and Norton' s theorems
MATLAB
PSPICE

LEARNING EXAMPLE

COMPUTE ALL THE VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Compute I1
Use current divider for I2 , I3
Ohm' s law for V1 , V2
V1 690 I 2

Z eq 4 ( j 6 || 8 j 4)

V1 16.2678.42(V )

24 j 48 32 j8 24 j 48
Z eq 4

8 j2
8 j2

V2 7.2815(V )

56 j 56
79.19645

9.60430.964()
8 j2
8.24614.036
V
2460
I1 S
2.49829.036( A)
Z eq 9.60430.964
Z eq

j6
690
I1
2.49829.036( A)
8 j2
8.24614.036
8 j4
8.944 26.565
I2
I1
2.49829.036( A)
8 j2
8.24614.036

I3

I1 2.529.06

I 2 2.71 11.58

V2 4 90 I 3

I3 1.82105

LEARNING EXTENSION

IF VO 845, COMPUTE VS
THE PLAN...

COMPUTE I3
COMPUTE V1
COMPUTE I2 , I1
COMPUTE VS

VO
( A) 445( A)
2
V1 (2 j 2) I 3 8 45 445
V1 11.3140(V )
I3

I2

V1 11.3140

5.657 90( A)
j2
290

I1 I 2 I3 5.657 90 445
I1 j5.657 (2.828 j 2.828)( A)
I1 2.828 j 2.829( A)

VS 2 I1 V1 2(2.828 j 2.829) 11.3140

VS 16.97 j5.658(V )
VS 17.888 18.439

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
PURPOSE: TO REVIEW ALL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TOOLS DEVELOPED FOR
RESISTIVE CIRCUITS; I.E., NODE AND LOOP ANALYSIS, SOURCE SUPERPOSITION,
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION, THEVENINS AND NORTONS THEOREMS.

COMPUTE I0

V2 60
V
20 V2 2 0
1 j1
1 j1

1
1
6
V2
1

1 j1
1 j1
1 j1
V2

(1 j1) (1 j1)(1 j1) (1 j1) 2(1 j1) 6

(1 j1)(1 j1)
1 j1
V2

1. NODE ANALYSIS

V1
V
V
20 2 2 0
1 j1
1 1 j1
V1 V2 60

I0

V2
( A)
1

4
8 j2
1 j

V2

(4 j )(1 j )
2

3
5
I 0 j ( A)
2
2

I 0 2.92 30.96

NEXT: LOOP ANALYSIS

2. LOOP ANALYSIS
ONE COULD ALSO USE THE SUPERMESH
TECHNIQUE

SOURCE IS NOT SHARED AND Io IS

DEFINED BY ONE LOOP CURRENT

LOOP 1 : I1 20

I2

I 0 I3

LOOP 2 : (1 j )( I1 I 2 ) 60 (1 j )( I 2 I3 ) 0
LOOP 3 : (1 j )( I 2 I3 ) I3 0

CONSTRAINT : I1 I 2 20
SUPERMESH : (1 j ) I1 60 ( I 2 I 3 ) 0

MUST FIND I3
2 I 2 (1 j ) I3 6 (1 j )(2)
(1 j ) I 2 (2 j ) I3 0

(1 j )

/* (1 j )
/* (2)

2( 2 j ) I 3 (1 j )(8 2 j )
5 3
10 6 j
I

j ( A)
I3
0
2 2
4
2

MESH 3 : ( I 3 I 2 ) (1 j ) I 3 0
I 0 I 2 I3
NEXT: SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

3. SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

I 0' 10( A)

Z ' (1 j ) || (1 j )

(1 j )(1 j )
1
(1 j ) (1 j )

COULD USE SOURCE TRANSFORMA TION

TO COMPUTE I"0

V1"

Z"
Z"
"
"
60(V ) I 0 "
60( A)
Z 1 j
Z 1 j

1 j
1 j
I 0"
6
2

j
(
1

j
)

j
I 0"
6 ( A)
1 j
6 6
"
1 j
I

j ( A)
0
2 j
4 4
5 3
I 0 I 0' I 0" j ( A)
2 2

Z"

Z" 1 || (1 j )

NEXT: SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

4. SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

IS

82j
1 j

Z (1 j ) || (1 j ) 1
V ' 8 2 j

Now a voltage to current transformation

NEXT: THEVENIN

I0

I S 4 j (4 j )(1 j ) 5 3 j

2 1 j (1 j )(1 j )
2

5. THEVENIN ANALYSIS

Voltage Divider

VOC

1 j
10 6 j
(8 2 j )
(1 j ) (1 j )
2

ZTH (1 j ) || (1 j ) 1

8 2j

I0

53j
( A)
2

NEXT: NORTON

6. NORTON ANALYSIS

ZTH (1 j ) || (1 j ) 1

I0

Possible techniques: loops, source

transformation, superposition

BY SUPERPOSTI ON
I SC 20

60 8 2 j

( A)
1 j
1 j

I SC 4 j (4 j )(1 j ) 5 3 j

2
1 j (1 j )(1 j )
2

LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND V0 USING NODES, LOOPS, THEVENIN, NORTON

WHY SKIP SUPERPOSITION AND TRANSFORMATION?

Supernode constraint : V1 V3 120

KCL @ Supernode
40

V3 V0 V3 V2 V1 V2 V3

0
1
1
j
j

KCL@V2
V2 V1
V V3
2I x 2
0
j
1
NODES

KCL@ V0
V0 V0 V3

40 0 V3 2V0 4
1
1
V1 V3 12
Controlling variable

V1 2V0 16
V3 V0
Ix
1
V3 V0 V0 4
j (V2 2V0 16) 2(V0 4) (V2 2V0 4) 0

Notice choice of ground

j (V2 2V0 16) (V2 2V0 4) (V0 4) j (2V0 4) 4

8 4j
Adding : V0
1 2 j

LOOP ANALYSIS

MESH CURRENTS DETERMINED BY SOURCES

I 2 40
I3 2 I x

I3 2( I 4 4)

MESH 1 :
jI1 120 1( I1 I3 ) 0
MESH 4 :
1( I 4 I 2 ) 1 I 4 j ( I 4 I3 ) 0
CONTROLLIN G VARIABLE : I x I 4 I 2
VARIABLE OF INTEREST : V0 1 I 4 (V )
MESH CURRENTS ARE ACCEPTABLE

I 4 4 I 4 j ( I 4 2( I 4 4)) 0

( 2 j ) I 4 ( 4 8 j ) I 4
V0

8 4j
1 2 j

48 j j

2 j
j

Alternative procedure to compute Thevenin

impedance:
1. Set to zero all INDEPENDENT sources
2. Apply an external probe

THEVENIN

ZTH

I "x

FOR OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE

Vtest
I "x

KVL

Vtest I "x jI "x ZTH 1 j ()

I x' 40

ZTH 1 j

2I x
80
VOC 4 8 j (V )

V0

1
(4 8 j )(V )
2 j

Supernode constraint
V1 V3 12
V1 V3 120

NORTON

KCL@ Supernode
V3 V3 V3 V2 V1 V2

40 0 / j
1
j
1
j
V2 V3 V2 V1

0 / ( j )
1
j
V
Controlling Variable: I x''' 3
1

KCL@ V2 : 2 I X'''

I SC

2 jV3 j (V2 V3 ) (V2 V3 12) 0

(1 j )V2 (1 3 j )V3 12
(1 j )V3 jV3 jV2 (V3 12) V2 4 j

I x'''

V3
( A)
1

I SC I x''' 4
USE NODES

(1 j )V2 2 jV3 12 4 j
4j
48j
(1 j )V3 4 j V3
I SC
1 j
1 j
I SC

(4 8 j ) j
8 4j

(1 j ) j
1 j

Now we can draw the Norton

Equivalent circuit ...

NORTONS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

ZTH
I SC

V0 (1) I 0 (V )

1 j 8 4 j

(V ) Current Divider
2 j 1 j

EQUIVALENCE OF SOLUTIONS
Using Nortons method

V0

Using Thevenins

V0

Using Node and Loop methods

V0

12 4 j
(8 4 j )(1 j )

3 j
(1 2 j )(1 j )

48j j

j
2 j
8 4j
1 2 j

LEARNING EXTENSION

COMPUTE V0

USE THEVENIN

USE NODAL ANALYSIS

V1

4j

VOC
V1 1230 V1 V1 V1 V0

0 / 2 j
2
1 j2
j

3 4 j 4 j (2 6 j )
2 j2 2 6 j
40
3
1 || j 2
j2

1230
1230
2 (1 || j 2)
2(1 2 j ) 2 j
24120 12120

26j
1 3 j

ZTH 2 || 1 || j 2

VOC

V0 V1 V0
0 V1 (1 j )V0
j
1

ZTH

j (V1 1230) 2 jV1 V1 2(V1 V0 ) 0

2V0 (1 2 2 j j )(1 j )V0 j1230
(2 (1 3 j )(1 j ))V0 190 1230
12120 12120
V0

2.1275(V )
44j
5.6645

j1

VOC

+
-

V0

V0

1
VOC
ZTH 1 j

LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 USING MESH ANALYSIS

USING NODES

V1

V1 240
V1
290
0
2
22j
2
V0
V1
22j

USING SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

2
240
222j

CONSTRAINT
I1 I 2 290 I1 I 2 2 j

V0V

SUPERMESH
240 2 I1 2 jI 2 2 I 2 0

V0I 2

2( I 2 2 j ) (2 2 j ) I 2 24 (4 2 j ) I 2 24 4 j

V0 2 I 2

24 4 j
24.339.46

10.8636.03
2 j
2.24 26.57

2
290
42j

V0 V0V V0I

LEARNING EXTENSION

COMPUTE V0

2V

V0"
V0 V0' V0"
1. USING SUPERPOSITION

2 || (2 2 j )

V2
V1

V1

2 || (2 2 j )
(120)
j 2 (2 || 2 2 j )
V0'

V0'

2
V1
22j

(2 j ) || (2 2 j )
240
2 (2 j || (2 2 j )
V0"

2
V2
22j

2. USE SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

2j

I eq

I1

2 V0

I eq 120 6 90 12 6 j

I1

V0 2I1

j 2

120 2

I1 2
j 2 6 90

Z 2 || j 2

Z
I eq
Z 22j

V0

USE NORTONS THEOREM

j2
I1
I SC
ZTH 2 || j 2

ZTH
I1

2 V0

ZTH
I SC
ZTH 2 2 j
V0 2I1

120
6 90

I SC

LEARNING EXAMPLE

Find the current i(t) in steady state

The sources have different frequencies!
For phasor analysis MUST use source superposition

SOURCE 1: FREQUENCY 10 r/s

SOURCE 2: FREQUENCY 20r/s

Principle of superposition

Frequency domain