AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS

LEARNING GOALS
SINUSOIDS
Review basic facts about sinusoidal signals

SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

Behavior of circuits with sinusoidal independent sources
and modeling of sinusoids in terms of complex exponentials

PHASORS
Representation of complex exponentials as vectors. It facilitates
steady-state analysis of circuits.

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITANCE

Generalization of the familiar concepts of resistance and
conductance to describe AC steady state circuit operation

PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Representation of AC voltages and currents as complex vectors

BASIC AC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFF LAWS

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Extension of node, loop, Thevenin and other techniques
 SINUSOIDS

x (t )  X M sin  t

Adimensional plot As function of time

X M  amplitude or maximum value

  angular frequency (rads/sec) " leads by  "
 t  argument (radians)
2
T  Period  x ( t )  x ( t  T ), t

1 
f    frequency in Hertz (cycle/sec )
T 2
  2 f " lags by  "
BASIC TRIGONOMETRY
ESSENTIAL IDENTITIES RADIANS AND DEGREES
sin(   )  sin  cos   cos sin 
2 radians  360 degrees
cos(   )  cos cos   sin  sin 
180
sin(  )   sin   (rads)   (degrees)

cos( )  cos ACCEPTED EE CONVENTION
SOME DERIVED IDENTITIES 
sin(   )  sin  cos   cos sin  sin( t  )  sin( t  90)
2
cos(   )  cos cos   sin  sin 
1 1
sin  cos   sin(   )  sin(   )
2 2
1 1
cos cos   cos(   )  cos(   )
2 2
APPLICATIONS

cos t  sin( t  )
2

sin  t  cos( t  )
2
cos t   cos( t   )
sin  t   sin( t   )
LEARNING EXAMPLE

cos( t )

cos( t  45) cos( t  45  360)

Leads by 45 degrees Lags by 315

 cos( t  45) cos( t  45  180)

Leads by 225 or lags by 135
LEARNING EXAMPLE

v1 (t )  12 sin(1000 t  60), v2 (t )  6 cos(1000 t  30)

FIND FREQUENCY AND PHASE ANGLE BETWEEN VOLTAGES
Frequency in radians per second is the factor of the time variable   1000 sec 1

f ( Hz )   159 .2 Hz
2
To find phase angle we must express both sinusoids using the same
trigonometric function; either sine or cosine with positive amplitude

take care of minus sign with cos( )   cos(  180)

 6 cos(1000 t  30)  6 cos(1000 t  30  180 )

Change sine into cosine with cos( )  sin(  90)

6 cos(1000 t  210 )  6 sin(1000 t  210   90)
We like to have the phase shifts less than 180 in absolute value
6 sin(1000 t  300 )  6 sin(1000 t  60)
v1 (t )  12 sin(1000 t  60) (1000 t  60)  (1000 t  60)  120 
v1 leads v2 by 120
v2 (t )  6 sin(1000 t  60) (1000 t  60)  (1000 t  60)  120 
v2 lags v1 by 120
LEARNING EXTENSION

i1 (t )  2 sin(377 t  45)
i2 (t )  0.5 cos(377 t  10)
i3 (t )  0.25 sin(377 t  60)
i1 leads i2 by_____?
i1 leads i3 by_____?

cos  sin(  90)

0.5 cos(377 t  10)  0.5 sin(377 t  10  90)
(377 t  45)  (377  100 )  55
i1 leads i2 by  55
sin    sin(  180 )
 0.25 sin(377 t  60)  0.25 sin(377 t  60  180 )
(377 t  45)  (377 t  120 )  165 
i1 leads i3 by 165 
 SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

Learning Example

di
KVL : L ( t )  Ri ( t )  v ( t )
dt
In steady state i (t )  A cos( t   ), or
i (t )  A1 cos t  A2 sin  t */ R
If the independent sources are sinusoids di
(t )   A1 sin  t  A2 cos t */ L
of the same frequency, then for any dt
variable in the linear circuit the steady ( LA1  RA2 ) sin  t  ( LA2  RA1 ) cos  t 
state response will be sinusoidal and of
the same frequency.  VM cos  t
 LA1  RA2  0 algebraic problem
v (t )  A sin( t   )  i SS (t )  B sin( t   )
LA2  RA1  VM
To determine the steady state solution
RVM LVM
we only need to determine the parameters A1  , A 
R 2  (L) 2 R 2  (L) 2
2
B,
Determining the steady state solution can
be accomplished with only algebraic tools!
FURTHER ANALYSIS OF THE SOLUTION
The solution is i (t )  A1 cos t  A2 sin  t
The applied voltage is v (t )  VM cos t
For comparison purposes one can write i (t )  A cos( t   )
A
A1  A cos , A2   A sin  A  A1  A2 , tan    2
2 2
A1
RVM LVM
A1  , A 
R 2  (L) 2 R 2  (L) 2
2

VM 1 L
A ,   tan
R 2  (L) 2 R
VM 1 L
i (t )  cos( t  tan )
R  (L)
2 2
R
For L  0 the current ALWAYS lags the voltage.
If R  0 (pure inductor), the current lags the voltage by 90 .
SOLVING A SIMPLE ONE LOOP CIRCUIT CAN BE VERY LABORIOUS
IF ONE USES SINUSOIDAL EXCITATIONS.

TO MAKE ANALYSIS SIMPLER ONE RELATES SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS

TO COMPLEX NUMBERS. THE ANALYSIS OF STEADY STATE WILL BE
CONVERTED TO SOLVING SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS ...

… WITH COMPLEX VARIABLES.

ESSENTIAL IDENTITY : e j  cos  j sin  (Euler identity)

v (t )  VM cos t  y (t )  A cos( t   )
v (t )  VM sin  t  y (t )  A sin( t   ) * / j (and add)

VM e j t  Ae j (t  )  Ae j e j t

y (t )

If everybody knows the frequency of the sinusoid

then one can skip the term exp(jwt). j
VM  Ae
Learning Example
L
 tan 1
R  jL  R 2  (L ) 2 e R

L
VM  tan 1
I M e j  e R
R  (L )
2 2

v (t )  VM e j t VM L
IM  ,    tan 1
( j t  )
R 2  (L )2 R
Assume i (t )  I M e
v (t )  VM cos t  Re{VM e j t }
di
KVL : L ( t )  Ri ( t )  v ( t )  i (t )  Re{I M e ( j t  ) }  I M cos( t   )
dt
di
( t )  jI M e ( j t  )
dt C P
di
L (t )  Ri (t )  jLI M e ( j t  )  RI M e ( j t  ) x  jy  re j
dt x
r  x 2  y 2 ,   tan 1
 ( jL  R) I M e ( j t  ) y
 ( jL  R) I M e j e jt x  r cos , y  r sin 
( jL  R) I M e j e j t  VM e j t
VM R  jL
I M e j  */
jL  R R  jL
V ( R  jL)
I M e j  M 2
R  (L) 2
 PHASORS
ESSENTIAL CONDITION
ALL INDEPENDENT SOURCES ARE SINUSOIDS OF THE SAME FREQUENCY

BECAUSE OF SOURCE SUPERPOSITION ONE CAN CONSIDER A SINGLE SOURCE

u(t )  U M cos( t   )
THE STEADY STATE RESPONSE OF ANY CIRCUIT VARIABLE WILL BE OF THE FORM
y (t )  YM cos( t   )
j (  t  )
SHORTCUT 1 u( t )  U M e j ( t  )  y ( t )  YM e
j (  t  )
Re{U M e j ( t  ) }  Re{YM e }
NEW IDEA: U M e j ( t  )  U M e j e jt u  U M e j  y  YM e j
SHORTCUT IN NOTATION
INSTEAD OF WRITING u  U M e j WE WRITE u  U M 
... AND WE ACCEPT ANGLES IN DEGREES
U M  IS THE PHASOR REPRESENTATION FOR U M cos( t   )
u(t )  U M cos( t   )  U  U M   Y  YM   y (t )  Re{YM cos( t   )}
SHORTCUT 2: DEVELOP EFFICIENT TOOLS TO DETERMINE THE PHASOR OF
THE RESPONSE GIVEN THE INPUT PHASOR(S).
Learning Example Learning Extensions

It is essential to be able to move from

sinusoids to phasor representation
A cos(t   )  A  
V  V M 0 A sin(t   )  A    90
v (t )  12 cos(377 t  425 )  12  425 
v  Ve jt
I  I M  y (t )  18 sin( 2513 t  4.2)  18  85.8
i  Ie jt Given f  400 Hz
di
L (t )  Ri (t )  v V1  10 20  v1 (t )  10 cos(800 t  20)
dt
V2  12  60  v2 (t )  12 cos(800 t  60)
L( jIe jt )  RIe jt  Ve jt
In terms of phasors one has Phasors can be combined using the
jLI  RI  V rules of complex algebra.

I
V (V11 )(V2 2 )  V1V2(1   2 )
R  j L
V11 V1
The phasor can be obtained using  (1   2 )
V2 2 V2
only complex algebra.
We will develop a phasor representation
for the circuit that will eliminate the need
of writing the differential equation.
 PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

RESISTORS v (t )  Ri (t )
VM e ( j t  )  RI M e ( j t  )
VM e j  RI M e j
V  RI Phasor representation for a resistor

Phasors are complex numbers. The resistor

model has a geometric interpretation.

The voltage and current

phasors are colineal.

In terms of the sinusoidal signals, this

geometric representation implies that
the two sinusoids are “in phase.”
 d
INDUCTORS VM e ( j t  )  L ( I M e ( j t  ) ) Relationship between sinusoids
dt
 jLI M e ( j t  )

VM e j  jLI M e j

V  jLI

Learning Example
The relationship between L  20 mH , v (t )  12 cos(377 t  20). Find i (t )
phasors is algebraic.

For the geometric view,

  377
1220
use the result. V  12 20 I  ( A)
L90
j  190  e j 90 I
V 12
j L I   70( A)
V  LI90 377  20  10 3
i (t )  1.59 cos(377t  70)

The voltage leads the current by 90 deg.

The current lags the voltage by 90 deg.
 d Relationship between sinusoids
CAPACITORS I M e ( j t  )  C (VM e ( j t  ) )
dt
I M e j  jCe j

I  CV90

I  jCV
Learning Example

C  100 F , v(t )  100 cos(314t  15).

The relationship between Find i (t ).
phasors is algebraic.   314
In a capacitor, the V  100 15
current leads the I  jCV
voltage by 90 deg.
I  C  190  100 15
The voltage lags I  314  100  10 6  100 105 ( A)
the current by 90 deg.
i (t )  3.14 cos(314 t  105 )( A)
LEARNING EXTENSIONS

L  0.05 H , I  4  30( A), f  60 Hz Now an example with capacitors

Find the voltage across the inductor C  150  F , I  3.6  145 , f  60 Hz
  2 f  120 Find the voltage across the inductor
V  jLI   2 f  120
V  120  0.05190  4  30 I  jCV  V 
I
V  75.460 jC
v(t )  75.4 cos(377t  60) 3.6  145 
V
120  150  10 6  190
V  63.66  235
v(t )  63.66 cos(120 t  235)
IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

For each of the passive components the relationship between the voltage phasor
and the current phasor is algebraic. We now generalize for an arbitrary 2-terminal
element.

Z ( )  R( )  jX ( )
R( )  Resistive component
X ( )  Reactive component

| Z | R 2  X 2
X
 z  tan 1
R
(INPUT) IMPEDANCE Element Phasor Eq. Impedance
V VM  v VM R V  RI ZR
Z   ( v   i ) | Z |  z
I I M  i I M V  jLI Z  jL
L
1 1
(DRIVING POINT IMPEDANCE) C V I Z
jC jC
The units of impedance are OHMS.

Impedance is NOT a phasor but a complex

number that can be written in polar or
Cartesian form. In general its value depends
on the frequency.
 KVL AND KCL HOLD FOR PHASOR REPRESENTATIONS

 v2 (t ) 
  i0 (t )
i1 (t ) i2 ( t ) i3 (t )
v1 ( t ) v3 ( t )
 
KVL: v1(t )  v2 (t )  v3 (t )  0 KCL :  i0 (t )  i1 (t )  i2 (t )  i3 (t )  0
vi (t )  VMie j ( t  i )
, i  1,2,3 ik (t )  I Mke j ( t k ) , k  0,1,2,3

KVL : (VM1e j1  VM 2e j 2  VM 3e j3 )e jt  0 In a similar way, one shows ...

VM 11  VM 2 2  VM 3 3  0

V1  V2  V3  0 Phasors!
 V2   I 0  I1  I 2  I 3  0
  I0
I1 I2 I3
V1 V3
 
The components will be represented by their impedances and the relationships
will be entirely algebraic!!
SPECIAL APPLICATION:
IMPEDANCES CAN BE COMBINED USING THE SAME RULES DEVELOPED
FOR RESISTORS
I I
I  V1   V2  I  
Z1Z 2
Z1 Z2 V Zp 
Z1 Z2 Zs  Z1  Z2 V
Z1  Z 2
Z s   k Zk  
1 1
k
Zp Zk
LEARNING EXAMPLE f  60 Hz , v (t )  50 cos( t  30)
Compute equivalent impedance and current
  120 , V  5030, Z R  25
1
Z L  j120  20  10 3  , ZC 
ZR  R j120  50  10 6
Z L  j 7.54, ZC   j 53.05
Z s  Z R  Z L  ZC  25  j 45.51
Z L  jL
V 5030 5030
I  ( A)  ( A)
1 Z s 25  j 45.51 51.93  61.22
ZC 
jC
I  0.9691.22( A)  i (t )  0.96 cos(120 t  91.22)( A)
LEARNING ASSESSMENT FIND i (t )

  377
Z R  20

Z L  j377  40 10 3  j15.08

V  120 (60  90)
j
ZC    j 53.05
377  50  10 6
Z eq  Z C || ( Z R  Z L )
Z eq  30 .5616 + j 4 .9714  30.9639.239 
V 120   30 
I   3.876   39 .239 ( A)
Z eq 30 .963 9.239 
 (COMPLEX) ADMITTANCE Parallel Combination of Admittanc es
1 Y p  Yk
Y   G  jB (Siemens) k
Z
YR  0.1S 1
G  conductanc e YC   j1( S )
 j1
B  Suceptanc e
Y p  0.1  j1( S )
1 1 R  jX R  jX
   2
Z R  jX R  jX R  X 2
Series Combination of Admittanc es
R 1 1
G 
R2  X 2 Ys k Yk
X
B 2 1 1 1
R  X2 0.1S  
Ys 0.1  j 0.1
Element Phasor Eq. Impedance Admittance  j 0.1S  10  j10
1
R V  RI ZR Y  G
R (0.1)(  j 0.1) 0.1  j 0.1
Ys  
1 0 . 1  j 0 . 1 0 .1  j 0 . 1
V  jLI Z  j L Y
L
1 j L Ys 
1

10  j10
C V I 1 10  j10 200
j C Z Y  j C
j C Ys  0.05  j 0.05 S
LEARNING EXAMPLE LEARNING EXTENSION

VS  6045(V )
FIND Y p , I

Y p  0.5  j 0.5  j1  0.25  0.75  j 0.5( S )

Y p  0.9014 33.69( S )
I  Y pV  0.9014 33.69  1020
Y p  YR  YL
I  9.014 53.79( A)
 0.5  j 0.25
2  j4 2  j4
Zp  Yp   0.5  j 0.25( S )
2  j4 j8
I  Y pV  (0.5  j 0.25)  6045( A)
I  0.559   26.565   6045( A)
I  33.5418.435 ( A)
LEARNING EXAMPLE SERIES-PARALLEL REDUCTIONS
1 2  j4
Y2   2
Z3  4  j 2 2  j 4 (2)  (4) 2
1 4  j2
Y34  
4  j2 20

Y4   j 0.25  j 0.5  j 0.25

Z 4  1 / Y4   j 4

1 ( j 2)
Z1  j 4  ( j 2) 8
1 j2 Z4  
j4  j2 j2
1
Z1  Y2  0.1  j 0.2( S )
1  j 0.5
1  j 0.5 Y34  0.2  j 0.1
Z1  Z2  2  j6  j 2  2  j 4 Y234  0.3  j 0.1( S )
1  (0.5) 2
Z1  0.8  j 0.4() Z34  4  j 2 1 1 0.3  j 0.1
Z 234   
Y234 0.3  j 0.1 0.1
Z 2 Z 34
Z 234   3  j1
Z 2  Z 34
Z eq  Z1  Z 234  3.8  j 0.6  3.847 8.973 
LEARNING EXTENSION FIND THE IMPEDANCE ZT

Z1  4  j 6  j 4
Z1  4  j 2 ( R  P ) Z1  4.472 26.565 
Y1  0.224   26.565 
( P  R)Y1  0.200  j 0.100

Y12  Y1  Y2  0.45  j 0.35

( R  P )Y12  0.570   37.875 
Z12  1.754 37.875 
Y12  Y1  Y2
Z 2  2  j 2 ( R  P ) Z 2  2.82845 ( P  R) Z12  1.384  j1.077
1
Z12 
Y12 Y2  0.354   45
( P  R)Y2  0.250  j 0.250
1 4  j2
Y1   2
4  j 2 (4)  (2) 2
1 2  j2 ZT  2  (1.384  j1077 )  3.383  j1.077
Y2   2
2  j 2 (2)  (2) 2
1 1 0.45  j 0.35
Z12   
Y12 0.45  j 0.35 0.325
PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Display all relevant phasors on a common reference frame.
Very useful to visualize phase relationships among variables.
Especially if some variable, like the frequency, can change.

LEARNING EXAMPLE SKETCH THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT

Any one variable can be chosen as reference.
For this case select the voltage V.

V V
KCL : I S    jCV
R jL

| I L || I C |   (capacitive)
| I L || I C |

I C  jCV

V
IL 
jl

INDUCTIVE CASE CAPACITIVE CASE   (inductive)

LEARNING EXAMPLE DO THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT

  377 ( s 1 ) 2. PUT KNOWN NUMERICAL VALUES

| VL  VC || VR |

VR  RI DIAGRAM WITH REFERENCE VS  12 290

VL  jLI VL  18135 (V )
It is convenient to select
1 Read values from
VC  I the current as reference.
jC diagram!
VS  VR  VL  VC  I  345( A)
VR  12 45(V )
1. DRAW ALL THE PHASORS
(Pythagora s)
VC  6  45
| VL || VC |
LEARNING BY DOING FIND THE FREQUENCY AT WHICH v (t ) AND i (t )
ARE IN PHASE
i.e., the phasors for i (t ), v (t ) are co - lineal
1
C V I  jLI  RI
 jC
v (t ) L
PHASOR DIAGRAM
 Notice that I was
R chosen as reference
jLI 1
V I  jLI  RI
jC

1 RI I
I
jC
1 1
V and I are co - lineal iff jL   0 2 
jC LC
1
2  3 6
 10 9
   3 . 162  10 4
(rad / s )
10  10

f   5.033  10 3 Hz
2
LEARNING EXTENSION Draw a phasor diagram illustrating all voltages and currents

 j4 4  90
I1  I 445 Current
2  j4 4.472   63.435  divider
I1  3.57818.435 ( A)
1 20
I2  I 445
2  j4 4.472   63.435 
I 2  1.789 108 .435  Simpler than I 2  I  I1
V  2 I1  7.156 18.435 (V )

DRAW PHASORS.
ALL ARE KNOWN.
NO NEED TO SELECT
A REFERENCE.
BASIC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

For relatively simple circuits use

Ohm' s law for AC analysis;i.e., V  IZ

The rules for combining Z and Y
KCL and KVL
Current and voltage divider

For more complex circuits use

Node analysis
Loop analysis
Superposition
Source transformation
Thevenin' s and Norton's theorems
LEARNING EXAMPLE COMPUTE ALL THE VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Compute I1
Use current divider for I2 , I3
Ohm' s law for V1 , V2

V1  690 I 2 V2  4  90 I 3

Z eq  4  ( j 6 || 8  j 4)
V1  16.2678.42(V )
24  j 48 32  j8  24  j 48 V2  7.2815(V )
Z eq  4  
8  j2 8  j2
56  j 56 79.196 45
Z eq    9.604 30.964 ()
8  j2 8.246 14.036 
V 2460
I1  S   2.49829.036 ( A)
Z eq 9.604 30.964 
j6 690
I3  I1  2.49829.036 ( A)
8  j2 8.246 14.036
8  j4 8.944   26.565 
I2  I1  2.49829.036 ( A)
8  j2 8.246 14.036 
I1  2.529.06 I 2  2.71  11.58 I 3  1.82105 
LEARNING EXTENSION IF VO  845, COMPUTE VS

THE PLAN...
COMPUTE I3
COMPUTE V1
COMPUTE I2 , I1
COMPUTE VS
VO
I3  ( A)  445( A)
2
V1  (2  j 2) I 3  8  45  445 VS  2 I1  V1  2(2.828  j 2.829 )  11.314 0
V1  11.314 0(V ) VS  16.97  j 5.658(V )
V 11.314 0 VS  17.888  18.439 
I2  1   5.657   90( A)
j2 290
I1  I 2  I 3  5.657   90  445
I1   j 5.657  (2.828  j 2.828)( A)
I1  2.828  j 2.829 ( A)
ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
PURPOSE: TO REVIEW ALL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TOOLS DEVELOPED FOR
RESISTIVE CIRCUITS; I.E., NODE AND LOOP ANALYSIS, SOURCE SUPERPOSITION,
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION, THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREMS.

COMPUTE I0 V2  60 V
 20  V2  2  0
1  j1 1  j1
 1 1  6
V2  1  2 
1  j1 1  j1 1  j1

(1  j1)  (1  j1)(1  j1)  (1  j1) 2(1  j1)  6

V2 
(1  j1)(1  j1) 1  j1
4
V2  8  j2
1. NODE ANALYSIS 1 j
(4  j )(1  j )
V1 V V V2 
 20  2  2  0 2
1  j1 1 1  j1
V1  V2  60 5 3
I 0    j ( A) I 0  2.92  30.96
2 2
V2
I0  ( A) NEXT: LOOP ANALYSIS
1
 2. LOOP ANALYSIS

ONE COULD ALSO USE THE SUPERMESH

TECHNIQUE

SOURCE IS NOT SHARED AND Io IS

DEFINED BY ONE LOOP CURRENT I2
I0   I3
LOOP 1 : I1  20

LOOP 2 : (1  j )( I1  I 2 )  60  (1  j )( I 2  I 3 )  0
LOOP 3 : (1  j )( I 2  I 3 )  I 3  0 CONSTRAINT : I1  I 2  20
MUST FIND I3 SUPERMESH : (1  j ) I1  60  ( I 2  I 3 )  0
2 I 2  (1  j ) I 3  6  (1  j )( 2) MESH 3 : ( I 3  I 2 )  (1  j ) I 3  0
/* (1  j )
/* ( 2) I0  I 2  I3
(1  j ) I 2  (2  j ) I 3  0
(1  j) 2

 2(2  j ) I3  (1  j )(8  2 j ) NEXT: SOURCE SUPERPOSITION
10  6 j 5 3
I3  I0   j ( A)
4 2 2
 Circuit with voltage source
SOURCE SUPERPOSITION set to zero (SHORT CIRCUITED)

1 I L2
I L

= V 1 + VL2
L

Circuit with current

source set to zero(OPEN)

Due to the linearity of the models we must have

I L  I L1  I L2 VL  VL1  VL2 Principle of Source Superposition

The approach will be useful if solving the two circuits is simpler, or more convenient, than
solving a circuit with two sources.

We can have any combination of sources. And we can partition any way we find convenient.
3. SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

I 0'  10( A)

(1  j )(1  j )
Z '  (1  j ) || (1  j )  1
(1  j )  (1  j )
COULD USE SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
TO COMPUTE I"0

Z" Z"
V1"  " 60(V ) I 0  "
"
60( A)
Z 1 j Z 1 j
Z" 1 j 1 j
I 0"  6
2  j (1  j )  3  j
I 0"  6 ( A)
1 j
1 j I "

6 6
 j ( A)
2 j 0
4 4
5 3 
I 0  I 0'  I 0"    j ( A)
Z "  1 || (1  j ) 2 2 
NEXT: SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
 Source transformation is a good tool to reduce complexity in a circuit ...

WHEN IT CAN BE APPLIED!!

“ideal sources” are not good models for real behavior of sources.

A real battery does not produce infinite current when short-circuited

ZV ZI
a a THE MODELS ARE EQUIVALENT S WHEN
RV RI
+ RV  RI  R Z  I Z  VZ
- VS
IS VS  RI S S IZ  SV
b b
Improved model Improved model
for voltage source for current source

Source Transformationcan be used to determine the Thevenin or Norton Equivalent...

BUT THERE MAY BE MORE EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES

4. SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

82j
IS 
1 j

Z  (1  j ) || (1  j )  1

V ' 8  2 j

Now a voltage to current transformation

NEXT: THEVENIN
I S 4  j (4  j )(1  j ) 5  3 j
I0    
2 1  j (1  j )(1  j ) 2
 THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

May contain  May contain
independent and independent and
dependent sources vO dependent sources
with their controlling with their controlling
variables _ b variables
PART A PART B

ZTH
RTH i a

 LINEAR CIRCUIT
vTH vO
 PART B
_ b
PART A
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Phasor
for PART A
vTH Thevenin Equivalent Source Impedance
RTH Thevenin Equivalent Resistance
5. THEVENIN ANALYSIS Voltage Divider
1 j 10  6 j
VOC  (8  2 j ) 
(1  j )  (1  j ) 2

ZTH  (1  j ) || (1  j )  1

53j
8 2j I0  ( A)
2
NEXT: NORTON
 NORTON’S EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

May contain  May contain
independent and independent and
dependent sources vO dependent sources
with their controlling with their controlling
variables _ b variables
PART A PART B

Phasors

i a

ZN LINEAR CIRCUIT
iN RN vO
PART B
_ b
PART A
Norton Equivalent Circuit
for PART A
iN Thevenin Equivalent Source Impedance
RNZ N Thevenin Equivalent Resistance
6. NORTON ANALYSIS

ZTH  (1  j ) || (1  j )  1

I SC 4  j (4  j )(1  j ) 5  3 j
I0    
2 1  j (1  j )(1  j ) 2

Possible techniques: loops, source

transformation, superposition
BY SUPERPOSTION
60 8  2 j
I SC  20   ( A)
1 j 1 j
LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND V0 USING NODES, LOOPS, THEVENIN, NORTON
WHY SKIP SUPERPOSITION AND TRANSFORMATION?

Supernode constraint : V1  V3  120

KCL @ Supernode
V3  V0 V3  V2 V1  V2 V3
 40     0
1 1 j j
KCL@V2
V2  V1 V  V3
 2I x  2 0
j 1
NODES
KCL@ V0
V0 V0  V3
  40  0  V3  2V0  4
1 1
Controlling variable V1  V3  12
V3  V0 V1  2V0  16
Ix 
1 V3  V0  V0  4
j (V2  2V0  16)  2(V0  4)  (V2  2V0  4)  0
 j (V2  2V0  16)  (V2  2V0  4)  (V0  4)  j (2V0  4)  4
8 4j
Adding : V0  
Notice choice of ground 1 2 j
LOOP ANALYSIS MESH CURRENTS DETERMINED BY SOURCES
I 2  40
 I 3  2( I 4  4)
I3  2 I x
MESH 1 :
 jI1  120  1( I1  I 3 )  0
MESH 4 :
1( I 4  I 2 )  1 I 4  j ( I 4  I 3 )  0
CONTROLLING VARIABLE : I x  I 4  I 2
VARIABLE OF INTEREST : V0  1 I 4 (V )
MESH CURRENTS ARE ACCEPTABLE
I 4  4  I 4  j ( I 4  2( I 4  4))  0
48 j j
( 2  j ) I 4  ( 4  8 j )  I 4   
2 j j
8 4j
V0  
1 2 j
 Alternative procedure to compute Thevenin
THEVENIN
impedance:
1. Set to zero all INDEPENDENT sources
2. Apply an external probe
Vtest
ZTH  
I "x

KVL
FOR OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
I "x

Vtest   I "x  jI "x  ZTH  1  j ()

I x'  40
ZTH  1  j
2I x
80 1
V0  (4  8 j )(V )
2 j
VOC  4  8 j (V )
NORTON Supernode constraint
V1  V3  120  V1  V3  12
KCL@ Supernode
V3 V3 V3  V2 V1  V2
    40  0 / j
1 j 1 j
V2  V3 V2  V1
KCL@ V2 :  2 I X'''    0 / (  j )
1 j
V
Controlling Variable : I x'''  3
1
I SC
2 jV3  j (V2  V3 )  (V2  V3  12)  0
(1  j )V2  (1  3 j )V3  12
(1  j )V3  jV3  jV2  (V3  12)  V2  4 j
(1  j )V2  2 jV3  12  4 j
4j 48j
(1  j )V3  4 j  V3   I SC 
V3 1 j 1 j
I x'''  ( A)
1 (4  8 j ) j 84j
I SC  
(1  j ) j 1 j
Now we can draw the Norton
I SC  I x'''  4 Equivalent circuit ...

USE NODES
 NORTON’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

ZTH

I SC

1 j  8  4 j 
V0  (1) I 0 (V )   (V ) Current Divider
2  j  1 j 

EQUIVALENCE OF SOLUTIONS

Using Norton’s method

12  4 j (8  4 j )(1  j )
V0  

3 j (1  2 j )(1  j )
Using Thevenin’s
48j j
V0  
2 j j
Using Node and Loop methods V0   8  4 j
1 2 j
LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 USE THEVENIN
USE NODAL ANALYSIS 4j
V1 ZTH  2 || 1 || j 2  3  4j
2  j2 2  6 j
3
4 j (2  6 j )

40
1 || j 2
VOC  1230
V1  1230 V1 V1 V1  V0 2  (1 || j 2)
    0 / 2 j
2 1 j2 j 
j2
1230
V0  V1 V0 2(1  2 j )  2 j
  0  V1  (1  j )V0 24120  12120 
j 1 VOC  
j (V1  1230)  2 jV1  V1  2(V1  V0 )  0 26j 1 3 j
2V0  (1  2  2 j  j )(1  j )V0  j1230
ZTH  j1
(2  (1  3 j )(1  j ))V0  190  1230
12120  12120  
V0    2.1275(V )
44j 5.6645 VOC
+
- 1 V0

1
V0  VOC
ZTH 1 j
LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 USING MESH ANALYSIS
V1
USING NODES
V1  240 V
 290  1  0
2 22j
2
V0  V1
22j

USING SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

2
CONSTRAINT V0V  240
222j
 I1  I 2  290  I1  I 2  2 j V0  V0V  V0I
2
SUPERMESH V0I  2  290
42j
 240  2 I1  2 jI 2  2 I 2  0
2( I 2  2 j )  (2  2 j ) I 2  24 (4  2 j ) I 2  24  4 j
24  4 j 24.339.46
V0  2 I 2    10.8636.03
2 j 2.24  26.57
LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 2V

V0"

V0  V0'  V0"

1. USING SUPERPOSITION
(2 j ) || (2  2 j )
2 || (2  2 j ) V2  240
V1 2  (2 j || (2  2 j )
2
V0"  V2
2 || (2  2 j ) 22j
V1  (120)
j 2  (2 || 2  2 j )

V0'
2
V0'  V1
22j
2. USE SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
2j

I1
Z 2 V0
I eq

I eq  120  6  90  12  6 j
Z
I1  I eq
Z 22j
V0  2I1
 j 2

I1 2
V0
120 2 j 2 6  90 

Z  2 || j 2
USE NORTON’S THEOREM

 j2

I1
ZTH 2 V0
I SC

ZTH  2 || j 2
ZTH
I1  I SC
ZTH  2  2 j

V0  2I1
120

 6  90

I SC
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the current i(t) in steady state

The sources have different

frequencies! For phasor analysis
MUST use source superposition.

Frequency domain

SOURCE 2: FREQUENCY 20r/s

Principle of superposition
USING MATLAB Phasors  Rectangular z  10 45
» a=45; % angle in degrees
MATLAB recognizes complex numbers » ar=a*pi/180, %convert degrees to radians
in rectangular representation. It does ar =
NOT recognize Phasors. 0.7854
» m=10; %define magnitude
Unless previously re-defined, MATLAB » x=m*cos(ar); %real part
recognizes “i” or “j” as imaginary units. x =
7.0711
» z2=3+4j » y=m*sin(ar); %imaginary part
y =
z2 = 7.0711
» z=x+i*y
3.0000 + 4.0000i z =
= 7.0711 + 7.0711i;
z
7.0711 + 7.0711i
» mp=abs(z); %compute magnitude
» z1=4+6i
mp =
10
z1 =
» arr=angle(z); %compute angle in RADIANS
arr =
4.0000 + 6.0000i
0.7854
In its output MATLAB always uses “i” » adeg=arr*180/pi; %convert to degres
adeg =
for the imaginary unit.
45
x=real(z)
x=
7.0711
y=imag(z)
y=
7.70711
LEARNING APPLICATION NOISE REJECTION

Noise has much higher frequency (700kHz) than signal.

Find a way to ‘block’ high frequencies.

Impedance X should have low (zero) value at low

frequencies and very high at noise frequency.

Reduce amplitude of noise by 10

EXAMPLE A GENERAL IMPEDANCE CONVERTER (GIC)

VA  VC  VIN (ideal OpAmp)

@A:

@C:

@E:

Suitable choices of impedances

permit to create any desired
Equivalent.

A 1kOhm resistor coverts to 1 H equivalent inductance!!

LEARNING BY DESIGN
USING PASSIVE COMPONENTS TO CREATE GAINS LARGER THAN ONE

PRODUCE A GAIN=10
AT 1KhZ WHEN R=100

 2 LC  1   C  15.9 F

 L  1.59mH
LEARNING BY DESIGN PASSIVE SUMMING CIRCUIT - BIAS T NETWORK

vO (t )  2.5  2.5cos  t ,   2 f ; f  1GHz

PROPOSED B should have zero impedance for DC and block high frequencies
SOLUTION
A should block DC and have very low impedance at 1GHz

AT DC THE CAPACITOR IS ALWAYS OPEN CIRCUIT

BUT AT 1GHz ONE WOULD NEED INFINITE INDUCTANCE.

JUST MAKE THE IMPEDANCES VERY DIFFERENT

PROPOSE

 C  1; L  10k ;   2  109

end

vO ( t )  2.5  2.50025cos  2 10 9 t 