MODELLING OF DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER USING

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS SOFTWAREFLUENT

A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science

Energy Systems & Environment

Noorhelinahani Abu Bakar

June 2003

Mechanical Engineering Department

University of Strathclyde in Glasgow

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to Mr Craig Mclean for his guidance and advice
during this dissertation and to Professor J.A Clarke for his expert knowledge and
guidance throughout the course of the project.
I also wish to express my thanks to all the lecturer and staff of the Energy Systems
Research Unit (ESRU) for the helping throughout this one-year MSc course.
Finally, my sincere thanks to my friends Nadiahnor Mohd Yusop & Abd Rahim from
Leeds University and Kamarul Ariffin from Cranfield University for their continual
help in learning FLUENT software and support during my dissertation and until now.

ABSTRACT
Biomass energy combined with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software
have been described in some detail in the following study. The aspect of biomass
gasifier has been investigated with regard to the potential of designing future gasifier
using simulation in FLUENT software.
The project is about the modelling of fluid flow of biomass fuel inside biomass
downdraft gasifier using FLUENT software. Using the typical design of gasifier, the
model is produced in 2-Dimensional for easier iterations and simulations.
Two types of gasifier are measured; pressurised and atmospheric gasifier. The
gasifiers model is set to have initial temperature at 800 C for both types of gasifier
and 5.0 MPa for pressurised gasifer.
After iterations in FLUENT software with first-order discretization, the results
obtained are convergent and show that using second-order discretization is not
suitable for 2-Dimensional model.
Finally, future investigations are also suggested in this study for more accurate
result using computational fluid dynamic (CFD) software.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

..i

ABSTRACT

..ii

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

..1

1.1 BIOMASS RESOURCES

..1

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF CURRENT WORK

..2

1.3 BIOMASS GASIFIER

..3

1.4 OVERVIEW OF PROJECT TOPIC

..5

1.5 CONCISE PROJECT DEFINITION: MOTIVATION FOR

..6

CURRENT WORK
1.6 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER 2 THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW

..7
..8

2.1 INTRODUCTION

..8

2.2 THEORY OF BIOMASS GASIFICATION

..8

2.2.1 CONCEPT OF GASIFICATION AND PYROLYSIS

2.2.2 GASIFICATION EQUATION

..8
..10

2.3 MODEL ..11

2.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOMASS GASIFIER

..11

2.3.2 GAS PRODUCTION FROM GASIFIER

..12

2.4 COMBUSTION REACTION MECHANISMS

..14

2.5 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON CFD

..16

2.5.1 PRE-PROCESSOR

..16

2.5.2 SOLVER

..17

2.5.3 POST-PROCESSOR
2.6 PROBLEM SOLVING

..18

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

..19

3.1 INTRODUCTION

..19

3.2 GASIFIER MODELLING USING CFD SOFTWARE

..19

3.2.1 FLUENT 5.5

..19

3.2.1.1 PRE-PROCESSING

..19

3.2.1.2 SOLVER

..20

3.2.1.3 POST-PROCESSING

..20

3.3 MODEL SETTING

3.3.1 DIMENSION

..21
..21

3.3.1.1 DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER

..23

3.3.1.2 PRESSURISED DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER

..26

3.4 MODELLING PROCEDURE

CHAPTER 4 - RESULT ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

..27
..28

4.1 INTRODUCTION

..28

4.2 MODEL DESCRIPTION

..28

4.3 RESULT ANALYSIS FROM DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER

..30

4.3.1 FIRST-ORDER DISCRETIZATION

..30

4.3.2 SECOND-ORDER DISCRETIZATION

..31

4.4 DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER CONTOUR RESULTS

4.4.1 PROFILE FOR FIRST-ORDER DISCRETIZATION
4.4.1.1 TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE CONTOUR

..33
..33
..34

4.4.1.2 TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ..36

4.5 RESULT ANALYSIS FROM PRESSURISED

..39

DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER
4.5.1 FIRST-ORDER DISCRETIZATION

..39

4.5.2 SECOND-ORDER DISCRETIZATION

..39

4.6 PRESSURISED DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER CONTOUR RESULTS ..40

4.6.1 PROFILE FOR FIRST-ORDER DISCRETIZATION
4.6.1.1 TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE CONTOUR

..40
..40

4.6.1.2 TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ..42

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION & RECOMENDATIONS

..46

REFERENCES

..48

APPENDICES

..50

APPENDIX 1.1: LIST OF GASIFIER ..50

APPENDIX 1.2: SUMMARY - FIRST-ORDER DISCRETIZATION ..52
FOR DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER.
APPENDIX 1.3: SUMMARY - FIRST-ORDER DISCRETIZATION ..60
FOR PRESSURISED DOWNDRAFT GASIFIER.

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Biomass Resources
The use of biomass fuels is rapidly increasing in northern, mid and Eastern
Europe. According to European Commission in the white papers community strategy
& action plan in the policies of the European Union (EU), biomass is expected to play
a major role as a renewable energy source1 (Ronald, 2001).
According to F. Dumbleton, in the UK there are about 14 000 000 tonnes/year
of straw that can be obtained from the production of wheat, barley, oats, oilseeds rape
and linseed. From this amount, it is estimated that 4 000 000 tonnes/year could be use
for producing energy. Apart from that 1 000 000 tonnes/year of forest residue are
produced and it is raised up to 2 000 000 tonnes/year in the next 20 years. For woods
it is estimated about 960 000 tonnes/year as logs2.
Many advantages can be obtained from biomass energy such as clean burning
fuel that contributes significantly to the world energy supply. The potential for
greenhouse gases production is also reduced using the biomass energy. Using gasifier
as a medium for the production of syngas from biomass makes lots of benefit for
people, as the sources are abundance.
It can be made available in a variety of shapes like logs, chips, bales, charcoal,
sludge, fluids, straw, powders and etc. Woodchips is one of the sources of biomass
renewable energy that can produce gas from gasification. It has the greatest potential
of any renewable energy option for base-load electric power production for electricity
generator and also heating.
Recently, there are considerable interest has been shown in the gasification of
wood and its use. However, the gas produce from the wood gasification is low in
calorific value3. Therefore, in order to increase the efficiency several studies can be
carried out. For example perhaps enlarge the gas turbine combustor, or enlarge the
gasifier. As for this dissertation, the effect of pressurised downdraft gasifier is being
1

Ronald, V.S. (2002) How European Waste Will Contribute to Renewable Energy. Vol. 30 pp. 471475.
2
Dumbleton, F. (2001) Standardisation of Solid Biofuels in the UK , AEA Technology Environment,
Report 1, ESTA 32192001.
3
McIlveen, W. et al. (2001), Bioresource Technology, A re-appraisal of wood-fired combustion, Vol.
76, pp 183-190
1

studied and the results are compared with the atmospheric gasifier for optimum
efficiency.

1.2 Significance of current work

There are several types of gasifier that are normally used for converting
biomass fuel to get power. For example, updraft gasifier, downdraft gasifier and
fluidised bed gasifier. (Refer Appendix 1.1 for an explanation of each gasifier)
In the dissertation, wood chips gasifier is modelled in downdraft gasifier
which is based on experimental set-up data from pilot scale downdraft gasifier study
that have been done by Dogru et al (2002). Instead of wood chips, the hazelnut shell4
was used for the fuel in the gasifier. This study has shown that the quality of the
product gas is found to be dependent on the smooth flow of the fuel and the
uniformity of the pyrolysis process.
They also suggested that gasification of shell waste products is a clean alternative
to fossil fuels and this product gas can be directly used in internal gas combustion
engines. Therefore, warranting further investment by authorities to exploit this
valuable resource of renewable energy. This pilot gasification system that was
constructed in Mechanical Engineering Lab in New Castle University provide
reasonable base like input data for pressure or temperature and also the dimension of
the downdraft gasifier which can be a core for the modelling using the computer
software.
As expected, the model can provide useful predictions of operating other
downdraft gasifier using diverse biomass feeds as fuel. There is consideration that has
to put in mind about the environmental impact, from indirect and direct emissions
release from the combustion process. For this dissertation, universal emissionreleasing gas model based on biomass fuel is not evaluated although it is very
necessary to analyse the product gas from the combustion process. This is because
each case-dependent emissions associated with biomass gasification practice is quite
tedious and time-consuming. Thus, it is necessary in future to model the pollutants
4

Dogru, M. and et al (2002), The International Journal, Gasification of hazelnut shells in a downdraft
gasifier Vol. 27 pp 415-427.
2

gas so that it can be used as reference when any gasifier are to be built on local
community or society. So that they can be modelled based on simulation and can be
evaluated in advance, as the result can be demonstrated from modelling using
computational fluid dynamic software.

1.3 Biomass Gasifier

There are many types of gasifiers reactor that can be used to generate heat from
the chemical process to get the gas for power generation. For example, the fixed bed
reactor. This reactor is used with downdraft gasifier. Downdraft gasifier has four
reaction zones which are drying, pyrolysis, oxidation, and reduction zone from top to
bottom of the gasifier, respectively. This type of gasifier is operated when air is being
drawn from biomass feedstock or hopper at the bottom of the gasifier to the drying
zone.
In the drying zone, biomass fuel descends into the gasifier and moisture is
removed using heat generated in the zones below by evaporating. After that, the next
zone is pyrolysis. In this zone irreversible thermal degradation of dried biomass fuel
descended from the drying zone takes place using the thermal energy released by the
partial oxidation of the pyrolysis products.
In oxidation zone, the volatile products of pyrolysis are partially oxidised in the
exothermic reactions resulting in a rapid rise of temperature up to 1200C in the
throat region. The heat generated is used to drive the gasification reactions. In the
reduction zone often refer as gasification zone, the char is converted to the producer
gas by reaction with the hot gases from upper zones. The gases are reduced to form a
greater proportion of H2, CO, CH4. While leaving the gasifier at the temperature
between 200 and 300C, the produced gases carry over some dust, pyrolytics products
(tar), and water vapour.

Picture 1.1 Fixed bed gasification reactor.

1. Wood feeding

9. Gas engine

2. Supply zone-Drying zone

10. Furnace

3. Pyrolysis zone

11. Dust separator

4. Gasification zone

12. Wet scrubber

5. Cracking zone

13. Settler

6. Fluid bed after gasification

14. Water filter

7. Gasifier

15. Gas tank

8. Cyclone burner
The picture above shows an example of gasification system that using fixed bed
reactor type that is finally connected to gas tank for next technology such as
production of electricity or heat.
In a downdraft gasifier, the fuel and the producer gas flow downwards through
the reactor enabling the pyrolysis gases to pass through a throated hot bed of char
which is around 1100C. Thus it will crack most of the tars into light chain
hydrocarbon and water vapours. In addition, the air or oxygen is usually admitted to
the fuel bed through intake nozzles from throat causing pyrolysis to charcoal and
4

volatile that partially burn as they are produced. The gaseous products of this flaming
pyrolytic combustion then consume the charcoal, produced during the pyrolysis and
are converted into combustible gases5 (Dogru et al, 2002).

1.4 Overview of project topic

Nowadays, lots of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were
conducted to study the effects of moisture in biomass, particle injection location, the
burnout of different biomass particle sizes and many others characteristics of the
biomass so that the prediction of the biomass combustion can be made.
This dissertation is useful for future in designing gasifier. A study of fluid
flow inside the gasifier using computational software is done because experiences
with computer simulation are quite insufficient and furthermore the know-how in this
field is almost blank. Most of previous studies are done for coal as for fuel. Definitely
coal gasifier and biomass gasifier are different things as coal char in gasification
reactivity is significantly different from biomass reactivity.
Most manufacturers of gasifier of the actual size are small or medium sized
enterprises with very small resources for the development of new products, up till
now mainly been based on trial and error methods. But existing software is now so
powerful that they can be useful tools in the development of new and environmentally
friendly combustors.
This study which is based on experimental study, the gasifier is modelled using
computational fluid dynamic software, FLUENT 5.5 and the results are compared
with computational simulations.

Dogru, M et al. (2002), Fuel Processing Technology, Gasification of sewage sludge using throated
downdraft gasifier and uncertainty analysis, Vol. 75, pp. 55-82.

1.5 Concise project definition: motivation for current work

Product gas from biomass gasification can be used in many applications such as
in industrial or residential area. Most of this energy production application are
decentralised and coupled with gas turbine or engine and also boiler. A solid fuel fired
for gas turbine combustor should have a high intensity and produce complete carbon
utilisation. Besides that it should maintain fine fly ash particle size and also have low
pressure drop and good turndown.
The technologies for primary conversion of biomass for electricity combustion
involve these processes which are direct combustion, gasification and pyrolysis. In
direct combustion, the oxidation of biomass takes place with excess air. It will
produce hot flue gases which are used to produce steam in the heat exchange sections
of boilers. The steams produce from the combustion is used to produce electricity in a
Rankine Cycle. Normally, only electricity is produced in a condensing steam cycle
while electricity and steam are co generated in an extracting steam cycle.
As for gasification cycles, biomass is partially oxidised by stoichiometric
amounts of oxygen normally with the present of steam. Then it will provide energy
for thermal conversion of the remaining biomass to gases and organic vapours. For
power production, the cleaned gasification product gases will be led directly to a
boiler or the combustion section of an industrial or turbine.
As for pyrolysis, it uses indirect heat to convert solid organic materials, into
gases and liquids. Conversion is carried out in a reaction chamber where air (oxygen)
is excluded. The material within the reaction chamber is heated to temperatures of
between 400 - 800C usually by combusting a portion of the gaseous or liquid
products. The resultant products of the pyrolysis process always include gas, liquid
and solid char. Operating conditions and reactor design can be selected to control the
relative proportions produced from the process.
According to Richard et al (1996) in indirect gasification cycles external heat
source is used instead of oxygen, that provides the energy for high-temperature steam
gasification of the organic fraction of biomass to vapours and gases6. Therefore,
temperature is very important as the sources of the combustion engine from the
product gas.
6

Richard, L.B. (1996), Biomass-Fired Power Generation in National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Conference, New York: Engineering Foundation.
6

1.6 Aim and objectives of the study

The research objective of this study is to develop a 2-Dimensional Gasifier
Model for Biomass Gasification using FLUENT 5.5 Computational Fluid Dynamics.
The overall aim is to study the validity of two types of wood gasifier and the different
profile between pressurised gasifier and non-pressurised gasifier.
The numerical simulation model presented in this study is aimed at direct
combustion in biomass gasifier. This gasifier offers a number of characteristics when
such as intense burning, enhanced heat transfer, capability of improving pressure and
in addition, some potential for improvements to effectiveness and efficiency
especially in gas turbine for power production.
Using the CFD commercial software, FLUENT 5.5, the study will continue to
seek to understand the combustion mechanism of biomass fuel particularly woodchips
in gasifier and then use this at larger scale to advantage for devices where fast
accurate hot gas stream are needed in industrial and home appliances. In particular, to
seek the fluid dynamics of the flow which is heavily dependent on the outlet channel
characteristics.
In the simulation part of the project, a model of downdraft gasifier consistent
with main observed phenomena is proposed. To adapt the model for numerical
analysis, two methods are presented. In the first method, as a preliminary approach,
the combustion process of laminar and steady state of partly hot-wall in the gasifier is
simulated. In the second method, the same geometry but different boundary
conditions for pressurised gasifier, of laminar and steady state combustion process is
simulated and analysed.
Some results obtained from both numerical methods are compared with the
experimental work carried out by M. Dogru et al (2002) and D.J. Purnomo (1990). On
this basis, the validity of proposed model is being discussed.

Chapter 2 Theory and Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, basic theory on biomass gasifier is explained and approaches that have
been used previously on gasifier are also discussed.

2.2 Theory of biomass gasification

2.2.1 Concept of gasification & pyrolysis
The history of gasification begins long time ago during Second World War
where people used gasifiers to operate cars, trucks, boats, trains and electricity
generators in Europe. It was approximately about one million of gasifier were
employed but recent technology performed better designs of this gasifier.
Pioneering work on coal fired downdraft furnaces was done in the late 1940s.
After that, downdraft combustion of wood-chips has been investigated by Aerts &
Ragland (1989) and then biomass gasifier has been reviewed by Reed & Das (1988)7.
According to Xiu et al (2002) since 1960s there has been extensive development and
deployment of fixed bed gasifier generator set which have grown in size from 60 to
200 kWe output8.
Basically for biomass gasifier, the processes involved are gasification and
pyrolysis processes. Gasification is a partial oxidation process in which organic
materials in biomass are converted to a mixture of gas phase, energetic compounds,
such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane. Carbon is rejected to form char
which is oxidised within the process to produce additional gases, an ash residue and
the heat energy necessary to drive the reactions. It is archived by thermally degrading
organic materials in the absence of adequate air to support full combustion9.
(Heermann et al, 2000).
Apart from that, pyrolysis is another process that occurs in the absence of
oxygen. It is a thermal degradation of carbonaceous materials at temperature between
400 and 800C either in the complete absence of oxygen, or with such a limited
7

Purnomo, D.J.A & Ragland, K.W. (1990), Twenty-Third Symposium (International) on Combustion,
Pressurised combustion of woodchips, pp 1025-1032.
8
Xiu, L.Y. et al (2002), Biomass & Bioenergy, Design and operation of CFB gasification and power
generation system for rice husk, Vol. 23, pp 181-187.
9
Heermann, C et al. (2000) Pyrolysis & Gasification of Waste. 2nd ed. Juniper Consultancy Services
Ltd.
8

supply that gasification does not occur to any appreciable extend. Such processes devolatilise and decompose solid organic materials by heat; consequently, no
combustion is possible.
Pyrolysis mechanisms typically include a superposition of kinetic mechanism
for the individual component of the biomass material. The validity and the
development of these mechanisms were being investigated10 by Miller and Bellan
(1997). This is because a reliable description of the global kinetics biomass pyrolysis
is very significant in the developing of biomass thermo chemical conversion systems
that used high temperature chemistry.
These accurate chemical models of biomass gasification and combustion can be
used as input in systems analysis models to adjust engineering parameters such as gas
velocities, particles residence times, and heat transfer rates to optimise the design and
performance of developing technologies.
Purnomo and Ragland (1990) have done a study on pressurised downdraft
combustion of woodchips11 by experimental approaches. They used 2 cm of yellow
poplar chips. They found that pressure drop was about 10% in the gasifier bed and
they found that good agreement between numerical and experimental result at 1-5 atm
of the pressure. Therefore these ranges of data were inserted during simulation setting
in order to validate the result.

10

Miller, R.S & Bellan, J. (1997), Combustion Science Technology, A generalised biomass pyrolysis
model based on superimposed cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin kinetis, No. 126, pp 97-137.
11
Purnomo, D.J.A & Ragland, K.W. (1990), Twenty-Third Symposium (International) on Combustion,
Pressurised combustion of woodchips, pp 1025-1032.
9

2.2.2 Gasification Equation

Biomass is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and also nitrogen and
sulphur (refer Table 2.2). Carbon dioxide is obtained from complete combustion of
carbon, and water is obtained from hydrogen. As for oxygen, it is incorporate into
combustion products. In the combustion zone of the gasifier, heat is generated to drive
the gasification reactions as can be illustrated from the equation below.
Wood is burnt from direct combustion with insignificantly amount of oxygen
inside the gasifier. By the conservation of mass, the mass flow remains constant
which means total mass of products equals total mass of reactants. This reactant are
chemically different the product and the products leave at a higher temperature12.
C + CO2 = 2CO2

------------------------------- (1)

C + H2O = CO + H2

------------------------------- (2)

C + H2 = CO + H2O

------------------------------- (3)

C + 2H2 = CH4

------------------------------- (4)

C + 3H2 = CH4 + H2O

------------------------------- (5)

Equation 1 and 2 are the main reactions on the reduction stage and require heat.
Equation 3 is called water-gas equilibrium reaction. Changes in temperature will drive
the equilibrium in either direction. It is by controlling this reaction that the product
gases may be maintained at a constant. Equation 4 and 5 shows the production of
methane gas.

12

Eastop, T.D and McConkey, A. (1998) Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologist, 5th
ed, Addison Wesly Longman Limited.
10

2.3 Model
2.3.1 Characteristics of biomass gasifier
Gasification for power production involves the de-volatilisation of biomass in an
atmosphere of steam or air or both to produce medium or low calorific value gas. The
syngas which is useful for electricity generation from either turbine, or engine
produced from pyrolysis, is usually a medium heating value (MHV) fuel gas around
14-18 MJ/Nm3 depending on the feed and processing conditions.
Table 2.1 shows different amount of energy produces from biomass fuel which
gives high value of calorific for fuel with less moisture content. The MHV gas
contains a high level of hydrocarbons including uncondensed pyrolysis liquids, and
saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, particularly methane, produced by complex
thermal degradation process.
By these calorific values in the table above, all types of biomass fuel are suitable
for feeding to gasifier. Thus, woodchips may also be used in gasification systems to
produce low calorific value combustible gas for clean energy production.

Biomass Fuel
Sofwood bark
Birch bark

Net calorific value in

dry matter MJ/kg
18.5-20
21-23

Net calorific value as

received MJ/kg
6-9
7-11

18.5-20
18.5-20
19-19.2
19-19.2
19-19.2
19.2

6-15
6-10
6-10
13-16
15-17
16.8

Wood residue chips

Saw residue chips
Sawdust
Cutter chips
Grinding dust
Pellets

Table 2.1: Energy produces from different types of biomass fuel13

But for this modelling, the effect of the absolute and bulk density, the size and shape
of the particles, moisture content and chemical composition which is proximate and
ultimate analysis and higher heating value play an important role in determining the
fluid flow profile inside the gasifier. Thus, the wood residue chips are being selected
as the availability of density data.
13

LIOR International LV. (2002), Biomass Combustion Technology (7) Wood Lower Calorific Value
http://www.lior-int.com/FORMULA/rp7.as
11

2.3.2 Gas production from gasifier

The production of useful gas from the gasifier are then becoming awareness, as
the green house gasses are releases to the environment. Coal is used as fuel in boilers
as it is very plentiful and cheap but the resources are non-renewable energy. Studies
showed that there are many issues related to the coal and biomass fuel co-firing. But
biomass is more promising energy to the environment as it gives less impact to the
environment.
Figure 2.2 shows the typical ultimate analyses of wood chips and straw compare
with different types of coal. It shows that coal has more production of carbon dioxide
because high content of carbon. As for biomass fuels it has significantly less content
of sulphur thus no amount of sulphur gas releases (Robinson, 1998).

Figure 2.2: The ultimate analysis of biomass and coal fuels14

Wood offer advantages over fossil fuel with regards to gas emission where the
sulphur content of wood is minimal, therefore sulphur dioxide emission are
negligible. As for nitrogen, if temperature of the combustion is being controlled to
avoid the oxidation of the nitrogen from the air, it will not affect the nitrogen dioxide
emission because nitrogen in wood is not temperature dependence. So, the overall
14

Robinson, A et al. (1998) Fireside Issues Associated with Coal-Biomass Co-firing, in Conference on
BioEnergy 98, United State: National Renewable Energy Laboratory
12

nitrogen dioxide will also be low15 (McIlveen et al, 2001). Here are examples of
ultimate analyses of different types of biomass fuel. They have very low value of
sulphur and also low carbon that are more favourable from coal.

Fuel
Straw
Wood without bark
Bark
Wood with bark
Oak wood
Pines wood
Triticale
Miscanthus

Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Sulphur Oxygen

0.45-0.494
0.06
0.004-0.066 0.0012 0.43-0.442
0.47
0.063
0.0016
0.0002
0.46
0.47
0.054
0.004
0.0006
0.4
0.47
0.06
0.003
0.0002
0.44
0.494
0.063
00
00
0.445
0.499
0.063
00
00
0.438
0.434
0.063
0.0131
0.0022
0.4779
0.46
0.06
0.007
0.002
0.44

Table 2.3: Ultimate analysis of biomass fuels (dry)

It is shown that in the table above, the composition of wood without bark has low
carbon, nitrogen and sulphur which indicate low emission of these gases when
combustion occur.

15

McIlveen, W. et al. (2001), Bioresource Technology, A re-appraisal of wood-fired combustion, Vol.

76, pp 183-190
13

2.4 Combustion reaction mechanisms

Nevertheless, the present computational fluid dynamic models are unable to
solve such complex reaction mechanisms due to its complexity. Employing detailed
reaction mechanisms in the CFD calculations will generate a numerically inflexible
problem that it will be difficult to reach converged solution with the present of the
solver in the CFD commercial software.
Brink et al (2001)16 created a model for biomass combustion using single-step
mechanics and turbulence-chemistry interaction with eddy dissipation combustion
model as the air distribution were injected around the bottom of the model. Therefore,
the use of much simple or single-step reaction mechanisms is preferred rather than the
global reaction mechanism.
In this model several number of simplifying assumptions has been employed for
ease of the discussion. Theoretically, the combustible gas is expected to distribute
uniformly throughout the space into the downdraft gasifier.
Several number of simplifying assumptions has been employed for ease of the
discussion. The main assumptions of the model are as follow:

Low Mach number for the combustion approximation

Single-phase gaseous flow of ideal gas

Neglect the electromagnetic radiation

Simplified chemistry i.e. single step, Arrhenius

Newtonian fluid flow; Fouriers and Ficks law for the diffusion heat and mass
transfer

The assumption of the low Mach number implies that the ambient flow speeds are low
that the heat release rate is not so strong i.e. no blast waves. The density variations are
due to the differences of the density of the reaction species and the chemically
reaction heat release rate. With the assumptions made, the mathematical model
becomes as illustrated below:

16

Brink, A et al. (2001), IFRF Combustion Journal, Modelling Nitrogen Chemistry in the Freeboard of
Biomass-FBC, pp 1-14.
14

Conservation of mass

+
vi = 0
t
xi

(2.3)

Conservation of momentum

p
1
vi +
vi v j = 1 +
ij
t
x i
xi Re x j

Conservation of energy

h +
hvk =
t
x k
xk

N
h
1
1 Y

+
h

x K
=1 Sc
x k

(2.5)

Conservation of state

p0 =

(2.4)

R 0T
W

Y
= uniform in space
=1 W

= R 0 T

(2.6)

Conservation of species

Y +
Y vk = & +
t
x k
xk

D
x k

15

(2.7)

2.5 Theoretical considerations on CFD

The CFD codes are arranged by the numerical algorithm accordingly, so that the fluid
flow problem can be tackled. There are three main elements of CFD codes in the CFD
packages which consist of pre-processor, solver and post-processor17.

2.5.1 Pre-processor
The pre-processor contains all the fluid flow inputs for a flow problem. It can be
seen as a user-friendly interface and a conversion of all the input into the solver in
CFD program. In this stage, quite a lot of activities are carried out before the problem
is being solved. These stages are listed as below:
1. Definition of the geometry

The region of interests which is the computational domain.

2. Grid generation

The subdivision of the domain into a number of smaller and nonoverlapping domains. The grid mesh of cells is carried out for the
geometry.

3. Selection of the physical and chemical properties

The geometry to be modelled.

4. Definition of the fluid properties

5. Specifications of correct boundary conditions
This is done at models cells.
The solution of the flow problem such as temperature, velocity, pressure etc. is
defined at the nodes insides each cell. The accuracy of the CFD solution governed by
the number of cells in the grid and is dependent on the fineness of the grid.

17

Anderson, J. D (1995), Computational Fluid Dynamics, The Basic With Application, International
Editions, McGraw-Hill
16

2.5.2 Solver
In the numerical solution technique, there are three different streams that form
the basis of the solver. There are finite differences, finite element and finite volume
methods. The differences between them are the way in which the flow variables are
approximated and the discretization processes are done.
1. Finite difference element, FDM

Describes the unknown flow variables of the flow problem by means of

point samples at node points of a grid coordinate. By FDM, the Taylors
expansion is usually used to generate finite differences approximation.

2. Finite element method, FEM

Use the simple piecewise functions valid on elements to describe the local
variations of unknown flow variables. Governing equation is precisely
satisfied by the exact solution of flow variables. In FEM, residuals are
used to measure the errors.

3. Finite volume method, FVM

It was originally developed as a special finite difference formulation. The

main computational commercial CFD codes packages using the FVM
approaches involves PHOENICS, FLUENT, FLOW 3D and STAR-CD.
Basically, the numerical algorithm in these CFD commercial packages
involved the formal integration of the governing equation over all the
finite control volume, the discretization process involves the substitution
of variety FDM types to approximate the integration equation of the flow
problem and the solution is obtained by iterative method.

Discretization in the solver involves the approaches to solve the numerical integration
of the flow problem. Usually, two different approaches have been used and once at a
time.
1. Explicit approach

Usually, this is the most approach that makes sense. It is relatively simple
to set up and program. The limitation is that for a given t and x , must be
17

less than some limit imposed by stability constraints. In some cases,

t must be very small to maintain the stability and consequently long running

time required for the calculation over a given time interval, t.

2. Implicit approach

For this approach, the stability can be maintained over a large value of
t and fewer time steps required making calculation. Thus resulting less

computer time. Adversely, it is complicated to set up and program. The

computer time per time step is much larger than the explicit approach due
to the matrix manipulation which is required for each time step. This
approach is very accurate to follow the exact transients i.e. the time
variations of the independent variables.

2.5.3 Post-processor
A FLUENT package provides the data visualisation tools to visualise the flow
problem. This includes vectors plots, domain geometry and grid display, line and
shaded counter plots, particle tracking etc. Recent facilities aided with animation for
dynamic result display and also have data export facilities for further manipulation
external to the code.

2.6 Problem solving

In the computational fluid dynamic, using the FLUENT codes provide to solve the
problem numerically. The fundamental involves determining the convergence,
whether the solution is consistent and stable for all range of flow variables.

Convergence is a property of a numerical method to produce a solution that

approaches the exact solution of which the grid spacing, control volume size is
reduced to a specific value or to zero value

Consistent to produce the system of algebraic equations which can be

equivalent to the original governing equation

Stability associates with the damping of errors as a numerical method

proceeds. If a technique chosen is not stable, even the round-off error in the
initial data can leads to wild oscillations or divergence.
18

Chapter 3 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the main methodology focuses on how to solve the problem using
different type of biomass gasifier which are pressurised and atmospheric condition are
discussed.

3.2 Gasifier modelling using CFD software

3.2.1 FLUENT 5.5
FLUENT 5.5 have been chosen to carry out the simulation for the numerical
simulations. This software has the capability on predicting the fluid flow, heat and
mass transfer, chemical reaction, and related phenomena. This software help
engineers with detailed product development, design optimisation, trouble shooting,
scale-up and retrofitting that can help in reduces engineering cost, while improving
the final design of products in many applications, and one of them is combustion
system design18.

3.2.1.1 Pre-processing
In the first part of numerical simulations, the 2-dimensional geometry of the
pilot biomass gasifier19 and the flow region were created using GAMBIT. 2dimensional model has been created because it is easier to model the simulation
comparable to 3-dimensional in terms of computer processors time consuming when
running the simulation. Thus, in the setting model, the downdraft gasifier was
examined using 2-D geometry as the asymmetric geometry tends to be diverged when
it was iterated.
Meshing is very important in order to get the solution with high quality results.
Before meshing was done to the model, the model was drawn using unit scale in
GAMBIT and then it was specified or can be modified in metric scale when the
meshing file was exported to the FLUENT 5.5. There are different types of meshing

18

Whalen, P.(2000) Fluent Inc. Releases Version 5.5 of Its FLUENT Software,
http://www.fluent.com/about/news/pr/pr17.htm
19

Dogru, M. and et al (2002) The International Journal, Gasification of hazelnut shells in a downdraft
gasifier Vol. 27 pp 415-427.
19

scheme elements in this software. As for 2-D model the option is quadrilateral and
for 3-D hexahedron can be used. Boundary zones were created for examples inlet,
outlet, nozzle, throat, hot wall and axis This model finally exported to FLUENT 5.5
after the setting were specified to 2-D, axisymetric geometry and quadrilateral
meshing although these give few cells, high quality results can be obtained.

3.2.1.2 Solver
Solver is very important in solving the flow problem. FLUENT 5.5 have
many solvers and segregated (implicit) has been used to solve the direct combustion
process in gasifier. This is because it can solve both compressible and incompressible
flow problems. Besides that it can be used to solve the unsteady flows.

3.2.1.3 Post-processing
Post-processing is very significant in visualisation tool. Most flow properties
such as pressure, temperature, species concentration and density for the combustion
reaction can be displayed and analysed after simulation. Boundary conditions,
meshing and physical parameters are criterions that have to be revised if the solution
is not converging. The convergent solution is not essentially compulsory, but it is
inevitable since the most accurate solution is needed for post-processing. Grid
adaptive can be done in order to give more accuracy to the solution.

20

3.3 Model Setting

3.3.1 Dimension
The models setting in GAMBIT and FLUENT are discussed.

Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of downdraft gasifier

Based on this typical diagram from pilot biomass gasifier that has been carried
out by Dogru et al. (2002), the model was drawn in GAMBIT software and then
imported to FLUENT code for further analysis. The model dimensions as shown
below:

Height, H

= 810 mm

Diameter, D

= 450 mm

Throat diameter, d = 135 mm

Fuel hopper, L

= 305 mm

21

The boundary condition for each segments in the gasifier are specified in
FLUENT. FLUENT has a wide range of boundary conditions that permit flow to enter
and exit the solution domain. FLUENT provides 10 types of boundary cell types for
the specification of flow inlets and exits: velocity inlet, pressure inlet, mass flow inlet,
pressure outlet, pressure far-field, outflow, inlet vent, intake fan, outlet vent, and
exhaust fan. The inlet and exit boundary condition options in FLUENT that were
used in this 2-dimensional model are as follows:

Velocity inlet boundary conditions are used to define the velocity and scalar

properties of the flow at inlet boundaries.

Pressure inlet boundary conditions are used to define the total pressure and

other scalar quantities at flow inlets.

Mass flow inlet boundary conditions are used in compressible flows to

prescribe a mass flow rate at an inlet. It is not necessary to use mass flow inlets in
incompressible flows because when density is constant, velocity inlet boundary
conditions will fix the mass flow.

Pressure outlet boundary conditions are used to define the static pressure at

flow outlets (and also other scalar variables, in case of backflow). The use of a
pressure outlet boundary condition instead of an outflow condition often results in a
better rate of convergence when backflow occurs during iteration.

22

3.3.1.1 Downdraft gasifier

For atmospheric downdraft gasifier, the first settings for temperature are as
below

Expected temperature C

Model set-upC

Distillation zone

500

Fuel hopper

373

Carbonisation zone

800

Hot-wall

800

Oxidation zone

1200

Nozzle

737

Reduction zone

300

Throat (outlet)

373

Model

Settings

Space

2D

Time

Steady

Viscous

Laminar

Heat Transfer

Enabled

Melting-Freezing

Disabled

Radiation

None
23

Species Transport

Reacting (6 species)

Coupled Dispersed Phase

Disabled

Pollutants

Disabled

Soot

Disabled

After that each zone are classified as below for boundary condition:
Zones
Name

id

Type

Fluid

fluid

Centre

symmetry

Outlet

pressure-outlet

Throat

wall

Nozzle

velocity-inlet

Outer-wall

wall

Fuel-hopper

wall

Default-interior

interior

Relaxation
Variable

Relaxation Factor

Pressure

0.1

Momentum

0.1

Energy

0.89999998

Wood volatile

O2

CO

H2O

N2

Density

Body Forces

Discretization Scheme
Variable

Scheme

Pressure

Standard

Momentum

First Order Upwind

Pressure-Velocity Coupling

SIMPLE

Energy

First Order Upwind

24

wood_vol

First Order Upwind

O2

First Order Upwind

CO2

First Order Upwind

H2O

First Order Upwind

N2

First Order Upwind

Material: wood (solid)

Property

Units

Method

Value(s)

Density

kg/m3

constant

700

Cp (Specific Heat)

j/kg-k

constant

2310

Thermal Conductivity

w/m-k

constant

0.17299999

25

3.3.1.2 Pressurised Downdraft gasifier

Expected
Temperature, C

Distillation zone

Pressure, MPa

Fuel hopper (inlet)

373

5.0

Carbonisation zone 800

Hot-wall

800

Oxidation zone

1200

Nozzle

737

300

Throat (outlet)

373

Reduction zone

500

Model set-up,C

The pressure is set to be 5.0 MPa at the fuel hopper. Here, the boundary condition is
changed to pressure inlet instead of wall in atmospheric downdraft gasifier.

26

3.4 Modelling Procedure

The diagram below illustrates the simplified procedures for the overall process in the
modelling and simulation.
Grid

Models

Materials properties

Boundary conditions

Solution

Displaying preliminary solution

Discretization

Adapting the grid

Iterations

Results
(Examples: xy Plots & Contour Plots for temperature & pressure)
27

Chapter 4 Result Analysis & Discussion

4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the results are discussed and analysed between those two types of
gasifier; pressurised and atmospheric gasifier.

4.2 Model Description

The downdraft gasifier operates by heating the woodchips to around 830C
(1526F) using burner/torches that are connected at both side of cylinder. The
woodchips are heated in the reactor using air as the gasifying medium to produce a
syngas which contains varying amount of H2, CO, CH4, CO2 and N2. The outer wall
also are being applied a heat until the wood breaks, decomposes and gives off gas
which can be used as a fuel which is can be used in gas turbine. As for ignition
purposes and electricity generation, the syngas is cleaned and cooled prior to injection
into a spark ignition gas engine which is also fed with diesel support fuel.

28

Inlet

Hot wall

Symmetrical
axis

Nozzle
Throat
Outlet
Figure 4.1: Grids

Figure 4.1 shows the grids of biomass gasifier that was modelled in GAMBIT.
Only half of the gasifier was modelled due to the symmetrical geometry. Woodchips
are fed from the inlet and heat is applied through the hot wall and also from the
nozzle. The pressure and temperature of the gasifier are determined using the
simulation and compared with the result from experimental. The results are discussed
in the following topics.

29

4.3 Result Analysis from downdraft gasifier

4.3.1 First-order Discretization.
In order to get the solution convergent, the setting of the model in FLUENT
has to be started from the First-order Discretization. Under-Relaxation Factors,
Energy is set to be 0.9. Simulation was run until around 4000 iterations to get the
convergent solution. The graph shows that the solution was not so smooth. There
were sinusoidal shapes in some lines of the solution. Therefore the setting was
changed to Second-order Discretization. The graph can be compared between both of
the settings.

Graph 4.1: Under-Relaxation Factors, Energy is set to be 0.9.

30

4.3.2 Second-order Discretization

Second-order Discretization is used in order to improve the accuracy of the
solution. With Second-order Discretization, less aggressive (lower) values for energy
under-relaxation to ensure convergence was setting up. Thus, the energy was reduced
and was set up to 0.6. After 5500 iterations, the solution was convergent as show in
Graph 4.2; the line is smoother compare to the First-order Discretization.

Graph 4.2: Under-Relaxation Factors, Energy is set to be 0.6.

The simulation was continued with the changed in momentum setting. The setting for
momentum can be set to be small index number as well. The momentum is set to 0.6
and the solution was not converged. But for previous setting, the solution was
convergent as it was set to be 0.9. From the graph, it shows that the line is
continuously running until 25000 iterations.

31

Graph 4.3: Under-Relaxation Factors, Energy and Momentum are set to 0.6.
The gasifier solution can be improved further by refining the grid to be better
resolving the flow details. In this step, the adaptation of the grid based on the
temperature gradient in the current solution was used. The range of temperature
gradients over which to adapt was determined before refining the grid. The small
value was taken which was in the range between 0.02 to 0.01C.
The contours will display the cell values of temperature instead of the smooth
looking node values. Here, the regions to adapt are significant to display in cell by
cell.
Comparison of the filled temperature contours for the first solution (using the
original grid and First-order Discretization) and the last solution (using an adapted
grid and Second-order Discretization) clearly indicate that the latter is much less
diffusive.
While the First-order Discretization is the default schema in FLUENT, it is
good to use first-order solution as a starting guess for a calculation that uses a higherorder discretization scheme and, optionally, an adapted grid. In order to get more
efficient solution, to flow-field has to be compute first without solving the energy
solution and then solve the energy without solving the flow-field equations.
32

4.4 Downdraft gasifier contour results

4.4.1 Profile for first-order discretization.
The temperature and pressure history of a particle in the downdraft gasifier
was the primary focus of a detailed characterisation study as this relationship in
theory could exclusively determine the extent to which the solid material reacts.
Particle temperature is influenced by radiative and convective transport, internal
conduction, chemical reaction and also most of it by hot wall impact.
Particle residence times are a function of the local gas flow rate and on the
path the particle takes inside the reactor which depends on particle density, gravity,
size, heat capacity and to some degree on particle starting location.
A simple model is not sufficient to capture the complexity of these problems.
CFD simulations were employed to model many of these complex processes as the
geometry and input condition can be accurately measured. This is because the model
boundary conditions are based measured quantities.
From the contour, the high molecular weight biomass pyrolysis vapours were
found to undergo thermal reactions at fairly moderate temperatures.

33

4.4.1.1 Temperature and pressure contour

1. Filled contour of temperature

Figure 4.2: Predicted total temperature after the Initial Calculation

According to the result form the simulation, the total temperature are mostly high
around the throat and nozzle. The temperature is higher at these areas because it is
affected by the burner/torches that is place at the wall near the throat. Furthermore,
these areas are oxidation zone and reduction zone where all the woodchips are burnt.

2. Filled contour of static pressure

From the contour of static pressure, there is not much different from predicted total
pressure. The pressure distributions are roughly the same. (Refer Figure 4.3 and
Figure 4.4)

34

Figure 4.3: Predicted Static Pressure Distribution after the Initial Calculation
3. Filled contour of total pressure

Figure 4.4: Predicted Total Pressure Distribution after the Initial Calculation

35

4.4.1.2 Temperature and pressure distribution

Graph 4.4: Total Temperature Distribution at the Throat

The graph above showed the total temperature inside the gasifer to the distance of the
gasifier along y-direction. 0 meter is the distance at the bottom of the gasifer which is
at the outlet. The distribution in Graph 4.4 is along the gasifiers throat. The
temperature is increasing directly proportional to the distance.

36

Figure 4.5: Total Temperature Distribution at the Outlet

The temperature distribution at the outlet is decreasing with the distance. Some part of
the gasifier at the outlet has the constant temperature.

Figure 4.6: Total Pressure Distribution at the Outlet

The total pressure distribution at the outlet is decreasing gradually with the distance.
37

Graph 4.5: Total pressure at fuel hopper, nozzle, outer-wall, outlet and throat.
Graph showed the total pressure at all the zones inside the gasifier. Total pressure is
constant at the fuel hopper. As for the outlet, the pressure is decreasing from the
bottom to the top of the gasifer. On the other hand the total pressure is increasing for
the area around the nozzle.

38

4.5 Result Analysis from pressurised downdraft gasifier

4.5.1 First-order Discretization.

As for pressurized downdraft gasifier, simulation was run only until 300 iterations in
order to get the convergent solution. From the residual graph above, the solution was
not stable as some simulation stopped at small iteration which is less than 100
iterations. Therefore the setting in FLUENT software was changed to Second-order
Discretization. Unfortunately, the graph was almost the same. Both are not stable.

4.5.2 Second-order Discretization

After the settings were changed to second-order discretization, the residual graph was
almost the same which is not stable.

39

4.6 Pressurised downdraft gasifier contour results

4.6.1 Profile for first-order Discretization
4.6.1.1 Temperature and pressure contour

1. Filled contour of static pressure

Figure 4.7: Predicted Static Pressure Distribution after the Initial Calculation
From the filled contour of static and total pressure (Refer Graph 4.7 & 4.8), the graph
show that at the top of the gasifier, the pressure is high which is at the fuel hopper.
Both graph are almost the same.

40

2. Filled contour of total pressure

Figure 4.8: Predicted Total Pressure Distribution after the Initial Calculation
3. Filled contour of total temperature

Figure 4.9: Predicted Total Temperature Distribution after the Initial Calculation
From the contour, the total temperature obtained shows no difference of temperature
inside the gasifier.

41

4.6.1.2 Temperature and pressure distribution

Graph 4.6: Total pressure distribution at outlet

The total pressure distributions at outlet show almost the same for atmospheric and
pressurised gasifier.

42

Graph 4.7: Total pressure at throat

The graph above shows the total pressure distribution inside the gasifier to the
distance along y-direction. It can be seen that the pressure is increasing from 1 x 105
Pascal to 1 x 106 Pascal.

Graph 4.8: Total pressure at fuel hopper, nozzle, outer-wall, outlet and throat.
43

The graph above shows the pressure at all the segment in the biomass gasifier. From
the fuel-hopper to the throat, the pressure drop is recorded from 2.5 x 106 Pascal to 2.5
x 105 Pascal.

44

Chapter 5 Conclusion & Recommendations

The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software is playing a strong role as a
design tool computer. Today CFD can be considered as an equal partner with pure
theory and pure experiment in the analysis and solution of fluid dynamics problems in
dealing with fluid flow. The development of new products of gasifer for biomass is
getting better if the trial and error methods are replaced with CFD software which can
assist them in improving new products.
In the dissertation, some of the result obtained from this simulation is not very
accurate. This is because of several factors such as models parameters, geometry,
meshing, grid and discretization that play an important role in the result accuracy.
As for models geometry, 2-dimensional model is used because of easy
iterations and time consuming. Thus, first-order discretization leads to convergent
result. Second-order discretization is useful to improve the result accuracy. After
some iteration, the result was not converged. Therefore second-order discretization is
not suitable for 2-dimensional model20.
In the first method used as a preliminary approach, the combustion process is
assumed to be laminar and steady state. In real life, combustion process is involved
with turbulent and unsteady state processes. Therefore, further study is needed on
these processes.
There is consideration that has to put in mind about the environmental impact,
from indirect and direct emissions release from the combustion process. For this
dissertation, universal emission-releasing gas model based on biomass fuel is not
evaluated although it is very necessary to analyse the product gas from the
combustion process. This is because each case-dependent emissions associated with
biomass gasification practice is quite tedious and time-consuming.
Thus, it is necessary in future to model the pollutants gas so that it can be used
as reference when any gasifier are to be built on local community or society. So that
they can be modelled based on simulation and can be evaluated in advance, as the
result can be demonstrated from modelling using computational fluid dynamic
software.
20

Anderson, J.D (1995), Computational Fluid Dynamics, The Basic With Application, International
Editions, McGraw-Hill
45

Finally, the software FLUENT is used and most of the work is directed
towards combustion and gasification of biomass fuels. The number of persons
involved in simulations is such that the computational capacity is still a limiting
factor. The available workstations will as far as possible be used for pre-processing
and post-processing of the problems and for tests on more coarse grids. But to be able
to fulfil the real project in specified time, it is essential to get access to high
computational capacity and extended memory.

46

References
1. Ronald, V.S. (2002), How European Waste Will Contribute to Renewable Energy.
Vol. 30 pp. 471-475.
2. Dumbleton, F. (2001), Standardisation of Solid Biofuels in the UK , AEA
Technology Environment, Report 1, ESTA 32192001.
3. McIlveen, W. et al. (2001), Bioresource Technology, A re-appraisal of wood-fired
combustion, Vol. 76, pp 183-190
4. Dogru, M. and et al (2002), The International Journal, Gasification of hazelnut
shells in a downdraft gasifier Vol. 27 pp 415-427.
5. Dogru, M et al. (2002), Fuel Processing Technology, Gasification of sewage sludge
using throated downdraft gasifier and uncertainty analysis, Vol. 75, pp. 55-82.
6. Richard, L.B. (1996), Biomass-Fired Power Generation in National Renewable
Energy Laboratory Conference, New York: Engineering Foundation.
7. Purnomo, D.J.A & Ragland, K.W. (1990), Twenty-Third Symposium
(International) on Combustion, Pressurised combustion of woodchips, pp 1025-1032.
8. Xiu, L.Y. et al (2002), Biomass & Bioenergy, Design and operation of CFB
gasification and power generation system for rice husk, Vol. 23, pp 181-187.
9. Heermann, C et al. (2000), Pyrolysis & Gasification of Waste. 2nd ed. Juniper
Consultancy Services Ltd.
10. Miller, R.S & Bellan, J. (1997), Combustion Science Technology, A generalised
biomass pyrolysis model based on superimposed cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
kinetis, No. 126, pp 97-137.
47

11. Purnomo, D.J.A & Ragland, K.W. (1990), Twenty-Third Symposium

(International) on Combustion, Pressurised combustion of woodchips, pp 1025-1032.
12. Eastop, T.D and McConkey, A. (1998), Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering
Technologist, 5th ed, Addison Wesly Longman Limited.
13. LIOR International LV. (2002), Biomass Combustion Technology (7) Wood
Lower Calorific Value
http://www.lior-int.com/FORMULA/rp7.as
14. Robinson, A et al. (1998), Fireside Issues Associated with Coal-Biomass Cofiring, in Conference on BioEnergy 98, United State: National Renewable Energy
Laboratory.
15. McIlveen, W. et al. (2001), Bioresource Technology, A re-appraisal of wood-fired
combustion, Vol. 76, pp 183-190
16. Brink, A et al. (2001), IFRF Combustion Journal, Modelling Nitrogen Chemistry
in the Freeboard of Biomass-FBC, pp 1-14.

17. Whalen, P. (2000), Fluent Inc. Releases Version 5.5 of Its FLUENT Software,
http://www.fluent.com/about/news/pr/pr17.htm

18. Dogru, M. and et al (2002), The International Journal, Gasification of hazelnut

shells in a downdraft gasifier Vol. 27 pp 415-427.

19. Anderson, J. D (1995), Computational Fluid Dynamics, The Basic With

Application, International Editions, McGraw-Hill.

48

Appendices
Appendix 1.1: List of gasifier
Downdraft gasifier, biomass fuel is fed in at the top, gas is

sucked off near the base, and air is drawn down through the
fuel.

Size, shape and moisture content of the biomass

particles must be controlled within close limits.

Quality of the gas fuel produced is generally good.

The downdraft principle is only suitable for

installations of less than about 1 MW electrical
output.

Updraft gasifier is one where the gas flows upwards as the

biomass moves down.

The updraft principle is suitable for installations of a

few tens of megawatt capacity.

Size, shape and moisture content of the biomass

particles are much less critical than with a downdraft
gasifier.

Quality of the gas produced tends to be poor.

Other types of fixed bed gasifier, produced in small numbers, may involve:

cross flow design;

use of oxygen as the gasifying agent instead of air;

Feeding from the bottom by means of a transport screw.

Fluidised bed gasifiers have either a bubbling bed or a circulating bed.

There is no technical scale-up limit (though size may be limited by availability

of biomass or the local energy demand).
49

The gasifying agent is usually air at atmospheric pressure, but pressurised

gasification can be advantageous when supplying gas turbines larger than
about 100 MW.

The danger of ash agglomeration is low, because of the relatively low

temperature (about 850C).

50

Appendix 1.2: Summary First-order Discretization for downdraft

gasifier

FLUENT
Version: 2d, segregated, spe6, lam (2d, segregated, 6 species,
laminar)
Release: 5.5.14
Title: Gasifier
Models
-----Model
Settings
---------------------------------------------Space
2D
Time
Steady
Viscous
Laminar
Heat Transfer
Enabled
Melting-Freezing
Disabled
Radiation
None
Species Transport
Reacting (6 species)
Coupled Dispersed Phase
Disabled
Pollutants
Disabled
Soot
Disabled
Boundary Conditions
------------------Zones
Name
id
type
--------------------------------------Fluid
1
fluid
Centre
2
symmetry
Outlet
3
pressure-outlet
Throat
4
wall
Nozzle
5
velocity-inlet
Outer-wall
6
wall
Fuel-hopper
7
wall
Default-interior
9
interior
Boundary Conditions
Fluid
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Material Name
wood-volatiles-air
Specify source terms?
no
Source Terms
((mass (constant . 0)
(profile )) (x-momentum (constant . 0) (profile )) (y-momentum
(constant . 0) (profile )) (energy (constant . 0) (profile ))
(species-0 (constant . 0) (profile )) (species-1 (constant . 0)
(profile )) (species-2 (constant . 0) (profile )) (species-3
(constant . 0) (profile )) (species-4 (constant . 0) (profile )))
51

Motion Type
X-Velocity Of Zone
Y-Velocity Of Zone
Rotation speed
X-Origin of Rotation-Axis
Y-Origin of Rotation-Axis
Porous zone?
X-Component of Direction-1 Vector
Y-Component of Direction-1 Vector
Direction-1 Viscous Resistance
Direction-2 Viscous Resistance
Direction-3 Viscous Resistance
Direction-1 Inertial Resistance
Direction-2 Inertial Resistance
Direction-3 Inertial Resistance
C0 Coefficient for Power-Law
C1 Coefficient for Power-Law
Porosity
Solid Material Name

0
0
0
0
0
0
no
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
aluminum

Centre
Condition
Value
----------------Outlet
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Gauge Pressure
0
Backflow Total Temperature
300

(profile
(profile
)))

Backflow
(((constant . 0.77993202)
)) ((constant . 0.22006799) (profile )) ((constant . 0)
)) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile

Throat
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Wall Thickness
0
Heat Generation Rate
0
Material Name
aluminium
Thermal BC Type
0
Temperature
1473
Heat Flux
0
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
0
Free Stream Temperature
300
Apply a velocity to this wall?
no
Define wall motion relative to adjacent cell zone?
yes
Apply a rotational velocity to this wall?
no
Velocity Magnitude
0
X-Component of Wall Translation
1
Y-Component of Wall Translation
0
Define wall velocity components?
no
X-Component of Wall Translation
0
Y-Component of Wall Translation
0
52

External Emissivity
External Radiation Temperature

1
300
(1 1 0 0 0)

(((constant . 0.77993202) (profile )) ((constant . 0.22006799)

(profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile
)) ((constant . 0) (profile )))
Rotation Speed
X-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
Y-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
Specify shear stress?
X-component of shear stress
Y-component of shear stress

0
0
0
no
0
0

Nozzle
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Velocity Specification Method
2
Reference Frame
0
Velocity Magnitude
2
X-Velocity
0
Y-Velocity
0
X-Component of Flow Direction
1
Y-Component of Flow Direction
0
X-Component of Axis Direction
1
Y-Component of Axis Direction
0
Z-Component of Axis Direction
0
X-Coordinate of Axis Origin
0
Y-Coordinate of Axis Origin
0
Z-Coordinate of Axis Origin
0
Angular velocity
0
Temperature
1273
(((constant . 0.77993202)
(profile )) ((constant . 0.22006799) (profile )) ((constant . 0)
(profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile
)))
Outer-wall
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Wall Thickness
0
Heat Generation Rate
0
Material Name
aluminum
Thermal BC Type
0
Temperature
620
Heat Flux
0
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
0
Free Stream Temperature
300
Apply a velocity to this wall?
no
Define wall motion relative to adjacent cell zone?
yes
Apply a rotational velocity to this wall?
no
Velocity Magnitude
0
X-Component of Wall Translation
1
Y-Component of Wall Translation
0
Define wall velocity components?
no
X-Component of Wall Translation
0
53

Y-Component of Wall Translation

External Emissivity
External Radiation Temperature

0
1
300
(1 1 0

0 0)
(((constant . 0.77993202) (profile )) ((constant . 0.22006799)
(profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile
)) ((constant . 0) (profile )))
Rotation Speed
0
X-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
0
Y-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
0
Specify shear stress?
no
X-component of shear stress
0
Y-component of shear stress
0
Fuel-hopper
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Wall Thickness
0
Heat Generation Rate
0
Material Name
aluminium
Thermal BC Type
0
Temperature
343
Heat Flux
0
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
0
Free Stream Temperature
300
Apply a velocity to this wall?
no
Define wall motion relative to adjacent cell zone?
yes
Apply a rotational velocity to this wall?
no
Velocity Magnitude
0
X-Component of Wall Translation
1
Y-Component of Wall Translation
0
Define wall velocity components?
no
X-Component of Wall Translation
0
Y-Component of Wall Translation
0
External Emissivity
1
External Radiation Temperature
300
(1 1 0 0 0)
(((constant . 0.77993202) (profile )) ((constant . 0.22006799)
(profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile
)) ((constant . 0) (profile )))
Rotation Speed
0
X-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
0
Y-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
0
Specify shear stress?
no
X-component of shear stress
0
Y-component of shear stress
0
Default-interior
Condition
Value
-----------------

54

Solver Controls
--------------Equations
Equation
Solved
----------------Flow
yes
Energy
yes
wood_vol
yes
o2
yes
co2
yes
h2o
yes
n2
yes
Numerics
Numeric
Enabled
--------------------------------------Absolute Velocity Formulation
yes
Relaxation
Variable
Relaxation Factor
------------------------------Pressure
0.1
Momentum
0.1
Energy
0.89999998
wood_vol
1
o2
1
co2
1
h2o
1
n2
1
Density
1
Body Forces
1
Linear Solver
Solver
Termination
Residual Reduction
Variable
Type
Criterion
Tolerance
-------------------------------------------------------Pressure
V-Cycle
0.1
X-Momentum
Flexible
0.1
0.7
Y-Momentum
Flexible
0.1
0.7
Energy
Flexible
0.1
0.7
wood_vol
Flexible
0.1
0.7
o2
Flexible
0.1
0.7
co2
Flexible
0.1
0.7
h2o
Flexible
0.1
0.7
n2
Flexible
0.1
0.7
Discretization Scheme
Variable
Scheme
----------------------------------------------Pressure
Standard
Momentum
First Order Upwind
Pressure-Velocity Coupling
SIMPLE
Energy
First Order Upwind
wood_vol
First Order Upwind
55

o2
co2
h2o
n2

First
First
First
First

Order
Order
Order
Order

Upwind
Upwind
Upwind
Upwind

Solution Limits
Quantity
Limit
----------------------------------Minimum Absolute Pressure
1
Maximum Absolute Pressure
5000000
Minimum Temperature
1
Maximum Temperature
5000
Material Properties
------------------Material: aluminium (solid)
Property
Units
Method
Value(s)
--------------------------------------------------Density
kg/m3
constant
2719
Cp (Specific Heat)
j/kg-k
constant
871
Thermal Conductivity
w/m-k
constant
202.4
Material: air (fluid)
Property
Units
Method
Value(s)
----------------------------------------------------------Molecular Weight
kg/kgmol
constant
28.966
Standard State Enthalpy
j/kgmol
constant
0
Standard State Entropy
j/kgmol-k
constant
0
Reference Temperature
k
constant
298.15
L-J Characteristic Length
angstrom
constant
3.711
L-J Energy Parameter
k
constant
78.6
Degrees of Freedom
constant
0
Material: wood (solid)
Property
Units
Method
Value(s)
----------------------------------------------------Density
kg/m3
constant
700
Cp (Specific Heat)
j/kg-k
constant
2310
Thermal Conductivity
w/m-k
constant
0.17299999
Material: wood-volatiles (fluid)
Property
Units
Method
Value(s)
------------------------------------------------------------Molecular Weight
kg/kgmol
constant
31.626
Standard State Enthalpy
j/kgmol
constant
-2.548e+08
Standard State Entropy
j/kgmol-k
constant
0
Reference Temperature
k
constant
298.15
L-J Characteristic Length
angstrom
constant
0
L-J Energy Parameter
k
constant
0
Degrees of Freedom
constant
0

56

Material: oxygen (fluid)

Property
Units
Method
Value(s)
-----------------------------------------------------------Molecular Weight
kg/kgmol
constant
31.9988
Standard State Enthalpy
j/kgmol
constant
0
Standard State Entropy
j/kgmol-k
constant
205026.86
Reference Temperature
k
constant
298.15
L-J Characteristic Length
angstrom
constant
3.458
L-J Energy Parameter
k
constant
107.4
Degrees of Freedom
constant
0
Material: carbon-dioxide (fluid)
Property
Units
Method
Value(s)
--------------------------------------------------------------Molecular Weight
kg/kgmol
constant
44.00995
Standard State Enthalpy
j/kgmol
constant
3.9353235e+08
Standard State Entropy
j/kgmol-k
constant
213715.88
Reference Temperature
k
constant
298.15
L-J Characteristic Length
angstrom
constant
3.941
L-J Energy Parameter
k
constant
195.2
Degrees of Freedom
constant
0
Material: water-vapor (fluid)
Property
Units
Method
Value(s)
--------------------------------------------------------------Molecular Weight
kg/kgmol
constant
18.01534
Standard State Enthalpy
j/kgmol
constant
2.418379e+08
Standard State Entropy
j/kgmol-k
constant
188696.44
Reference Temperature
k
constant
298.15
L-J Characteristic Length
angstrom
constant
2.605
L-J Energy Parameter
k
constant
572.4
Degrees of Freedom
constant
0
Material: nitrogen (fluid)
Property
Units
Method
Value(s)
-----------------------------------------------------------Molecular Weight
kg/kgmol
constant
28.0134
Standard State Enthalpy
j/kgmol
constant
0
Standard State Entropy
j/kgmol-k
constant
191494.78
Reference Temperature
k
constant
298.15
L-J Characteristic Length
angstrom
constant
3.621
L-J Energy Parameter
k
constant
97.53
Degrees of Freedom
constant
0

57

Material: wood-volatiles-air (mixture)

Property
Units
Method
Value(s)
--------------------------------------------------------------------Mixture Species
names ((wood_vol o2 co2 h2o n2 air) ())
Reaction Model
finite-rate
((reaction-1 ((wood_vol 1 0.2 1) (o2 1.058 1.3 1) (n2 1 1 1)) ((co2 1
0 1) (h2o 1.191 0 1) (n2 1 0 1)) ((air 0 1)) (stoichiometry 1wood_vol
+ 1.058o2 + 1n2 --> 1co2 + 1.191h2o + 1n2) (arrhenius 2.1190001e+11
2.027e+08 0) (mixing-rate 4 0.5) (use-third-body-efficiencies? . #f)
(surface-reaction? . #f) (backward-reaction? . #f)))
Density
kg/m3
incompressible-ideal-gas
#f
Cp (Specific Heat)
j/kg-k
constant
1000
Thermal Conductivity
w/m-k
constant
0.045400001
Viscosity
kg/m-s
constant
1.72e-05
Mass Diffusivity
m2/s
constant-dilute-appx
(2.88e-05)
Thermal Diffusion Coefficient
kg/m-s
kinetic-theory
#f
Thermal Expansion Coefficient
1/k
constant
0

58

Appendix 1.3: Summary First-order Discretization for pressurised

downdraft gasifier

FLUENT
Version: 2d, segregated, spe6, lam (2d, segregated, 6 species,
laminar)
Release: 5.5.14
Title:
Models
-----Model
Settings
---------------------------------------------Space
2D
Time
Steady
Viscous
Laminar
Heat Transfer
Enabled
Melting-Freezing
Disabled
Radiation
None
Species Transport
Reacting (6 species)
Coupled Dispersed Phase
Disabled
Pollutants
Disabled
Soot
Disabled
Boundary Conditions
------------------Zones
Name
id
type
--------------------------------------Fluid
1
fluid
Fuel-hopper
7
pressure-inlet
Centre
2
symmetry
Outlet
3
pressure-outlet
Throat
4
wall
Nozzle
5
velocity-inlet
Outer-wall
6
wall
Default-interior
9
interior
Boundary Conditions
Fluid
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Material Name
wood-volatiles-air
Specify source terms?
no
Source Terms
((mass (constant . 0)
(profile )) (x-momentum (constant . 0) (profile )) (y-momentum
(constant . 0) (profile )) (energy (constant . 0) (profile ))
(species-0 (constant . 0) (profile )) (species-1 (constant . 0)
(profile )) (species-2 (constant . 0) (profile )) (species-3
(constant . 0) (profile )) (species-4 (constant . 0) (profile )))
59

Motion Type
X-Velocity Of Zone
Y-Velocity Of Zone
Rotation speed
X-Origin of Rotation-Axis
Y-Origin of Rotation-Axis
Porous zone?
X-Component of Direction-1 Vector
Y-Component of Direction-1 Vector
Direction-1 Viscous Resistance
Direction-2 Viscous Resistance
Direction-3 Viscous Resistance
Direction-1 Inertial Resistance
Direction-2 Inertial Resistance
Direction-3 Inertial Resistance
C0 Coefficient for Power-Law
C1 Coefficient for Power-Law
Porosity
Solid Material Name

0
0
0
0
0
0
No
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
aluminium

Fuel-hopper
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Gauge Total Pressure
2500000
Supersonic/Initial Gauge Pressure
0
Total Temperature
373
Direction Specification Method
1
X-Component of Flow Direction
1
Y-Component of Flow Direction
0
X-Component of Axis Direction
0
Y-Component of Axis Direction
0
Z-Component of Axis Direction
1
X-Coordinate of Axis Origin
0
Y-Coordinate of Axis Origin
0
Z-Coordinate of Axis Origin
0
(((constant .
0.77993202) (profile )) ((constant . 0.22006799) (profile ))
((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant
. 0) (profile )))
Centre
Condition
Value
----------------Outlet
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Gauge Pressure
0
Backflow Total Temperature
300
Backflow
(((constant . 0.77993202)
(profile )) ((constant . 0.22006799) (profile )) ((constant . 0)
(profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile
)))

60

Throat
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Wall Thickness
0
Heat Generation Rate
0
Material Name
aluminium
Thermal BC Type
0
Temperature
373
Heat Flux
0
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
0
Free Stream Temperature
300
Apply a velocity to this wall?
no
Define wall motion relative to adjacent cell zone?
yes
Apply a rotational velocity to this wall?
no
Velocity Magnitude
0
X-Component of Wall Translation
1
Y-Component of Wall Translation
0
Define wall velocity components?
no
X-Component of Wall Translation
0
Y-Component of Wall Translation
0
External Emissivity
1
External Radiation Temperature
300
(1 1 0 0 0)
(((constant . 0.77993202) (profile )) ((constant . 0.22006799)
(profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile
)) ((constant . 0) (profile )))
Rotation Speed
0
X-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
0
Y-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
0
Specify shear stress?
no
X-component of shear stress
0
Y-component of shear stress
0
Nozzle
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Velocity Specification Method
2
Reference Frame
0
Velocity Magnitude
2
X-Velocity
0
Y-Velocity
0
X-Component of Flow Direction
1
Y-Component of Flow Direction
0
X-Component of Axis Direction
1
Y-Component of Axis Direction
0
Z-Component of Axis Direction
0
X-Coordinate of Axis Origin
0
Y-Coordinate of Axis Origin
0
Z-Coordinate of Axis Origin
0
Angular velocity
0
Temperature
737
(((constant . 0.77993202)
(profile )) ((constant . 0.22006799) (profile )) ((constant . 0)
(profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile
)))
61

Outer-wall
Condition
Value
--------------------------------------------------------------------Wall Thickness
0
Heat Generation Rate
0
Material Name
aluminium
Thermal BC Type
0
Temperature
800
Heat Flux
0
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
0
Free Stream Temperature
300
Apply a velocity to this wall?
no
Define wall motion relative to adjacent cell zone?
yes
Apply a rotational velocity to this wall?
no
Velocity Magnitude
0
X-Component of Wall Translation
1
Y-Component of Wall Translation
0
Define wall velocity components?
no
X-Component of Wall Translation
0
Y-Component of Wall Translation
0
External Emissivity
1
External Radiation Temperature
300
(1 1 0 0 0)
(((constant . 0.77993202) (profile )) ((constant . 0.22006799)
(profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile )) ((constant . 0) (profile
)) ((constant . 0) (profile )))
Rotation Speed
0
X-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
0
Y-Position of Rotation-Axis Origin
0
Specify shear stress?
no
X-component of shear stress
0
Y-component of shear stress
0
Default-interior
Condition
Value
----------------Solver Controls
--------------Equations
Equation
Solved
----------------Flow
yes
Energy
yes
wood_vol
yes
o2
yes
co2
yes
h2o
yes
n2
yes

62