A Process Control

Primer

Sensing and Control

Copyright, Notices, and Trademarks

Printed in U.S.A. Copyright 2000 by Honeywell
Revision 1 July 2000

While this information is presented in good faith and believed to be accurate,

Honeywell disclaims the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a
particular purpose and makes no express warranties except as may be stated in its
written agreement with and for its customer.
In no event is Honeywell liable to anyone for any indirect, special or consequential
damages. The information and specifications in this document are subject to
change without notice.

Presented by: Dan OConnor

Sensing and Control

Honeywell
11 West Spring Street
Freeport, Illinois 61032

UDC is a trademark of Honeywell

Accutune is a trademark of Honeywell

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About This Publication

The automatic control of industrial processes is a broad subject, with roots in a wide range of
engineering and scientific fields. There is really no shortcut to an expert understanding of the
subject, and any attempt to condense the subject into a single short set of notes, such as is
presented in this primer, can at best serve only as an introduction.
However, there are many people who do not need to become experts, but do need enough
knowledge of the basics to be able to operate and maintain process equipment competently and
efficiently. This material may hopefully serve as a stimulus for further reading and study.

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Process Control Primer

iii

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL............................................. 1

1.1
1.2
1.3

Overview....................................................................................................... 1
Control Systems ........................................................................................... 2
Feedback Control Loop ................................................................................ 4

CHAPTER 2 PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................. 11

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

Overview..................................................................................................... 11
Process Load.............................................................................................. 13
Process Lags .............................................................................................. 14
Capacitance................................................................................................ 15
Resistance .................................................................................................. 18
Dead Time .................................................................................................. 19
Process Reaction Curve ............................................................................. 20

CHAPTER 3 MODES OF CONTROL ............................................................................ 23

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7

Overview..................................................................................................... 23
On-Off Control ............................................................................................ 24
Proportional Control.................................................................................... 26
Proportional + Reset (Integral) Control....................................................... 29
Proportional + Rate (Derivative) Control..................................................... 31
Proportional + Reset + Rate (3 Mode) Control ........................................... 33
Controller Selection Guidelines .................................................................. 34

CHAPTER 4 ALGORITHMS.......................................................................................... 37
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7

Overview..................................................................................................... 37
On-Off ......................................................................................................... 38
PID-A Algorithm .......................................................................................... 40
PID-B .......................................................................................................... 43
PD-A + Manual Reset ................................................................................. 44
Three Position Step Control........................................................................ 45
Computations Associated With PID Equations ........................................... 47

CHAPTER 5 CONTROLLER TUNING .......................................................................... 49

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.5

Overview..................................................................................................... 49
Manual Tuning ............................................................................................ 50
Accutune II .............................................................................................. 56
Accutune II Duplex Tuning ...................................................................... 57
Fuzzy Overshoot Suppression.................................................................... 59

CHAPTER 6 ADVANCED CONTROL CONCEPTS...................................................... 61

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8

Overview..................................................................................................... 61
System Component Descriptions ............................................................... 62
Simple Feedback ........................................................................................ 63
Cascade Control ......................................................................................... 65
Predictive Feedforward Control .................................................................. 71
Dynamic Feedforward Control .................................................................... 76
The Ratio Control Loop............................................................................... 78
Analog Override Control Strategies ............................................................ 85

continued next page

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Table of Contents

CHAPTER 7 AUXILIARIES........................................................................................... 89
7.1
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7

Overview .................................................................................................... 89
Square Root Extractors.............................................................................. 94
Multiplier/Dividers ....................................................................................... 96
Calculation of Scaling and Bias Constants............................................... 100
Verification................................................................................................ 102
Adder/Subtractor ...................................................................................... 105

CHAPTER 8 HOW TO APPLY DIGITAL INSTRUMENTATION

IN SEVERE ELECTRICAL NOISE ENVIRONMENTS ............................ 109
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6

Overview .................................................................................................. 109

Potential Noise Sources ........................................................................... 110
Prevention Methods ................................................................................. 111
Recommended Wiring Practices .............................................................. 112
Power Source Considerations.................................................................. 114
Noise Suppression at the Source............................................................. 115

GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. 119

INDEX

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................................................................................................................. 131

Process Control Primer

Figures and Tables

Figure 1-2
Figure 1-3
Figure 1-4
Figure 1-5
Figure 2-1
Figure 2-2
Figure 2-3
Figure 2-4
Figure 2-5
Figure 2-6
Figure 3-1
Figure 3-2
Figure 3-3
Figure 3-4
Figure 3-5
Figure 3-6
Figure 3-7
Figure 3-8
Figure 3-9
Figure 3-10
Figure 4-1
Figure 4-2
Figure 4-3
Figure 4-4
Figure 4-5
Figure 4-6
Figure 4-7
Figure 4-8
Figure 5-1
Figure 5-2
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-4
Figure 5-5
Figure 5-6
Figure 5-7
Figure 6-1
Figure 6-2
Figure 6-3
Figure 6-4
Figure 6-5
Figure 6-6
Figure 6-7
Figure 6-8
Figure 6-10
Figure 6-11
Figure 6-12
Figure 6-13
Figure 6-14
Figure 6-15
Figure 7-1
Figure 7-2
Figure 7-3
Figure 7-4
Figure 7-5
Figure 7-6
vi

Process Heater.......................................................................................... 4
Block diagram of system with operator...................................................... 5
Block Diagram of System with Automatic Controller ................................. 6
Feedback Control Loop Components........................................................ 7
Capacity versus Capacitance .................................................................. 15
Process Heaters ...................................................................................... 16
Mixing Process Illustrating Dead Time .................................................... 19
First Order Lag ........................................................................................ 20
Second Order Lags ................................................................................. 21
Dead Time ............................................................................................... 22
Process Heater........................................................................................ 24
On-Off Control Action .............................................................................. 25
Proportional Control Action...................................................................... 26
Proportional Band 20%............................................................................ 27
Proportional Band 200%.......................................................................... 28
Proportional Plus Reset Control Action ................................................... 29
Proportional plus Rate Control Action ..................................................... 31
Rate Action Response to a Step Change................................................ 32
Three Mode Control Action...................................................................... 33
Response to Increase in Liquid Flow....................................................... 33
Switching Action of On-Off Control.......................................................... 39
Switching Action of Duplex On-Off Control.............................................. 39
Implementation of PID A Equation .......................................................... 40
Typical Relay Operation in PID-A Duplex Control ................................... 41
Implementation of PID-B Equation .......................................................... 43
Implementation of PD A with Manual Reset Equation............................. 44
Relationship of Duplex On-Off Control and Filter Feedback Signals in
Three Position Step Control Algorithm .................................................... 45
Output Characteristics of Three Position Step Control for Constant
Error ........................................................................................................ 46
Process Reaction Curve.......................................................................... 52
Ultimate Period ........................................................................................ 52
1/4 Amplitude Decay ............................................................................... 53
Effect of Reset Adjustment on Recovery from Load Change .................. 54
Effect of Rate Adjustment on Recovery from Load Change.................... 55
Typical Heat/Cool Application.................................................................. 57
Relationship between Heat/Cool Outputs and Tuning............................. 58
Simple Loop............................................................................................. 63
Cascade Control Loop............................................................................. 65
Simple Block Diagram ............................................................................. 68
Cascade Control Loop............................................................................. 69
Trial and Error System............................................................................. 72
Feedforward Block Diagram .................................................................... 73
A Static Feedforward System .................................................................. 74
Dynamic Feedforward System ................................................................ 76
Ratio Control System with Ratio Relay.................................................... 79
Parallel Ratio System Block Diagram...................................................... 81
Parallel Ratio Control System.................................................................. 81
Ratio System with Interlock ..................................................................... 83
Compressor Application .......................................................................... 85
Analog Override System.......................................................................... 86
Record of Rate of Flow............................................................................ 91
Typical Loop using a Square Root Extractor and Linear Integrator......... 94
The Effect of Temperature on Pressure .................................................. 96
Change in Volume ................................................................................... 97
BTUs....................................................................................................... 98
Actual Range of Operation verses Zero Based Range ......................... 102
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Figures and Tables, continued

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Figure 7-7
Figure 7-8
Figure 7-9
Figure 8-1
Figure 8-2
Figure 8-3
Figure 8-4

Graphical Example................................................................................ 104

Adder/Subtractor Application ................................................................ 105
The Role of the Adder/Subtractor in the Loop ...................................... 106
Transformer for Digital Equipment ........................................................ 114
Transient Suppression in Inductive Coils .............................................. 116
Contact Noise Suppression .................................................................. 117
DC Load Noise Suppression................................................................. 118

Table 1-1
Table 1-2
Table 2-1
Table 2-2
Table 2-3
Table 3-1
Table 5-1
Table 5-2
Table 5-3
Table 7-1
Table 8-1
Table 8-2
Table 8-3

Disturbances and their definitions ............................................................. 3

Component Definition ............................................................................... 8
Examples of Load Changes.................................................................... 13
Dimensional Units for Capacitance ......................................................... 17
Dimensional Units for Resistance ........................................................... 18
Application of Control Modes .................................................................. 35
Reaction Curve Method .......................................................................... 51
Controller Settings .................................................................................. 51
Ultimate Cycling Method ......................................................................... 52
Manual Calculation of Total Flow............................................................ 92
External Wiring...................................................................................... 112
MOV Devices ........................................................................................ 115
Coil Voltage........................................................................................... 116

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Process Control

1.1

Overview

Whats in this chapter

This chapter contains the following information:

Topic

See Page

1.1

Overview
Introduction
Processes
Physical Quantities

1
1
1
1

1.2

Control Systems
Why is control necessary
Disturbances

2
2
3

1.3

Feedback Control Loop

Overview
Process Heater Example
System with Operator
System with Automatic Control
Components of a Feedback Control Loop
Closed Loop versus Open Loop

4
4
4
5
6
7
9

Introduction

The type of control to be discussed is the kind involved in the so-called

Process Industries, such as chemicals, petroleum, metals, paper, textiles,
food, and water management.
Examples are the refining of crude oil into fuel oils and gasoline; the
conversion of wood pulp into paper; the extraction of metals from ores;
the heat treating of metals; the production of glass; and the processing of
municipal and industrial water supplies.

Processes

Since the type of equipment we will discuss is the kind used in the
measurement and control of industrial processes, identification of these
processes will aid our understanding of what this equipment is and what
its purposes are.
Processes involve the handling of large quantities of raw materials in a
continuous or semi-continuous (batch) stream, modifying the raw
materials through either chemical or mechanical changes to make a
product that has more value than the original materials.

Physical quantities

The measurement and control of such physical quantities as Pressure,

Flow, Temperature, and Liquid Level are subjects with which we will be
dealing.
The physical quantities we measure and control are known as Process
Variables, often abbreviated PV.

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Process Control Primer

1.2

Control Systems

Why is control
necessary?

Among other things, a process is a system for the transfer of energy.

Whenever the distribution of energy is modified or disturbed, the variables
in the system will change value. It is usually difficult to measure energy
directly, but we can use variables that are more readily measured, such as
Temperature, Pressure, and Flow.
When these measured variables change in a process, we know that the
energy distribution has changed somewhere. Important to us is the fact
that the product will also change and may become off-specification. That
is, its quality may deteriorate.
Automatic control becomes necessary whenever energy changes may be
expected that are large enough to push the measured variable outside it
allowable tolerance. Figure 1-1 shows a typical process energy flow.
Figure 1-1
Process Energy Flow
Product out
Fuel in

PROCESS

Raw materials in

Losses

Product in + Fuel in = Product out + Losses

Continued on next page

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1.2

Control Systems,

Disturbances

Continued

These energy variations are called disturbances, upsets, or load changes.

We can classify possible disturbances into four categories.
Table 1-1 lists these disturbances and their definitions.
Table 1-1
Control Disturbances
Disturbance

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Definition

Change in Setpoint

The setpoint is the desired value of the

measured variable. Its value establishes the
level of energy flow in steady state conditions.
Any change in its setting will require a completely
new energy picture. For instance, a higher
temperature for the product out will require the
control system to provide a higher rate of fuel
flow.

Change in Supply

This is a variation in any of the energy inputs to

the process. A variation in the supply pressure
of the fuel, for instance, or a variation in the
temperature of the raw materials, would be
supply changes.

Change in Demand

This is a disturbance in the output flow of energy.

The most common source of such a disturbance
is a change in the production rate itself. If the
front office asks for more output and the
production rate is increased, the energy would
certainly have to be increased.

Environmental Changes

Ambient temperature or atmospheric pressure

also affect the energy balance. If the equipment
is outdoors, the wind velocity and direction may
also play a part in altering these energy
requirements.

Process Control Primer

1.3

Feedback Control Loop

Overview

In the process industries, control systems were put to practical use long
before the theory of their operation or methods of analyzing their
performance were available. Processes and control systems were
determined by intuition and accumulated experience. This approach,
unscientific as it was, was successful.
Tolerance to the intuitive approach is diminishing today, but it is still a
valid way to obtain knowledge of the basics of the subject, so well start
by considering a simple process and the way a human operator might
handle its control.

Process heater
example

Suppose there exists a process such as shown in Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2

Process Heater
Liquid In

Recorder

Hot Oil In
Liquid Out

A source of liquid flows into the tank at a varying flow rate. There is a
need to heat this liquid to a certain temperature. To do this, there is hot
oil available from another part of the plant that flows through coils in the
tank and heats the liquid.
By controlling the flow of the hot oil, we can obtain the desired
temperature. The temperature in the tank is measured and read out on a
recorder mounted within the view of the valve on the hot oil line.
The operator has been told to keep the temperature at a desired value
(SETPOINT) of 300. He compares the reading on the recorder with this
mental target and decides what he must do with the valve to try to bring
the temperature of the liquid to the desired value (setpoint). In reading the
actual value of the temperature and mentally comparing it with the desired
value, the operator is providing FEEDBACK.
Continued on next page
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1.3

Feedback Control Loop,

Block diagram of
system with operator

Continued

Figure 1-3 is a block diagram of this system, including the operator, and
shows the flow of information between components.
Figure 1-3
Block diagram of system with operator
PROCESS

Thermometer

Operator

Valve

Energy

This is not a very detailed block diagram, but we can see here an
interesting feature of this type of control - information flows in a loop.
The operator, to be sure, is a part of the loop, so it is not automatic
control, but it is Closed Loop Control. or Feedback control, because the
results are measured, compared to the desired results, and the valve is
manipulated accordingly.
Continued on next page

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Process Control Primer

1.3

Feedback Control Loop,

System with
automatic control

Continued

If we wish to replace the operator with an automatic system, we will need

a device that will compare the measured variable with the desired value
(setpoint) and initiate control action according to what this comparison
shows.
Figure 1-4 shows a control loop with such a device.
Figure 1-4
Block Diagram of System with Automatic Controller
Display

PROCESS

Process
Variable (PV)

Energy

Controller

Setpoint (SP)

Final Control
Element

Continued on next page

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1.3

Feedback Control Loop,

Continued

Definition of
components of a
feedback control loop

Figure 1-5

Every new technical field starts out with a language barrier of sorts.
Words perfectly familiar in one field suddenly take on a new meaning in
another. So, it becomes necessary from time to time to establish some
definitions.
Figure 1-5 shows the components of a feedback control loop. This a more
hardware oriented version of Figure 1-4.
Table 1-2 defines each of the components.
Feedback Control Loop Components
4

Display
Error
5 Generator

2 Primary Element
or Sensor
3 Transmitter
PV

SP
e

1 Process
Process Variable
6 Controller
ENERGY (Manipulated Variable)

7 Final Control Element

Continued on next page

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Process Control Primer

1.3

Feedback Control Loop,

Continued

Definition of
components of a
feedback control
loop, continued

Table 1-2
Key

Component Definition
Component

Definition

Process

The manipulation of raw materials to derive a more

valuable product.

Primary
Element or
Sensor

A device that converts the Process Variable (PV)

energy into a measurable form.
Examples: Thermocouple; Orifice Plate; Bourdon
Tube; Float; Filled Thermal System.
PV = The variable being measured and controlled

Transmitter
(Optional)

Changes the value of the Process Variable into a

standard signal for transmitting over distances.

Display
(Optional)

Shows the value of PV and Setpoint; or sometimes

Setpoint and Deviation.

Error
Generator

Detects the difference between the SETPOINT and

PROCESS VARIABLE. It can be mechanical,
pneumatic, or electric.
The difference between the Setpoint and Process
Variable is called the ERROR or DEVIATION.
Note: In the actual hardware, sometimes the error
generator is incorporated as part of the controller,
and sometimes it is a separate unit.

Controller

A logic device that changes its output in

accordance with the error signal it receives from
the Error Generator.
The manner in which it changes its output is built
into it through a system of logic called Modes of
Control.
Information that the controller needs from the error
generator is:
Polarity (sign) of the error
Size of the error
Rate of change of the error

Final Control
Element

This is the element which directly changes the

value of the manipulated variable.
Examples:
Pneumatic diaphragm valve
Motorized valve
Contactor
Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
Rheostat
Continued on next page

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1.3

Feedback Control Loop,

Closed Loop versus

Open Loop

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Continued

The notion of FEEDBACK is crucial to automatic control. Unless the

results of the control manipulations can be compared against objectives,
there is no way to arrive at a logical control strategy.
When feedback exists, the system is said to be operating in a
CLOSED LOOP fashion.
Sometimes, control systems operate on information not directly obtained
from the Process Variable.
For example:
If the liquid level in a tank were to be controlled, it would be feasible to
do so just by adjusting the output flow in proportion to the input flow.
There is no closed loop with respect to liquid level; just a relationship
between a flow and a valve position which indirectly, but not infallibly,
establishes a level.
When a quantity is being controlled indirectly in this fashion, it is
considered to be OPEN LOOP control.

Process Control Primer

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Chapter 2 Process Characteristics

2.1

Overview

Whats in this
chapter?

This chapter contains the following information:

Topic

See Page

2.1

Overview
Introduction
The Instrumentation
The Process
Two Effects for Consideration

11
12
12
12
12

2.2

Process Load
Definition
Effect on the Final Control Element
Properties of Load Changes

13
13
13
13

2.3

Process Lags
What are They?
Example
Causes

14
14
14
14

2.4

Capacitance
Definition
Illustrations
Principles of Large Capacitance
Effects of Large Capacitance
Heater Example
Dimensional Units for Capacitance

15
15
15
16
16
16
17

2.5

Resistance
Definition
When do you see Resistance?
High Thermal Vs Low Thermal Resistance
Dimensional Units for Resistance

18
18
18
18
18

2.6

Dead Time
Definition
Example of Dead Time
How to Eliminate Dead Time

19
19
19
19

2.7

Process Reaction Curve

Introduction
First Order Lag
Second Order Lags
Damping Factor
Dead Time

20
20
20
21
22
22

Continued on next page

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Process Control Primer

11

2.1

Overview,

Continued

Introduction

To an automatic controller, everything surrounding it in the loop looks

like the process. This embraces instrumentation external to the controller
as well as the components of the process itself.

The instrumentation

The instrumentation is made up of the primary elements, transmitters,

transmission systems and final control elements, etc. The instrumentation
will be discussed later. Its effect on the controller is predictable, and in
some cases, adjustable.

The process

The process consists of piping, vessels, reactors, furnaces, distillation

columns, etc.: in general, the equipment in which mass, heat, and energy
transfer takes place.
Each process is highly individualistic in its effect upon its control.
The effects from the process are, moreover the dominant ones, and in
many cases impractical to change or adjust.

Two effects for

consideration

Every process exhibits two effects which must be taken into consideration
when automatic control equipment is being selected. These are:
changes in the controlled variable due to altered conditions in the
process, generally called load changes, and
the delay in the time it takes the process to react to a change in the
energy balance, called process lag.
Load changes have been noted earlier, just enough to define and
categorize them according to their source, but here we will look at them in
more detail.
In order to discuss the subject further, we must first define just what
Process Load is.

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2.2

Process Load

Definition

PROCESS LOAD is the total amount of control agent (energy) required

by a process at any one time to maintain a balanced condition.
In a heat exchanger, for example, in which a flowing liquid is
continuously heated with steam (the control agent), a certain quantity of
steam is required to hold the temperature of the fluid at a given value
when the fluid is flowing at a particular rate. This is the Process Load.

Effect on the final

control element

Process load is directly related to the setting of the final control element.
Any change in process load requires a change in the position of the final
control element in order to keep the controlled variable at the setpoint.
What changes the position of the final control element?
The Controller does.

Properties of load
changes

The two prime properties of load changes which need to be considered in

the application of automatic controllers are:
1 - the size of the load change
2 - the rate of the load change
Load changes in a process are not always easy to recognize.
Table 2-1 gives some examples of load changes.
Table 2-1
Examples of Load Changes
Load Change Example
Greater or less demand
for control agent by the
controlled medium

Reason
In the heat exchanger cited above, a change in
the rate of flow of the fluid to be heated, or a
change in the temperature of the incoming fluid,
contribute load changes because a change in the
quantity of steam is needed for either.
Similarly, when a carload of bricks is added to a
kiln, or when new material is added to a cooking
vessel, there is a load change.

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A change in the quality on

the control agent

If a gas heated process is operating at a certain

temperature and the BTU content of the fuel gas
changes, then more or less gas must be burned
to maintain the same temperature, even though
nothing else changes. Changes in steam
pressure also result in load changes.

Changes in ambient
conditions

These are especially significant in outdoor

installations where heat loss from radiation may
be large.

If a chemical reaction will

cause heat to be
generated (exothermic) or
absorbed (endothermic)

This is also a load change because the position

of the final control element must be adjusted to
compensate for this generation or absorption of
energy.

If the setpoint were

changed

This would obviously require a change in the

amount of energy input to the process.

Process Control Primer

13

2.3

Process Lags

What are they?

If we could have it our way, any load change or disturbance would be met
with an instantaneous response that would completely and immediately
bring the process to its new condition of equilibrium.
This, however, is difficult, if not impossible to achieve in any physical
system.
The response may start immediately, but it will require a certain amount
of time to complete its effect.
The delay is the Lag of the System.

Example

Suppose we have a valve in a pipe leading to a tank. If we want to raise

the level in the tank to a new value, we will open the valve. But, the level
does not immediately change to the higher value.
It may start immediately, but it will not reach the new value until some
time later, a time dependent on the size and shape of the tank and the flow
through the valve, among other things.

Causes

PROCESS LAGS are primarily the result of three PROCESS

CHARACTERISTICS:
1. CAPACITANCE
2. RESISTANCE
3. DEAD TIME

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2.4

Capacitance

Definition

The CAPACITANCE of a process is a measure of its ability to hold

energy with respect to a unit quantity of some reference variable.
It is related to capacity but is not the same thing two processes with the
same capacity might have very different capacitances.

Illustrations

Some illustrations will serve to explain this concept.

First, look at the two tanks in Figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1
Capacity versus Capacitance
TANK A

TANK B

8 Ft
4 Ft

Capacity 128 cu. ft.

CAPACITANCE = 16 cubic feet/ft. of level

Capacity 128 cu. ft.

CAPACITANCE = 32 cubic feet/ft. of level

Although both tanks have the same liquid volume capacity (128 cu. ft.),
they do not have the same capacitance with respect to liquid level.
Tank B has twice the liquid volume capacitance with respect to liquid
level that tank A has: 32 cubic feet per foot versus 16 cubic feet per foot.
On the other hand, if tank A is filled with a liquid requiring 200 BTU to
raise its temperature one degree F, and the liquid in tank B needs only 100
BTU, the thermal capacitance per degree F of tank B would be half that of
tank A.
It is necessary to specify capacitance very precisely:
CAPACITANCE may be likened to inertia; in other words, it acts like a
flywheel.
Continued on next page

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Process Control Primer

15

2.4

Capacitance,

Continued

Principles of large
capacitance

Two principles emerge relating capacitances to control in the face of load

changes:
LARGE CAPACITANCE tends to keep the controlled variable
constant despite load changes.
LARGE CAPACITANCE tends to make it difficult to change the
variable to a new value.

Effects of large
capacitance

The overall effect of large capacitance on control is generally favorable,

but it does introduce a time lag between control action and result.
When a liquid is heated in a vessel, it takes some time for the liquid to
reach a higher temperature after the heat supply is increased. How much
time it takes depends primarily on the thermal capacitance of the liquid
relative to the heat supply.
Capacitance does influence the corrective action required of an automatic
controller, and so it is a major factor in the analysis of any process and
control loop.

Heater example

Figure 2-2

Look at the two heaters in Figure 2-2.

Both these heaters are used to raise the temperature of the liquid
coming in.
Process Heaters

HEATER A

Liquid In

HEATER B
Liquid In
Steam In
Steam In

Liquid Out

Steam Out
Liquid Out
Steam Out

Continued on next page

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2.4

Capacitance,

Continued

Heater example,
continued

In heater A, heat is applied to a jacketed vessel containing a considerable

amount of liquid. The relatively large mass of the liquid exercises a
stabilizing influence, and resists changes in temperature which might be
caused by variation in the rate of flow, minor variations in heat input, or
sudden changes in ambient temperature.
Heater B illustrates a high velocity heat exchanger. The rate of flow
through this heater may be identical with that of heater A, but a
comparatively small volume is flowing in the heater at any one time.
Unlike heater A, the mass of liquid is small, so there is less stabilizing
influence. The total volume of liquid in the heater is small in comparison
to the rate of throughput, the heat transfer area, and the heat supply.
Slight variations in the rate of feed or the rate of heat supply will be
reflected almost immediately in the temperature of the liquid leaving the
heater.
On the other hand, if a change in temperature of the liquid output was
desired, which heater would give the most rapid change?
Heater B would give the most rapid change if the setpoint were
changed.

Dimensional units for

capacitance

Table 2-2 lists the dimensional units for capacitance as they relate to
control applications.
Table 2-2
Dimensional Units for Capacitance
Type of Process

7/00

Dimensional Unit

Thermal

BTU/deg.

Volume

Cu Ft./Ft.

Weight

Lb/Ft.

Electrical

Coulomb/Volt (or Farad)

Process Control Primer

17

2.5

Resistance

Definition

The second process characteristic, RESISTANCE, is best defined as

opposition to flow.
It is measured in units of the potential that is required to produce a unit
change in flow.
Examples are the differential pressure required to cause a quantity of flow
through a pipe or valve, or the BTU/sec required to cause a change in
temperature through the wall of a heat exchanger.

When do you see

resistance

Resistance enters the picture whenever energy is transferred from one

capacity to another. In the case of a heat exchanger, there is a transfer of
heat from the steam line to the fluid line. The transfer is never
instantaneous, it is always resisted to some extent by components of the
system.

High thermal
resistance versus low
thermal resistance

If a material is being heated in a process with high thermal resistance, it

will take a large amount of control agent (energy) to change the
temperature of the material than in a process with low thermal resistance.
Since it is up to the automatic controller to see that this amount of control
agent is provided, the thermal resistance of a process will exert a strong
influence on the proper selection of the proper controller.

Dimensional units for

resistance

Table 2-3 lists the dimensional units for resistance as they relate to control
applications.
Table 2-3
Dimensional Units for Resistance
Type of Process

18

Dimensional Unit

Thermal

Deg/BTU/Sec.

Fluid

PSI/Cu. Ft./Sec.

Electrical

Volts/Coulombs/Sec. (Ohms)

Process Control Primer

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2.6

Dead Time

Definition

A third type of lag, DEAD TIME, is caused when there is time interval
between the initiation of some action and the detection of the action. This
is also known as TRANSPORT LAG, because often the time delay is
present as a result of having to transport material that has been acted upon
to a new location where the results of the action can be measured.
Mixing processes are often subject to dead time because the mixture takes
a while to become homogeneous.

Example of dead time

Figure 2-3

Suppose, for example, we are concerned with the pH of water from a plant
being put into a local stream.
Acid or base is added to neutralize the flow as shown in Figure 2-3.
Because of the mixing required before a representative measurement of
pH can be taken, there is a time delay; control action cannot take place
during this delay. The controller is helpless during that time.
Figure 2-3 shows a mixing process illustrating dead time.
Mixing Process Illustrating Dead Time
Neutralizer

pH Controller

Mix

How to eliminate dead

time

7/00

Mix

Mix

Mix

Dead time introduces more difficulties in automatic control than any other
lags, and every effort should be made to keep it to a minimum.
Sometimes it may be possible to measure closer to the point where the
process is in action.
For example, a thermometer located 50 feet downstream of the outlet from
a heat exchanger may have been placed there out of convenience and
could be moved closer.
In the mixing example above, it might be necessary to determine what in
the incoming flow is causing the need for neutralizer to vary and keying
from that with a more complex multi-loop system.

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19

2.7

Process Reaction Curve

Introduction

How does a given process respond to a change with all these lags
involved? This is an important consideration in the application of a control
system for optimum results. Although process hardware may vary
considerably from process to process, it turns out that there is a limited
number of ways in which signal timing is affected.
These can be realized by looking at the process output change that results
from a sudden change (step change) in energy input to the process. If
energy is suddenly increased, the output temperature will undoubtedly be
raised in time.

First order lag

Figure 2-4 shows the simplest response encountered, one called FIRST
ORDER LAG. This type of response can result from liquid level in a
single tank or a bare thermocouple.
Figure 2-4
First Order Lag

63.2% of change

Output F

Input gas flow

t

Time

A first order system is characterized by being able to store energy in only

one place. All first order responses are basically similar in shape but they
can vary in size of output change and in the length of time required to
make the change.
The size comparison between input and output is called GAIN.
The length of time is basically defined by the TIME CONSTANT, which
is the time required for the variable to reach 63.2% of the distance to the
final value. Also, 98% of the distance is reached in four time constants.
Continued on next page

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2.7

Process Reaction Curve,

Continued

Second order lags

Figure 2-5

SECOND ORDER LAGS are the response of a system with two places to
store energy. A thermocouple in a well is an example.
In second order lags, there is much less uniformity in the shape of the
reaction curve from process to process. There are now two time constants
combining to influence the curve shape in regard to time, and a new
concept, the DAMPING factor which influences the curves characteristic
shape.
Second order systems are capable of oscillation. This ability to oscillate is
defined by two terms which characterize second order systems:
Natural Frequency - the frequency at which the system will
oscillate, and
The Damping Factor - which describes how quickly the
oscillations will die out.
Figure 2-5 shows examples of second order lags.
Second Order Lags

Output

Output

Output

Input

Input

Input

Underdamped

Critically Damped

Overdamped

Continued on next page

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2.7

Process Reaction Curve,

Continued

Damping factor

The underdamped curve in Figure 2-5 shows a rapid change to the new
value, but then overshooting the final value and temporary oscillation.
The critically damped curve shows the fastest rise without overshooting.
The overdamped curve shows a relatively slow rise most processes
respond this way.
In all cases, the start of the curve is gradual.

Dead time

Because dead time is a condition of no response at all for a given time

interval, it shows up on the reaction curve as a straight line delaying
whatever other lags are present.
Figure 2-6 shows a response incorporating dead time and a first order lag.
Figure 2-6
Dead Time and a First Order Lag

Output

DT

Deadtime

Input
t

22

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Time

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Chapter 3 Modes Of Control

3.1

Overview

Whats in this
chapter?

This chapter contains the following information:

Topic

Introduction

See Page

3.1

Overview
Introduction
Modes Of Control

23
23
23

3.2

On-Off Control

24

3.3

Proportional Control

26

3.4

Proportional + Reset (Integral) Control

29

3.5

Proportional + Rate (Derivative) Control

31

3.6

Proportional + Reset + Rate (3 Mode) Control

33

3.7

Controller Selection Guidelines

34

In our chapter covering the feedback control loop, we defined a controller

as a logic machine that changes its output in accordance with the error
signal it receives from the error generator.
The change in output from the controller repositions the final control
element, which, finally, adjusts the flow of energy into the process.
The manner in which the energy flow is adjusted in response to the error
signal has been built into the controller through a system of logic called its
MODE OF CONTROL.

Modes of control

On the market today, there are basically four kinds of logic (or control):
On-Off
Proportional
Integral (Reset)
Derivative (Rate)
Some of these modes will appear in combination in various controllers.

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3.2

On-Off Control

Introduction

The simplest mode of control is ON-OFF, in which the final control

element has but two positions:
Fully open (ON) and,
Fully closed (OFF)
Another way to state this is: ON (100%) and OFF (0%)

Example

If the process shown in Figure 3-1 in which a liquid is being heated by hot
oil flowing through coils, drops below the SETPOINT of 300F, ON-OFF
control would open the valve all the way (100%). This admits hot oil
faster than is necessary to keep the liquid at 300F, and as a result the
liquid temperature will rise above 300F.
When it does, ON-OFF control will close the valve all the way (0%) and
stop the flow of hot oil.
With no oil flowing, the temperature of the liquid will drop, and when it
drops below 300F, the control will open the valve and the cycle will be
repeated.
This cycling is an ever present feature of ON-OFF control because the
only two energy input levels are TOO MUCH and TOO LITTLE.
Figure 3-1
Process Heater
Liquid In

Recorder

Hot Oil In
Liquid Out

Continued on next page

24

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3.2

On-Off Control,

Continued

Appeal and limitations

The appeal of ON-OFF control lies in its simplicity. A large amount of

ON-OFF control is in use.
Its principle limitation is the inevitable cycling it causes in the process.

Graphical illustration
of ON-OFF control

Graphically, ON-OFF control is illustrated as shown in Figure 3-2.

Sometimes as shown, there is a neutral zone (Hysteresis Band) around the
setpoint. In other words, an overlap (can be adjustable) is provided
between the ON and OFF states. This is often intentional to keep the
components from wearing due to opening and closing too often.
Figure 3-2
On-Off Control Action
Open 100%

ON

Hysteresis Band
Neutral Zone
An adjustable overlap is
provided between the ON
and OFF states.

Valve
Position

OFF
Close

0%
300F

SP

Mathematical
expression

600F
XXXXX

The control engineer analyzing this mode of control would express it

mathematically as follows:
Let E = SP PV
where
E = Error
SP = Setpoint
PV = Process Variable
Then
Valve Position (V) is
OPEN when E is +
CLOSED when E is

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3.3

Proportional Control

Introduction

Since the cycling found in processes using ON-OFF control is due to the
rather violent excursions between ALL and NOTHING, could we not
eliminate the cycling by maintaining a steady flow of hot oil that was just
sufficient to hold the temperature of the liquid at 300F? For each rate of
flow of liquid in and out of the tank there must be some ideal amount of
hot oil flow that will accomplish this. This suggests two modifications in
our control mode.
We must:
1. Establish some steady flow value for the hot oil that will tend to hold
the temperature at the setpoint, and
2. Once this flow value has been established, let any error that develops
cause an increase or decrease in hot oil flow.
This establishes the concept of PROPORTIONAL CONTROL.
Corrective action is now proportional to the amount of deviation between
process variable and setpoint.
But now we need a different kind of control valve on our process. It must
be capable of being positioned to any degree of opening from fully closed
to fully open. This will generally be either a pneumatic diaphragm or
electric motor operated valve.

Graphical illustration
of proportional
control

Graphically, proportional control can be illustrated by Figure 3-3. The

amount of control action (valve change) for a given error can be quite
variable, but in this figure it is shown as one to one. The valve would
move 1% of its travel for a 1% change in error.
Figure 3-3

Proportional Control Action

SP
300F
Open 100%

Valve
Position
V

Change
in valve
position

Error

Close
0%
100F

Process Variable Range

100%
500F
XXXXX

Continued on next page

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3.3

Proportional Control,

Mathematical
representation

Continued

The control engineer would describe this mode mathematically as follows:

V = K(E) + M
where
E = Error
K = Proportional Gain
M = A Constant which is the position of the valve when the error is
zero

What is proportional
band?

The proportional gain, or just GAIN, is a measure of how sensitive the

valve change will be to a given error. Historically, this proportionality
between error and valve action has gone under various names, such as
throttling range and gain, but mostly it has been called
PROPORTIONAL BAND, or just PB. It is the expression stating the
percent change in error required to move the valve full travel.

Examples

On the basis of the above definition, look at the graphs in Figures 3-3, 3-4,
and 3-5.
The Proportional Band in Figure 3-3 is 100% and the Gain is 1
The Proportional Band in Figure 3-4 is 20% and the Gain is 5.
The Proportional Band in Figure 3-5 is 200% and the Gain is 0.5.
Figure 3-4

Proportional Band 20%

Open

Valve
Position
V

Close
0%
100F

40%

60%

SP
300F
PV range

100%
500F
XXXXX

Continued on next page

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3.3

Proportional Control,

Continued

Examples, continued

Figure 3-5

Proportional Band 200%

Open
3/4

Valve
Position
V

1/4
Close
0%
100F

SP
300F
PV range

100%
500F
XXXXX

The relationship of PB
to Gain

Proportional band can be related to Gain as follows:

100%
Gain, K = PB
The more modern way of looking at this mode of control is to think in
terms of gain (K), but in the field it will most often be called proportional
band (PB).
The M factor has to be that valve position which supplies just the right
flow of hot oil to keep the temperature at the setpoint. It is often called the
manual reset term.
A controller designed to provide proportional control must have two
adjustments, one for the K and one for the M (manual reset).

Proportional control
limitations

28

There is, however, a rather serious limitation to proportional control. If

there are frequent load changes to the process, it will hardly ever keep the
process variable at the setpoint. The reason is that there is only one valve
position for each value of the process variable.
But, if there are load changes like a change in flow rate of liquid such that
more hot oil than before is needed to maintain the 300F, this controller
has no way of providing it except through the manual reset adjustment.

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3.4

Proportional + Reset (Integral) Control

Introduction

A proportional controller does not change the position of the valve enough
to keep the process variable at the setpoint when a load change occurs, as
has been explained previously in Proportional Control Limitations.
Reset action (more properly Automatic Reset) will sense that an error,
or offset, is present after proportional action has taken place and continue
to change the valve position further in an attempt to eliminate the error
completely. Controllers with automatic reset will move the valve at a
speed proportional to the size of the error present.

Graphical illustration
of proportional + reset
control

Graphically, the Proportional plus Reset modes are illustrated in

Figure 3-6. Assume a step change in setpoint at a point in time, as shown.
First, there is an immediate change in valve position equal to K(E) due to
the Proportional Mode. At the same time, the Reset Mode, sensing there is
an error, begins to move the valve at a rate proportional to the size of that
error.
Since the illustration pictures a constant error, the valve rate will be
constant. It will be seen that after an interval of time, TI, a change in valve
position equal to the original proportional change has taken place. TI is
called the Reset Time.
Figure 3-6
Proportional Plus Reset Control Action
TI

Open

Reset
(or
Integral)
Time

Hi reset
adjustment
Reset response
contribution

}
Valve
Position

K (E)

K
(E)

Low-reset
adjustment

Proportional
response contribution

Close

time

+E
(SP
} Error
PV)

Zero error
(SP PV)

time
Response to increase in
setpoint
(control loop open)

XXXXX

Continued on next page

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3.4

Proportional + Reset (Integral) Control

Reset Time/Repeats
per Minute

Continued

An adjustment that is made to a reset controller determines the slope of

the reset response portion of the graph. The dotted lines in Figure 3-6
show other settings of the reset adjustment.
When time is used to express reset action it is called the Reset Time.
Quite commonly, its reciprocal is used, in which case it is called reset in
Repeats per Minute, abbreviated R/M or RPM. This term refers to the
number of times per minute that the reset action is repeating the valve
change produced by proportional control alone. Modern control experts
call TI integral time.

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3.5

Proportional + Rate (Derivative) Control

Introduction

It seems reasonable that a process with a rapidly changing error would

benefit from additional control action. The rate, or derivative, mode of
control does just that. The movement of the valve is proportional to the
rate of change of error or process variable. This additional correction
exists only while the error is changing. It disappears when the error stops
changing even though the error is not zero.

Graphical illustration
of proportional + rate
control

Graphically, the Proportional plus Rate modes are illustrated in Figure

3-7.
It can be seen on this graph that the valve position change with rate action
exceeds that which it would have been with proportional action alone. It
can also be seen that on a ramping error, the valve reaches any given
position at an earlier time than it would have with proportional action
alone. This difference in time is the Rate Time, or Derivative Time, TD.
Figure 3-7

Proportional plus Rate Control Action

Proportional + Rate

Proportional
action alone

Valve
Position
V

TD
= rate time

Error
time

XXXXX

Continued on next page

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31

3.5
Rate time

Proportional + Rate (Derivative) Control,

Continued

Controllers with this mode of control are designed with an adjustment on

the amount of rate action. This adjustment is made in terms of rate time.
Longer rate times increase the amount of rate action.
It is also of interest to consider rate action in response to a step change in
error, as is illustrated in Figure 3-8.
Changes in rate time here show up in the length of time for the decay of
the valve position to the position it would have assumed with proportional
action alone.
Figure 3-8

Valve
Position
V

Rate Action Response to a Step Change

8 to 10
x prop.
action
prop.
action

Error

TD

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time

XXXXX

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3.6

Proportional + Reset + Rate (3 Mode) Control

Introduction

Finally, the full three mode controller is achieved by combining the three
modes simultaneously. Thus the valve position will be determined by
adding the effects of the three modes.

Graphical illustration
of three mode control
action

Graphically, its response to a step change in error is illustrated in

Figure 3-9.
Figure 3-9

Three Mode Control Action

Valve
Position
V

Error
XXXXX

time

The graph in Figure 3-10 illustrates how an increase in the flow of the
liquid to be heated will be responded to by the various control modes in
terms of the process variable, liquid outlet temperature.
Figure 3-10

Response to Increase in Liquid Flow

Prop. + Reset + Rate

Liquid
outlet
temp.

Prop. + Reset

300F
Prop. only, narrower band
Prop. only

No control

Liquid
flow
time

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33

3.7

Controller Selection Guidelines

Introduction

The selection of the proper modes of control to use on a particular process

is a complex matter, but there are a few general statements that can be
made for guidance.

ON-OFF

Popular because of its simplicity. In general it functions satisfactorily if

the process has a large capacitance and minimum dead time. It will
accommodate load changes to some extent, but such changes should not
be rapid or large. Cycling at the new load will have a different average
value depending on the direction of the load change.
In industry, ON-OFF control is ideally suited, for example, to the control
of temperature in a cooking kettle where the only load changes are due to
changes in ambient temperature. The capacitance is large and the load
changes are small.

Proportional

Proportional control reduces cycling below that of ON-OFF control. It

does a particularly good job when process capacitance is large and dead
time small. These characteristics promote stability and allow the use of a
narrow proportional band, which gives faster corrective action and less
offset.
When the process has these favorable characteristics, proportional control
can even make moderate load changes tolerable. When the proportional
band must be made wider, however, even a small load change leads to
offset.

Proportional plus
reset

The primary advantage of proportional-plus-reset is that it will eliminate

offset with load changes. It can be used even when process capacitance is
small and load changes are large.
The main limitation of a proportional-plus-reset controller is its inability
to prevent overshoots due to reset accumulation. When reset action
responds to a large enough error or one that exists for a long time, by
putting the valve into saturation (either fully open or fully closed), it is
subsequently unable to change the direction of the valve motion until the
error changes sign, that is, until the process variable crosses the setpoint.
This is usually too late to prevent overshooting of the process variable.
It is a problem found particularly in the start-up of processes, but any large
or rapid load change may cause it.
Continued on next page

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3.7

Controller Selection Guidelines,

Proportional plus
reset and rate

Summary

Table 3-1

Continued

Rate action can be very useful in minimizing overshooting of the process

variable when the controller is trying to compensate for large or rapid load
changes. It is also useful in preventing overshoot of the process variable in
the start-up of batch processes.
On very slow moving processes rate will have minimal affect. On noisy
processes, such as flow, rate will amplify the noise and result in continual
overcorrection. It has been most widely used for temperature control, and
least on pressure or flow applications. In recent years, however, its use has
been more widespread across all control applications.

Each mode of control is applicable to processes having certain

combinations of characteristics. The simplest mode of control that will do
the job is the best to use. Table 3-1 summarizes the guidelines for
selection of control modes from various combinations of process
characteristics.
Application of Control Modes

Mode of Control

Process Reaction
Rate

Dead Time

Load Changes

ON-OFF

Slow

Slight

Small and slow

Proportional

Slow or moderate

Small or moderate

Small, infrequent

Proportional plus Rate

Slow or moderate

Moderate

Small, faster

Proportional plus Reset

Fast

Small or moderate

Slow, but any size,

frequent

Proportional plus Reset and

Rate

Fast

Moderate

Fast

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36

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Chapter 4 Algorithms
4.1

Overview

Whats in this
chapter?

This chapter contains the following information:

Topic

Introduction

7/00

See Page

4.1

Overview

37

4.2

On-Off Control

38

4.3

PID-A Algorithm

40

4.4

PID-B Algorithm

43

4.5

PD-A with Manual Reset

44

4.6

Three Position Step Control

45

4.7

Computations Associated with PID Equations

47

The topic table lists the algorithms resident in the microprocessor memory
of most Honeywell controllers. The selection of an algorithm is part of the
configuration process of the controller.

Process Control Primer

37

4.2

On-Off

Introduction

ON/OFF is the simplest control type. The output can be either ON

(100%) or OFF (0%). The Process Variable (PV) is compared with the
setpoint (SP) to determine the sign of the error (ERROR = PV-SP). The
ON/OFF algorithm operates on the sign of the error signal.
In Direct Acting Control, when the error signal is positive, the output is
100%; and when the error signal is negative, the output is 0%. If the
control action is reverse, the opposite is true. An adjustable overlap
(Hysteresis Band) is provided between the on and off states.
How it works

In the implementation of the on-off algorithm, the process variable is

compared with the setpoint to determine the sign of the error. When the
error is positive, the output relay is on; and when the error is negative, the
output relay is off. The output relay is switched on or off when the error
passes through zero; that is, when the process variable equals the setpoint.
The algorithm includes an operator-adjustable hysteresis band between the
on and off states. The hysteresis band alters the basic equation slightly by
causing the output relay to be switched at an error signal slightly above
and below zero.

Hysteresis band

Figure 4-1 shows the switching operation of an output relay through its
associated hysteresis band. Hysteresis band (h) is expressed as a percent of
the total PV range. As shown in the diagram, if the error signal is greater
h
than or equal to half the positive hysteresis band (2 ), the output is on. If
h
the error is less than or equal to half the negative hysteresis band (2 ), the
output is off. If the error signal is less than the positive hysteresis band but
not less than or equal to the negative hysteresis band, the output remains
in its present state. This latter condition allows an error that is decreasing
from a large positive value not to switch the output until the value is less
than or equal to half the hysteresis band.
Increasing the hysteresis band produces two effects:
1. Increases the time between switches.
2. Increases the amplitude of the limit cycle.
ATTENTION

Increasing the hysteresis band by a factor of two results in

an approximate doubling of the time between switches and the amplitude
of the limit cycle.
Continued on next page

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4.2

On-Off,

Continued

Hysteresis band,
continued

Figure 4-1

Switching Action of On-Off Control

Output p
100%

0%
Error

Duplex On-Off control

h
2

h
2

+ Error
XXXXX

The on-off control algorithm is extended to switch a second output relay

for duplex on-off control. The switching action associated with each
individual output relay does not change; however, an operator-adjustable
deadband changes the respective zero error switching point for each
output relay relative to the setpoint, as shown in Figure 4-2.
Deadband is also expressed in terms of a percentage of the total PV range.
Figure 4-2 shows the relay action of a controller configured for duplex
HEAT-COOL control. In this case relay number 1 would control a heater
and relay number 2 would control a cooler. When the PV is near the
setpoint in the deadband, neither relay is ON.
Figure 4-2
Switching Action of Duplex On-Off Control
Deadband (DB)
ON

Output
relay
number
2

OFF

h
2

h
2

ON

Output
relay
number
1

OFF

Setpoint (SP)

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2

h
2

XXXXX

39

4.3

PID-A Algorithm

Introduction

PID-A is normally used for three-mode control. This means that the
output can be adjusted somewhere between 100% and 0%. It applies all
three control actions Proportional (P), Integral (I), and Derivative (D)
to the error signal.
Proportional (Gain) regulates the controllers output in proportion to
the error signal (the difference between Process Variable and Setpoint).
Integral (Reset) regulates the controller's output to the size of the error
and the time the error has existed. (The amount of corrective action
depends on the value of proportional Gain.)
Derivative (Rate) regulates the controller's output in proportion to the
rate of change of the error. (The amount of corrective action depends on
the value of proportional Gain.)
How it works

Figure 4-3
From
input
No. 1

In the A form of the PID equation, all three modesproportional,

integral, and derivativeact on the error. Figure 4-3 shows the
implementation of the difference equations for the three modes when all
three are active.
As shown in the diagram, the process variable (PV) is compared with the
present setpoint (LSP or RSP) to obtain the present error (Em). The
present error is then applied to the derivative block which contributes a
rate action component to the signal.
The present output from the derivative block (Dm) is then simultaneously
applied to the gain and integral blocks to separately include these
functions in the signal.
The present changes in output from the gain block (Km) are then
combined with the present change from the integral block (Im) to obtain
the present output error (Gm) from the PID algorithm.
The PID-A equation is also used in various forms to provide additional
variations of control, including PI control, PID or PI duplex control, and
optional integral limiting inside the proportional band.
Implementation of PID-A Equation
EM

DM

Derivative
PV

Gain

Setpoint

Integral

LSP

GM

Im

Z
From
input
No. 2

RSP

NOTE: LSPLocal setpoint

RSPRemote setpoint

Unit
delay

XXXXX

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4.3

PID-A Algorithm,

PID-A control
variations

Continued

The two-mode PI control variation is obtainable from the PID-A equation.

The desired control variation can be implemented by adjusting the
unwanted derivative tuning constant to zero. This will cause the derivative
contribution to be removed from the error by adjusting the rate time to
zero.
Integral action may be removed by adjusting the integral time to zero.
This is not recommended except for making process response
measurements for determination of optimum tuning constants.

PID-A duplex control

Figure 4-4

The PID-A equation will provide PID-A duplex control whenever the
output is configured for duplex operation. In the duplex application, the
PID algorithm will operate the two control relays for variations of the heat
and cool applications.
The PID algorithm computation is the same, but independent gain,
integral time and rate timing constants entered by the operation are used
for calculation during the respective heating or cooling cycle.
As shown in Figure 4-4, the heat and cool cycles are centered on the 50%
output point (midpoint). Without a deadband-overlap setting, 50% output
represents a static condition; no heat or cool action. The PID equation uses
the normal tuning constant for outputs above 50%, but uses the cool
tuning constants for outputs below 50%. 0% output represents full cool
action (output relay number 2 full ON), and 100% output represents full
heat action (output relay number 1 full ON).
The deadband-overlap is operator-adjustable from 5% around midpoint to
25% deadband between the heat and cool cycles.
ATTENTION Cycle time is also independently adjustable for output relay
number 1 and output relay number 2.
Typical Relay Operation in PID-A Duplex Control
100

100

Output relay
number 1 on%
(cool relay)

Output relay
number 2 on%
(heat relay)

5% Overlap to
+5% Deadband

50%
0%

100%

Controller Output
LEGEND
+5% Deadband
0
5% Deadband (Overlap)

XXXXX

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4.3

PID-A Algorithm,

PID-A with integral

action inside the
proportional band

Continued

The PID-A equation is also used to obtain a control variation that

conditionally includes integral action. In this variation of the PID form,
the integral component is eliminated from the computation if the present
error (Em) is greater than one-half of the proportional band. The
proportional band represents the percent change in error required to move
the final control element full scale. The relationship between gain (K) and
proportional band (PB) is expressed as:
100%
K = PB%
Elimination of the integral component from the computation reduces the
overshoot at the process. Thus, when the PV exceeds the proportional
band, the control action is two-mode PD.

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4.4

PID-B Algorithm

Introduction

How it works

Figure 4-5
From
input
No. 1

PID-B Unlike the PID-A equation, the controller gives only an integral
response to a setpoint change, with no effect on the output due to the gain
or rate action, and it gives full response to PV changes. Otherwise
controller action is as described for the PID-A equation.
See note on PID-A.
In the B form of the PID equation, the proportional and derivative
modes act on the process variable and the integral mode acts on the error.
In this equation, setpoint changes do not cause bumps in the output.
Figure 4-5 shows the implementation of the difference equations for the
three modes when all three are active.
As shown in the diagram, the present process variable (Xm) is
simultaneously applied to the derivative block and also compared with the
present setpoint (Ym).
The derivative block contributes a rate action component to the process
variable and routes its output (Dm) to the grain block where the
appropriate proportional action is computed for the signal.
The comparison of the present process variable with the present setpoint
(either LSP or RSP) produces the present error (Em) which is then routed
to the integral block where the appropriate reset action from the error is
computed.
The present change in output from the gain block (Km) is then combined
with the present change from the integral block (Im) to obtain the present
output error (Gm) from the PID algorithm.
Implementation of PID-B Equation

PV

Xm

Derivative

Dm

Gain

Xm
Setpoint

LSP

Em

Ym
From
input
No. 2

Integral

Im

Gm

Unit
delay

RSP
XXXXX

PID B control
variations

Control variations for PID-B are identical with those available for PID-A.

PID duplex control

The PID-B equation will provide PID duplex control whenever dual
output relays are configured. The description of PID duplex control using
the B equation is identical to that provided for the A equation.

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4.5

PD-A + Manual Reset

Introduction

PD WITH MANUAL RESET is used whenever integral action is not

wanted for automatic control. The equation is computed with no integral
contribution. The MANUAL RESET, which is operator adjustable, is then
added to the present output to form the controller output.
Switching between manual and automatic mode will not be bumpless.
If you select PD with Manual Reset you can also configure the following
variations
PD (Two Mode) control,
P (Single Mode) control.
Set Rate (D) and/or Reset Time (I) to 0.

How it works

This algorithm is a variation of the PID-A equation. (See Figure 4-6.) The
equation is computed with no integral contribution. The manual reset,
which is operator-adjustable, is then added to the present output error
(Km) to form the controller output (Gm).

Figure 4-6
From
input
No. 1

Implementation of PD-A with Manual Reset Equation

Em
PV

Derivative

Dm

Gain

Setpoint

Gm

Manual
reset

LSP

Z
From
input
No. 2

44

Unit
delay

XXXXX

RSP

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4.6

Three Position Step Control

Introduction

How it works

Figure 4-7

PV

THREE POSITION STEP - The three position step control algorithm

provides proportional control for forward and reverse rotation of a motor
without the use of a feedback slidewire.
The algorithm develops stepped, output control signals by integrating the
relay switching action of duplex on-off control with an internal, filter
feedback signal that is based on the state of the output relays.
Derivative and integral control elements are included in the algorithm to
produce output control pulses that are proportional to the magnitude and
duration of the error (process variable minus setpoint).
Figure 4-7 illustrates the relationship between the duplex on-off control
and the internal, filter feedback signal used to produce the three position
step control form.
The effect of this control action is that the on and off times of the output
relays change in proportion to the error signal combined with the Rate and
Integral time constants of the controller.
This algorithm is a modified ON-OFF duplex algorithm where the error
signal includes a relay feedback signal. The error is PVSPF where F is
the feedback signal. F is the output of a filter which charges and
discharges depending on the status of the output relays.
When relay number 1 is on, the filter charges toward 100%; when relay
number 2 is on, the filter charges toward 100%; and when both relays are
off, the filter discharges toward 0%.
Relationship of Duplex On-Off Control and Filter Feedback Signals in Three
Position Step Control Algorithm
Error

SP

Duplex
on-off
control

Feedback

Filter

To relays

XXXXX

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4.6

Three Position Step Control,

Continued

Output characteristics
of Three Position Step
Control

Figure 4-8

The rate at which the filter charges is determined by the Rate of the
controller, and the discharge rate is determined by the Integral time. Thus,
relay on and off times change in proportion to the error signal and the Rate
and Integral time constants entered by the operator.
The values of the Rate and Integral time constants are entered in minutes.
Figure 4-8 illustrates the profile of a typical output signal derived from the
control action of one relay and the corresponding rotational action it
produces at the motor. The second relay produces identical results except
in the reverse direction.
The algorithm includes computations for the hysteresis of each relay and
the deadband between them. Deadband and hysteresis values are operatoradjustable through the data entry keyboard. (NOTE: Refer to the
descriptions provided for the on-off and duplex on-off control algorithms
for further information regarding hysteresis and deadband.)
Output Characteristics of Three Position Step Control for Constant Error
+100%
Errorfeedback
Error

Output
Relay
Number 1

On
TI Integral time constant

Off
TD Derivative time constant
Deadband

0%

Off
On

Output
Relay
Number 2

100%

Output
Relay
Number 1

On
Off

100%
Final
Element
Position
0

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4.7

Computations Associated With PID Equations

Initialization

Various computations that are not an integral part of the PID difference
equations include:
Initialization computations,
Output limiting computations,
Reset limiting computations, and
Ratio and bias on remote setpoint computations.
These associated computations complement the PID algorithms and have
related operator-adjusted parameters to meet specific control
requirements.

Initialization
computations

Various computations are performed to balance the control action at the

time of the manual-to-auto or auto-to-manual transfer. This is done so that
there is no bump (kick) in the controller output at the time of the transfer.
When transferring from manual to auto, the output remains constant and
the integral action acts to remove the error between the setpoint and PV.
In the PD-A with manual reset equations there is no integral action and the
output remains constant. For proper operation of PD-A with manual reset
on power up in automatic mode, this output value should be adjusted in
the automatic mode.
When the Honeywell controller is powered up, the output value is
initialized to 0 for this PID equation except for PD-A with manual reset or
duplex configurations. The output for PD-A with manual reset is
initialized to the manual reset value plus gain time error and is therefore
not bumpless at power on. The output is initialized to 50% for duplex
forms in order to start control action in bumpless fashion with both output
relays off in the Heat-Cool application.

Output limiting
computations

Normally, limits are placed on controller outputs. These limits are initially
0% and 100% for the relay output low and high limits respectively. These
limits may be adjusted in the controller by the operator within this range.
Current and position low and high output limits may be set between 5%
and +105% respectively.

Reset limiting
computations

These computations limit the integral contribution in the present output

calculation to only the portion needed to reach the reset limit.
Continued on next page

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4.7

Computations Associated With PID Equations,

Ratio and bias on

remote setpoint
computations

Continued

These computations are implemented in ratio and constant bias functions

in the second input signal before it is applied to the control equation, so
that bumps are eliminated when switching between automatic remote and
local setpoints. Ratio and bias are separately adjusted through the data
entry keyboard. During the automatic remote setpoint mode of operation,
the remote setpoint (RSP) is calculated as:
RSP = (R) (IN2) + B
where:
RSP =
IN2 =
R=
B=

Remote setpoint
Second input signal (%)
Ratio coefficient
Bias constant (engineering units)

The operator can configure the controller for remote setpoint with manual
or automatic bias calculation. With auto bias, the bias coefficient is
automatically calculated for bumpless transfer to the automatic remote
setpoint mode. The equation for this calculation is:
Bias = LSP (R) (IN2)
where:
LSP = Local setpoint
To prevent bumping the output when the mode is transferred from
automatic remote setpoint to automatic local setpoint, the last value of the
control setpoint is used as the local setpoint.
Weighted average
computations

When Weighted Average is configured, the controller will combine the

two inputs and compute a PV for the control algorithm. The PV is formed
by the following equation:
PV =

Input 1 + (Ratio x Input 2)

1 + Ratio

Both inputs must have the same range in engineering units.

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Chapter 5 Controller Tuning

5.1

Overview

Whats in this
chapter?

This chapter contains the following information:

Topic

See Page

5.1

Overview

49

5.2

Manual Tuning

50

5.3

Accutune II Tuning

56

5.4

Accutune II Duplex Tuning

57

5.5

Fuzzy Overshoot Suppression

59

Introduction

When you tune a controller, there are some things to consider:

Process Characteristics - Gain, Time Constants, etc.
Desired response - Minimal overshoot
Basically, controller tuning consists of determining the appropriate values
for the Gain (PB), Rate (Derivative), and Reset (Integral) time tuning
parameters (control constants) that will give the control you want.
Depending on the characteristics of the deviation of the process variable
from the setpoint, the tuning parameters interact to alter the controllers
output and produce changes in the value of the process variable.
Since each parameter responds to a specific characteristic of the deviation,
you may not need a combination of all three. It depends on the process
characteristics and the desired control response.

Tuning technique

You can estimate a starting point and the tuning parameters required to
give the desired controller response and with some experience, become
proficient with this method.
An alternate approach is to rely on a tuning technique. In practice, tuning
techniques usually do not give exactly the type of response desired; thus,
some final adjustments to the tuning parameters must be made.
However, you should at least obtain a reasonable starting point from
which the desired response characteristics can be obtained.

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5.2

Manual Tuning

Tuning goals

Essentially, most Manual Tuning criteria strive to arrive at a compromise

with three basic goals:
1. Minimum deviation following a disturbance.
2. Minimum time interval before return to the setpoint.
3. Minimum offset due to changes in operating conditions.
There are also diverse methods for finding the controller settings that will
satisfy these goals. Some are more precise than others, but all result in
approximations which provide a good starting point from which fine
tuning can be done.

Methods

We will consider here two different methods:

Reaction Curve Method
Ultimate Cycling Method
The two require differing amounts of information about the process. As
you would suspect, the more process information that can be incorporated,
the more precise will be the results. Both of these methods are based on
conducting a few simple tests in the field. They can be validated against
theory.
Continued on next page

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5.2

Manual Tuning,

Method 1
Reaction curve
method

Continued

Table 5-1 lists the steps for tuning using the reaction curve method.
Table 5-1
Reaction Curve Method
Step

Action

Put the control loop on manual control.

Give the valve a small step change.

Record the response of the process. Subsequent steps can be shown

best by referring to an example. See Figure 5-1.

Draw a tangent to the steepest portion of the curve. This determines

slope R and time L.

Measure L in minutes.

PV
1
Calculate R = Min. x P
where:
PV = percent change in process variable
P = percent change in valve position
(This specifies the reaction rate in percent of scale per minute for
change in P in percent.)

The controller settings are given in terms of R and L as in Table 5-2.

Table 5-2

Controller Settings

Mode of Control

PB (%)

Reset R/M

Rate (min.)

Proportional

100RL

Proportional plus Reset

110RL

0.3
L

Proportional plus Reset and

Rate

83RL

0.5
L

0.5L
Continued on next page

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5.2

Manual Tuning,

Process reaction
curve

Continued

Figure 5-1 is an illustration of a process reaction curve.

Figure 5-1

Process Reaction Curve

Process
variable

L
R
6

Method 2
Ultimate cycling
method

XXXXX

time

Table 5-3 lists the steps for tuning using the ultimate cycling method.
Table 5-3
Ultimate Cycling Method
Step

Action

Place control on proportional only.

Narrow the proportional band until a small uniform cycling starts and
continues.

Note the PB. This is the ultimate PB, PBU.

Measure the period of cycling. This is the ultimate period, PU. See
Figure 5-2.

Figure 5-2

Ultimate Period
PU

XXXXX

From this point there is a choice of three criteria.

Quarter amplitude decay
Tuning for minimum overshoot
Fast response to a load change
Continued on next page
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5.2
Criterion #1

Manual Tuning,

Continued

Quarter Amplitude Decay

With this criterion, cycles caused by a disturbance decay with each
succeeding cycle have an amplitude 1/4 the previous one. See Figure 5-3.
Figure 5-3

1/4 Amplitude Decay

Mode of Control

PB

Reset

Rate

Proportional only

2PBU

Proportional + Reset

2.2PB U

1.2
PU

Proportional + Reset + Rate

1.7PB U

2
PU

PU
8

4
1

XXXXX

Criterion #2

Tuning for Minimum Overshoot (less cycling than Criterion #1)

Three-mode controller only.
PB = 5PBU
3
Reset = P

PU
Rate = 2
Criterion #3

Fast Response to a Load Change

Three-mode controller only.
This produces overshoot on start-up, so it is recommended for continuous
processes rather than batch processes.
PB = 3PBU
2
Reset = P

PU
Rate = 3
Continued on next page
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5.2

Manual Tuning,

Correcting incorrect
settings

Continued

It is also important to be able to recognize the characteristics of the

settings on the chart record in order to optimize them.
In Figure 5-4 (a) to (e) the effect of reset adjustment on control is shown.
Curve (a) - This is the result of a load change with a reset setting of zero
repeats per minute, in other words, proportional action only.
Curve (b) - When some reset is added, 0.5 repeats per minute, the slow
return to setpoint results.
Curve (c), (d), (e) - As the reset is increased to 1, 1.5, and 2 repeats per
minute the return becomes more rapid. The response, however, also
becomes more unstable and oscillates for a longer period of time. Of all
the curves shown, Curve (d) probably would be considered the optimum
because it is a reasonable compromise between speed of return and period
of oscillation.

Figure 5-4

Effect of Reset Adjustment on Recovery from Load Change

(a)

(c)

2.2PB U
0 repeats/min

(b)

2.2PB U
.5 repeats/min

2.2PB U
1 repeat/min

(d)

2.2PB U
1.5 repeats/min

(e)

2.2PB U
2 repeats/min

XXXXX

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5.2

Manual Tuning,

Correcting incorrect
settings, continued

Continued

In Figure 5-5 (a) to (d) the effect of rate mode is shown.

Curve (a) - This is a duplicate of 5-4 (d), the optimum curve for
proportional-plus-reset.
Curve (b) - Without altering the settings of these two modes, but adding
the rate mode with rate time of 0.1 minute, the recovery curve is changed
to that shown. Because of the increased stability of this response it is
possible to narrow the proportional band.
Curve (c) - We can see the resulting response when the proportional band
is narrowed to half the value it had in curve (b). Less deviation is apparent
now, but the amount of time to return to the setpoint is still excessively
long. This can be shortened by increasing the reset.
Curve (d) - This shows the reset increased to 2-1/2 repeats per minute,
giving the optimum response with the three-mode controller.

Figure 5-5

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Effect of Rate Adjustment on Recovery from Load Change

(a)

2.2PB U
1.5 repeats/min

(c)

1.1PB U
1.5 repeats/min
.1 min rate time

Process Control Primer

(b)

2.2PB U
1.5 repeats/min
.1 min rate time

(d)

1.1PB U
2.5 repeats/min
.1 min rate time

XXXXX

55

5.3

Accutune II

Introduction

Honeywells ACCUTUNE II tuning algorithm for their UDC Controllers

incorporates new Fuzzy Overshoot Suppression, TUNE (Demand)
Autotuning, or Setpoint Autotuning. These provide faster tuning, reduced
overshoot, ability to tune integrating type processes, and the ability to
retune while at a fixed setpoint.
There are two types of Accutune from which to choose:
(TUNE) Demand Tuning - Tuning is done on demand. The operator
simply enters the desired setpoint and initiates the tuning through the
operator interface.
(SP) Setpoint Tuning - SP tuning will continually adjust the Gain or
Proportional Band (P), Reset (I), and Rate (D) tuning constants in
response to setpoint changes.

How Demand tuning

works

Honeywells Demand tuning provides foolproof, trouble-free ondemand tuning in their controllers. No knowledge of the process is
required at start-up. The operator simply enters the desired setpoint and
initiates the tuning. The UDC controller immediately starts controlling to
the setpoint while it identifies the process, calculates the tuning constants
and enters them into the Tuning group, and begins PID control with the
correct tuning parameters.
This works with any process, including integrating type processes, and
allows retuning at a fixed setpoint.

How SP tuning
works

SP tuning will continually adjust the Gain or Proportional Band (P),

Reset (I), and Rate (D) tuning constants in response to setpoint changes.
SP Tune handles all Local and Computer Setpoint changes. It uses time
domain analysis, and the rule based expert system techniques to identify
the two most dominant process lags plus any dead time.
It then automatically readjusts the PID parameters as necessary. It does
this while controlling the setpoint in automatic (closed loop) control
mode.
These calculated PID values can be changed, if desired, by disabling SP
Tune and entering different values.
Tuning can be aborted by pushing Manual key to return to manual
mode.
Two criteria are available Normal and Fast through configuration.
SP tuning can be done for applications using Duplex (Heat/Cool)
control.

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5.3

Accutune II Duplex Tuning

Introduction

Duplex control provides a unique tuning problem because these

applications use one controller with a single process variable, controlled
by two different final control elements that have different dynamics and
Gain impact on the Process variable.
Duplex control processes include temperature control with heating and
cooling, RH control via humidify / de-humidify, and pH control with acid
and base additives. This requires a simple way to start up and tune both
operating regions, for example, the heating zone and the cooling zone.
Duplex control is often referred to as heat/cool control in the industrial
marketplace.

Typical heat cool

application

Figure 5-6 shows a typical duplex control Heat/Cool application. Note that
the output types may be current or relay.
Figure 5-6
Typical Heat/Cool Application
T/C

PV
SP2

SP1
PID 2

OUT2
COOLING

PID 1

OUT1
HEATING

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5.3

Accutune II Duplex Tuning,

Continued

Accutune II

Accutune II has an On-demand tuning algorithm that speeds up and

simplifies start-up without needing any knowledge of the process.
It can be initiated at the touch of the keypad on the controller, and separate
PID values are accurately determined for each zone (Heat/Cool).
It applies to any output type, and it works with integrating type processes.

How Accutune for

Duplex works

Figure 5-7 illustrates the relationship between the Heating and Cooling
outputs and tuning parameters. It assumes both outputs are 4-20 mA
current signals.
During tuning, Accutune II assumes Setpoint 1 will cause a heating
demand, and the calculated PID parameters will be automatically entered
as PID SET 1.
Likewise, it assumes tuning at Local Setpoint 2 will cause a cooling
demand, and the cooling PID parameters will be entered as PID SET 2.
Figure 5-7
Relationship between Heat/Cool Outputs and Tuning
PID 2

20mA

PID 1

OUT1

OUT2

HEATING
ZONE

COOLING
ZONE
4mA
0%

20mA

50%

4mA
100%

PERCENT OUTPUT

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5.5

Fuzzy Overshoot Suppression

Introduction

Fuzzy Overshoot Suppression minimizes overshoot after a setpoint change

or a process disturbance. This is especially useful in processes which
experience load changes or where even a small overshoot beyond the
setpoint may result in damage or lost product.

How it works

The fuzzy logic observes the speed and direction of the PV signal as it
approaches the setpoint and temporarily modifies the internal controller
action as necessary to avoid an overshoot. This allows more aggressive
tuning to co-exist with smooth process variable response.
There is no change to the PID algorithm, and the fuzzy logic does not alter
the PID tuning parameters.
This feature can be independently enabled or disabled as required by the
application to work with Honeywells Accutune II Demand tuning or the
SP Adaptive tuning algorithm.

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Chapter 6 Advanced Control Concepts

6.1

Overview

Whats in this
chapter?

This chapter contains the following information:

Topic

Introduction

7/00

See Page

6.1

Overview

61

6.2

System Component Descriptions

62

6.3

Simple Feedback Control

63

6.4

Cascade Control

65

6.5

Predictive Feedforward Control

71

6.6

Dynamic Feedforward Control

76

6.7

Ratio Control

78

6.8

Analog Override Control Strategies

85

There is almost no limit to the degree of sophistication a control system

can reach. it can start at the level of a purely manual control system using
a human operator as the controller and advance to a totally unmanned
operation under complete computer management.
In the previous chapters, you learned about the capabilities of a simple,
feedback control loop using the logic of a PID (proportional, integral,
derivative) controller. We saw that such a system has limits to its
capability to perform. What if this limit does not meet your requirements?
In the material in this chapter, we will explain some advance control
concepts that could be used to enhance the basic simple loop.

Process Control Primer

61

6.2

System Component Descriptions

Introduction

Table 6-1 lists the descriptions of the components to a Multi-loop system.

Table 6-1
System Component Descriptions
Components
1.
dp

2.

Description
The differential pressure transmitter measures the DP
across a specially calibrated orifice in the flow vessel.
From the fundamental formula Q = DP, it can be found
that the quantity of flow (Q) is a function of the measured
DP. The transmitter linearly converts DP to a standard
electric signal (E), therefore (%DP = %E).
The square root extractor generates an output that will
relate to changes of its input in the following manner:
% Eout = % Ein
With an input of 25%, the output will be 50%. When used
with the dp transmitter and orifice, the output of the
square root extractor will change the square root signal to
a linear flow signal.
Q = DP, and Eout = Ein
since

Ein = DP (dp transmitter measures DP)

then substituting,
Q = Eout
3.
I/P

4.
Ratio
Relay

The electropneumatic transducer or I/P converts a

standard electric current input into a standard
compressed air output. By utilizing its air supply (not
shown) it can be the interface between an electric
controller and a pneumatic control valve.
Although shown as a separate device, the ratio relay is
often contained within a single ratio controller. Ratio
relays are adjustable gain units. The change in the output
of the relay will be directly proportional to the size of the
change in its input. With a ratio of 1, the output will be a
direct reflection of its input, but with a ratio setting of .5,
an input change of 0 to 100% will result in an output
change of only 0-500%. A typical ratio range would be .3
to 3. Higher ratios of the controlled variables would be
accomplished by using unequal pipe diameters, orifice
diameters or dp transmitters.
Output Change
Ratio Setting = Input Change

5.
High
Selector

Low
Selector

62

High signal selection is one of two functions available

from a device known as a signal selector. The other
function is low selection. The device, which is classified
as an auxiliary, receives at least two inputs and is
programmed to select the highest or lowest value input.
The selected input is then delivered to the output without
being altered.

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6.3

Simple Feedback Control

Introduction

A simple feedback control loop consists of one measuring element, one

controller, and a single final control element. In many cases, the loop will
be capable of maintaining the process variable at the desired setpoint.
However, in the event of certain process disturbances, the simple loop will
not always be capable of good control. Even with optimum controller
adjustments, frequent process disturbances can create undesirable
deviations from the setpoint.
This condition takes place because the controller cannot react fast enough
to prevent the deviation. The controller only responds when an error
becomes evident and by then, it can be too late.

Illustration of a
feedback control loop

Figure 6-1

To understand this problem, it is necessary to examine the action of a slow

changing variable of a simple feedback control loop.
The diagram in Figure 6-1 illustrates a feedback loop used in controlling
the product temperature in a gas-filled reheating furnace.
The thermocouple within the furnace generates a signal representing the
value of the process variable. This signal enters the controller either as a
direct millivoltage or a standard output signal from a field-mounted
transmitter.
The local setpoint of the controller is adjusted to the desired value of the
process variable and a sensitive device known as an error detector
produces a signal representing the difference between these variables (PV
and SP).
In an effort to nullify the error signal, the three mode controller produces a
signal that will be a function of the polarity, magnitude, and rate of change
of the deviation.
This output is of sufficient power to manipulate the position of the control
valve, which in turn manipulates the amount of fuel entering the furnace.
Simple Loop
Controller
Transmitter
PV

Sensor

Output

Final Control Element

Reheat Furnace
Fuel

xxxxx

Continued on next page

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6.3

Simple Feedback Control,

Continued

Slow acting
processes

In a steady state condition (all uncontrolled variables remaining constant)

this control scheme should function favorably, but true steady state
conditions are not found.
Process disturbances can enter the loop with a varying degree of impact.
In applications of slow responding control variables (PV) and large
disturbances, a multi-loop system may be required to minimize deviations.

Factors determining
fuel flow

The flow of fuel through a modulating control valve will be determined by

valve position and other factors such as fuel pressure, temperature,
specific gravity, and so on. (For reasons of simplification, only valve
position and fuel pressure will be examined at this time.)
If the fuel pressure should rise, the increased differential pressure across
the control valve will result in a rise in fuel flow. With an increase in fuel
flow, there will be a greater release of heat energy into the furnace. When
news of the rise in temperature reaches the controller through the sensor
and transmitter, it will readjust the control valve position as if the original
valve position has been incorrect.

Time factor

Time elapses before the deviation is of great enough size to command that
the controller take corrective action. A small amount of time elapses
before the controller produces the correct amount of output, and due to the
thermal inertial and energy holding ability of the slow acting process, a
significant amount of time passes before the process responds to the
readjusted valve position and returns to the setpoint.
The major problem in controlling the process variable during an
unpredicted disturbance is the consumption of time. The controller will
only change its output when an error has been detected . . . minutes after
the disturbance has entered the process.

What system to use?

In this simple control loop, the system has been designed to control the
process variable (temperature) by valve adjustment, although heat supply
is actually the factor determining the temperature. A system which helps
to overcome the serious time delays and poor control caused by fuel
pressure and flow disturbances is called cascade control.

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6.4

Cascade Control

Introduction

The cascade loop is one of the most common multi-loop control systems
in use today. The application of such a system can greatly decrease
deviations of the primary variable and increase line out speed after a
process disturbance has occurred.

Reasons for
considering cascade
control

Some common reasons for considering cascade control exist in the

previously discussed case involving the control of temperature in a reheat
furnace.
In this example, fluctuations in fuel pressure created variations in the fuel
flow. As the flow of fuel to the furnace changed, so did the amount of
energy. The pressure fluctuations resulted in temporary deviations of the
process variable, which could not be controlled adequately using only the
simple feedback control loop. Avoiding the deviations was not possible
because the disturbance entered the system without being detected, and
once the error began developing, corrective action was initiated too late.

Cascade control loop

In the simple loop shown in Figure 6-1, the output of the controller
adjusted the final control element.

Figure 6-2

A cascade control loop is shown in Figure 6-2. Note that the output of the
temperature controller now adjusts the setpoint of a secondary
controller, which in turn adjusts the position of the final control element.
The cascade loop shown in Figure 6-2 uses the ground work of the
previously examined reheat furnace. The secondary variable used in this
example is fuel flow.
Cascade Control Loop
Secondary
Controller

Primary
Controller
RSP
PV

Sensor
Temperature
Transmitter

Output
Final
Control
Element
Reheat Furnace
Fuel

Fuel Flow Transmitter

xxxxx

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6.4

Cascade Control,

Continued

How it works

If the temperature of the product within the furnace is too high, the
primary controller lowers its output, requesting a decrease in the fuel flow
setpoint.
If the temperature drops, the device raises the setpoint of the secondary
controller, which in turn increases the fuel flow to match its new setpoint.
In any case, the primary controller is controlling temperature by
adjustments in the secondary controllers setpoint.
Since the secondary controller is designed to measure and control fuel
flow, the primary controller adjusts fuel flow, not valve position.
Therefore, when a flow disturbance occurs, the fuel flow transmitter will
notice it before it can adversely affect the process. The secondary
controller will quickly readjust the valve position until flow once again
matches the setpoint dictated by the primary.

Secondary control
loop

The secondary control loop consists of a simple flow loop. This controller
measures the flow of fuel and compares it to the value desired by the
primary controller.
The function of the controller is to maintain the flow at the remote
setpoint it receives. Note that with this configuration, deviations due to
fuel should increase, there will be a rise in fuel flow rate.
Before this increased flow affects the temperature, it is detected by the
secondary transmitter and thus, the secondary controller.
In an attempt to maintain a zero error between its PV and RSP (remote
setpoint), the secondary controller quickly changes its output in a direction
to reduce the fuel flow and reestablish a zero error. Because of the speed
of response of this variable, as compared to that of the primary, the
temperature changes very little.

Conditions warranting
cascade control

The conditions existing in a simple feedback control loop that may

warrant the consideration of cascade control are as follows:
1. Under control by the simple feedback control loop, the process
variable is slow in responding to system disturbances and equally as
slow in establishing a corrected output. This time consumption results
in undesirable large deviations that optimum controller tuning cannot
eliminate.
2. A change in the condition of the process causes serious upsets in the
controlled variable.
3. The value of the variable other than the controlled one is being
affected by the disturbance and there is a definite relationship between
its value and the controlled variable.
4. The secondary variable is one that can be controlled. It responds
swiftly to process disturbances and adjustments of the final control
element. The value to which it is controlled must be dictated by the
condition of the primary variable.
Continued next page

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6.4

Cascade Control,

Continued

Other points to
consider

In addition to the conditions given previously, some other points to

consider about cascade control are:
1. In going to cascade control, at least two items of instrumentation must
be added: A transmitter and sensor to measure the secondary variable
and another controller.
2. The additional controller is a remote setpoint unit. This feature may
call for a device that is slightly higher in cost as compared to a
standard controller.
3. The secondary controller must be capable of controlling the secondary
variable independently. In the previous example, the purpose of the
secondary controller was to keep the flow at a desired level. Flow
alone, as a major controlled variable, cannot be used because its value
would not respond to PV load changes or changes in the setpoint. The
controlled variable (temperature) is still of primary concern: The
secondary is important only because its value affects the primary.

How to choose a
secondary variable

In the cascade control loop previously introduced, it was noticed that the
selection of fuel flow as a secondary variable was a good one. It should be
obvious that to obtain the maximum benefits from a cascade control
system, a wise choice of the secondary variable is a vital requirement.
How does one choose the most appropriate secondary variables?
Application engineers have developed some rules of thumb for choosing
the optimum secondary variable.
Continued on next page

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6.4

Cascade Control,

Continued

Draw a simple block

diagram

Figure 6-3

To use these rules, begin by drawing a block diagram of the system to

clarify its operation. A simple block diagram is shown in Figure 6-3.
Identify the point(s) of disturbance in the system. It may be helpful to
divide the final control element block into two blocks: actuator and body
(if a valve).
Simple Block Diagram
Product Inlet
Fuel

Setpoint

Deviation

Controller

Output

Control
Valve

(Optional)
Process
Variable
Transmitter

Fuel

Reheat
Furnace

Product
Outlet

Temperature
Measuring
Element

Continued on next page

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6.4

Cascade Control,

Continued

Draw a detailed block

diagram

Figure 6-4

Next, draw a more detailed block diagram of the system in a cascade

configuration, choosing one likely secondary variable, as shown in Figure
6-4. This figure depicts a completed diagram including all blocks existing
between the measurement of the primary variable and the positioning of
the final control device.
Cascade Control Loop

Primary Deviation
Secondary Deviation
Primary

Product
Inlet

Disturbance

Secondary

Valve
Actuator

Fuel

Process

LSP
Out s

Out p

Secondary PV

Primary PV

Stem

Optional
Secondary
Transmitter

Fuel

Fuel

Product
Outlet

Impulse
Lines

Optional
Primary
Transmitter

Continued on next page

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6.4

Cascade Control,

Rules for determining

secondary elements
and variables

70

Continued

After the diagram has been made, plan possible alternates for placement of
the secondary measuring element and selection of the secondary variable,
using these five rules.
1. Make the secondary loop include the input point of the most serious
disturbances. It is the effect of these disturbances which the cascade
loop must be most successful in controlling.
2. Make the secondary loop fast by including only minor lags. When
comparing the speed of response of the primary variable (TP) to that of
a possible secondary variable (TS), the ratio of TP/TS should preferably
be at least 3. Ratios of 5 or 10 are even more desirable.
3. Use a secondary variable with setpoint values that are definitely
related to the value of the primary variable. In undisturbed operation
of the system, at line out, the relationship of the secondary setpoint to
the primary variable should be represented by a single line. If the line
is relatively straight rather than curved, this will simplify the tuning of
the primary controller.
4. If the secondary loop can remain relatively fast (see note 2), make it
contain as many of the disturbance inputs as possible. The
improvements in close control after a disturbance has entered a
cascade control loop will be roughly related to the gain settings of both
controllers.

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6.5

Predictive Feedforward Control

Introduction

In the previous section, cascade control systems were discussed. In these

systems, the disturbance was noticed by the secondary sensor and
controller, and brought under control before it could adversely affect the
primary variable.
For cascade control to be a suitable option, the variable which is creating
the disturbance (the secondary variable) must be controllable.
For example, in the reheat furnace of the previous discussion, the changes
in fuel flow were causing process upsets. In this example, fuel flow could
be controlled. In other words, it can be sensed by the secondary
transmitter, and controlled in an on-going fashion by the secondary
controller which manipulates the final control element.
It is the disturbed variables ability to be measured, compared to a remote
setpoint, and continuously corrected by a final control element which
makes it suited for cascade control.

When to use
feedforward control

In some applications, a disturbance takes place which cannot be controlled

(although it can be measured). An example of such an application could be
the disturbance in the feed rate of product through a heat-exchanger.
In this case, cascade control could not be used. However, a system called
feedforward can anticipate and compensate for the disturbance, although
control of the disturbance is not possible.
The simple loop and the cascade loop are both types of feedback
control. There are several inherent limitations to feedback control, which
the feedforward system improves upon:
All feedback control systems obtain control by measuring the error and
supplying a restoring output. The system depends on an error to
generate a corrective signal. Without the error, the controller output is
stable. When the error becomes evident, the controller must slowly
integrate for correction. With a steady state error, gain and derivative
cease to offer a contributing factor to the output.
All feedback control systems obtain the correct output by trial and
error. The system will never know the correct output necessary to solve
the problem. The basic operation of the system is shown in Figure 6-5.
Continued on next page

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6.5

Predictive Feedforward Control,

Continued

When to use
feedforward control,
continued

Figure 6-5

Trial and Error System

Start

Change
Output

Disturbance

Measure
Error

Hold
Output

Is
Zero
Error?

Effect

The simple flow diagram shown in this figure assumes that the controller
output is changing in the correct direction.
Some degree of oscillation is common in any trial and error attempt at
control.
Continued on next page

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6.5

Predictive Feedforward Control,

An approach to
feedback problems

Continued

To find methods of solving some of the problems existing with feedback

control systems, one would begin by considering a different approach. The
approach would be to measure the principle factors that affect the process,
and calculate the correct output to meet current conditions.
If a disturbance should occur, information will be fed to the final control
device before the system senses that a problem has arrived. A flow
diagram depicting this concept might appear as shown in Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-6
Feedforward Block Diagram
PV

SP

Measure
Error

Measure
Disturbance

Computer
Output

Final
Control
Element

Note that in Figure 6-6, the system has no return of information. The
correct output value is computed by changes in the setpoint, process
variable, or fluctuations of external system disturbances.
The process of feeding this information forward to compute the correct
output value is known as FEEDFORWARD. The essential feature which
distinguishes this system from feedback control loops is the forward flow
of information. The feedforward scheme can produce tremendous
improvements in control because in practice, it continuously balances the
material or energy requirements of the process against the current
demands of the load.
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6.5

Predictive Feedforward Control,

Continued

A simple feedforward
control system

Figure 6-7

Figure 6-7 depicts a simple feedforward control system. The loop is of the
continuous form, wherein liquid is fed through a heat exchanger and is
heated to a desired value. The controller output feeds the final control
element through a summation auxiliary. The auxiliary is an analog adder
that sums the values of its inputs.
A Static Feedforward System
Static
Feedforward
Response Curve

Desired limits

Simple Control Loop

Outlet
Flow

TT
Heat
Exchanger

PV
FT
IN

Gain
Relay

OUT

Summer

OUT
IN

Fuel and Air

Inlet

Continued on next page

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6.5

Predictive Feedforward Control,

A simple feedforward
control system,
continued

Continued

The feedforward transmitter measures inlet flow to the heat exchanger,

and its output is multiplied by the setting on the adjustable gain relay. The
resulting feedforward signal becomes the second input to the summer.
If the influent feed rate should increase, the flow transmitter instantly
feeds an increase signal to the summer. The magnitude of this signal will
depend on the degree of feed flow increase and the gain set on the relay.
The feedforward signal will increase the output from the summer and
produce an immediate change in valve position. The increased fuel inlet
can now prevent large deviations of the feed temperature from occurring.

Static systems

7/00

Feedforward strategies that compute corrective output values in a manner

independent of time are known as static systems. The computed output
was instantaneous and is designed to anticipate current demand changes.
Figure 6-7 is an example of a static system.

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6.6

Dynamic Feedforward Control

Introduction

Applications often exist, as in the previous example, where predictive

feedforward strategies will offer a dramatic improvement in control of the
process variable. Yet, even more improvement is sometimes obtainable by
using Dynamic Feedforward.

Illustration of dynamic
feedforward control

An application of this system is shown in Figure 6-8.

Figure 6-8

Dynamic Feedforward System

Dynamic
Feedforward
Response Curve
Desired limits

Static
Feedforward
Response Curve

Outlet
Flow

TT
Heat
Exchanger

PV
FT
IN
Gain
Relay

Lead/
Lag
OUT

Summer

OUT
IN

Fuel and Air

Inlet

Continued on next page

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Dynamic Feedforward Control,

How it works

7/00

Continued

Assume that the increase of inlet feed had a much greater effect on
product temperature. The alternative, in the static system, would be to
increase the gain of the adjustable gain relay to cause a greater change in
valve position. The stronger initial correction signal could create
overcorrectionopening the valve too much, and causing a larger upset in
the opposite direction. This deviation would have to be removed by the
temperature controller.
The dynamic feedforward control system can provide more correction
than the static system, yet not create the undesired overcorrection. With
dynamic (or time variable) feedforward, the corrective signal will be
momentarily large, then gradually cut back. By gradually cutting back the
corrective signal, the process will not experience a large, sustained release
of energy and overcorrection can be eliminated. The time dependent
feedforward signal can be generated by another auxiliary device known as
a Lead/Lag relay.

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6.7

The Ratio Control Loop

Introduction

In many control applications, there are two or more inputs to a process

which must be varied and controlled to meet process demand. The value
of these variables (most often two flows) must be kept in a prescribed
ratio to achieve a particular end product. The system which maintains this
ratio is known as a ratio control loop. Some examples of ratio
applications could be blending a base product with a thinner, water, and
foaming agent, or air and fuel.

Ratio control
configurations

There are two ratio control configurations that are commonly used: Series
and Parallel configurations. There are definite advantages in choosing one
over the other.

Series configuration

The Series system takes a lead and follow approach. According to the
demand of the process, a master controller will control one of the variable
(the leader) to a particular value. The follower variable will then be
controlled by a remote setpoint controller to some predetermined ratio of
the leader. This means that as the first input variable rises, so will the
value of the second. If the leading variable falls to zero, so must the
follower. This interaction is the primary characteristic of the series ratio
system. These systems can be characterized by a definite interlock
between the two controlled variables. This interlock can become a
valuable safety feature.

Series ratio system

example

Figure 6-9 illustrates the simplest method of accomplishing ratio control.

The master controller, measuring the consistency of the final product
blend, establishes the value of flow B. The flow is measured and its
percentage equivalent becomes the setpoint of the flow A controller.
Controller A is by necessity a remote setpoint controller, identical to the
secondary controller of any cascade system. If flow B is 20%, then 20%
becomes the setpoint for flow A.
Figure 6-9
Basic Series Ratio System

A
dp

I/P

PV

Controller
A

OUT

RSP

Master
Controller

I/P

dp

Continued on next page

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6.7

The Ratio Control Loop,

Continued

Series ratio system

example, continued

Notice that in Figure 6-9, the pipe for flow A is much larger than B. This
will allow a pre-set ratio to be established.
For example, if the range of operation of pipe A is 0 to 1000 cfh and pipe
B is 0 to 500 cfh, the A:B ratio of maximum flow capacity would be 2:1.
The 20% fluid flow in pipe B would be 100 cfh, but in pipe A the flow
would be 200 cfh.
Since the value of A will be established by the value of B, the system is
serial.
The ratio of flow is fixed by the scale ranges of both variables and cannot
be changed without a major change in system hardware. If pipe A and B
were the same size, the system shown in Figure 6-9 would only be capable
of maintaining a 1:1 ratio, since there is no device in the system to
multiply or divide flow B by some gain factor before sending it as a
remote setpoint to controller A.

Series system with

ratio relays

In the event that a ratio is desired other than the pre-set ratio established
by the two pipe dimensions, another device must be added to the system.
This device is called a ratio relay and is shown in the system in
Figure 6-10.
Figure 6-10 Ratio Control System with Ratio Relay

A
dp

I/P

PV

Controller
A

OUT

RSP
Ratio
Relay

Master
Controller

I/P

dp

This system provides one major advantage over the previous example. By
using a device known as a ratio relay between the flow in pipe B and the
flow A controller, the system will operate the same as example A, except
that the ratio of the flows can be easily adjusted.
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6.7

The Ratio Control Loop

Continued

Series system with

ratio relays, continued

The system remains serial because the value of flow B, although

multiplied by the ratio, sets the value of flow A. Any fluctuations in flow
B will be reflected in A. Note that the ratio, as well as pipe size, are now
responsible for the actual ratio between the two flows.
For example, if pipe A and pipe B are the same size, and the ratio relay is
set at 2, then flow A will be twice as great as flow B. If pipe A is twice
the size of pipe B, and the ratio relay is set at 2, then flow A will be four
times as great as flow B. If pipe A is one-third (.33) as great as pipe B, and
the ratio relay is set at .5, then flow A will be (.33 x .5) or .165 times
flow B, or about one-sixth of B.

Parallel systems

The parallel approach to ratio control allows the master controller to set
the value of both variables. Instead of one control system leading and the
second one following, the parallel concept ties both systems to the direct
command of the master. As process demand changes, the master controller
adjusts the values of both control systems simultaneously.
Since both systems receive their setpoints from the master controller, they
will respond to a change at the same time. How well the two systems are
kept together will depend upon the response characteristics of each.

Advantages of parallel
ratio control

One of the advantages of parallel ratio control is that any noise occurring
in the leader variable will not be reflected in the follower. Without the
interlock, both systems are independent of one another.
This configuration can lead to yet another advantage. The simultaneous
updating of both systems could result in a smaller deviation from the
desired ratio during changes in process demand. The obvious disadvantage
is loss of interlock safety. If one variable of a parallel system drops to
zero, the second will not.
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6.7

The Ratio Control Loop

Block diagrams of
parallel ratio systems

Figure 6-11

Continued

A simple block diagram of a parallel ratio system is shown in Figure 6-11,

and a complete parallel ratio system is shown in Figure 6-12.

Parallel Ratio System Block Diagram

Master
Controller

RSP
Flow
Variable
A

Control
System
A
RSP
Control
System
B

Figure 6-12

Flow
Variable
B

Parallel Ratio Control System

A
dp

I/P

PV

Controller
A

OUT

RSP
OUT

RSP
Ratio
Relay

x
PV

Controller
B
I/P

dp

B
Master
Controller

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6.7

The Ratio Control Loop,

Continued

Parallel ratio system

function

This ratio control system has been designed so that instead of the master
controller setting the value of flow B only, the master controller sets the
flow values of both controllers.
Note that while in the series ratio system, the input to the ratio relay came
from the flow B transmitter/square root extractor, in this system, the input
to the ratio relay comes directly from the master controller. In the series
ratio system, the RSP to controller A did not change until flow B actually
changed, not when the master controller merely called for a change in
flow B.
In the parallel ratio system, the RSP to Controller A changes the moment
the master controller calls for it.

Ratio relay adjustment

The ratio of the two flows will be determined by the ratio relay
adjustment. Since the master controller sends both setpoint commands in
a parallel fashion to the flow controllers, both controllers will respond to a
change at the same time. How well the flows track each other over
changes in demand will again be determined by the two response
characteristics.

Parallel system
disadvantage

The parallel system will, in most cases, result in a better ratio control as
process load changes occur. The basic disadvantage is the lack of flow
interlock. If flow A should fall to zero in a fault condition, flow B will not
be affected. Note that if an application arises where process personnel
would like to momentarily interrupt one of the flows without affecting the
other, this non-interlocked parallel system would offer such a possibility.

Ratio system with

interlock

Some applications require that the ratio between the two flows never
exceeds a set value in one direction, because the result may represent an
uneconomical or unsafe condition.
A typical example of this is the air/fuel mixture in a burner. To keep the
mixture from ever being too rich in fuel, an interlock system is used.
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The Ratio Control Loop,

Example of ratio
system with interlock

Continued

This system, shown in Figure 6-13, is capable of providing this form of

interlock through the use of signal selectors.
In this example, if we use X to represent the desired ratio and A and B
to represent the actual flows, then the ratio of the actual flow must be
equal to or greater than the desired ratio. This is how the system must
perform:
A
B X

Figure 6-13

Ratio System with Interlock

A
dp

I/P

PV
RSP

Controller
A

Ratio
Relay

High
Selector

I
I

Low
Selector

I
o

Controller
B
I/P

dp

B
Indicator

Master
Controller

Continued on next page

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6.6

The Ratio Control Loop,

Example of ratio
system with interlock,
continued

Continued

If we assume that the desired ratio has been met (A = X) then to satisfy the
limits of the equation:

1)

Holding

A constant
B cannot increase
AND

2)

Holding

B constant
A cannot decrease

If a change in demand requires more of both fluids, note that to satisfy the
first rule, flow B cannot increase unless flow A increases first.
Conversely, to satisfy the second rule, if a decrease in both fluids is
necessary, flow A cannot decrease unless flow B does so first.
Because the response times of both systems may not be equal, it is
important to note that we cannot simply state that one variable must
change first. We must ensure that one will lag the other, but accomplish
this without the use of a time delay. A time delay may result in an
increased offset from the desired ratio during changes in demand. (There
may also be an unnecessary increase in system complexity.)
Interaction and
interlock between the
two flows

84

In Figure 6-13, the interaction and interlock between the two flows can be
achieved by allowing the master controller to set the flows in a parallel
fashion.
The line between the flow B controller and its setpoint input from the
master controller is bridged by a low selector. The other input to the
selector is the PV of the flow A controller.
In the line feeding the setpoint input of the flow A controller, a high
selector has been placed. The high selector has a second input, the flow
measurement of controller B.
An adjustable ratio relay station has been placed in the PV input line to the
flow A controller. In this way, the relay multiplies the actual PV of flow A
times the ratio value. The controller then compares this value to its
setpoint.
During a load change in the opposite direction, the converse will be true.
With a decrease in demand, flow B must change first. After it has
changed, flow A may begin changing.
In this example, the signal selectors will provide the interlock between
flows that is necessary to keep the ratio on the safe side of the desired
value at all times. When the system comes to a point of balance, all signal
selector inputs will be equal. To display the actual value of flow A, an
indicator has been added.

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6.8

Analog Override Control Strategies

Introduction

Override selectors are often used in applications that involve many

controlled variables that are influenced by the value of a single
manipulated variable. The function of the basic override selector will be to
select either the highest or lowest value of its input, and channel this value
to its output. Non-selected inputs will be open.

How it works

Assume that there are two inputs to an override selector. These inputs
represent two process variables that are both affected by the value of one
manipulated variable. However, the two process variables are affected in
opposite directions by the same manipulated variable. That is, as the
manipulated variable is changed in one direction, one of the process
variables will increase as the other decreases.

Example

A typical example of this would be the relationship between the position

of a valve (manipulated variable), located on the discharge end of a
compressor, and the suction (Process Variable 1) and discharge pressures
(Process Variable 2) independently measured across the system.
Figure 6-14 illustrates this example.
Figure 6-14 Compressor Application
Pressure
Decreases

Pressure
Increases

PV1

PV2

(B)

(A)

Discharge

Valve
Position

Suction

Pump
Continued on next page

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6.8

Analog Override Control Strategies,

Continued

Example, continued

With the pump running at a given speed, opening the valve would cause
an increase in the suction measured at point A. If positive pressure is the
measured variable, an increase in suction would be the same as a
decreased pressure.
Although the upstream pressure (Point A) decreases due to an opening of
the control valve, note that the same change in valve position will cause an
increase in downstream pressure (Point B). This relationship between
controlled and manipulated variables is a major reason why override
strategies are frequently used in compressor and pump station controls.

Objective of an
override control
system

The objective of an override control system in compressor and pump

control is as follows:
Maintain a given discharge pressure, but do not attempt to do so at the
expense of drawing a dangerously high suction at point A. A high
suction could cause compressor damage and/or pipe cavitation.
Figure 6-15 shows the control system which meets this requirement, using
two controllers. The controller that is used to measure downstream suction
is direct acting, while the other is adjusted to be reverse acting.
The outputs of both controllers feed the override selector, and it sends the
signal of lowest value to the control valve. The valve is air-to-open,
meaning that more output from the selector will open the valve more.

Figure 6-15

Analog Override System

D/A
Cointroller

Override
Selector

PV

R/A
Cointroller

Low
A

PV
B

OUT

OUT

PT1

PT2

B
A

Valve
Discharge
Pump
Continued on next page

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6.8

Analog Override Control Strategies,

Continued

Integral mode
problems

A problem arises if either of the two controllers have the integral

(automatic reset) mode of control. As mentioned earlier, non-selected
inputs are opened. If the output of such a controller is not selected,
integral wind-up will occur. To avoid this, one of two simple solutions can
be used:
1) Both controllers can be proportional only, which would eliminate the
problem.
2) Many override selectors are available with anti-windup protection on
inputs designed for use with controllers having the integral mode of
control.

How it works

The controlled variable of primary concern will be discharge pressure.

A setpoint value representing the desired pressure will be set on this
controller (controller B).
The suction pressure controller (controller A) will be set to a minimum
safe level of pressure.
Unless the system experiences a fault condition, such as a shallow running
supply or restricted line on the compressor inlet, the suction pressure
should be well above the setpoint value of controller A. This variable is
allowed to deviate from its setpoint, as long as the offset is in the
acceptable direction.
The system will be normally selecting the output of controller B. Since
this controller is reverse acting, its output will decrease to close the valve
if pressure B moves above the setpoint.
Conversely, with the pressure dropping below the setpoint, the controller
output increases to open the valve.
The increasing and decreasing output of this controller must remain below
the output of controller A. This ensures that it will be selected.
If the compressor supply runs shallow, controller B will open the valve in
an attempt to maintain the discharge pressure at its setpoint. As the valve
is opened to control the discharge pressure, the pump suction increases.
This reduction in inlet pressure reduces the output of controller A because
A is a direct acting controller.
If the pressure at A reaches a dangerously low level, the override selector
will select the low level output from controller A and send it to the valve.
If the supply should begin running more shallow, note that the decreased
pressure will cause controller A to close the valve. This action will
decrease suction and maintain the inlet pressure at the minimum safe
level.
Once the supply has been replenished, the compressor suction will
decrease naturally, driving the output of controller A up, and the override
selector will select controller B for normal control.

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88

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Chapter 7 Auxiliaries
7.1

Overview

Whats in this
chapter?

This chapter contains the following information:

Topic

Introduction

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See Page

7.1

Overview

89

7.2

Integrators

90

7.3

Square Root Extractors

94

7.4

Multiplier/Dividers

96

7.5

Multiplier/Dividers Calculation of Scaling and Biasing Constants

100

7.6

Multiplier/Dividers Verification of Scaling and Biasing Constants

102

7.7

Adder/Subtractor

105

The topic table lists the Auxiliaries resident in the microprocessor memory
of most controllers. The selection of an auxiliary is part of the
configuration process of the controller.

Process Control Primer

89

7.2

Integrators

Introduction

In applications involving flow measurement, the primary element will

usually indicate rate of flow. There are flow meters that indicate total flow
(positive displacement devices), but the more common methods will
produce a signal that represents an instantaneous value. For example, if a
flow meter was used to detect the rate of flow of a fluid, the output signal
could be compared to taking a snap-shot of the amount of flow for only
an instant. Therefore, the flow rate which is indicated represents one
instant in time, and the signal is a continuous measurement of the rate of
flow of the process variable.

The need for

integration

In many processes, an application may make it necessary to produce a

history of the flow value over a period of time. For instance, a municipal
water treatment plant must know the rate of influent sewage for
controlling purposes. Along with controlling the purification of water,
they must also report to the community the amount of water being treated
each day. Such information can be obtained by integrating (totalizing) the
flow signal over the one day period of time.

Manual integration

Integration, were it to be accomplished manually, could be rather involved

and time consuming if the flow rate signal displayed on a chart is irregular
(as it usually is). In an example where the flow is constant, a 50% rate of
flow value on a 0-100,000 gallon/day chart, would yield a total daily flow
of 50,000 gallons. In this case integration is simple.
Continued on next page

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7.2

Integrators,

Manual integration,
continued

Figure 7-1

Continued

The chart in Figure 7-1 shows a record of the rate of flow occurring in an
application where the range of operation is from zero to one thousand
gallons per hour. The chart is a twelve hour history of the changes that
occurred. To totalize the flow signal on the chart, a human operator or an
electronic device must calculate the area that exists underneath the curve
drawn by the recorder pen.

Record of Rate of Flow

7

each number represents

a time span of 1 hour

20
3

10

40
60
11

80
12
8:00 P.M

100

1
8:00 A.M.

Reading Times 10
Continued on next page

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7.2

Integrators,

Manual integration,
continued

Table 7-1

Continued

In order to manually totalize the flow in Figure 7-1, it is necessary to add

the twelve one-hour flow rate values in order to yield the total flow
between the hours of 8:00 A.M. and 8:00 P.M. Table 7-1 depicts this
manual calculation and yields a total flow of 6,700 gallons.

Manual Calculation of Total Flow

Time Span

Flow

Total Flow
per Time Span

#1

1 hour

100 gal

100 gal

#2,#3, and #4

3 hours

400 gal

1200 gal

#5 and #6

2 hours

600 gal

1200 gal

#7 and #8

2 hours

800 gal

1600 gal

#9

1 hour

900 gal

900 gal

#10

1 hour

600 gal

600 gal

#11

1 hour

400 gal

400 gal

#12

1 hour

700 gal

700 gal

Chart Selection

Total

12 hours

6700 gal

Continued on next page

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7.2

Integrators,

Continued

Auxiliary electronic
integration

Since most flow records will not be as clear-cut and easy to calculate
manually as that in Figure 7-1, an electronic auxiliary accomplishes
integration.
This calculation is achieved by producing a calibrated pulse train to a
counter that continuously counts the total flow. As the flow rate
decreases, so does the frequency of the output pulses. An electronic
integrator might operate with a pulse rate output range from 0 to 50 ph to
0 to 50,000 cph. This means that a single unit will cover the desired span
of most applications without a multiplication constant.

Determining the
integrator range

To calculate the amount of counts that an integrator should produce with a

constant input, the range must be known. The integrator range is
determined by dividing the maximum flow by the period of time involved.
EXAMPLE: An integrator must be calibrated to indicate the total flow of
water through a linear flow transmitter. Assume that the maximum
amount of flow in the vessel was 20,000 liters per day. The desired period
of time to which to calibrate the device is one hour. The relevant question
becomes: How many counts should occur in 1 hour?
maximum flow
Maximum Count = unit number in flow period
20000 liters per day
Maximum Count = 24 hours per day
Maximum Count = 833.33 counts per hour
In one hour, with a 100% input signal, the integrator should count from
zero to 833.3.
Since this device is a linear integrator, in 15 minutes, the counter should
reach 1/4 of this value, or 208.33.
The range should be set so that with a 4 mA input, the count rate is zero,
and with 20 mA input, the count rate should be 833.3/hour. No
multiplication need be used for this application.

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7.3

Square Root Extractors

Introduction

The square root extractor is an auxiliary whose primary function is in the

linearization of a differential pressure signal in the calculation of flow.
When a fluid passes through a restriction in a flow vessel, there will be a
change in the differential pressure across the restriction. If impulse taps
were placed both upstream and downstream of the restriction, and the
difference in pressures of both taps was measured, the measurement would
show that the relationship of flow rate to differential pressure would be
exponential. The formula describing this relationship is as follows:
Q = K P
Where:
Q = The quantity of flow
K = A calibration constant that depends on the size of the
restriction when compared to the inner pipe diameter, the
maximum flow rate, and other non-changing parameters
P = The differential pressure between the high pressure upstream
side and the low pressure downstream side of the restriction.
The restriction can be any one of many primary elements. Depending on
the application, the element could be an orifice plate, flow nozzle, venture
tube, dall tube, or flow tube.

Example of square
root extraction

In applications that involve the totalizing of flow signals, it is mandatory

that the signals be linearized before the calculation is made. Linearization
is also necessary when it is desirable to use linear scales and charts instead
of square root indications in system receivers. Figure 7-2 shows a typical
loop using a square root extractor and a linear integrator.

Figure 7-2

Typical Loop using a Square Root Extractor and Linear Integrator;

Integrator
Counter
Square
Root
Extractor
Controller

Transmitter

Final Control Element

Continued on next page

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7.3

Square Root Extractors,

Input/Output percent
values

Continued

The chart shown in Table 7-1 depicts the input and output percent values
for a correctly calibrated square root extractor.

Table 7-1
% Input

% Out

% Input

% Out

% Input

% Out

% Input

% Out

25

50

50

70.7

75

86.6

10

26

50.9

51

71.4

76

87.1

14.1

27

51.9

52

72.1

77

87.1

17.3

28

52.9

53

72.8

78

88.3

20

29

53.8

54

73.5

79

88.9

22.4

30

54.8

55

74.2

80

89.4

24.5

31

55.7

56

74.8

81

90

26.4

32

56.6

57

75.5

82

90.5

28.2

33

57.4

58

76.1

83

91.1

30

34

58.3

59

76.8

84

91.6

10

31.6

35

59.2

60

77.4

85

92.2

11

33.2

36

60

61

78.1

86

92.7

12

34.6

37

60.8

62

78.7

87

93.3

13

36.1

38

61.6

63

79.4

88

93.8

14

37.4

39

62.4

64

80

89

94.3

15

38.7

40

63.2

65

80.6

90

94.9

16

40

41

64

66

81.3

91

95.4

17

41.2

42

64.8

67

81.9

92

95.9

18

42.4

43

65.6

68

82.5

93

96.4

19

43.6

44

66.3

69

83.1

94

96.9

20

44.7

45

67.1

70

83.7

95

97.5

21

45.8

46

67.8

71

84.3

96

97.9

22

46.9

47

68.6

72

84.9

97

98.5

23

47.9

48

69.3

73

85.4

98

98.9

24

48.9

49

70

74

86.0

99

99.5

100

100

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7.4

Multiplier/Dividers

Introduction

A multiplier/divider is an analog computational auxiliary unit capable of

performing one of seven mathematical operations. Each unit would
typically be able to accept two or three 1-5 Vdc input signals and would
compute a 1-5 Vdc output signal as a function of the program.
One of the most common applications of a multiplier/divider is in mass
flow calculations. Mass flow is a type of flow measurement that is not
only concerned with the differential pressure across a primary element, but
also the temperature and static pressure of the fluid. By including
pressure and temperature in the flow calculations the result will be a
highly accurate measurement of flow.

Conditions affecting
static pressure

If a gas is put into a confined area at a temperature and pressure equal to

atmospheric conditions, the static pressure of the gas with reference to
gauge pressure will be zero.
The two conditions that could affect the static pressure of the gas would
be change in temperature, and a change in the volume of the
container.

Change in
temperature

Increasing the temperature will cause the molecules of the gas to move
more rapidly. As the molecular motion increases, so does the tendency for
the moving molecules to bombard the inner walls of the container. This
bombardment will result in a higher static pressure. Likewise, colder
temperatures result in lower pressures. This effect is shown in Figure 7-3.

Figure 7-3

The Effect of Temperature on Pressure;

100 C

20 C

Continued on next page

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7.4

Multiplier/Dividers,

Change in volume

Continued

If the volume of the container is decreased, there will be a compression of

the molecules of the gas. The compression of the molecules will also
increase the static pressure. This effect is shown in Figure 7-4.
Figure 7-4
Change in Volume

In mass flow measurement, the temperature and pressure of the flowing

fluid can affect the flow by changing the volume of the medium.
Continued on next page

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7.9

Multiplier/Dividers,

Increase in static
pressure

Continued

In Figure 7-5, the dotted area of the drawing represents one cubic foot of a
methane gas. This volume of gas has the ability to do a specific amount of
work. It can be assumed that it has the amount of energy equal to 1,000
BTUs. (The British Thermal Unit, or BTU, is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water, one degree
Fahrenheit.)
If the pressure of the gas decreases, or its temperature should increase
enough to cause the volume of the gas to be eight times larger than the
original cubic foot, the potential energy on one cubic foot will be much
less than 1,000 BTUs. This condition has changed the total mass of one
cubic foot of methane.
Figure 7-5
BTUs;

Continued on next page

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7.4

Multiplier/Dividers,

Continued

Definition of flow

The definition of flow is the movement of a quantity of fluid past a given

point in a particular interval of time. Examples of some units of flow
could be gallons per hour, cubic feet per minute, or liters per hour. Using
the same volumetric unit of measurement that was discussed previously,
assume a fuel flow of 200 cubic feet per minute into a furnace. If one
cubic foot of fuel has the potential energy of 1,000 BTUs, than a fuel flow
of 200 cubic feet per minute will contain a specific amount of energy. The
amount of energy being delivered to the furnace in any instant of time,
depends on two variables: the rate of fuel flow and the mass of one cubic
foot of fuel.

Standard flow
measurement

In standard flow measurement, a controller can correct for changes in the

fuel flow that the furnace will receive by correctly manipulating a control
valve, but without knowing the mass, the amount of energy can fluctuate.
If the temperature of the fuel increases, the mass of one cubic foot will
decrease. A decrease in the amount of fuel in a cubic foot will decrease the
BTU content. Maintaining a constant flow will not always assure a
constant temperature. This is why mass flow calculation is necessary
especially in applications involving high consumption of steam or fuel.
Mass flow measurement is a much more accurate means of measuring
flow than simple rate of flow measuring devices.

Formula for mass flow

calculation

The formula for mass flow calculation by differential pressure means is as

follows:
(P) (P)
Flow = T
Where:
P = The differential pressure measured across the primary
element
P = The static pressure of the fluid in pounds per square inch
absolute (psia)
T = The fluid temperature in degrees Rankine
ATTENTION

1) The temperature in degrees Rankine is equal to degrees Fahrenheit

plus 460 (R = F + 460)
EXAMPLE: 120F = (460 + 120)R, so 120F = 580R
2) All variables must be zero based absolute. For example:
P could be 0 to 100 inH2O
P could be 0 to 30 psia
T could be 0 to 660R
By using scaling and biasing factors, each variable will be altered to
create zero based ranges.

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7.5

Calculation of Scaling and Bias Constants

Introduction

As an example, assume that the following PV ranges exist:

P = 0 to 20 inH2O
P = 0 to 30 psig
T = 0 to 150F
On differential pressure measurement of flow, the low end of the range
is always zero for a no flow condition.
With this transmitter calibrated from zero to twenty inches of water, the
multiplication scale factor (SCALE) will be 1 and the biasing will be zero.
There is no need to condition the differential pressure signal.
SCALE = 1
BIAS = 0

Convert to absolute
pressure

In pressure measurement, the 0 to 50 psig must first be converted to

absolute pressure.
Use the approximate value of 14.7 psi as atmospheric pressure,
Add 14.7 to the high and low range values of the gage pressure
readings (pressures in psia are approximately equal to the value
in
psig plus 14.7)
So 0 to 50 psig = 14.7 to 64.7 PSIA. Now the pressure value is in PSIA.
Next, the measurement must be zero based (14.7 to 64.7 PSIA must
become 0 to 64.7 PSIA).

Formula for choosing

the scaling factor

The formula for choosing the scaling factor is the span of the transmitter
divided by the zero based span.
Notice that the calibration of the transmitter will be 14.7 to 64.7 PSIA (a
span of 50), and the scaling and biasing constants will cause the auxiliary
to see 0 to 64.7 PSIA.
K

scale =

Transmitter Span
Zero Based Span

Using this formula: Kscale equals:

Transmitter Span
=
Zero Based Span

(14.7 to 64.7)
(0 to 64.7)

or
50
64.7

which equals .773

Continued on next page

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7.5

Calculation of Scaling and Bias Constants,

Formula for bias

voltage

Continued

The Bias Voltage can be calculated by the following formula:

K bias =

[ LRV
]
URV

x 4 volts

Where: LRV is the lower range value of the transmitter range in PSIA.
URV is the upper range value of the transmitter range in PSIA.
The transmitter range is 14.7 to 64.7 PSIA, so the LRV equals 14.7 and
the URV equals 64.7.
This formula produces a ratio times the 4 Volt span (1-5 Vdc):
K bias =

[ 14.7
]
64.7

x 4 volts or .91 Volts

Therefore, the pressure scaling and biasing values are as follows:

SCALE = .773
BIAS = .91
Temperature
measurement

In temperature measurement, the transmitter span is 0 to 150F.

First the Fahrenheit temperature must be converted to the Rankine scale:
Rankine = 460 + Fahrenheit.
Using this formula, 0 to 150F is equal to 460 to 610R (a span of 150).
Making this value zero based yields 0 to 610R.
To compute Kscale and Kbias, use the same formulas that were
introduced for pressure. In this example,
K
K

scale =
scale =

Transmitter Span
Zero Based Span

150

(460 to 610)

610

(0 to 610)

.246

K bias =

[ LRV
URV ]

x4

K bias =

[ 460
]
610

x4

K bias = 3.02 Volts

Therefore, the temperature scaling and biasing factors are as follows:

SCALE = .246
BIAS = 3.02

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7.6

Verification of the Scaling and Bias Constants

introduction

Figure 7-6

50 psig

The range of the transmitter is 0 to 50 psig. The function of the input

conditioner of the multiplier/divider is to modify the transmitter signal so
that it appears to be operating over a range of 0 to 64.7 PSIA.
The calculated constants were:
SCALE = .773
BIAS = .91
If the actual range of operation (0 to 50 psig) was graphically placed
beside the desired zero based range (0 to 64.7 psia), the result would
appear as shown in Figure 7-6.
The zero percent end of the transmitter is 0 psig. The 50% and 100%
values are 25 psig and 50 psig respectively.
What the input signal conditioner must do is modify the voltage
equivalent of this range (1 to 5 Volts) so that it linearly represents the 14.7
to 64.7 psia span of the zero based range (0 to 64.7 psia).
Actual Range of Operation versus Zero-Based Range
t
u tp u
ter O t of
it
m
s
en
Tran
Perc
V
P
5V
100%

35

75%

49.7

3V

50%

39.7

20
15

29.7
2V

25%

1V

0%

4V

75%

(48.5 psia)

3.45V

61.36%

3V

50%

(32.4 psia)

2V

25%

(16.2 psia)

1V

0%

24.7
19.7

5
0 psig

100%

44.7

34.7

10

5V

54.7
4V

30
25

64.7psia

n
l Sp a
igna
f
o
t
n
e
e
Perc te Rang
lu
o
s
Ab

59.7

45
40

dS
odifie

14.7
9.7
4.7

Absolute Zero

0 psia

Continued on next page

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7.6

Verification of the Scaling and Bias Constants,

Continued

An example

Assume that the pressure existing is 25 psig. By adding 14.7 psi to the
gauge pressure value, the approximate equivalent on the absolute scale
will be obtained.
25.0 psig + 14.7 psi = 39.7 psiaapproximate atmospheric pressure
measured by the transmitter.
The transmitter is measuring 39.7 psia.
If it is calibrated correctly, its output will be 50% of 1 to 5 Volts, or
3.0 Vdc. The measured value of 39.7 psia does not represent 50% of the
zero-based range.

Calculate the actual

percent of span

To calculate the actual percent of span that 39.7 psia represents, the
measured value must be divided by the full scale span:
39.7 psia measured = 61.36%
64.7 psia scale span

The measurement of 25 psig (39.7 psia), which is 50% of the transmitter

range, must be modified to become 61.36% of the zero-based range.
Check the operation
of the input signal
conditioner constants

To check the operation of the input signal conditioner constants calculated

earlier, calculate the desired voltage that should be obtained.
With an input voltage of 3.0 Vdc (50%), the output from the input signal
conditioner of the multiplier/divider must be 61.36% of 1 to 5 Volts.
Removing the LIVE zero of 1.0 Volt, 61.36% of the full scale span of
4.0 Volts is 2.45 Volts. After the percent of span figure has been
calculated, adding the LIVE zero of 1.0 Volt yields 3.45 Volts. This is
the 25 psig equivalent signal on the zero based absolute scale.
Using the calculated constants of: ...
SCALE = .773
BIAS = .91
... the 3.0 Volt signal is the first zero stripped. In this way it becomes
2.0 Vdc. The zero stripped signal is multiplied by the input scanner of
.773 to yield 1.546 Volts. Adding the input bias value of .91 Volt yields
2.456 Volts.

Check the validity

To check the validity of the signal conditioner, the +1 Volt LIVE zero
must be summed with 2.456 Volts. The result is 3.456 Volts.
This operation has modified the 50% (3.0 Vdc) transmission signal,
representing 25 psig or 39.7 psia, to appear as its equivalent in an absolute
pressure range from 0 to 64.7 psia . . . or 63.36% (3.45 Volts).
Continued on next page

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7.6

Verification of the Scaling and Bias Constants,

Continued

Conclusion

This exercise has proved both constants to be valid ones. Note that the
actual PV will not fall below approximately 23% of the modified signal
span. This is the rough equivalent of a zero psig signal from the
transmitter. This should not be viewed as a problem since the transmitter
has been calibrated for a 0 to 50 psig range; so the actual PV should never
fall into the vacuum range during normal operation.

Graphical example

Using the previous example for scaling and bias constants, assume that the
A, B, and C Inputs are P, Pressure, and Temperature respectively. See
Figure 7-7. In this case, the multiplier/divider will be programmed for:
A B
C

After the calculation has been made, the square root extractor will
linearize the signal.
For Input A:
Kscale = 1 and Kbias = 0
For Input B:
Kscale = .773 and Kbias = .91
For Input C:
Kscale = .246 and Kbias = .302
Figure 7-7

Graphical Example

Gas Flow
To Furnace
T/C

MV/I

hp

PP/I

lp
P/I

FCE

Extract
Multiplier
Divider
Calculated
Output Value

104

Out
PV

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Linearized
Mass Flow
Relationship

Controller

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7.7

Adder/Subtractor

Introduction

The Adder/Subtractor is an analog computational device capable of

accepting up to four 1 to 5 Vdc input signals. The output is a 1 to 5 Vdc
signal which is a function of the program.

A common
application

One common application for the Adder/Subtractor is the addition of fuel

flows to furnaces. One such application is shown in Figure 7-8.
The furnaces are labeled A, B, and C.
The process variable in each control loop is the temperature of the raw
material being treated. This application requires a need for the total
instantaneous fuel consumption. Knowing the total flow during periods of
peak usage will prove to be a valuable economical aid in plant operation.
Furnace A operates in a range of 0 to 100,000 cubic feet of fuel per hour.
Furnace B Operates from 0 to 300,000 cfh, and
Furnace C operates from 0 to 50,000 cfh
All transmitters are 4 to 20 Millamp units.
Figure 7-8
Adder/Subtractor Application
0-100,000 cfh
Furnace

0-300,000 cfh
Furnace

0-50,000 cfh
Furnace

Transmitter A
Transmitter B
Transmitter C

Gas Flow

Continued on next page

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105

7.7

Adder/Subtractor,

The role of
Adder/Subtractor in
the loop

Continued

Figure 7-9 shows the role of the Adder/Subtractor in the loop.

To add the three P/I differential pressure signals, they must first be
linearized with respect to a linearly changing flow.
The square root extractors accomplish this task by changing the
exponential input change to a linear Output. The linearized flow signals
enter their respective controllers, where the final control elements regulate
the amount of energy delivered to each furnace.
Each 1 to 5 Volt PV flow signal will enter the adder/subtractor which will
add the three signals. Notice that a 100% output signal from each will
represent different flow values.
In transmitter A, 5 Volts will represent 100,000 cubic feet per minute.
In transmitters B and C, 100% output will represent 300,000 and
50,000 cfh respectively.
Totalizing the three 100% signals without input scaling and/or biasing
would be like adding apples and oranges. The three signals must be placed
on an equal basis. To do this, the adder/subtractor provides a scaling factor
from 0 to 2.0 Vdc and a Bias value of 0 to 8.0 Vdc.
Figure 7-9
The Role of the Adder/Subtractor in the Loop
Transmitter A

Transmitter C

Transmitter B

A, B, & C
Differential
Pressures

Square
Root
Extractor

Extractor

Calculated
Flow Values
for Flows
A, B, & C

Calculated
Total Flow
Consumption

PV

+/Continued on next page

106

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7.7

Adder/Subtractor,

Adder/Subtractor
calibration
coefficients

Continued

The formula necessary for performing flow totalization in the previous

example is as follows:
Scale =

Individual Max Flow

Flow Total

Using the information provided on the previous page:

FLOW A = 100,000 Cubic Feet per Hour
FLOW B = 300,000 Cubic Feet per Hour
FLOW C = 50,000 Cubic Feet per Hour
In a 100% condition, the TOTAL FLOW will be
FLOW A = 100,000
FLOW B = 300,000
+ FLOW C = 50,000
Total Flow = 450,000
Using the flow signals for each input will yield the necessary scaling
constants.
Scale for A
=

Max Flow A
Flow Total

100,000
450,000

= .22

Scale for B
=

Max Flow B
Flow Total

300,000
450,000

= .67

Scale for C
=

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Max Flow C
Flow Total

50,000
450,000

Process Control Primer

= .11

107

108

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Chapter 8 How to Apply Digital Instrumentation

in Severe Electrical Noise Environments
8.1

Overview

Guideline overview

Products that incorporate digital technology provide recognized

performance advantages over conventional analog instrumentation used
for process control. These advantages can result in better product
uniformity and greater overall efficiency when used correctly.
There are, however, certain guidelines regarding installation and wiring
which must be carefully followed in order to achieve this performance. In
addition to the traditional precaution of the separation of signal and power
wiring in separate conduits, other measures must be taken to minimize the
effects of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI) on the operation of the equipment. Otherwise, if high
level, short duration, noise spikes are permitted to enter the digital
equipment, the noise can be transferred into the systems logic networks
and can be misinterpreted as signal data, resulting in erroneous system
operation and other unpredictable responses.

Whats in this
chapter?

This chapter contains the following information:

Topic

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See Page

8.1

Overview

109

8.2

Potential Noise Sources

110

8.3

Prevention Methods

111

8.4

Recommended Wiring Practices

112

8.5

Power Source Considerations

114

8.6

Noise Suppression at the Source

115

Process Control Primer

109

8.2

Potential Noise Sources

Overview

Noise can enter electronic equipment via three methods of coupling,

namely:
Capacitive (or electrostatic)
Inductive (or magnetic)
Impedance.

Capacitive and
inductive coupling

Capacitive and inductive coupling have the same essential effect they
couple current or voltage, without any actual connection of the two
circuits. Impedance coupling requires a connection between the two
circuits. Typical noise-generating sources that could affect electronic
equipment through capacitive and inductive coupling include:

Impedance-coupled
noise

Relay coils
Solenoids
AC power wires particularly at or above 100 Vac
Current carrying cables
Thyristor field exciters
Radio frequency transmissions.

Impedance-coupled noise may enter by way of the lines used to power the
digital equipment or by way of improper grounding. Most power lines, at
typical industrial locations, are far from noise-free. The noise on them can
be generated in many ways, but are nearly always associated with
switching circuits of some nature.
These include:

110

Large relays
Contactors
Motor starters
Business and industrial machines
Power tools
HID (high intensity discharge) lights
Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) that are phase-angled fired.

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8.3

Prevention Methods

Introduction

There are three ways to prevent electrical noise from interfering with the
operation of the electronic digital equipment.
Built-in noise rejection
Separation of signal and power lines
Noise suppression at source

Built-in noise
rejection

The first method is to design the digital equipment with a high degree of
noise rejection built in. This includes housing the equipment in a case that
will provide shielding, liberal use of noise rejection filters and optoisolators, and the use of noise suppressors on potential noise sources
within the equipment itself. This, of course, is the responsibility of the
manufacturer who usually performs extensive laboratory and field testing
of newly designed digital equipment to insure the adequacy of its
immunity to noise. As a minimum requirement, the equipment should be
able to pass the tests outlined in the IEEE Standard 472-1974 (Surge
Withstand Capacity Tests).

Signal and power line

separation

The second method is to prevent noise from getting on the signal and
power lines that are connected to the equipment. This is achieved by
proper separation and shielding of those lines. In some cases, separate
power lines or special power line regulation or filtering may be required
for satisfactory electronic digital equipment operation. It is the
responsibility of the installer to follow good wiring practices.

Suppression at the
source

The third prevention method is to suppress the noise at its source. This is
the most effective but also the most difficult because it is not easy to
identify all of the potential noise sources in a typical industrial
installation. Therefore, ''suppression'' is usually a last resort for those
extreme situations where the other methods are insufficient by themselves.
See Noise Suppression at Source which follows.

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111

8.4

Recommended Wiring Practices

General rules

All wiring must conform to local codes and practices.

Wires carrying similar types of signals (Table 8-1) may be bundled
together, but bundles with different types of signals must be kept
separate to prevent inductive or capacitive coupling.

Wire bundling

Table 8-1 shows what wiring should be bundled together to prevent

inductive or capacitive coupling.
Table 8-1

External Wiring
Wire Function

No.
1
2
3

6
7

Bundle No.

Are Shielded
Twisted Wires
Recommended?

HIGH VOLTAGE
Line Power
Earth Ground
Line Voltage
Digital I/O

NO

ANALOG I/O
Process Variable
RTD
Thermocouple
dc Millivolts
Low Level (<100V)
4-20 mA dc
1-5 Vdc

YES

DIGITAL I/O
Low Voltage (<100V)
Computer Interface

YES

Type

Continued on next page

112

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8.4

Recommended Wiring Practices,

Additional rules

Continued

Please observe these additional rules for wire bundling:

For distances over five (5) feet, and when shielding is recommended,
use a separate metal tray or conduit for each bundle. Where conduits or
trays are not practical, use twisted wires with a metal overbraid and
provide physical separation of at least one foot.
Tray covers must be in continuous contact with the side rails of the
trays.
When unlike signal levels must cross, either in trays or conduits, they
should cross at a 90-degree angle and at a maximum spacing. Where it
is not possible to provide spacing, a grounded steel barrier or grid
should be placed between the unlike levels at the crossover points.
Trays containing low level wiring should have solid bottoms and sides.
Tray covers must be used for complete shielding. Tray cover contact
with side rails must be positive and continuous to avoid high reluctance
air gaps, which impair shielding. Trays for low level cables should be
metal and solidly grounded.
Wires containing low level signals should not be routed near any of the
following:
Contactors,
Motors,
Generators,
Radio transmitters, and
Wires carrying high current that is being switched on and off.
Use a 12-gage (or heavier) insulated stranded wire for the ground
connection. Attach it firmly to a proven good earth ground such as a
metal stake driven into the ground.
All shields should be grounded at one end only preferably the
instrument end.

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113

8.5

Power Source Considerations

Operate within limits

The AC power for the digital electronic equipment must be within the
voltage and frequency limits specified for that equipment. Attempts to
operate outside the specified limits will result in no performance. For
those installations where the supply voltage will not stay within the
specified limits, a ferroresonant transformer, for voltage resolution, should
be used.

Independent AC
source

For protection against noise, the AC source for the digital electronic
equipment should be independent of all other loads especially when
switching loads are involved. For example, it should not provide power
for air-conditioning, convenience outlets, lighting, motors, or similar
noise- generating devices. To obtain electrical isolation (see Figure 8-1) a
separate transformer is required to supply power to the digital equipment.
For additional noise and transient rejection, shielded primary and
secondary windings may be required. And, if necessary, power line filters
may be added to attenuate noise signals that have a higher frequency than
the power line frequency.

Transformer for digital

equipment

Figure 8-1 is an illustration of a separate transformer required to supply

power to digital equipment.
Figure 8-1

Transformer for Digital Equipment

H
Power source
120/240 Vac
single phase

To digital
electronic
equipment

G
20779

114

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8.6

Noise Suppression at the Source

Introduction

Generally speaking, when good wiring practices are used with welldesigned digital electronic equipment, no further noise protection is
necessary. However, in some severe electrical environments, the
magnitude of the electrical noise is so great that it must be suppressed at
the source. In most control cabinets, the main sources of noise are motor
starters, contactors, relays, and switching gear. For this reason, many
manufacturers of these devices supply surge suppressors which mount
directly on the noise source (for example, on the coil of a control relay or
motor starter).
For those devices that do not have accessory surge suppressors,
resistance-capacitance (RC) circuits and/or voltage limiters such as metal
varistors may be added when and where needed. This can be broken down
into two categories, namely inductive loads (for example, a relay switch
in series with a relay coil) and contacts.

Inductive coils

Metal Oxide Varistors (MOVs) are recommended for transient

suppression in inductive coils. An MOV is connected in parallel with the
coil and is as close as physically possible to the coil (see Figure 8-2).
MOV devices (listed in Table 8-2) are recommended for general purpose
applications.
Table 8-2 lists part numbers for recommended MOV devices.
Table 8-2

MOV Devices

Part Number

30732481-501

30732481-502

Maximum AC

130V

275V

Energy Pulse Rating

10 Joules

15 Joules

Supplier (General Electric)

V130LA10A

V275LA15A

Continued on next page

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115

8.6

Noise Suppression at the Source, Continued

Inductive coils,
continued

Figure 8-2 is an illustration of transient suppression in inductive coils.

Figure 8-2

Transient Suppression in Inductive Coils

Metal
oxide
varistor
A.C.
supply

0.5 mfd
1000V

Relay coil
or
solenoid

220
ohms

20780

Additional protection may be provided by adding an RC circuit in parallel

with the MOV. This consists of a 220-ohm resistor in series with a 0.5
microfarad, 1000V capacitor. The power rating of the resistor will depend
on the voltage rating of the coil (see Table 8-3).
Table 8-3

Coil Voltage vs Resistor Voltage Rating

Coil Voltage

Resistor Voltage Rating

115V

1/4 Watt

230V

1 Watt

460V

3 Watt

550V

5 Watt

Continued on next page

116

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8.6
Contacts

Noise Suppression at the Source,

Continued

When a contact interrupts an inductive load, a certain amount of energy is

stored in the load. An MOV or RC circuit in parallel with the load
provides a place where this energy may be dissipated. However, if there is
no MOV or RC circuit, the energy may create a visible electrical arc
across the open contacts. This, in turn, results in electrical noise as well as
damage to the contacts.
One way to eliminate this arc is to connect a resistor and capacitor across
the contacts (see Figure 8-3). A combination of 47 ohms and 0.1
microfarads (1000 Vdc) is recommended for circuits up to 3 amps and 300
Vac. For voltages above 2000 Vac, an MOV across the contact may be
added for extra protection.
Figure 8-3 is an illustration of a resistor and capacitor connected across a
contact to eliminate electrical noise.
Figure 8-3

Contact Noise Suppression

MOV

A.C.
supply

Inductive
load

20781

For large load currents, a rule of thumb is to size the capacitor so that the
number of microfarads equals the number of amperes in the load current,
and the resistor has the same resistance value as the load. The objective is
to eliminate the visible arc.
Either discrete resistors and capacitors or packaged RC networks may be
used. An RC network (47 ohms and 0.1 microfarad) is available from
Honeywell as part number 30371852-001. Similar RC networks are
available from Electrocube Inc. (part number RG1782-3) and from
Industrial Condensor Corporation.
Continued on next page

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117

8.6

Noise Suppression at the Source,

Contacts, continued

Continued

In DC circuits, the power dissipation under steady state condition can be

eliminated by placing a diode (in series with a resistor) in parallel with the
load (see Figure 8-4). The value of R should be less than or equal to the
DC resistance of the inductive load.
Figure 8-4 is an illustration of DC load noise suppression.
Figure 8-4

DC Load Noise Suppression

D.C.
supply

R
Inductive
load
Diode

20782

118

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GLOSSARY
Amplifier a device used to increase the magni-

tude of a small input signal to proportions sufficient to perform some desirable function.

Absolute Pressure the sum of gauge pressure

plus atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressure
can be zero only in a perfect vacuum.

Accuracy the degree of conformity of an

indicated value to a recognized accepted
standard value or ideal value.

Amplitude Ratio the size-relationship

between two quantities obtained by dividing one
size by another; specifically, the ratio of peak
height of an output signal to the peak height of a
related signal.

Analog Input a continuous variable input.

Accutune continually (or On-demand) adjusts

the Gain or Proportional Band (P), Rate (I), and
Reset Time (D) tuning constants in response to
setpoint changes and/or Process Variable
disturbances.

Atmospheric Pressure Compensation the

value of the atmospheric pressure of the process
when using the Relative Humidity algorithm.

Auto Bias is used for bumpless transfer when

transferring from local setpoint to remote setpoint. Auto Bias calculates and adds a bias to
remote Setpoint input each time a transfer is
mode.

Actuation Signal the setpoint minus the

controlled variable at a given instant.

Actuator a controlled motor, relay, or solenoid

in which the electric energy is converted into a
rotary, linear, or switching action. An actuator
can effect a change in the controlled variable by
operating the final control elements a number of
times. Valves and dampers are examples of
mechanisms which can be controlled by actuators. Also see Proportional, Spring Return, and
Two-Position Actuators.

Adaptive Tune changes control parameters

according to current process conditions. It
identifies process gains and time that can be
used to improve the response of a control loop.

Alarm an audible device or visible signal

indicating a malfunction or off-normal condition.

Automatic Control a system that reacts to a

change or unbalance in one of its variables by
adjusting the other variables to restore the
system to the desired balance.

Automatic Control Valve an electrically

operated valve which combines a valve body and
a valve actuator or motor. A signal from some
remote point can energize the actuator or motor
to open or close the valve, or to proportion the
rate of flow through the valve.

Automatic Mode the controller will operate

from the local or remote setpoint and
automatically adjust the output to maintain the
setpoint at the desired value.

Alarm Circuit an electrical circuit that includes

Autotune automatically calculates Gain (PB),

a bell, horn, or similar device to signal an unsafe

condition.

Rate (Derivative), and Reset (Integral) Time

tuning constants on demand. These tuning
constants are calculated at the end of the
Autotune procedure based on the output step
introduced onto the process.

Algorithm a prescribed set of well defined

rules or processes for the solution of a problem
in a finite number of steps.

Ambient Temperature the temperature of

the air surrounding the equipment.

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Process Control Primer

119

GLOSSARY
Auxiliary Output generally a millivolt or
voltage out that can be configured to represent a
controller parameter (such as PV, an Input,
setpoint, deviation or the control output). The
range of the auxiliary output can be easily scaled
by the operator.

Cascade Control control action where the

output of one controller is the setpoint of another
controller. It can be used in a controller using two
loops of control.

Chassis a sheetmetal box, frame, or single plate

on which the components of a device are
mounted; the assembled frame and parts.

Closed Loop the complete signal path in a

Bargraph a vertical or horizontal display of

discrete bars that represent the Setpoint, Output,
or Deviation.

Baud transmission speed in bits per second.

Bias is used to compensate the input for drift of
an input value due to deterioration of a sensor,
or some other cause.

control system; represented as a group of units

connected to a process in such a manner that a
signal started at any point follows a closed path
and comes back to that point. The signal path
includes a forward path, a feedback signal, and a
summary point.

Communications Address a number that is

assigned to an instrument that will be its address
in a communications message exchange.

Configuration a dedicated operation where

Bumpless Transfer change from manual

mode to automatic mode of control, or vice
versa, without change in control signal to the
process.

you use straightforward keystroke sequences to

select and establish pertinent control data best
suited for your application.

Burnout (Sensor Break Protection) if the

Control Action the nature of the change of the

input fails, the indicated PV signal will increase

(Upscale) or decrease (Downscale) with some
indication on the operator interface.

Control Element a component of a control

system that reacts to manipulate a process
attribute when stimulated by an actuating signal.

Calibrate the procedure used to adjust the

instrument for proper response (for example:
Zero, Span, Alarm, and Range).

Capacitance the change in energy or material

required to make a unit change in a measured
variable.

Capacitive Load a leading load; a load that is

predominantly capacitive, so that the alternating
current leads the alternating voltage, i.e., the
voltage does not change direction until after the
corresponding current does.
120

output effected by the input. The output may be

a signal or the value of a manipulated variable.
The input may be an actuating error signal, the
output of another controller, or the control loop
feedback signal when the setpoint is constant.

Controlled Medium the substance (usually

air, water, or steam) whose characteristics (such
as temperature, pressure, flow rate, volume,
level, or concentration) are being controlled.

Controlled System the system made up of all

equipment in which the controlled variable exists,
but which does not include the automatic control
equipment.

Process Control Primer

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GLOSSARY
Controlled Variable that quantity or condition
of a controlled medium which is measured and
controlled. For example, temperature, pressure,
flow rate, volume, level, or concentration.

d
Damping the progressive reduction or sup-

Controller a device which senses and

measures changes in the controlled variable and
indirectly acts to maintain the controlled variable
within present limits.

pression of oscillation in a device or system. It is

built into electrical circuits and mechanical systems to prevent rapid or excessive corrections
which may lead to instability or oscillatory
conditions.

Control Mode designates the mode in which

the controller will operate (such as Manual.
Automatic with Local Setpoint, Automatic with
Remote Setpoint, Manual-Cascade, AutomaticCascade)

Deadband is an adjustable gap between the

Control Point the value of the controlled vari-

Derivative Action a type of control-system

able which the controller operates to maintain.

Also see Setpoint.

CSA Approval Canadian Standards

operating ranges of output 1 and output 2 in

which neither output operates (positive value) or
both outputs operate (negative value).

action in which a predetermined relation exists

between the position of the final control element
and the derivative of the controlled variable with
respect to time.

Association approval.

Deviation the difference between the setpoint

Current Duplex similar to current proportional
but provides a second current output (split
range) or a second current output via the
auxiliary output for heat cool zones.

and the value of the controlled variable at any

instant.

Differential the smallest range through which

Current Simplex supplies proportional direct

current output for the final control element which
require a 4 to 20 mA signal.

Current/Time (Relay) Duplex a variation of

duplex with current active for 50% output and
relay active for 50% output.

Cycle Time the length of one time proportional

the controller variable must pass in order to

move the final control element from one to the
other of its two possible positions, such as from
ON to OFF.

Differential Gap the smallest increment of

change in a controlled variable required to cause
the final control element in a two-position control
system to move from one position to its
alternative position.

output relay cycle.

Digital Control Programmer executes

program control (setpoint programming) of
process temperature, pressure, flow, rotation
speed, and other variables.

Digital Filter an algorithm which reduces

undesirable frequencies in the signal.

Digital Input information or data in digital form

transferred or to be transferred from an external
device into a computer or individual device.

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Process Control Primer

121

GLOSSARY
Direct Acting Control in this control action,
the controllers output increases as the
process variable increases.
Disturbance an undesired change in a variable

f
Failsafe Output the output value to which the

applied to a system which tends to affect

adversely the value of a controlled variable.

DMCS Communications a communication

link between Honeywell devices and a Honeywell
supplied interface device capable of communicating via RS232 communications protocol with a
host computer.

Dropoff Value output value that below which

the controller output will dropoff to the low output
limit value that was configured.

device will go to protect against the effects of

failure of the equipment, such as, fuel shut-off in
the event of loss of flame in a furnace or a
sensor break.

Feedback Control an error driven control system in which the control signal to the actuators is
proportional to the difference between a command signal and a feedback signal from the process variable being controlled. Also see Control.

Feedforward Control a method of control

Duplex Control a control in which two
independent control elements share a common
input signal for the operation of separate final
control elements both of which influence the
value of the controlled condition.

that compensates for a disturbance before its

effect is felt in the output. It is based on a model
that relates the output to the input where the
disturbance occurs. In distillation the
disturbances are usually feed rate and feed
compositions. Steady-state feedforward models
are usually combined with dynamic
compensation functions to set the manipulative
variables and combined with feedback
adjustment (trim) to correct for control modelaccuracy constraints. Also see Control.

Eight Segment Characterizer provides an

8-segment piecewise linear function generator
which can approximate almost any curve shape
(i.e., linearizing a process variable,
characterizing a remote setpoint, or changing the
opening characteristics of an installed control
valve).

Feedforward Multiplier a feedforward algorithm that calculates a new output signal by

multiplying the computed PID output value the
the feedfoward signal (Input A) [i.e., Output
Signal = PID Output x (Input A x Ratio A +
Bias A)]. It then sends the resultant value to the

final control element.

EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) any

spurious effect produced in the circuits or
element of a device by external electromagnetic
fields.

Emissivity for radiamatic inputs. A radiamatic

pyrometer converts radiant energy emitted by a
target into electrical energy. Emissivity is a correction factor applied to the radiamatic input signal that is the ratio of the actual energy emitted
from the target to the energy which would be
emitted if the target were a perfect radiator.

122

Feedforward Summer uses Input A, following

a Ratio and Bias calculation as a value summed
directly with the PID computed output value [i.e.,
Controller Output = PID Output + (Input A x
Ratio A + Bias A)]. The result is sent as an output

value to the final control element. Applies to

Loop 1 only. This algorithm will only function in
the automatic mode.

Fieldbus a bus that interconnects process

control sensors, actuators, and control devices.

Process Control Primer

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GLOSSARY
Field Wiring wiring that must be done at the
installation site (in addition to factory wiring) in
order to complete an installation.

h
Hertz (Hz) a unit of frequency equal to one

Final Control Element the device that

directly controls the manipulated variable of a
control loop.

cycle per second.

High Limit a controller which shuts down the

First-Order Lag a term used to describe the
signal-delaying and signal-size-changing effects
of a part of the control loop. The name comes
from the form of the equation which represents
the relation between output and input. The
effects are evaluated by a Time Constant.

FM Approval Factory Mutual Association

system if a condition exceeds its maximum value

for safe operation. See Limit.

High Output Limit the highest value of

output beyond which you do not want the
controller automatic output to exceed.

High Reset Limit the highest value of output

beyond which you want no reset to occur.

approval.

Frequency the number of recurrences of a

periodic phenomenon in a unit of time, usually
expressed in hertz (Hz).

Frequency Response the response of a

component, instrument, or control system to
input signals at varying frequencies.

Hysteresis an adjustable overlap of the

ON/OFF states of each control output or alarm.

i
Inductive Load a lagging load; a load that is
predominantly inductive, so that the alternating
current lags behind the alternating voltage; i.e.,
the current does not change direction until after
the voltage does.

g
Gain the ratio of the change in output to the
change in input which caused the change. The
reciprocal of Proportional Band.

Input signals taken in by an input interface as

indicators of the condition of the process being
controlled.

Gain Scheduling predefined separate GAIN

tuning values automatically applied to predefined
process variable regions.

Input High Selector algorithm that specifies

the PV or SP as the higher of two separate
inputs.

Guaranteed Soak guarantees that a setpoint

programming segments process variable is
within deviation for the configured soak time.
Whenever the deviation is exceeded, soak
timing is frozen.

Input Low Selector algorithm that specifies

the PV or SP as the lower of two separate
inputs.

Integral Action a type of controller function

where the output (control) signal or action is a
time integral of the input signal.

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123

GLOSSARY
Integrator a device whose output is
proportional to the integral of the input variable
with respect to time.

Interference, electromagnetic any spurious

effect produced in the circuits or elements of a
device by external electromagnetic fields. Also
see RFI.

l
Lag a relative measure of time delay between
two events, states, or mechanisms.

Latching Relay real device or program

Internal Cascade a control system composed
of two loops where the SP of one loop (inner
loop) is the output of the other loop (outer loop).

element that retains a changed state without

power.

Limit a controller which continuously monitors a

Intrinsic Safety a method to provide safe
operation of electric process control
instrumentation where hazardous atmospheres
exist.

ISA Instrument Society of America

Isolated Circuit a circuit in which the current,
with the equipment at reference-test conditions,
to any other circuit or conductive part does not
exceed the limit for leakage current.

condition (such as temperature, pressure, or

liquid level) in a controlled medium and responds
immediately to shut down the system if a dangerous, predetermined condition occurs. It is
normally set beyond the operating range of the
controlled equipment.

Limit Control a sensing device that shuts

down an operation or terminates a process step
when a prescribed limiting condition is reached.

Linearity closeness of a calibration curve to a

specified straight line. Linearity is expressed as
the maximum deviation of any calibration point
on a specified straight line, during any one
calibration cycle. It is expressed as within __
percent of full scale output.

j
Jumper a short length of wire used to compete
a circuit temporarily or to bypass part of a circuit.
Also, the action of using a jumper.

Local Automatic Mode in this mode, the

Local Setpoint setpoint determined by the

controller operates from the local setpoint and

automatically adjusts the output to maintain the
setpoint at the desired value.

controller or recorder.

Knockout a removable portion in the side of a

box or cabinet. During installation, it can be
readily taken out with a hammer, screwdriver, or
pliers so wires, cables, or fittings can be
attached.

Lockout any condition which prevents any

unauthorized configuration or calibration
changes.

Logic Gate used in solving math problems

through a repeated use of simple functions which
define basic concepts (i.e., AND, OR, NOR,
etc.).

Loopback tests communications hardware.

124

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GLOSSARY
Loop Rate loop sampling rate for any input
selectable from 3 to 12 conversions per second.

Low Limit a controller which shuts down the

system if a condition drops below its minimum
value for safe operation. See Limit.

Low Output Limit the lowest value of output

below which you do not want the controller
automatic output to exceed.

o
Offset a sustained deviation between the actual
control point and the setpoint under stable
operating conditions.

On/Off Control is the simplest control type.

the output can be either ON(100%) or OFF(0%)

Low Reset Limit the lowest value of output

Open Collector type of relay output.

beyond which you want no reset to occur.

Open Loop a control system in which there is

no self-correcting action for misses of the desired
operational condition,as there is in a closed-loop
system

m
Manual Mode controller does not adjust the
output for changes in SP or PV; output can be
changed manually.

Minutes Per Repeat the time between each

Parity a binary digit added to a group of bits to

repeat of the proportional action by reset.

make the sum of all the bits always odd (odd

parity) or even (even parity)to verify data storage
and transmission.

PD with Manual Reset is used whenever

NEMA Rating consensus standards for

electrical equipment approved by the majority of
the members of the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association.

Noise an unwanted component of a signal or

variable which obscures the information content.
Also see Interference, electromagnetic.

Nonlinearity signifies that the relationship

between the output and input is not
representable by a single straight line.

integral action is not wanted for automatic

control. The equation is computed with no
integral contribution. The manual reset , which is
operator adjustable, is then added to the present
output to form the controller output.

PID A Algorithm control algorithm normally

used for three mode control. The output can be
adjusted somewhere between 100% and 0%. It
applies all three control actions- - Proportional,
Integral, and derivative -- to the error signal

PID B Algorithm control algorithm normally

used for three mode control. The controller gives
only an integral response to setpoint change,
with no effect o, and it gives full response to PV
changes.n the output due to the gain or rate
action

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Process Control Primer

125

GLOSSARY
Position Proportioning Control type of
control that uses two SPDT relays and a motor
which has a 100 to 1000 ohm feedback
slidewire.

r
Ramp Segment the time it takes to change the

Pot short for potentiometer.

setpoint to the next setpoint value in the

program.

Potentiometer an electromechanical device

consisting of a resistive element with a terminal
at each end, and a third terminal connected to
the wiper contact. As the wiper moves along the
element, it changes the resistance in each leg
(portion of the element between each end
terminal and the wiper). Thus, the electrical input
or output can be changed mechanically.

Power Up Mode Recall determines which

mode and setpoint the controller will use when
the controller restarts after a power loss.

Pressure Controller a controller which

monitors the pressure of steam, air, gases, or
liquids, and operates to keep the pressure within
predetermined limits. It may operate as a
pressure switch (ON-OFF), or it may be a
proportioning controller.

Ramp Time the time it takes for a setpoint

ramp to reach the next or final setpoint.

Range the region between the limits within

which a quantity is measured , received, or
transmitted, expressed by stating the lower and
upper range values.

Rate Action (Derivative Control) produces

a corrective signal proportional to the rate at
which the controlled variable is changing. It
produces a corrective action faster than
proportional action alone.

Rate Time in the action of a proportional-plus

rate or proportional-plus reset-plus-rate
controller, the time by which the rate action
advances the proportional action on the
controlled device.

Process the manufacturing operations which

use energy measurable by some quality such as
temperature, pressure, or flow, to produce
changes in quality or quantity of some material or
energy.

Process Variable any characteristic or

measurable attribute whose value changes with
changes in prevailing conditions.

Proportional Band is the percent of the range

of the measured variable for which a proportional
controller will produce a 100% change in its
output. The reciprocal of Gain.

Proportional Control a control mode in

which there is a continual linear relationship the
deviation in the controller, the signal of the
controller, and the position of the final control
element.

126

Reference Junction a thermocouple junction

which is at a known or reference temperature.

Relative Humidity the ratio of the amount of

water vapor contained in the air at a given
temperature and pressure to the maximum
amount it could contain at the same temperature
and pressure under saturated conditions.

Relay an electromechanical device with

contacts that open and/or close when its coil is
energized or de-energized in response to a
change in the conditions of the electrical circuit.
The operation of the contacts affect the
operation of other devices in the same circuit or
in other circuits.

Relay Chatter noise due to the rapid opening

and closing of relay contacts.

Process Control Primer

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GLOSSARY
Remote Automatic Mode the controller will
operate from a remote setpoint, usually other
than input 1.

Remote Setpoint a setpoint generated

Run Period the period of time after ignition

trials and before the operating setpoint is
reached during which the main burner is firing.
(In a flame safeguard programming control, the
timer stops.)

externally from the controller or recorder.

Remote Switching (Digital Input) detects

the state of external contacts but responds
according to how the switching input is
configured.

s
Sensor Break Protection (Burnout) will

Repeatability the ability of a controller or interlock to maintain a constant setpoint

characteristic.

make the indicated PV signal increase (upscale)

or decrease (downscale) when a sensor fails.

Setpoint Program individual Ramps and Soak

Repeats Per Minute unit of Reset Rate.

Segments needed to generate the required

setpoint versus time profile.

Reset Action adjusts the controllers output in

accordance with both the size of the deviation
(SP-PV) and the time it lasts.

Setpoint Ramp a ramp that can be configured

to occur between the current local setpoint and a
final local setpoint over a time interval.

Reset Rate (Integral Action Rate) the

number of repeats per minute or minutes per
repeat that the proportional response of a two or
three mode controller to a step input is repeated
by the initial integral response.

Setpoint Rate a specific rate of change for any

local setpoint change.

Setpoint Tracking the local setpoint will track

either the PV or the remote setpoint and will use
that value when transfer is made.

Resistance the opposition to the flow of

electricity in an electric circuit measured in ohms.

Shed Mode determines the mode of local

Resolution the minimum detectable change of
some variable in a measurement system.

Response the change in output in relation to the

control that the units will go to when there is

shed from communication.

Shed Time this number represents the number

of sample periods there will be before the
instrument sheds from communications.

change of input.

Reverse Acting Control control in which the

value of the output signal decreases as the value
of the input (measured variable or controlled
variable) increases.

Short a short circuit. Also, to intentionally

bypass part of a circuit with a jumper.

Short Circuit an abnormal connection of relaRFI (Radio Frequency Interference) a type

of electrical noise that can affect electronic
circuits adversely.

RS422/485 Communication a standard for

serial data transmission.

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tively low resistance between two points of a circuit, resulting in a flow of excess (often
damaging) current between these two points.

Signal a physical variable, one or more of which

carry information about another variable (which
the signal represents).

Process Control Primer

127

GLOSSARY
Single Setpoint Ramp occurs between the
current local setpoint and a final setpoint over a
time interval.

Soak Segment a combination of a soak

setpoint (value) and a soak duration (time) in
Setpoint programming.

Specific Gravity the ratio of the weight or

mass of a given volume of a substance to that of
the same volume of a standard (water for liquids
and solids; air or hydrogen for gases) at the
same temperature; abbreviated sp. gr., s.g., or
G.

Thermocouple a device for measuring

temperature consisting of two electrical
conductors of dissimilar metals joined at a point,
called the hot junction. When heat is applied to
the hot junction, a voltage directly proportional
to the temperature is developed across the
output.

Three Position Step Control an algorithm

which is an extension of the ON/OFF Duplex
control and includes internal feedback of the
state of the relays. The effect of the control
action is that the ON and OFF time of the output
relay change in proportion to the error signal and
the Gain and reset time settings.

Split Range Control action in which two or

more signals are generated or two or more final
control elements are actuated by an input signal.

Time Constant time required for the output of

a First Order Lag device to reach a percentage
of its final value for a step change in input.

Stability the ability of an electronic device or

circuit to maintain specified operating characteristics over extended periods of service.

Time/Current Duplex a variation of duplex

with Current active for 50 to 100% output and
Time active for 0 to 50% output.

Static Pressure the steady state pressure

applied to a device, in the case of a differential
pressure device, the process pressure applied
equally to both connections.

Step Change the change from one value to

Time Proportioning Duplex an Output algorithm that uses two SPDT relays for Time Duplex
Proportional Control. Its normally open (NO) or
normally closed (NC) contacts are selected by
positioning an internal jumper.

another in a single increment in negligible time.

Time Proportioning Simplex an Output

Switch a mechanical or electrical device that
makes or breaks contacts to either complete or
open an electrical circuit; may be automatic or
manual.

System a set or arrangement of things so

algorithm that uses one SPDT relay for Time

Proportional Control. Its normally open (NO) or
normally closed (NC) contacts are selected by
positioning an internal jumper.

Totalizer calculates and displays the total flow

related or connected as to form a unity or

organized whole; a collection of consecutive
operations and procedures required to
accomplish a specific objective.

volume as measured by the input or derived by

an input algorithm.

Transducer any device or component that

converts an input signal of one form to an output
signal of another form.

Transmitter Characterization instructs the

controller or recorder to characterize a linear
input to represent a non-linear one.

Temperature Units medium of temperature

indication or display (usually F or C).

128

Process Control Primer

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GLOSSARY
Tuning The adjustment of control constants in
algorithms or analog controllers to produce the
desired control effect.

Two Loop Control two independent loops of

z
Zero Shift A shift in the instrument calibrated
span evidenced by a change in the zero value.
Usually caused by temperature changes,
overrange, or vibration of the instrument.

control or internal cascade control.

u
UL Approval approved by Underwriters
Laboratories, an independent testing and
certifying organization.

Upload/Download Data or program transfer,

usually from a computer to a controller or
recorder and vice-versa.

v
Valve Positioner A position controller, which is
mechanically connected to a moving part of a
valve or its actuator, and automatically adjusts its
output pressure to the actuator in order to maintain a desired position that bears a predetermined relationship to the input signal.

Variable, Measured The process condition

(such as temperature or pressure) selected to
represent the state of material which is being
made or processed.

w
Weighted Average the controller combines
two inputs and computes a PV for the control
algorithm.

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Process Control Primer

129

GLOSSARY

130

Process Control Primer

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Index

A
AC power, 114
ACCUTUNE II, 56, 58
Adder/Subtractor, 105
Adder/Subtractor Calibration Coefficients, 107
Adder/Subtractor in the Loop, 106
Advanced Control Concepts, 61
Algorithms, 37
Ambient temperature, 3
Analog Override Control Strategies, 85
Atmospheric pressure, 3
Automatic control, 6
Automatic Reset, 29
Auxiliary Electronic Integration, 93

B
Bias value, 106
Bias Voltage, 101
Biasing constants, 100
British Thermal Unit, 98

C
Capacitance, 15, 16
Capacitive, 110
Capacitive and inductive coupling, 110
Capacity versus Capacitance, 15
Cascade Control, 65
Closed Loop verses Open Loop, 9
Coil voltage vs resistor voltage, 116
Contact Noise Suppression, 117
Controller, 8
Controller Selection Guidelines, 34
Critically damped curve, 22
Cycle time, 41

D
Damping, 21
Damping Factor, 22
DC Load Noise Suppression, 118
Dead Time, 19, 22, 35
Deadband, 39, 41, 46
Definition of flow, 99
Demand Tuning, 56
Derivative, 40
Derivative Time, 31
Differential pressure, 99
Differential pressure signal, 94
Differential pressure transmitter, 62
Direct Acting Control, 38
Display , 8
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Disturbances, 3
Duplex On-Off control, 39
Duplex Tuning, 57
Dynamic Feedforward, 76

E
Electrical isolation, 114
Electromagnetic interference, 109
Electropneumatic transducer, 62
Error Generator, 8

F
Feedback Control Loop, 4, 63
Feedback Control Loop Components, 7
Feedback slidewire, 45
Feedforward, 73
Feedforward Block Diagram, 73
Feedforward control, 71
Final Control Element, 8
First order lag, 20, 22
Flow measurement, 99
Flow signals, 107
Flow totalization, 107
Fluid temperature, 99
Frequency, 21
Fuzzy Overshoot Suppression, 56, 59

G
Gain, 27

H
Heat/cool control, 57
Heating or cooling cycle, 41
Hysteresis, 46
Hysteresis Band, 25, 38

I,J,K
Impedance, 110
Impedance coupled noise, 110
Inductive, 110
Inductive coils, 115
Initialization computations, 47
Input signal conditioner, 102
Instrumentation, 12
Integral, 40
Integral time, 30, 46
Integrators, 90
Introduction, 1

Process Control Primer

131

Index
Process disturbances, 64
Process Energy Flow, 2
Process Industries, 1
Process lags, 14
Process load, 13
Process Reaction Curve, 20, 52
Process Reaction Rate, 35
Process Variables, 1
Processes, 1
Proportional, 40
Proportional + Reset (Integral) Control, 29
Proportional + Reset + Rate (3 Mode) Control, 33
Proportional Band, 27
Proportional Band 20%, 27
Proportional Band 200%, 28
Proportional Control, 26, 34
Proportional Control Action, 26
Proportional control limitations, 28
Proportional plus Rate, 31
Proportional plus reset and rate, 35
Proportional-plus-reset, 34

L
Load Change Example, 13
Load changes, 12, 35

M
Manual Integration, 90
Manual reset, 28, 44
Manual Tuning, 50
Mass flow calculation, 99
Mass Flow Measurement, 97
Minimum Overshoot, 53
Mode of Control, 35
Modes Of Control, 23
MOV devices., 115
Multiplier/divider, 96

N
Neutral zone, 25
Noise, 109
Noise rejection, 111
Noise Sources, 110

Q
Quarter Amplitude Decay, 53

ON-OFF, 34
On-Off Control, 24
On-Off Control Action, 25
ON/OFF, 38
OPEN LOOP, 9
Oscillations, 21
Output limiting computations, 47
Overdamped curve, 22
Override selectors, 85

P
P (Single Mode) control., 44
Parallel Systems, 80
PD (Two Mode) control,, 44
PD WITH MANUAL RESET, 44
Physical quantities, 1
PID A, 40
PID A with integral action inside the proportional
band, 42
PID-A duplex control, 41
PID-B, 43
Power line filters, 114
Power Source Considerations, 114
Predictive Feedforward Control, 71
Primary Element or Sensor, 8
Process, 8, 12
Process Characteristics, 11, 14, 35, 49

132

Radio frequency interference, 109

Rate, 44
Rate action, 32, 35
Rate Action Response to a Step Change, 32
Rate Time, 31
Ratio Control Loop, 78
Ratio relay adjustment., 82
Ratio relay i, 62
Ratio System with Interlock, 82, 83
RC circuit in parallel with the MOV, 116
Reaction curve method, 51
Repeats per Minute, 30
Reset action, 29, 30
Reset limiting computations, 47
Reset Mode, 29
Reset Time, 29, 30, 44
Resistance, 18
Resistor Voltage, 116

S
Scaling and Bias Constants, 100
Scaling factor, 100, 106
Second order lags, 21
Secondary control loop, 66
Series system, 78
Series system with Ratio Relays, 79

Proces Control Primer

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Index

Setpoint, 3
Setpoint Tuning, 56
Shielding, 113
Signal and power line separation, 111
Signal selector., 62
Square root extractor, 62, 94, 104
Static pressure, 96, 99
Static systems, 75
Suppression at the source, 111
Surge suppressors, 115
System Component Descriptions, 62

Weighted average computations, 48

Wire bundling, 112
Wiring Practices, 112

Temperature measurement, 101

Thermocouple, 21
Three mode controller, 33, 63
Three position step control algorithm, 45
Totalizing of flow signals, 94
Transformer for digital equipment, 114
Transient Suppression in Inductive Coils, 116
Transmitter, 8
Tuning, 49
Tuning technique, 49

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Ultimate cycling method, 52

Underdamped curve, 22

V
Validity of the signal conditioner, 103

W,X,Y,Z

Process Control Primer

133

Index

134

Proces Control Primer

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Sensing and Control

Honeywell
11 West Spring Street
Freeport, IL 61032
0600 Printed in USA

www.honeywell.com/sensing