A cement and concrete industry publication

How to Design Concrete

Structures using Eurocode 2
A J Bond MA MSc DIC PhD MICE CEng T Harrison BSc PhD CEng MICE FICT R S Narayanan FREng
O Brooker BEng CEng MICE MIStructE R M Moss BSc PhD DIC CEng MICE MIStructE R Webster CEng FIStructE
A J Harris BSc MSc DIC MICE CEng FGS
Foreword
The introduction of European standards to UK construction is a significant event. The ten design standards, known
as the Eurocodes, will affect all design and construction activities as current British Standards for design are due
to be withdrawn in 2010 at the latest. BS 8110, however, has an earlier withdrawal date of March 2008. The aim
of this publication is to make the transition to Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures as easy as possible by
drawing together in one place key information and commentary required for the design and detailing of typical
concrete elements.

The cement and concrete industry recognised that a substantial effort was required to ensure that the UK design
profession would be able to use Eurocode 2 quickly, effectively, efficiently and with confidence. With support
from government, consultants and relevant industry bodies, the Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group (CIEG)
was formed in 1999 and this Group has provided the guidance for a co-ordinated and collaborative approach to
the introduction of Eurocode 2. Part of the output of the CIEG project was the technical content for 7 of the 11
chapters in this publication. The remaining chapters have been developed by The Concrete Centre.

Acknowledgements
The content of Chapters 1 and 3 to 8 were produced as part of the project Eurocode 2: transition from UK to
European concrete design standards. This project was part funded by the DTI under the Partners in Innovation
scheme. The lead partner was British Cement Association. The work was carried out under the guidance of the
Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group and overseen by a Steering Group of the CIEG (members are listed on inside
back cover).
Particular thanks are due to Robin Whittle, technical editor to the CEN/TC 250/SC2 committee (the committee
responsible for structural Eurocodes), who has reviewed and commented on the contents. Thanks are also due to
John Kelly and Chris Clear who have contributed to individual chapters.

Gillian Bond, Issy Harvey, Kevin Smith and the designers at Media and Design Associates and Michael Burbridge Ltd
have also made essential contributions to the production of this publication.

Published by The Concrete Centre

Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach, Blackwater, Camberley, Surrey GU17 9AB
Tel: +44 (0)1276 606800 Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801 www.concretecentre.com

CCIP–006
Published December 2006
ISBN 1-904818-4-1
Price Group P
© The Concrete Centre. Joint copyright with British Cement Association for Chapters 1 and 3 to 8.

Permission to reproduce extracts from British Standards is granted by British Standards Institution.
British Standards can be obtained from BSI Customer Services, 389 Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL.
Tel: +44 (0)20 8996 9001 email: cservices@bsi-global.com

CCIP publications are produced on behalf of the Cement and Concrete Industry Publications Forum – an industry
initiative to publish technical guidance in support of concrete design and construction.

CCIP publications are available from the Concrete Bookshop at www.concrete bookshop.com
Tel: +44(0)7004-607777
All advice or information from The Concrete Centre (TCC), British Cement Association (BCA) and Quarry Products Association (QPA) is intended for
those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for
negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or information is accepted by TCC, BCA and OPA or their subcontractors, suppliers or advisors. Readers
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Printed by Michael Burbridge Ltd, Maidenhead.

How to Design Concrete
Structures using Eurocode 2

Contents
1. Introduction to Eurocodes 1
2. Getting started 9
3. Slabs 17
4. Beams 25
5. Columns 33
6. Foundations 43
7. Flat slabs 51
8. Deflection calculations 59
9. Retaining walls 67
10. Detailing 79
11. BS 8500 for building structures 91
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
1. Introduction to Eurocodes
R S Narayanan FREng O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

The Eurocode family

This chapter shows how to use Eurocode 21 with the other Eurocodes. In
particular it introduces Eurocode: Basis of structural design2 and Eurocode 1:
Actions on structures3 and guides the designer through the process of
determining the design values for actions on a structure. It also gives a brief
overview of the significant differences between the Eurocodes and BS 81104,
(which will be superseded) and includes a glossary of Eurocode terminology.

The development of the Eurocodes started in 1975; since then they have
evolved significantly and are now claimed to be the most technically
advanced structural codes in the world. The many benefits of using Eurocode 2
are summarised below. There are ten Eurocodes covering all the main structural
materials (see Figure 1). They are produced by the European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), and will replace existing national standards in 28
countries.

Each country is required to publish a Eurocode with a national title page and
forward but the original text of the Eurocode must appear as produced by
CEN as the main body of the document. A National Annex (NA) can be
included at the back of the document (see Figure 2). Throughout this
publication it is assumed that the UK National Annexes will be used.

Table 1 details which existing standards relating to concrete design will be

replaced by the new Eurocodes. During the implementation period it is
recommended that existing standards are considered for use where the
European standards have not yet been issued.

Benefits of using Eurocode 2

Learning to use the new Eurocodes will require time and effort on
behalf of the designer, so what benefits will there be?
1. The new Eurocodes are claimed to be the most technically
advanced codes in the world.
2. Eurocode 2 should result in more economic structures than
BS 8110.
3. The Eurocodes are logical and organised to avoid repetition.
4. Eurocode 2 is less restrictive than existing codes.
5. Eurocode 2 is more extensive than existing codes.
6. Use of the Eurocodes will provide more opportunity for designers
to work throughout Europe.
7. In Europe all public works must allow the Eurocodes to be used.
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 1
The Eurocodes Eurocode: Basis of
BS EN 1990, Eurocode:
Basis of structural design
Structural safety,
serviceability and durability
structural design
BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: This Eurocode underpins all structural design irrespective of the
Actions on structures
Actions on structures material of construction. It establishes principles and requirements for
safety, serviceability and durability of structures. (Note, the correct title
BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Concrete
BS EN 1993, Eurocode 3: Steel
is Eurocode not Eurocode 0.) The Eurocode uses a statistical approach
BS EN 1994, Eurocode 4: Composite Design and detailing to determine realistic values for actions that occur in combination with
BS EN 1995, Eurocode 5: Timber
BS EN 1996, Eurocode 6: Masonry each other.
BS EN 1999, Eurocode 9: Aluminium

Geotechnical
There is no equivalent British Standard for Eurocode: Basis of structural
BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8:
Geotechnical design Seismic design and seismic design and the corresponding information has traditionally been
design
replicated in each of the material Eurocodes. It also introduces new
definitions (see Glossary) and symbols (see Tables 2a and 2b), which
will be used throughout this publication to assist familiarity. Partial
Figure 2 factors for actions are given in this Eurocode, whilst partial factors for
Typical Eurocode layout
materials are prescribed in their relevant Eurocode.

Representative values
For each variable action there are four representative values. The
principal representative value is the characteristic value and this can be
B determined statistically or, where there is insufficient data, a nominal
A C
D value may be used. The other representative values are combination,
D
D frequent and quasi-permanent; these are obtained by applying to the
A: National title page D: Main text D
B: National Foreword E: Main Annex(es) E characteristic value the factors c 0 , c 1 and c 2 respectively (see Figure 3).
F
C: CEN title page F: National Annex A semi-probabilistic method is used to derive the c factors, which vary
depending on the type of imposed load (see Table 3). Further information
Table 1 on derivation of the c factors can be found in Appendix C of the Eurocode.
Concrete related Eurocodes and their equivalent current standards
Eurocode Title Superseded standards The combination value (c 0 Qk) of an action is intended to take
BS EN 1990 Basis of structural design BS 8110: Part 1 – section 2 account of the reduced probability of the simultaneous occurrence of
BS EN 1991–1–1 Densities, self-weight and BS 6399: Part 1 and BS 648 two or more variable actions. The frequent value ( c 1 Qk) is such that it
imposed loads
BS EN 1991–1–2 Actions on structures – should be exceeded only for a short period of time and is used
exposed to fire primarily for the serviceability limit states (SLS) and also the accidental
BS EN 1991–1–3 Snow loads BS 6399: Part 2 ultimate limit state (ULS). The quasi-permanent value (c 2 Qk) may be
BS EN 1991–1–4 Wind actions BS 6399: Part 3 exceeded for a considerable period of time; alternatively it may be
BS EN 1991–1–5 Thermal actions – considered as an average loading over time. It is used for the long-term
BS EN 1991–1–6 Actions during execution –
affects at the SLS and also accidental and seismic ULS.
BS EN 1991–1–7 Accidental actions –
BS EN 1991–2 Traffic loads on bridges BD 37/88
Combinations of actions
BS EN 1991–3 Actions induced by cranes –
and machinery In the Eurocodes the term ‘combination of actions’ is specifically used
BS EN 1991–4 Silos and tanks – for the definition of the magnitude of actions to be used when a limit
BS EN 1992–1–1 General rules for buildings BS 8110: Parts 1, 2 and 3 state is under the influence of different actions. It should not be
BS EN 1992–1–2 Fire resistance of concrete BS 8110: Part 1,Table 3.2 and confused with ‘load cases’, which are concerned with the arrangement
structures BS 8110: Part 2, section 4
of the variable actions to give the most unfavourable conditions and
BS EN 1992–2 Bridges BS 5400: Part 4
are given in the material Eurocodes. The following process can be used
BS EN 1992–3 Liquid-retaining and BS 8007
containment structures to determine the value of actions used for analysis:
BS EN 1997–1 Geotechnical design – BS 6031, BS 8002, BS 8004, 1. Identify the design situation (e.g. persistent, transient, accidental).
General rules BS 8006, BS 8008 & BS 8081
2. Identify all realistic actions.
BS EN 1997–2 Geotechnical design – Ground BS 5930
investigation and testing 3. Determine the partial factors (see below) for each applicable
BS EN 1998 Design of structures for – combination of actions.
earthquake resistance (6 parts) 4. Arrange the actions to produce the most critical conditions.

2
 1. Introduction to Eurocodes

Table 2a
Where there is only one variable action (e.g. imposed load) in a Selected symbols for Eurocode
combination, the magnitude of the actions can be obtained by Symbol Definition
multiplying them by the appropriate partial factors. Gk Characteristic value of permanent action
Qk Characteristic value of single variable action
Where there is more than one variable action in a combination, it is gG Partial factor for permanent action
necessary to identify the leading action (Qk,1) and other accompanying gQ Partial factor for variable action
actions (Qk,i). The accompanying action is always taken as the c0 Factor for combination value of a variable action
combination value. c1 Factor for frequent value of a variable action
c2 Factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action
Ultimate limit state j Combination factor for permanent actions
The ultimate limit states are divided into the following categories:
EQU Loss of equilibrium of the structure. Table 2b
Selected subscripts
STR Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure
Subscript Definition
or structural member.
A Accidental situation
GEO Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground.
c Concrete
FAT Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.
d Design
The Eurocode gives different combinations for each of these ultimate E Effect of action
limit states. For the purpose of this publication only the STR ultimate fi Fire
limit state will be considered. k Characteristic
R Resistance
For persistent and transient design situations under the STR limit w Shear reinforcement
state, the Eurocode defines three possible combinations, which are given y Yield strength
in Expressions (6.10), (6.10a) and (6.10b) of the Eurocode (see Tables 4
and 5). The designer (for UK buildings) may use either (6.10) or the less Figure 3
favourable of (6.10a) and (6.10b). Representative values of variable actions ⁵
Characteristic value of QK

At first sight it appears that there is considerably more calculation

Instantaneous value of Q

required to determine the appropriate load combination; however, with Combination value of c0 QK
experience the designer will be able to determine this by inspection.
Frequent value of c1 QK
Expression (6.10) is always equal to or more conservative than the less
Quasi-
favourable of Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b). Expression (6.10b) will permanent
value of c2 QK
normally apply when the permanent actions are not greater than 4.5
times the variable actions (except for storage loads (category E, Table 3)
where Expression (6.10a) always applies).
Time

Therefore, for a typical concrete frame building, Expression (6.10b) will Table 3
give the most structurally economical combination of actions. Recommended values of c factors for buildings (from UK National Annex)
Action c0 c1 c2
Imposed loads in buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–1)
For members supporting one variable action the combination
Category A: domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
1.25 Gk + 1.5 Qk (derived from (Exp 6.10b))
Category B: office areas 0.7 0.5 0.3
can be used provided the permanent actions are not greater
Category C: congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
than 4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage loads). Category D: shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Category E: storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Category F: traffic area, vehicle weight < 30 kN 0.7 0.7 0.6
Serviceability limit state
Category G: traffic area, 30 kN < vehicle weight < 160 kN 0.7 0.5 0.3
There are three combinations of actions that can be used to check the
Category H: roofs* 0.7 0 0
serviceability limit states (see Tables 6 and 7). Eurocode 2 indicates
Snow loads on buildings (see BS EN 1991–3)
which combination should be used for which phenomenon (e.g.
For sites located at altitude H > 1000 m above sea level 0.7 0.5 0.2
deflection is checked using the quasi-permanent combination). Care For sites located at altitude H < 1000 m above sea level 0.5 0.2 0
should be taken not to confuse the SLS combinations of characteristic, Wind loads on buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–4) 0.5 0.2 0
frequent and quasi-permanent, with the representative values that Temperature (non-fire) in buildings (see BS EN 1991–1–5) 0.6 0.5 0
have the same titles. Key
*See also 1991–1–1: Clause 3.3.2

3
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 4
Design values of actions, ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations (table A1.2 (B) Eurocode)

Combination Expression reference Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable actions
Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Exp. (6.10) g G, j, sup Gk , j , sup g G , j, inf G k , j , inf g Q,1 Qk,1 g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Exp. (6.10a) g G, j, sup Gk , j , sup g G , j, inf G k , j , inf g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Qk,1 g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Exp. (6.10b) jg G, j, sup Gk , j , sup g G , j, inf G k , j , inf g Q,1 Qk,1 g Q,1 c 0 ,1 Q k,i
Note
1 Design for either Expression (6.10) or the less favourable of Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b).

Table 5
Design values of actions, derived for UK design, ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations

Combination Expression reference Permanent actions Leading variable action Accompanying variable actions
Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Combination of permanent and variable actions
Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5c Qk
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 c 0,1b Qk
Exp. (6.10b) 0.925 d x 1.35 Gk a
1.0 Gk a
1.5c Qk
Combination of permanent, variable and accompanying variable actions
Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5c Qk,1 1.5 c c 0,i b Q k,i
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5 c 0,1b Qk 1.5 c c 0,i b Q k,i
Exp. (6.10b) 0.925 d x 1.35 Gk a 1.0 Gk a 1.5c Qk,1 1.5 c c 0,i b Q k,i
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant, Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk c Where the accompanying load is favourable, g Q,i = 0
b The value of c 0 can be obtained from Table NA A1.1 of the UK National Annex (reproduced here as Table 3) d The value of j in the UK National Annex is 0.925

Table 6
Design values of actions, serviceability limit states

Combination Permanent actions Variable actions Example of use in Eurocode 2

Unfavourable Favourable Leading Others
Characteristic Gk,j,sup Gk,j,inf Qk,1 c 0 , i Qk,i
Frequent Gk,j,sup Gk,j,inf c 1,1 Qk,1 c 2 , i Qk,i Cracking – prestressed concrete
Quasi-permanent Gk,j,sup Gk,j,inf c 2,1 Qk,1 c 2 , i Qk,i Deflection
Notes
1 Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant. Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk 2 For values of c 0, c 1 and c 2 refer to Table 3

Table 7
Example design combinations for deflection (quasi-permanent) derived for typical UK reinforced concrete design

Combination Permanent actions Variable action

Unfavourable Leading
Office Gk a 0.3 b Q k,1
a
Shopping area Gk 0.6b Q k,1
Storage Gk a 0.8b Q k,1
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk b Values of c 2 are taken from UK NA (see Table 3)

4
 1. Introduction to Eurocodes

Eurocode 1 Table 8
Eurocode 1, its parts and dates of publication

Reference Title Publication date

Eurocode 1 supersedes BS 6399: Loading for buildings6 and BS 648:
Eurocode National Annex
Schedule of weights of building materials7. It contains within its ten parts
BS EN 1991–1–1 Densities, July December
(see Table 8) all the information required by the designer to assess the self-weight and 2002 2005
individual actions on a structure. It is generally self-explanatory and it imposed loads
is anticipated the actions to be used in the UK (as advised in the UK BS EN 1991–1–2 Actions on November Due
structures 2002 October
National Annex) will typically be the same as those in the current exposed to fire 2006a
British Standards. The most notable exception is the bulk density of BS EN 1991–1–3 Snow loads July December
reinforced concrete, which has been increased to 25 kN/m3. Currently 2003 2005

not all the parts of Eurocode 1 and their National Annexes are BS EN 1991–1–4 Wind actions April Due
2005 January
available, in which case it is advised that the loads recommended in 2007a
the current British Standards are used. BS EN 1991–1–5 Thermal actions March Due
2004 December
2006a
BS EN 1991–1–6 Actions during December Due
Eurocode 2 execution 2005 June
2007a
BS EN 1991–1–7 Accidental actions September Due
There are four parts to Eurocode 2; Figure 4 indicates how they fit into due to impact 2006 October
the Eurocode system, which includes other European standards. and explosions 2007a
BS EN 1991–2 Traffic loads October Due
on bridges 2003 December
Part 1–1 2006a
Eurocode 2, Part 1–1: General rules and rules for buildings9 is the BS EN 1991–3 Actions induced September Due
by cranes 2006 January
principal part which is referenced by the three other parts. For the UK and machinery 2007a
designer there are a number of differences between Eurocode 2 and BS EN 1991–4 Actions in silos June Due
BS 8110, which will initially make the new Eurocode seem unfamiliar. and tanks 2006 June
2007a
The key differences are listed below to assist in the familiarisation process.
Key
1. Eurocode 2 is generally laid out to give advice on the basis of a Planned publication date (correct at time of publication) Source: BSI8
phenomena (e.g. bending, shear etc) rather than by member
types as in BS 8110 (e.g. beams, slabs, columns etc). Figure 4
2. Design is based on characteristic cylinder strengths not cube Relationship between Eurocode 2 and other Eurocodes
strengths.
3. The Eurocode does not provide derived formulae (e.g. for bending, BS EN 1997 BS EN 1990 BS EN 1998
EUROCODE 7 EUROCODE EUROCODE 8
only the details of the stress block are expressed). This is the Geotechnical Basis of structural Seismic
traditional European approach, where the application of a Eurocode design design design

is expected to be provided in a textbook or similar publication.

The Eurocodes allow for this type of detail to be provided in
‘Non-contradictory complementary information’ (NCCI) (See BS EN 206 BS EN 1991 BS EN 10080
Specifying EUROCODE 1 Reinforcing
Glossary). concrete Actions on steels
structures
4. Units for stress are mega pascals, MPa (1 MPa = 1 N/mm2).
5. Eurocode 2 uses a comma for a decimal point. It is expected that
UK designers will continue to use a decimal point. Therefore to BS 8500 BS 4449
BS EN 1992
avoid confusion, the comma should not be used for separating Specifying Reinforcing
EUROCODE 2
concrete steels
multiples of a thousand. Design of concrete
structures
6. One thousandth is represented by ‰. Part 1–1: General
7. The partial factor for steel reinforcement is 1.15. However, the rules for structures
BS EN 13670 BS EN 13369
characteristic yield strength of steel that meets the requirements Execution of
Part 1–2: Structural
Precast
fire design
of BS 4449 will be 500 MPa; so overall the effect is negligible. structures concrete

8. Eurocode 2 is applicable for ribbed reinforcement with characteristic

yield strengths of 400 to 600 MPa. There is no guidance on plain
bar or mild steel reinforcement in the Eurocode, but guidance is BS EN 1992 BS EN 1992 Part 3: Precast
EUROCODE 2 EUROCODE 2 concrete
given in the background paper to the UK National Annex10. Part 2: Liquid-retaining product
9. The effects of geometric imperfection (‘notional horizontal loads’) Bridges structures standards

are considered in addition to lateral loads.

5
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

10. Minimum concrete cover is related to bond strength, durability Eurocode 7

and fire resistance. In addition to the minimum cover an
allowance for deviations due to variations in execution Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design17 is in two parts and gives guidance on
(construction) should be included. Eurocode 2 recommends geotechnical design, ground investigation and testing. It has a broad
that, for concrete cast against formwork, this is taken as 10 mm, scope and includes the geotechnical design of spread foundations, piled
unless the construction is subject to a quality assurance system foundations, retaining walls, deep basements and embankments. Like
in which case it could be reduced to 5 mm or even 0 mm where all the Eurocodes it is based on limit state design principles, which is
non-conforming members are rejected (e.g. in a precast yard). a significant variation for most geotechnical design. Further guidance
It is recommended that the nominal cover is stated on the related to simple foundations is given in Chapter 6, originally
drawings and construction tolerances are given in the ppublished as Foundations18.
specification.
11. Higher strengths of concrete are covered by Eurocode 2, up to
class C90/105. However, because the characteristics of higher Eurocode 8
strength concrete are different, some Expressions in the Eurocode
are adjusted for classes above C50/60. Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance19 is divided into
12. The ‘variable strut inclination’ method is used in Eurocode 2 for six parts and gives guidance on all aspects of design for earthquake
the assessment of the shear capacity of a section. In practice, resistance and covers guidance for the various structural materials for
design values for actual structures can be compared with all types of structures. It also includes guidance for strengthening and
tabulated values. Further advice can be found in Chapter 4, repair of buildings. In areas of low seismicity it is anticipated that detailing
originally published as Beams11. structures to Eurocode 2 will ensure compliance with Eurocode 8.
13. The punching shear checks are carried out at 2d from the face of
the column and for a rectangular column, the perimeter is
rounded at the corners. Related Standards
14. Serviceability checks can still be carried out using ‘deemed to
satisfy’ span to effective depth rules similar to BS 8110. However, BS 8500/BS EN 206
if a more detailed check is required, Eurocode 2 guidance varies BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–120
from the rules in BS 8110 Part 2. replaced BS 5328 in December 2003 and designers should currently
15. The rules for determining the anchorage and lap lengths are more be using this to specify concrete. Further guidance can found in
complex than the simple tables in BS 8110. Eurocode 2 considers Chapter 11, originally published as How to use BS 8500 with BS 811021.
the effects of, amongst other things, the position of bars during
concreting, the shape of the bar and cover. BS 4449/BS EN 10080
BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of
Part 1–2 concrete22 has been revised ready for implementation in January 2006.
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design12, gives guidance on design for It is a complementary standard to BS EN 10080 Steel for the
fire resistance of concrete structures. Although much of the Eurocode reinforcement of concrete23 and Normative Annex C of Eurocode 2. The
is devoted to fire engineering methods, the design for fire resistance most significant changes are that steel characteristic yield will change
may still be carried out by referring to tables for minimum cover and to 500 MPa. There are three classes of reinforcement, A, B and C, which
dimensions for various elements. These are given in section 5 of Part indicate increasing ductility. Class A is not suitable for use where
1–2. Further advice on using the tabular method is given in Chapter 2, redistribution of 20% and above has been assumed in the design.
originally published as Getting started 13.
BS EN 13670
Part 2 BS 8110 Part 1 sections 6 and 7 specify the workmanship for concrete
Eurocode 2, Part 2: Bridges14 applies the general rules given in Part 1–1 construction. There is no equivalent guidance in Eurocode 2, and it is
to the design of concrete bridges. As a consequence both Part 1–1 and intended that execution (construction) will be covered in a new
Part 2 will be required to carry out a design of a reinforced concrete standard BS EN 13670 Execution of concrete structures24. This is still in
bridge. preparation and is not expected to be ready for publication until 2008
at the earliest. In the intervening period the draft background paper to
Part 3 the UK National Annex of Eurocode 2, Part 1-110 recommends that
Eurocode 2, Part 3: Liquid-retaining and containment structures15 applies designers use the National structural concrete specification for building
the general rules given in Part 1–1 to the liquid-retaining structures construction25, which refers to BS 8110 for workmanship.
and supersedes BS 800716.

6
 1. Introduction to Eurocodes

Glossary of Eurocode terminology

Term Definition
Principles Clauses that are general statements, definitions, requirements and analytical models for which no
alternative is permitted. They are identified by (P) after the clause number.
Application Rules These are generally recognised rules, which comply with the principles and satisfy their requirements.
Nationally Determined Parameter (NDP) Eurocodes may be used to satisfy national Building Regulations, which themselves will not be
harmonized. NDPs are therefore used to allow a country to set its own levels of safety. NDPs also allow
certain other parameters (generally influenced by climate, geography and geology) to be left open for
selection nationally: NDPs are advised in the National Annex.
National Annex (NA) A National Annex accompanies each Eurocode and it contains a) the values of NDPs b) the national
decision regarding the use of Informative Annexes and c) references to NCCIs
Normative The term used for the text of Standards that forms the core requirements. Compliance with Eurocodes
will generally be judged against the normative requirements.
Informative A term used only in relation to annexes, which seek to inform rather than require.
NCCI Non-contradictory complementary information. References in a National Annex which contains further
information or guidance which does not contradict the Eurocode.
Characteristic value A value that may be derived statistically with a probability of not being exceeded during a reference
period. The value corresponds to a specified fractile for a particular property of material or product. The
characteristic values are denoted by subscript ‘k’ (e.g. Qk etc). It is the principal representative value
from which other representative values may be derived.
Representative value Value used for verification of a limit state. It may be the characteristic value or an accompanying value,
e.g. combination, frequent or quasi-permanent.
Design values These refer to representative values modified by partial factors. They are denoted by subscript ‘d’
(e.g. f cd = f ck /g c ; Qd = g Q Qk).
Action (F) Set of forces, deformations or accelerations acting on the structure.
Combination of actions Set of design values used for the verification of the structural reliability for a limit state under the
simultaneous influence of different and statistically independent actions.
Fixed action Action that has a fixed distribution and position over the structure or structural member.
Free action Action that may have various spatial distributions over the structure.
Permanent actions (G) Actions that are likely to act throughout the life of the structure and whose variation in magnitude
with time is negligible (e.g. permanent loads).
Variable actions (Q) Actions whose magnitude will vary with time (e.g. wind loads).
Effect of action (E) Deformation or internal force caused by an action.
Accidental action (A) Action, usually of short duration but of significant magnitude, that is unlikely to occur on a given
structure during the design working life.
Accompanying action An action in a combination that is not the leading variable action.
Transient design situation Design situation that is relevant during a period much shorter than the design working life of the structure.
Persistent design situation Design situation that is relevant during a period of the same order as the design working life of the structure.
Accidental design situation Design situation involving exceptional conditions of the structure.
Irreversible serviceability limit state Serviceability limit state where some consequences of actions will remain when the actions are removed.
Reversible serviceability limit state Serviceability limit state where no consequences of actions will remain when the actions are removed.
Execution Construction of the works.

7
 1. Introduction to Eurocodes

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI, 2002.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. BSI (10 parts).
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110: The structural use of concrete. BSI (3 parts).
5 GULVANESSIAN, H, CALGARO, J A & HOLICÝ, M T. Designers’ guide to EN 1990. Thomas Telford, 2002.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 6399: Loading for buildings. BSI (3 parts).
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 648: Schedule of weights of building materials. BSI, 1964.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Web page: www.bsi-global.com/Eurocodes/Progress/index.xalter. BSI.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
10 BRITISH STANDARD INSTITUTION. PD 6687. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1. BSI, 2006.
11 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams (TCC/03/19). The Concrete Centre, 2006.
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
13 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started (TCC/03/17). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Bridges. BSI, 2005.
15 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–3, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Liquid-retaining and containment structures.
BSI, due 2006.
16 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8007: Code of practice for design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids. BSI, 1987.
17 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. BSI (2 parts).
18 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Foundations (TCC/03/21). The Concrete Centre, 2006.
19 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1998, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance. BSI (6 parts).
20 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1, 2002 (2 parts).
21 HARRISON, T A & BROOKER, O. How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110 (TCC/03/11). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
22 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005.
23 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete – Weldable reinforcing steel – General. BSI, 2005.
24 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. EN 13670: Execution of concrete structures – Part 1: Common. BSI, due 2008.
25 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. CS 152: National structural concrete specification for building construction, third edition. The Society, 2004.

8
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
2. Getting started
O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

The design process

This chapter is intended to assist the designer determine all the design
information required prior to embarking on detailed element design. It
covers design life, actions on structures, load arrangements, combinations
of actions, method of analysis, material properties, stability and
imperfections, minimum concrete cover and maximum crack widths.

The process of designing elements will not be revolutionised as a result

of using Eurocode 21, although much of the detail may change – as
described in subsequent chapters.

Similarly, the process of detailing will not vary significantly from current
practice. Guidance can be found in Chapter 10 or in Standard method of
detailing 2. With regard to specification, advice can be found in Chapter 1,
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes3. Concept designs
prepared assuming that detailed design would be to BS 8110 may be
continued through to detailed design using Eurocode 2.

In the long-term it is anticipated that Eurocode 2 will lead to more

economic structures.

Design life
The design life for a structure is given in Eurocode: Basis of structural
design 4. The UK National Annex (NA) to Eurocode presents UK values
for design life; these are given in Table 1 (overleaf). These should be used
to determine the durability requirements for the design of reinforced
concrete structures.

Actions on structures
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures5 consists of 10 parts giving details of
a wide variety of actions. Further information on the individual codes
can be found in Chapter 1. Eurocode 1, Part 1–1: General actions –
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings6 gives the densities and
self-weights of building materials (see Table 2 overleaf).

The key change to current practice is that the bulk density of reinforced
concrete has been increased to 25 kN/m3. The draft National Annex to
this Eurocode gives the imposed loads for UK buildings and a selection is
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Indicative design working life (from UK National Annex to Eurocode) reproduced in Table 3. It should be noted that there is no advice given
for plant rooms.
Design life (years) Examples
10 Temporary structures
10–30 Replaceable structural parts At the time of writing not all the parts of Eurocode 1 and their National
15–25 Agricultural and similar structures Annexes are available; it is advised that existing standards are considered
50 Buildings and other common structures for use where European standards have not yet been issued.
120 Monumental buildings, bridges and other civil
engineering structures

Load arrangements
Table 2
Selected bulk density of materials (from Eurocode 1, Part 1–1) The term load arrangements refers to the arranging of variable actions
(e.g. imposed and wind loads) to give the most onerous forces in a
Material Bulk density (kN/m3)
Normal weight concrete 24.0 member or structure and are given in Eurocode 2 and its UK NA.
Reinforced normal weight concrete 25.0
Wet normal weight reinforced concrete 26.0 For building structures, the UK NA to Eurocode 2, Part 1–1 allows any
of the following sets of load arrangements to be used for both the
ultimate limit state and serviceability limit state:
Figure 1
Alternate spans loaded
Load set 1. Alternate or adjacent spans loaded
The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
■ Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load (see
Figure 1). The value of gG should be the same throughout.
■ Any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and
permanent loads with other spans loaded with only the design
permanent load (see Figure 2). The value of gG should be the
same throughout.

Load set 2. All or alternate spans loaded

Figure 2 The design values should be obtained from the more critical of:
Adjacent spans loaded
■ All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
(see Figure 3).
■ Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads
with other spans loaded with only the design permanent load (see
Figure 1). The value of gG should be the same throughout.

Generally, load set 2 will be used for beams and slabs in the UK as it
requires three load arrangements to be considered, while load set 1
will often require more than three arrangements to be assessed.
Alternatively, the UK NA makes the following provision for slabs.

Load set 3. Simplified arrangements for slabs

The load arrangements can be simplified for slabs where it is only
necessary to consider the all spans loaded arrangement (see Figure 3),
provided the following conditions are met:
■ In a one-way spanning slab the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2
Figure 3
All spans loaded (a bay means a strip across the full width of a structure bounded
on the other sides by lines of support).
■ The ratio of the variable actions (Qk) to the permanent actions (Gk)
does not exceed 1.25.
■ The magnitude of the variable actions excluding partitions does not
exceed 5 kN/m2.

2
10
 2. Getting started

Combination of actions Standard to BS EN 206–17 (e.g. for class C28/35 concrete the cylinder
strength is 28 MPa, whereas the cube strength is 35 MPa). Typical
The term combination of actions refers to the value of actions to be concrete properties are given in Table 4.
used when a limit state is under the influence of different actions.
Concrete up to class C90/105 can be designed using Eurocode 2.
The numerical values of the partial factors for the ULS combination can For classes above C50/60, however, there are additional rules and
be obtained by referring to Eurocode: Basis of structural design or to variations. For this reason, the design of these higher classes is not
Chapter 1. considered in this publication.

For members supporting one variable action the ULS combination It should be noted that designated concretes (e.g. RC30) still refer
.( 1.25 Gk + 1.5 Qk (derived from Exp. (6.10b), Eurocode) to the cube strength.
can be used provided the permanent actions are not greater than
4.5 times the variable actions (except for storage loads). Reinforcing steel
Eurocode 2 can be used with reinforcement of characteristic
There are three SLS combinations of actions – characteristic, frequent strengths ranging from 400 to 600 MPa. The properties of steel
and quasi-permanent. The numerical values are given in Eurocode: Basis reinforcement in the UK for use with Eurocode 2 are given in
of structural design. BS 4449 (2005): Specification for carbon steel bars for the
reinforcement of concrete 8 and are summarised in Table 5 (on page 4).
A characteristic yield strength of 500 MPa has been adopted by the
Material properties UK reinforcement industry. There are three classes of reinforcement,
A, B and C, which provide increasing ductility. Class A is not suitable
Concrete where redistribution of 20% and above has been assumed in the
In Eurocode 2 the design of reinforced concrete is based on the design. There is no provision for the use of plain bar or mild steel
characteristic cylinder strength rather than cube strength and should reinforcement, but guidance is given in the background paper to the
be specified according to BS 8500: Concrete – complementary British National Annex9.

Table 3
Selected imposed loads for buildings (from draft UK National Annex to Eurocode 1, Part 1–1)

Category Example use qk (kN/m2) Qk (kN)

A1 All uses within self-contained dwelling units 1.5 2.0
A2 Bedrooms and dormitories 1.5 2.0
A3 Bedrooms in hotels and motels, hospital wards and toilets 2.0 2.0
A5 Balconies in single family dwelling units 2.5 2.0
A7 Balconies in hotels and motels 4.0 min. 2.0 at outer edge
B1 Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
C5 Assembly area without fixed seating, concert halls, bars, places of worship 5.0 3.6
D1/2 Shopping areas 4.0 3.6
E12 General storage 2.4 per m height 7.0
E17 Dense mobile stacking in warehouses 4.8 per m height (min. 15.0) 7.0
F Gross vehicle weight ≤ 30kN 2.5 10.0

Table 4
Selected concrete properties based on Table 3.1 of Eurocode 2, Part 1–1

Symbol Description Properties

fck (MPa) Characteristic cylinder strength 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 28a 32a
fck,cube (MPa) Characteristic cube strength 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 35 40
fctm (MPa) Mean tensile strength 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 2.8 3.0
Ecm b (GPa) Secant modulus of elasticity 27 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 32 34
Key
a Concrete class not cited in Table 3.1, Eurocode 2, Part 1–1
b Mean secant modulus of elasticity at 28 days for concrete with quartzite aggregates. For concretes with other aggregates refer to Cl 3.1.3 (2)

3
11
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 5
Characteristic tensile properties of reinforcement Structural analysis
Class (BS 4449) and designation (BS 8666) A B C
The primary purpose of structural analysis in building structures is to
Characteristic yield strength fyk or f 0.2k (MPa) 500 500 500
establish the distribution of internal forces and moments over the
Minimum value of k = ( ft /fy ) k ≥ 1.05 ≥ 1.08 ≥ 1.15 < 1.35
whole or part of a structure and to identify the critical design
Characteristic strain at maximum force e uk (%) ≥ 2.5 ≥ 5.0 ≥ 7.5
conditions at all sections. The geometry is commonly idealised by
Notes
1 Table derived from BS EN 1992–1–1 Annex C, BS 4449: 2005 and BS EN 1008010 . considering the structure to be made up of linear elements and plane
2 The nomenclature used in BS 4449: 2005 differs from that used in BS EN 1992–1–1 two-dimensional elements.
Annex C and used here.
3 In accordance with BS 8666, class H may be specified, in which case class A, B or C
may be supplied. The type of analysis should be appropriate to the problem being
considered. The following may be used: linear elastic analysis, linear
Table 6 elastic analysis with limited redistribution, and plastic analysis. Linear
Bending moment and shear co-efficients for beams elastic analysis may be carried out assuming cross sections are
Moment Shear uncracked (i.e. concrete section properties); using linear stress-strain
Outer support 25% of span moment 0.45 (G + Q) relationships, and assuming mean values of elastic modulus.
Near middle of end span 0.090 Gl + 0.100 Ql
At first interior support – 0.094 (G + Q) l 0.63 (G + Q)a For the ultimate limit state only, the moments derived from elastic
At middle of interior spans 0.066 Gl + 0.086 Ql analysis may be redistributed (up to a maximum of 30%) provided
At interior supports – 0.075 (G + Q) l 0.50 (G + Q) that the resulting distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with
Key the applied loads and subject to certain limits and design criteria (e.g.
a 0.55 (G + Q) may be used adjacent to the interior span.
limitations of depth to neutral axis).
Notes
1 Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included.
2 Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Qk ≤ G k. Regardless of the method of analysis used, the following principles apply:
3 Minimum span ≥ 0.85 longest span.
4 l is the effective length, G is the total of the ULS permanent actions, Q is the total ■ Where a beam or slab is monolithic with its supports, the critical
of the ULS variable actions.
design hogging moment may be taken as that at the face of the
support, but should not be taken as less than 0.65 times the full
Table 7 fixed end moment.
Exposure classes
■ Where a beam or slab is continuous over a support that may be
Class Description considered not to provide rotational restraint, the moment
No risk of corrosion or attack calculated at the centre line of the support may be reduced by
X0 For concrete without reinforcement or embedded metal where there (FEd,sup t/8), where FEd,sup is the support reaction and t is the breadth
is no significant freeze/thaw, abrasion or chemical attack. of the support.
Corrosion induced by carbonation ■ For the design of columns the elastic moments from the frame
XC1 Dry or permanently wet action should be used without any redistribution.
XC2 Wet, rarely dry
XC3/4 Moderate humidity or cyclic wet and dry Bending moment and shear force co-efficients for beams are given in
Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from seawater
Table 6; these are suitable where spans are of similar length and the
other notes to the table are observed.
XD1 Moderate humidity
XD2 Wet, rarely dry
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry
Corrosion induced by chlorides from seawater
Minimum concrete cover
XS1 Exposed to airborne salt but not in direct contact with sea water The nominal cover can be assessed as follows:
XS2 Permanently submerged
cnom = cmin + D cdev Exp. (4.1)
XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones
Freeze/thaw with or without de-icing agents Where cmin should be set to satisfy the requirements below:
XF1 Moderate water saturation without de-icing agent ■ safe transmission of bond forces

XF2 Moderate water saturation with de-icing agent ■ durability

■ fire resistance
XF3 High water saturation without de-icing agent
and D cdev is an allowance which should be made in the design for
XF4 High water saturation with de-icing agent or sea water
deviations from the minimum cover. It should be taken as 10 mm,
Chemical attack (ACEC classes)
unless fabrication (i.e. construction) is subjected to a quality assurance
Refer to BS 8500–1 and Special Digest 111
system, in which case it is permitted to reduce D cdev to 5 mm.

4
12
 2. Getting started

Figure 4
Sections through structural members, showing nominal axis distance, a National Annex (Table 4.3 (N) (BS)) gives durability requirements that
comply with BS 8500, but which significantly modify the approach
taken in Eurocode 2. To determine the minimum cover for durability
(and also the strength class and minimum water cement ratio) either
the UK National Annex or BS 8500 can be used.

The various exposure classes from BS 8500 are given in Table 7. Selected
recommendations are given in Table 8 (on page 6) for the concrete
strength, minimum cement ratio, minimum concrete cover and maximum
cement content for various elements in a structure based on the exposure
of that element. This is taken from Chapter 11, originally published as
How to use BS 8500 with BS 811013.
Table 9
Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for columns with
rectangular or circular section – method A
Design for fire resistance
Eurocode 2 Part 1–2: Structural fire design14, gives several methods
Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)
resistance Column width ( bmin)/axis distance (a) of the main bars for determining the fire resistance of concrete elements; further
Column exposed on more Exposed on one side guidance can be obtained from specialist literature. Design for
than one side ( m f i = 0.7) ( m f i = 0.7) fire resistance may still be carried out by referring to tables to
R 60 250/46 155/25 determine the minimum cover and dimensions for various elements,
350/40 as set out below.
R 120 350/57* 175/35
450/51*
Rather than giving the minimum cover, the tabular method is based
R 240 † 295/70
on nominal axis distance, a (see Figure 4). This is the distance from the
Notes
1 Refer to BS EN 1992–1–2 for design limitations.
centre of the main reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is
2 m fi is the ratio of the design axial load under fire conditions to the design resistance a nominal (not minimum) dimension. The designer should ensure that
of the column at normal temperature conditions. Conservatively m fi may be taken
as 0.7
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2.
* Minimum 8 bars
† Method B indicates 600/70 for R 240 and m fi = 0.7 and may be used.
See EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2b
There are three standard fire exposure conditions that may be satisfied:
R Mechanical resistance for load bearing
E Integrity of separation
Minimum cover for bond I Insulation
The minimum cover to ensure adequate bond should not be less than
the bar diameter, or equivalent bar diameter for bundled bars, unless Tables 9 and 10 give the minimum dimensions for columns and slabs
the aggregate size is over 32 mm. to meet the above conditions. The tables offer more flexibility than
BS 8110 in that there are options available to the designer e.g. section
Minimum cover for durability sizes can be reduced by increasing the axis distance. Further information
The recommendations for durability in Eurocode 2 are based on is given in Eurocode 2 and subsequent chapters, including design
BS EN 206–112. In the UK the requirements of BS EN 206 –1 are limitations and data for walls and beams.
applied through the complementary standard BS 8500. The UK

Table 10
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs

Standard Minimum dimensions (mm)

fire One-way Two-way spanning slab Flat slab Ribs in a two-way spanning ribbed slab
resistance spanning slab l y /l x ≤ 1.5 1.5 < l y /l x ≤ 2 (bmin is the width of the rib)
REI 60 hs = 80 80 80 180 bmin = 100 120 ≥200
a = 20 10 15 15 a= 25 15 10
REI 120 hs = 120 120 120 200 bmin = 160 190 ≥300
a = 40 20 25 35 a= 45 40 30
REI 240 hs = 175 175 175 200 bmin = 450 700 –––
a = 65 40 50 50 a= 70 60
Notes
1 Refer to BS EN 1992–1–2 for design limitations.
2 a is the axis distance (see Figure 4).
3 h s is the slab thickness, including any non-combustible flooring.

5
13
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 8
Selected a recommendations for normal-weight reinforced concrete quality for combined exposure classes and cover to reinforcement for at least a
50-year intended working life and 20 mm maximum aggregate size

Exposure conditions Cement/ Strength classc, maximum w/c ratio, minimum cement or combination
combination content (kg/m3), and equivalent designated concrete (where applicable)
designationsb
Typical example Primary Secondary Nominal cover to reinforcementd
15 + D c dev 20 + D c dev 25 + D c dev 30 + D c dev 35 + D c dev 40 + D c dev 45 + D c dev 50 + D c dev
Internal mass
X0 ___ All Recommended that this exposure is not applied to reinforced concrete
concrete
Internal elements C20/25,
(except humid XC1 ___ All 0.70, 240 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
locations) RC20/25
Buried concrete C25/30,
in AC-1 ground XC2 AC-1 All ___ ___ 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
conditions e RC25/30
Vertical surface C40/50, C30/37, C28/35, C25/30,
protected from ___ All except IVB ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<<
direct rainfall RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35 RC25/30
C40/50, C30/37, C28/35,
Exposed vertical
XF1 All except IVB ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or <<< <<< <<< <<<
surfaces
XC3 RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35
& C40/50,0.45,
XC4 XF3 All except IVB ___ 340 g or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
RC40/50XFg
Exposed horizontal
surfaces C28/35, C25/30,
C32/40,
XF3 (air
All except IVB ___ ___ 0.55, 300
0.60, 280 0.60, 280
<<< <<< <<<
entrained) plus air g,h plus air g, h, j
plus air g,h
or PAV2 or PAV1
Elements subject
to airborne XD1f ___ All ___ ___ C40/50, C32/40, C28/35,
<<< <<< <<<
0.45, 360 0.55, 320 0.60, 300
chlorides

IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C28/35,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Car park decks and
areas subject to ___ CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
de-icing spray
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340

IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Vertical elements XD3f
subject to de-icing XF2
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
spray and freezing
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C32/40 C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340

Car park decks, XF4

CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<<
ramps and external IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 g
areas subject to
freezing and XF4 (air ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C28/35, C28/35 C28/35,
IIB-V, IIIA, IIIB 0.40, 380g, h 0.45, 360g, h 0.50, 340g, h
de-icing salts entrained)

CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C35/45, C32/40,

<<< <<<
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Exposed vertical
XF1 IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ See C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
<<<
surfaces near coast BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
XS1f
IIIB ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C25/30, C25/30, C25/30,
<<<
0.40, 380 0.50, 340 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
Exposed horizontal
XF4
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<< <<< <<<
surfaces near coast IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 g
Key d D c dev is an allowance for deviations. ___ Not recommended
a This table comprises a selection of common exposure class combinations. e For sections less than 140 mm thick refer to BS 8500.
Requirements for other sets of exposure classes, e.g. XD2, XS2 and XS3 should f Also adequate for exposure class XC3/4. <<< Indicates that concrete
be derived from BS 8500-1: 2002, Annex A. g Freeze/thaw resisting aggregates should be specified. quality in cell to the left
b See BS 8500-2,Table 1. (CEM I is Portland cement, IIA to IVB are cement combinations.) h Air entrained concrete is required. should not be reduced
c For prestressed concrete the minimum strength class should be C28/35. j This option may not be suitable for areas subject to
severe abrasion.

6
14
 2. Getting started

Stability and imperfections Crack control

The effects of geometric imperfections should be considered in Crack widths should be limited to ensure appearance and durability
combination with the effects of wind loads (i.e. not as an alternative are satisfactory. In the absence of specific durability requirements
load combination). For global analysis, the imperfections may be (e.g. water tightness) the crack widths may be limited to 0.3 mm in
represented by an inclination y i . all exposure classes under the quasi-permanent combination. In the
absence of requirements for appearance, this limit may be relaxed (to
y i = (1/200) x a h x a m say 0.4 mm) for exposure classes X0 and XC1 (refer to Table 7). The
where theoretical size of the crack can be calculated using the expressions
a h = (2/Rl), to be taken as not less than 2/3 nor greater than 1.0 given in Cl 7.3.4 from Eurocode 2–1–1 or from the ‘deemed to satisfy’
a m = [0.5 (1 + 1/m)]0.5 requirements that can be obtained from Table 11, which is based on
l is the height of the building in metres tables 7.2N and 7.3N of the Eurocode. The limits apply to either the
m is the number of vertical members contributing to the horizontal bar size or the bar spacing, not both.
force in the bracing system.
Figure 5
The effect of the inclination may be represented by transverse forces at Examples of the effect of geometric imperfections
each level and included in the analysis along with other actions (see
Figure 5):

Effect on bracing system: Hi = y i (Nb – Na)

Effect on floor diaphragm: Hi = y i (Nb + Na)/2
Effect on roof diaphragm: Hi = y i Na
where Na and Nb are longitudinal forces contributing to Hi.

In most cases, an allowance for imperfections is made in the partial

factors used in the design of elements. However for columns, the effect a) Bracing system b) Floor diaphragm c) Roof diaphragm
of imperfections, which is similar in principle to the above, must be
considered (see Chapter 5, originally published as Columns15).
Figure 6
Determination of steel stress for crack width control

Table 11
Maximum bar size or spacing to limit crack width

Steel wmax = 0.4 mm wmax = 0.3 mm

stress
Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
(s s)MPa bar bar bar bar
size (mm) spacing (mm) size (mm) spacing (mm)

160 40 300 32 300

200 32 OR 300 25 OR 250
240 20 250 16 200
280 16 200 12 150
320 12 150 10 100
360 10 100 8 50
Note
The steel stress may be estimated from the expression below (or see Figure 6):
ss = fyk m As,req
gms n As,prov d
where
fyk = characteristic reinforcement yield stress
gms = partial factor for reinforcing steel
m = total load from quasi-permanent combination
n = total load from ULS combination To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio Gk/Qk,
As,req = area of reinforcement at the ULS read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across to determine ssu .
As,req 1
As,prov = area of reinforcement provided
d = ratio of redistributed moment to elastic moment
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu (As,prov d)( )

7
15
 2. Getting started

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Standard method of detailing. ISE/CS. 2006.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes (TCC/03/16). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI, 2002.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. BSI (10 parts).
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1–1: General actions – Densities, self-weight, imposed loads
for buildings. BSI, 2002.
7 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500–1: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1– Part 1: Method of specifying and
guidance for the specifier. BSI, 2002.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1. BSI, 2006.
10 BRITISH STAND ARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete – Weldable reinforcing steel – General. BSI, 2005.
11 BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. Special Digest 1: Concrete in aggressive ground. BRE, 2005.
12 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 206–1: Concrete – Part: Specification, performance, production and conformity. BSI, 2000.
13 HARRISON, T A BROOKER, O. How to use BS 8500 with BS 8110 (TCC/03/11). The Concrete Centre, 2005.
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design, BSI, 2004.
15 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Columns, (TCC/03/20). The Concrete Centre, 2006.

16
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
3. Slabs
R M Moss BSc, PhD, DIC, CEng, MICE, MIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Designing to Eurocode 2
This chapter covers the analysis and design of slabs to Eurocode 21 which is
essentially the same as with BS 81102. However, the layout and content of
Eurocode 2 may appear unusual to designers familiar with BS 8110. Eurocode 2
does not contain the derived formulae or specific guidance on determining
moments and shear forces. This has arisen because it has been European
practice to give principles in the codes and for the detailed application to
be presented in other sources such as textbooks.

Chapter 1, originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes3, highlighted the

key differences between Eurocode 2 and BS 8110, including terminology.
Chapter 7, originally published as Flat slabs4 covers the design of flat slabs.

It should be noted that values from the UK National Annex (NA) have been
used throughout, including values that are embedded in derived formulae.
(Derivations can be found at www.eurocode2.info.) A list of symbols related to
slab design is given at the end of this chapter.

Design procedure
A procedure for carrying out the detailed design of slabs is shown in Table 1.
This assumes that the slab thickness has previously been determined during
conceptual design. More detailed advice on determining design life, actions,
material properties, methods of analysis, minimum concrete cover for
durability and control of crack widths can be found in Chapter 2, originally
published as Getting started 5.

Fire resistance
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design6, gives a choice of advanced,
simplified or tabular methods for determining the fire resistance. Using tables
is the fastest method for determining the minimum dimensions and cover for
slabs. There are, however, some restrictions which should be adhered to.
Further guidance on the advanced and simplified methods can be obtained
from specialist literature.

Rather than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based on

nominal axis distance, a. This is the distance from the centre of the main
reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is a nominal (not minimum)
Continues page 19
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Slab design procedure

Step Task Further guidance

Chapter in this publication Standard
1 Determine design life 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1990 Table NA.2.1
2 Assess actions on the slab 2: Getting started BS EN 1991 (10 parts) and National Annexes
3 Determine which combinations of actions apply 1: Introduction to Eurocodes NA to BS EN 1990 Tables NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2 (B)
4 Determine loading arrangements 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1992–1–1
5 Assess durability requirements and determine concrete strength 2: Getting started BS 8500: 2002
6 Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period 2: Getting started and Table 2 Approved Document B. BS EN 1992–1–2: Section 5
7 Calculate min. cover for durability, fire and bond requirements 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl 4.4.1
8 Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and shear forces 2: Getting started and Table 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 5
9 Design flexural reinforcement See Figure 1 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 6.1
10 Check deflection See Figure 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 7.4
11 Check shear capacity See Table 7 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 6.2
12 Check spacing of bars 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 section 7.3
Note
NA = National Annex.

Table 2
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs (excluding flat slabs)

Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)

resistance
One-way a,b Two-way spanning slab a,b,c,d Ribs in a two-way spanning ribbed slabe
spanning slab l y /l x ≤ 1.5 f 1.5 <l y /l x ≤ 2f

REI 60 hs = 80 80 80 b min = 100 120 ≥200

a= 20 10 g 15g a= 25 15g 10g
REI 90 hs = 100 100 100 b min = 120 160 ≥250
a= 30 15g 20 a= 35 25 15g
REI 120 hs = 120 120 120 b min = 160 190 ≥300
a= 40 20 25 a= 45 40 30
REI 240 hs = 175 175 175 b min = 450 700
–––
a= 65 40 50 a= 70 60

Notes Key
1 This table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Tables 5.8 to 5.11. For flat slabs refer to a The slab thickness hs is the sum of the slab thickness and the thickness of any
Chapter 7. non-combustible flooring.
2 The table is valid only if the detailing requirements (see note 3) are observed and in b For continuous solid slabs a minimum negative reinforcement As ≥ 0.005 A c
normal temperature design redistribution of bending moments does not exceed 15%. should be provided over intermediate supports if
3 For fire resistance of R90 and above, for a distance of 0.3l eff from the centre line of each 1) cold worked reinforcement is used; or
intermediate support, the area of top reinforcement should not be less than the following: 2) there is no fixity over the end supports in a two span slab; or
A s,req (x) = A s,req ( 0 ) ( 1 – 2.5 ( x/ l eff ) ) 3) where transverse redistribution of load effects cannot be achieved.
where: c In two way slabs the axis refers to the lower layer of reinforcement.
x is the distance of the section being considered from the centre
d The term two way slabs relates to slabs supported at all four edges. If this is
line of the support.
not the case, they should be treated as one-way spanning slabs.
A s,req ( 0 ) is the area of reinforcement required for normal temperature design.
e For two-way ribbed slabs the following notes apply:
A s,req (x) is the minimum area of reinforcement required at the section
The axis distance measured to the lateral surface of the rib should be at
being considered but not less than that required for normal
least (a + 10).
temperature design.
The values apply where there is predominantly uniformly distributed loading.
l eff is the greater of the effective lengths of the two adjacent spans.
There should be at least one restrained edge.
4 There are three standard fire exposure conditions that need to be satisfied:
The top reinforcement should be placed in the upper half of the flange.
R Mechanical resistance for load bearing
E Integrity of separation f l x and l y are the spans of a two-way slab (two directions at right angles) where
I Insulation l y is the longer span.

5 The ribs in a one-way spanning ribbed slab can be treated as beams and reference can g Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992–1–1 will determine the cover.
be made to Chapter 4, Beams. The topping can be treated as a two-way slab where
1.5 < ly / lx ≤ 2.

2
18
 3. Slabs

Figure 1
Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement dimension, so the designer should ensure that
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2.
START The requirements for various types of slab are given in Table 2.

Carry out analysis of slab to determine design moments (M)

(Where appropriate use coefficients from Table 3) Flexure
The design procedure for flexural design is given in Figure 1; this
No Outside scope of includes derived formulae based on the simplified rectangular stress
Concrete class
≤C50/60? this publication block from Eurocode 2. Where appropriate, Table 3 may be used to
determine bending moments and shear forces for slabs. Further
Yes information for the design of two-way, ribbed or waffle slabs is given in
Determine K from: K =
M the appropriate sections on pages 5 and 6.
bd 2 fck

Table 4
Determine K’ from Table 4 or
Values for K ’
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d 2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
% redistribution d (redistribution ratio) K’
0 1.00 0.208a
Compression
reinforcement
10 0.90 0.182a
No
Is K ≤ K ’ ? required – not 15 0.85 0.168
recommended for
typical slabs 20 0.80 0.153

Yes
25 0.75 0.137
30 0.70 0.120
No compression reinforcement required Key
a It is often recomended in the UK that K´ should be limited to 0.168 to ensure ductile failure.

Obtain lever arm z from Table 5 or

d Table 5
z=
2 [
1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d] z/d for singly reinforced rectangular sections

K z/d K z/d
Calculate tension reinforcement required from ≤0.05 0.950a 0.13 0.868
M
As = 0.06 0.944 0.14 0.856
fyd z
0.07 0.934 0.15 0.843
0.08 0.924 0.16 0.830
Check minimum reinforcement requirements (see Table 6) 0.09 0.913 0.17 0.816
0.26 fctm bt d 0.10 0.902 0.18 0.802
As,min = where fck ≥ 25
fyk 0.11 0.891 0.19 0.787
0.12 0.880 0.20 0.771
Key
Check maximum reinforcement requirements
a Limiting z to 0.95d is not a requirement of Eurocode 2, but is considered to be good practice.
As,max = 0.04 Ac for tension or compression
reinforcement outside lap locations

Table 6
Minimum percentage of reinforcement required
Table 3
Bending moment and shear coefficients for slabs fck fctm Minimum % (0.26 fctm /fyka )
25 2.6 0.13%
End support /slab connection First Interior Interior
interior spans supports 28 2.8 0.14%
Pinned Continuous
support 30 2.9 0.15%
End End End End
support span support span 32 3.0 0.16%
Moment 0 0.086Fl – 0.04Fl 0.075Fl –0.086Fl 0.063Fl –0.063Fl 35 3.2 0.17%
Shear 0.40F 0.46F 0.6F 0.5F 40 3.5 0.18%
Notes 45 3.8 0.20%
1 Applicable to one-way spanning slabs where the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2,
Qk ≤ 1.25 Gk and qk ≤ 5 kN/m2 50 4.1 0.21%
2 F is the total design ultimate load, l is the span Key
3 Minimum span > 0.85 longest span, minimum 3 spans
4 Based on 20% redistribution at supports and no decrease in span moments a Where fyk = 500 MPa.

3
19
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Eurocode 2 offers various methods for determining the stress-strain Deflection

relationship of concrete. For simplicity and familiarity the method
presented here is the simplified rectangular stress block, which is Eurocode 2 has two alternative methods of designing for deflection,
similar to that found in BS 8110 (see Figure 2). either by limiting span-to-depth ratio or by assessing the theoretical
deflection using the Expressions given in the Eurocode. The latter
The Eurocode gives recommendations for the design of concrete up to is dealt with in detail in Chapter 8, originally published as Deflection
class C90/105. However, for concrete greater than class C50/60, the stress calculations7.
block is modified. It is important to note that concrete strength is based
on the cylinder strength and not the cube strength (i.e. for class C28/35 The span-to-depth ratios should ensure that deflection is limited to
the cylinder strength is 28 MPa, whereas the cube strength is 35 MPa). span /250 and this is the procedure presented in Figure 3.

Figure 2
Simplified rectangular stress block for concrete up to class C50/60 from Eurocode 2

Figure 3 Figure 4
Procedure for assessing deflection Determination of steel stress

START

Determine basic l/d from Figure 5

Determine Factor 1 (F1)

For ribbed or waffle slabs
F1 = 1 – 0.1 ((bf/bw) – 1) ≥ 0.8†
(bf is flange breadth and bw is rib breadth)
Otherwise F1 = 1.0

Determine Factor 2 (F2)

Where the slab span exceeds 7 m and it supports
brittle partitions, F2 = 7/leff
Otherwise F2 = 1.0

Determine Factor 3 (F3)

F3 = 310/ss
Where ss = Stress in reinforcement at serviceability
limit state (see Figure 4)
ss may be assumed to be 310 MPa (i.e. F3 = 1.0)
Note: As,prov ≤ 1.5 As,req’d (UK National Annex) Increase
As,prov

Is basic l/d x F1 x F2 x F3 ≥ Actual l/d ?

No
Yes
To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio
Gk/Qk , read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across
Check complete to determine ssu .
As,req 1
† The Eurocode is ambiguous regarding linear interpolation. It is understood that this
was the intention of the drafting committee and is in line with current UK practice.
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu ( )( )
As,prov d

4
20
 3. Slabs

Design for shear Table 7

vRd,c resistance of members without shear reinforcement, MPa

It is not usual for a slab to contain shear reinforcement, therefore it is rI = Effective depth, d (mm)
As /(bd)
only necessary to ensure that the concrete shear stress capacity ≤200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 600 750
without shear reinforcement (vRd,c – see Table 7) is more than applied
0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36
shear stress (vEd = VEd /( bd )). Where shear reinforcement is required,
e.g. for ribs in a ribbed slab, refer to Chapter 4, originally published as 0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.45
Beams 8. 0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.51

1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57

Two-way slabs 1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.63 0.61

1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.65
Unlike BS 8110 there is no specific guidance given in Eurocode 2 on
how to determine the bending moments for a two-way slab. The 1.75% 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68
assessment of the bending moment can be carried out using any ≥2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.71
suitable method from Section 5 of the Code. However, co-efficients
k 2.000 1.943 1.894 1.853 1.816 1.756 1.707 1.667 1.632 1.577 1.516
may be obtained from Table 8 (taken from the Manual for the design of
building structures to Eurocode 29) to determine bending moments per Table derived from: v Rd,c = 0.12 k (100r I fck)1/3 ≥ 0.035 k1.5 fck 0.5
unit width (Msx and Msy) where: where k = 1 + R(200/d) ≤ 2 and r I = As /(bd) ≤ 0.02
Note
Msx = bsx w lx2 1 This table has been prepared for fck = 30.
2 Where r I exceeds 0.40% the following factors may be used:
Msy = b sy w lx2
fck 25 28 32 35 40 45 50
Where bsx and bsy are coefficients, lx is the shorter span and w (load
Factor 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19
per unit area) is the STR ultimate limit state combination. For more
information on combinations refer toChapter 1, originally published as
Introduction to Eurocodes3.

Figure 5
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios

Notes
1 For two-way spanning slabs, the check should be
carried out on the basis of the shorter span.
2 This graph assumes simply supported span
condition (K = 1.0).
K = 1.5 for interior span condition
K = 1.3 for end span condition
K = 0.4 for cantilevers
3 Compression reinforcement, r’, has been taken as 0.
4 Curves based on the following expressions:

1.5
1.5 fck r 0 r0
l
d [
= K 11 +
r
+ 3.2 fck
( )]
r
–1

where r ≤ r 0

and

1.5 fck r 0 r’
l
d
= K 11 +[ ( r – r ’)
+
fck
12 r0 ]
where r > r 0 .

Percentage of tension reinforcement (As,req’d/bd)

5
21
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Ribbed or waffle slabs Figure 6

Procedure for determining flexural capacity of flanged ribs

Current practices for determining forces in ribbed and waffle slabs may also
START
be used for designs to Eurocode 2. Where a waffle slab is treated as a
two-way slab refer to previous section, but note that their torsional stiffness
is significantly less than for a two-way slab and the bending moment co-
efficients may not be applicable. Where it is treated as a flat slab reference No Outside scope
Concrete class of this
may be made to Chapter 7, originally published as Flat slabs4 ≤ C50/60? publication

The position of the neutral axis in the rib should be determined, and Yes

then the area of reinforcement can be calculated depending on Determine l0 (see Figure 7) and beff from:
whether it lies in the flange or web (see flow chart in Figure 6). The beff = (bw + beff1 + beff2) where
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1
main differences compared with BS 8110 are that the assessment of
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
the flange width is more sophisticated (see Figures 7 and 8). Note: The flange width at the support will be
different from that at mid-span.
For symbols refer to Figures 7 and 8
Where a slab is formed with permanent blocks or a with a topping
thickness less than 50 mm and one-tenth of the clear distance
between ribs it is recommended that a longitudinal shear check is
M
carried out to determine whether additional transverse reinforcement is Determine K from: K =
bd 2 fck
required (see BS EN 1992–1–1, Cl 6.2.4).

Table 8 Determine K’ from Table 2 or

Bending moment coefficients for two-way spanning rectangular slabs
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
supported by beams

Type or panel Short span coefficients for Long-span

and moments values of ly /lx coefficients
Calculate lever arm z from
considered for all values d
of ly /lx z=
2 [
1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d ]
1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0

Interior panels Calculate depth to neutral axis x from:

x = 2.5 (d – z)
Negative moment 0.031 0.044 0.053 0.059 0.063 0.032
at continuous edge
Neutral axis in
Positive moment 0.024 0.034 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024 Yes flange.
at midspan Is x ≤ 1.25hf Design as
rectangular
section.
One short edge discontinuous
No
Negative moment 0.039 0.050 0.058 0.063 0.067 0.037
at continuous edge Neutral axis in web
Calculate moment capacity of flange from:
Positive moment 0.029 0.038 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.028 MR,f = 0.57 fck (beff – bw) hf (d – 0.5hf)
at midspan
M – MR,f
and Kf =
One long edge discontinuous fck bw d 2

Negative moment 0.039 0.059 0.073 0.083 0.089 0.037

at continuous edge
No
Is Kf ≤ K ’ Redesign
Positive moment 0.030 0.045 0.055 0.062 0.067 0.028 section
at midspan

Two adjacent edges discontinuous Yes

Negative moment 0.047 0.066 0.078 0.087 0.093 0.045 Calculate area of reinforcement required from
at continuous edge MR,f M – MR,f
As = +
fywd (d – 0.5 hf ) fywd z
Positive moment 0.036 0.049 0.059 0.065 0.070 0.034
at midspan

6
22
 3. Slabs

Figure 7 Figure 8
Definition of l0 , for calculation of effective flange width Effective flange width parameters

Selected symbols
Rules for spacing and Symbol Definition Value

quantity of reinforcement Ac
As
Cross sectional area of concrete
Area of tension steel
bh

As2 Area of compression steel

Minimum area of principal reinforcement As, prov Area of tension steel provided
The minimum area of principal reinforcement in the main direction is As, req’d Area of tension steel required
As,min = 0.26 fc tm b t d/fy k but not less than 0.0013b td, where b t is the beff Effective flange width
mean width of the tension zone (see Table 6). For a T-beam with the bt Mean width of the tension zone
flange in compression, only the width of the web is taken into account bmin Width of beam or rib
in calculating the value of b t. bw Width of rib web
d Effective depth
Minimum area of secondary reinforcement d2 Effective depth to compression reinforcement
The minimum area of secondary transverse reinforcement is
fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength acc fck /gc
20% As,min . In areas near supports, transverse reinforcement is not
fck Characteristic cylinder strength of concrete
necessary where there is no transverse bending moment.
fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength 0.30 fck2/3 for fck ≤ C50/60
(from Table 3.1, Eurocode 2)
Maximum area of reinforcement hf Flange thickness
Outside lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression hs Slab thickness
reinforcement should not exceed As,max = 0.04 Ac K Factor to take account of the different See Table NA.4 in
structural systems UK National Annex

Minimum spacing of reinforcement leff Effective span of member See Section 5.3.2.2 (1)

The minimum clear distance between bars should be the greater of: l0 Distance between points of zero moment

■ Bar diameter l/d Limiting span-to-depth ratio

■ Aggregate size plus 5 mm lx, ly Spans of a two-way slab

■ 20 mm M Design moment at the ULS
x Depth to neutral axis (d – z)/0.4
Maximum spacing of reinforcement xmax Limiting value for depth to neutral axis (d – 0.4)d where d ≤1.0
For slabs less than 200 mm thick the following maximum spacing z Lever arm
rules apply: a cc Coefficient taking account of long term 0.85 for flexure and
effects on compressive strength and of axial loads.
■ For the principal reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm
unfavourable effects resulting from the 1.0 for other phenomena
■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3.5h but not more than 450 mm way load is applied (From UK National Annex)
d Ratio of the redistributed moment to the
The exception is in areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum elastic bending moment

moment where the following applies: gm Partial factor for material properties 1.15 for reinforcement (gs )
1.5 for concrete (gc )
■ For the principal reinforcement: 2h but not more than 250 mm
r0 Reference reinforcement ratio Rfck /1000
■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm
r Required tension reinforcement at mid-span As/bd
Where h is the depth of the slab.
to resist the moment due to the design
loads (or at support for cantilevers)
For slabs 200 mm thick or greater the bar size and spacing should be r’ Required compression reinforcement at As2/bd
limited to control the crack width and reference should be made to mid-span to resist the moment due to the
design loads (or at support for cantilevers)
section 7.3.3 of the Code or Chapter 2, originally published as Getting
started 5.

7
23
 3. Slabs

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1–1 General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1: The structural use of concrete – Part 1, Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Flat slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
5 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design, BSI 2004.
7 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Deflection calculations. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
9 THE INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. Manual for the design of concrete building structures to
Eurocode 2. IStructE/ICE, 2006.

24
 4. Beams

How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

4. Beams
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ikhi^kmb^l% f^mah]lh_ZgZerlbl% fbgbfnf\hg\k^m^\ho^k_hk]nkZ[bebmrZg]
\hgmkheh_\kZ\dpb]mal\Zg[^_hng]bg<aZim^k+%hkb`bgZeerin[ebla^]Zl
@^mmbg`lmZkm^] %Zg] in<aZim^k*'

Fire resistance
>nkh\h]^+% IZkm*¾+3 Lmkn\mnkZe_bk^]^lb`g% `bo^lZ\ahb\^h_Z]oZg\^]%
lbfieb_b^]hkmZ[neZkf^mah]l_hk ]^m^kfbgbg`ma^_bk^k^lblmZg\^' Nlbg`mZ[e^l
blma^_Zlm^lmf^mah]_hk]^m^kfbgbg`ma^fbgbfnf]bf^glbhglZg]\ho^k
_hk[^Zfl' Ma^k^Zk^% ahp^o^k% lhf^k^lmkb\mbhglZg]b_ma^l^Ziier_nkma^k
`nb]Zg\^hgma^Z]oZg\^]Zg]lbfieb_b^]f^mah]l\Zg[^h[mZbg^]_khf
li^\bZeblmebm^kZmnk^ ' KZma^kmaZg`bobg`Zfbgbfnf\ho^k% ma^mZ[neZkf^mah]
bl[Zl^]hgghfbgZeZqbl]blmZg\^% Z !l^^?b`nk^*"' Mablblma^]blmZg\^_khf
ma^\^gmk^h_ma^fZbgk^bg_hk\bg`[Zkmhma^mhihk[hmmhflnk_Z\^h_ma^

<hgmbgn^liZ`^+0
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Beam design procedure

Step Task Further guidance

Chapter in this publication Standard
* =^m^kfbg^]^lb`geb_^ +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] G:mh;L>G*22)MZ[e^G:'+'*
+ :ll^llZ\mbhglhgma^[^Zf +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L>G*22*!*)iZkml"Zg]GZmbhgZe:gg^q^l
, =^m^kfbg^pab\a\hf[bgZmbhglh_Z\mbhglZiier *3Bgmkh]n\mbhgmh>nkh\h]^l G:mh;L>G*22)MZ[e^lG:':*'*Zg]G:':*'+!;"
- =^m^kfbg^ehZ]bg`ZkkZg`^f^gml +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] G:mh;L>G*22+¾*¾*
. :ll^ll]nkZ[bebmrk^jnbk^f^gmlZg]]^m^kfbg^\hg\k^m^lmk^g`ma +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L1.))3 +))+
/ <a^\d\ho^kk^jnbk^f^gml_hkZiikhikbZm^_bk^k^lblmZg\^i^kbh] +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] Zg]Â?bk^k^lblmZg\^Ã :iikho^]=h\nf^gm;' ;L>G*22+¾*¾*3 L^\mbhg.
l^\mbhg
0 <Ze\neZm^fbg' \ho^k_hk]nkZ[bebmr% _bk^Zg][hg]k^jnbk^f^gml +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L>G*22+¾*¾*<e-'-'*
1 :gZerl^lmkn\mnk^mhh[mZbg\kbmb\Zefhf^gmlZg]la^Zk_hk\^l +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] Zg]MZ[e^,    ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg.
2 =^lb`g_e^qnkZek^bg_hk\^f^gm L^^Â?e^qnk^Ã l^\mbhg   ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg/'*
*) <a^\dla^Zk\ZiZ\bmr L^^ÂO^kmb\Zela^Zkà l^\mbhg   ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg/'+
** <a^\d]^_e^\mbhg L^^Â=^_e^\mbhgà l^\mbhg   ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg0'-
*+ <a^\dliZ\bg`h_[Zkl +3@^mmbg`lmZkm^] ;L>G*22+¾*¾*l^\mbhg0',
Note
G:6GZmbhgZe:gg^q

Table 2
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for beams made with reinforced concrete for fire resistance
Standard fire resistance Minimum dimensions (mm)
Possible combinations of a and bmin where a is the average axis distance and bmin is the width of the beam
Simply supported beams Continuous beams
A B C D E F G H
R60 bmin = 120 160 200 300 120 200
a= 40 35 30 25 25 12a
R90 bmin = 150 200 300 400 150 250
a= 55 45 40 35 35 25
R120 bmin = 200 240 300 500 200 300 450 500
a= 65 60 55 50 45 35 35 30
R240 bmin = 280 350 500 700 280 500 650 700
a= 90 80 75 70 75 60 60 50
Notes
1 This table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Tables 5.5 and 5.6.
2 The axis distance, asd , from the side of the beam to the corner bar should be a +10 mm except where bmin is greater than the values in columns C and F.
3 The table is valid only if the detailing requirements (see note 4) are observed and, in normal temperature design, redistribution of bending moments does not exceed 15%.
4 For fire resistance of R90 and above, for a distance of 0.3l eff from the centre line of each intermediate support, the area of top reinforcement should not be less than the following:
A s,req (x) = A s,req ( 0 )( 1– 2.5 ( x/ l eff ) )
where:
x is the distance of the section being considered from the centre line of the support.
A s,req ( 0 ) is the area of reinforcement required for normal temperature design.
A s,req (x) is the minimum area of reinforcement required at the section being considered but not less than that required for normal temperature design.
l eff is the greater of the effective lengths of the two adjacent spans.
5 For fire resistances R120 – R240, the width of the beam at the first intermediate support should be at least that in column F, if both the following conditions exist:
a there is no fixity at the end support; and
b the acting shear at normal temperature Vsd > 0.67 V Rd,max .
Key
a Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992–1–1 will determine the cover.

Figure 1 Figure 3
Section through structural member, Simplified rectangular stress block for
showing nominal axis distances a and asd concrete up to class C50/60 from Eurocode 2

b εc
ε sc fcd
d2
x As2 0.8x Fsc
Fc
h>b Neutral axis
d
h z
a
As Fst
asd εs
b
Section Strain Stress block and forces

2
26
 4. Beams

Figure 2
member. It is a nominal (not minimum) dimension, so the designer Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement
should ensure that:
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2 and asd = a + 10 mm START
Table 2 gives the minimum dimensions for beams to meet the
standard fire periods. Carry out analysis of beam to determine
design moments (M) (see Table 3)

Flexure Concrete class No Outside scope of this

≤C50/60? publication
The design procedure for flexural design is given in Figure 2; this includes Yes
derived formulae based on the simplified rectangular stress block from M
Determine K from K =
Eurocode 2. Table 3 may be used to determine bending moments and bd 2 fck
shear forces for beams, provided the notes to the table are observed.
Determine K’ from Table 4 or
Table 3 K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d2 – 0.21
Bending moment and shear coefficients for beams where d ≤ 1.0

Moment Shear
Outer support 25% of span moment 0.45 (G + Q) No Compression reinforcement
Is K ≤ K ’ ? required
G^Zkfb]]e^h_^g]liZg )')2)Gl + 0.100 Ql
At first interior support – 0.094 (G + Q) l 0.63 (G + Q)a
Yes
At middle of interior spans 0.066 Gl + 0.086 Ql Calculate lever arm z from
At interior supports – 0.075 (G + Q) l 0.50 (G + Q) z = d 1 + 1 – 3.53 K ’
[ ]
No compression reinforcement required 2
Key
a 0.55 (G + Q) may be used adjacent to the interior span.
Notes
1 Redistribution of support moments by 15% has been included. Obtain lever arm z from Table 5 or use Calculate compression
2 Applicable to 3 or more spans only and where Qk ≤ G k. reinforcement required from
z= d [1 + 1 – 3.53 K ] ≤ 0.95d
3 Minimum span ≥ 0.85 longest span. 2 (K– K’) fck bd 2
As2 =
4 l is the span, G is the total of the ULS permanent actions, Q is the total fsc(d– d2)
of the ULS variable actions.
where
Calculate tension reinforcement
Table 4
Values for K ’
required from

As =
M
fsc = 700
[ x – d2
x ] ≤ fyd

fyd z
% redistribution d (redistribution ratio) K ’
) *')) )'+)1Z Calculate tension
Check minimum reinforcement
reinforcement required from
*) )'2) )'*1+Z requirements (see Table 6)
0.26 fctm bt d K’fck bd 2 fsc
*. )'1. )'*/1 As,min = where fck ≥ 25 As = + As2
fyk fyd z fyd
+) )'1) )'*.,
+. )'0. )'*,0
,)  )'0)  )'*+) Check maximum reinforcement requirements As,max = 0.04 Ac
for tension or compression reinforcement outside lap locations
Key
a Bmblh_m^gk^\hf^g]^]bgma^NDmaZm D£lahne][^ebfbm^]mh)'*/1mh^glnk^]n\mbe^_Zbenk^'

Table 5 Table 6
z/d for singly reinforced rectangular sections Minimum percentage of required reinforcement

K z/d K z/d fck fctm Minimum percentage (0.26 fctm / fyka)

©)'). )' 2.) Z )'*, )'1/1 +. +'/ )'*,
)')/ )'2-- )'*- )'1./ +1 +'1 )'*-
)')0 )'2,- )'*. )'1-, ,) +'2 )'*.
)')1 )'2+- )'*/ )'1,) ,+ ,') )'*/
)')2 )'2*, )'*0 )'1*/ ,. ,'+ )'*0
)'*) )'2)+ )'*1 )'1)+ -) ,'. )'*1
)'** )'12* )'*2 )'010 -. ,'1 )'+)
)'*+ )'11) )'+) )'00* .) -'* )'+*
Key Key
a Ebfbmbg`s mh)'2.] blghmZk^jnbk^f^gmh_>nkh\h]^+% [nmbl\hglb]^k^]mh[^`hh]ikZ\mb\^' a :llnfbg`_rd 6 .))FIZ

273
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 4
Strut inclination method Eurocode 2 offers various methods for determining the stress-strain
relationship of concrete. For simplicity and familiarity the method
Concrete strut in compression
presented here is the simplified rectangular stress block, which is
similar to that found in BS 8110 (see Figure 3).

Eurocode 2 gives recommendations for the design of concrete up to

y
class C90/105. However, for concrete greater than class C50/60, the
stress block is modified. It is important to note that concrete strength
is based on the cylinder strength and not the cube strength (i.e. for
class C30/37 the cylinder strength ( fck ) is 30 MPa, whereas the cube
Longitudinal Vertical shear strength is 37 MPa).
reinforcement in tension reinforcement

Vertical shear
Figure 5
Procedure for determining vertical shear reinforcement Eurocode 2 introduces the strut inclination method for shear capacity
checks. In this method the shear is resisted by concrete struts acting in
START compression and shear reinforcement acting in tension.

Determine vEd where The angle of the concrete strut varies, depending on the shear force
vEd = design shear stress [ vEd = VEd /(bwz) = VEd /(0 9. bwd)] applied (see Figure 4). The procedure for determining the shear capacity
of a section is shown in Figure 5 (which includes UK NA values) and is
Determine the concrete strut capacity v Rd, max cot y = 2.5
in terms of shear stress in the vertical plane rather than a vertical force
from Table 7 as given in Eurocode 2. Where shear reinforcement is required, then
the angle of the concrete strut should be calculated. For many typical
beams the minimum angle of strut will apply (when cot y = 2.5 or y =
Is Is
21.8º) i.e. for class C30/37 concrete the strut angle exceeds 21.8º only
No No Redesign
vEd < vRd,max coty = 2.5? v Ed < v Rd,max cot y = 1.0?
section when the shear stress is greater than 3.27 N/mm2 (refer to Table 7).
(see Table 7)
As with BS 8110, there is a maximum permitted shear capacity, vRd,max ,
(when cot y = 1.0 or y = 45º), but this is not restricted to 5 MPa as in
Yes (cot y = 2.5) Yes
BS 8110.
Determine y from:

y = 0.5 sin -1 T vEd

0.20 fck (1 – fck /250) V Deflection
Calculate area of shear reinforcement: >nkh\h]^+aZlmphZem^kgZmbo^f^mah]l_hk\a^\dbg`]^_e^\mbhg%
Asw vEd bw
= ^bma^kZebfbmbg`liZg&mh&]^imakZmbhfZr[^nl^]hkma^ma^hk^mb\Ze
s fywd cot y
]^_e^\mbhg\Zg[^Zll^ll^]nlbg`ma^^qik^llbhgl`bo^gbgma^<h]^'
Ma^eZmm^kbl]^Zempbmabg]^mZbebg<aZim^k1%hkb`bgZeerin[ebla^]Zl
Check maximum spacing for vertical shear reinforcement: =^_e^\mbhg\Ze\neZmbhgl7'
s l, max = 0.75 d

Ma^liZg&mh&]^imakZmbhllahne]^glnk^maZm]^_e^\mbhgblebfbm^]mh
liZg(+.)Zg]mablblma^ikh\^]nk^ik^l^gm^]bg?b`nk^/'
Table 7
Minimum and maximum concrete strut capacity in terms of stress

fck
20
v Rd,max cot y = 2.5
2.54
v Rd,max cot y = 1.0
3.68
Flanged beams
25 3.10 4.50
28 3.43 4.97 ?eZg`^][^Zfl\Zg[^mk^Zm^]bgfn\ama^lZf^pZrZlbg;L1**)'
30 3.64 5.28 Ma^fZbg]b__^k^g\^l\hfiZk^]pbma;L1**)Zk^maZmma^Zll^llf^gm
32 3.84 5.58 h_ma^_eZg`^pb]mablfhk^lhiablmb\Zm^]!l^^?b`nk^l2Zg]*)"Zg]
35 4.15 6.02
40 4.63 6.72 maZm>nkh\h]^+\hgmZbglZ\a^\dmh\hg_bkfmaZmma^la^Zklmk^llZm
45 5.08 7.38
50 5.51 8.00 <hgmbgn^liZ`^,*

4
28
 4. Beams

Figure 6 Figure 8
Procedure for assessing deflection Determination of steel stress

START 320

Determine basic l/d and K from Figure 7 300

Unmodified steel stress, ssu

280
Determine Factor 1 (F1)
For ribbed or waffle slabs
F1 = 1 – 0.1 ((bf/bw) – 1) ≥ 0.8† 260
(bf is flange breadth and bw is rib breadth)
Otherwise F1 = 1.0 240

Determine Factor 2 (F2) 220

Where the slab span exceeds 7 m and it supports
brittle partitions, F2 = 7/leff ≤ 1.0 200
Otherwise F2 = 1.0

180
Determine Factor 3 (F3) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
F3 = 310/ss
Where ss = Stress in reinforcement at serviceability Ratio Gk /Qk
limit state (see Figure 8)
ss may assumed to be 310 MPa (i.e. F3 = 1.0)
c2 = 0.8, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.25
Note: As,prov ≤ 1.5 As,req’d (UK National Annex) Increase
As,prov c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.25
c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.25
Is basic l/d x K x F1 x F2 x F3 ≥ Actual l/d ? c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.35
No
Yes
To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio
Check complete Gk/Qk, read up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across
to determine ssu .
† The Eurocode is ambiguous regarding linear interpolation. It is understood that
As,req 1
it was the intention of the drafting committee that linear interpolation be used
and this is in line with current UK practice.
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu
As,prov d ( )( )

Figure 7
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios

36
Notes
34 1 Mabl`kZiaZllnf^llbfierlniihkm^]liZg\hg]bmbhg
!D 6*')"'
fck = 50 D 6*'._hkbgm^kbhkliZg\hg]bmbhg
32
fck = 45 D 6*',_hk^g]liZg\hg]bmbhg
D 6)'-_hk\Zgmbe^o^kl'
30 fck = 40
fck = 35 2 <hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gm% rÃ% aZl[^^gmZd^gZl)'
28 fck = 32 3 <nko^l[Zl^]hgma^_heehpbg`^qik^llbhgl3
Span to depth ratio (l/d)

fck = 30
*'.
26 fck = 28
fck = 25
e
] T
6D ** $
*'. _\d r )
r
$ ,'+ _\d
! "V
r)
r
¾*

24
fck = 20 pa^k^r ©r )
22
Zg]
20

18
e
] T
6D ** $
*'. _\d r )
! r ¾ r Ã"
$
_\d
*+
rÃ
r) V
pa^k^r 7r ) '
16

14

12
0.40% 0.60% 0.80% 1.00% 1.20% 1.40% 1.60% 1.80% 2.00%
Percentage of tension reinforcement (A s,req’d /bd)

295
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 11 Figure 9
Procedure for determining flexural capacity of flanged beams Definition of lo, for calculation of effective flange width

START

l0 = 0.85 l1 l0 = 0.15 (l1 + l2 ) l0 = 0.7 l2 l0 = 0.15 l2 + l3

Carry out analysis of beam to determine design
moments, M (see Table 3)
l1 l2 l3

Determine l0 (see Figure 9) and beff from:

beff = (bw + beff1 + beff2) where Figure 10
beff1 = (0.2b1 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b1 Effective flange width parameters
beff2 = (0.2b2 + 0.1 l0) ≤ 0.2 l0 ≤ b2
Note: The flange width at the support will be beff
different from that at mid-span. beff,1 beff,2
For symbols refer to Figures 9 and 10

bw
M b1 b1 b2 b2
Determine K from K =
bd 2 fck
where b = bw at support b
b = beff in span

Figure 12
Placing of tension reinforcement in flanged cross section
Determine K’ from Table 4 or
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
beff

As
Calculate lever arm z from
d
z=
2 [1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d ] hf

Calculate depth to neutral axis x from: beff1 bw beff2

x = 2.5 (d – z)

Neutral axis in
flange. Design
Yes as rectangular
Is x ≤ 1.25hf ? section (Figure 2)
and then check
longitudinal shear
(Figure 14)
No

Figure 13
Neutral axis in web
Calculate moment capacity of flange from:
Notations for the connection between flange and web
MR,f = 0.57 fck (beff – bw) hf (d – 0.5hf)

M – MR,f Fd A
and Kf = yf
fck bw d 2
Compressive struts
Fd beff
Dx
Asf
Sf
No
Is Kf ≤ K ’? Redesign section A hf

Yes Longitudinal bar

anchored beyond Fd + D Fd
this projected point
Calculate area of reinforcement required from Check longitudinal
MR,f M – MR,f shear Fd + D Fd
As = + (see Figure 14) bw
fywd (d – 0.5 hf ) fywd

6
30
 4. Beams

ma^bgm^k_Z\^h_ma^_eZg`^Zg]p^[\Zg[^k^lblm^][rma^mkZglo^kl^ Minimum area of shear reinforcement

k^bg_hk\^f^gmbgma^_eZg`^' Ma^ihlbmbhgh_ma^g^nmkZeZqbllahne] Ma^fbgbfnfZk^Zh_la^Zkk^bg_hk\^f^gmbg[^Zfl%:lp%fbglahne]
[^]^m^kfbg^]% Zg]ma^gma^ Zk^Zh_k^bg_hk\^f^gm\Zg[^\Ze\neZm^] [^\Ze\neZm^]_khf
]^i^g]bg`pa^ma^kbmeb^lbgma^_eZg`^hkp^[!l^^?b`nk^**"' :lp
4 r p%fbg
l[p
:mlniihkmlma^m^glbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmmhk^lblmah``bg`fhf^gml pa^k^r p%fbg \Zg[^h[mZbg^]_khfMZ[e^2'
lahne][^]blmkb[nm^]Z\khllma^_neepb]mah_ma^^__^\mbo^_eZg`^Zl
lahpgbg?b`nk^*+' Ma^liZg&mh&]^ima]^_e^\mbhg\a^\dlnlbg`kZmbhh_
m^glbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmlahne][^[Zl^]hgZk^Zh_\hg\k^m^Z[ho^ Figure 14
Procedure for determining longitudinal shear capacity of flanged beams
\^gmk^h_m^glbhglm^^e'

Calculate the longitudinal shear stress

Longitudinal shear from: vEd = D Fd/(hf D x)
Ma^la^Zklmk^llbgma^o^kmb\ZeieZg^[^mp^^gma^_eZg`^Zg]p^[lahne] (see Figure 13)
[^Zll^ll^]Z\\hk]bg`mhl^\mbhg/'+'-Zg]?b`nk^/'0h_ma^>nkh\h]^
!k^ikh]n\^]a^k^Zl?b`nk^*,"' Ma^\aZg`^bg_hk\^bgma^_eZg`^\Zg
[^Zll^ll^]_khfma^fhf^gmZg]e^o^kZkfZmZiZkmb\neZkeh\Zmbhg' Is length of Yes
Determine the concrete
strut capacity from Table 8
Ma^>nkh\h]^lmZm^lmaZmma^fZqbfnfe^g`mamaZm\Zg[^\hglb]^k^] flange under consideration or from:
in tension? vRd = 0.195 fck (1 – fck/250)
_hkma^\aZg`^bg_hk\^blaZe_ma^]blmZg\^[^mp^^gma^fZqbfnf
fhf^gmZg]ma^ihbgmpa^k^ma^fhf^gmbls^kh' <e^Zker% ma^fZqbfnf No
ehg`bmn]bgZe_hk\^pbeeh\\nkpa^k^ma^\aZg`^bgfhf^gm% Zg]
ma^k^_hk^_hk\^% blma^`k^Zm^lm4 _hkZngb_hkfer]blmkb[nm^]ehZ]hgZ Determine the concrete strut capacity
from Table 8 or from:
\hgmbgnhnl[^Zfmablpbee[^ma^e^g`mah_[^Zf\ehl^lmmhma^lniihkm' vRd = 0.160 fck (1 – fck/250)

?b`nk^*-lahplZ_ehp\aZkm_hkZll^llbg`ma^ehg`bmn]bgZela^Zk
\ZiZ\bmr4 bgfZgr\Zl^lma^mkZglo^kl^k^bg_hk\^f^gmbgma^leZ[pbee[^ Determine y f from:
No No
ln__b\b^gmmhk^lblmma^la^Zk_hk\^' Mabl\a^\dblbg\en]^]mh^glnk^maZm
pa^k^iZkmb\neZkermabg_eZg`^lZk^nl^]ma^k^blZ]^jnZm^k^bg_hk\^f^gm'
Is v RD > vEd ?
yf = 0.5 sin-1 T vEd
0.2 fck (1 – fck /250) V Is v RD > vEd ?

Ma^ehg`bmn]bgZela^Zk\ZiZ\bmrbl[Zl^]hgma^oZkbZ[e^lmknmbg\ebgZmbhg Yes (cot y f = 2.0) Yes (cot y f

f^mah]% pab\apZl]^l\kb[^]bgma^l^\mbhghgo^kmb\Zela^Zk' = 1.25)
Calculate area of transverse reinforcement from:
Asf vEd hf
=

Rules for spacing and s fyd cot y f

quantity of reinforcement Table 8

Concrete strut capacity for longitudinal shear in flanged beams
Minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement fck v Rd,max
Ma^fbgbfnfZk^Zh_k^bg_hk\^f^gmbl:l%fbg 6)'+/_\ mf [ m ](_r d [nm Flange in compression Flange in tension
ghme^llmaZg)'))*,[ m]% pa^k^[ m blma^f^Zgpb]mah_ma^m^glbhg +) +'2- ,'.2
shg^!l^^MZ[e^/"' ?hkZM&[^Zfpbmama^_eZg`^bg\hfik^llbhg% hger +. ,'/) -',2
ma^pb]mah_ma^p^[blmZd^gbgmhZ\\hngmbg\Ze\neZmbg`ma^oZen^h_[ +1 ,'21 -'1.
,) -'++ .'*.
,+ -'-/ .'--
Maximum area of longitudinal reinforcement ,. -'1+ .'10
Ma^fZqbfnfZk^Zh_m^glbhghk\hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gm% hnmlb]^ -) .',1 /'..
eZieh\Zmbhgllahne]ghm^q\^^]:l%fZq 6)')-:\ -. .'2) 0'+)
.) /'-) 0'1)
Minimum spacing of reinforcement
Ma^fbgbfnf\e^Zk]blmZg\^[^mp^^g[Zkllahne][^ma^`k^Zm^kh_3 Table 9
;Zk]bZf^m^k Values for r w,min
:``k^`Zm^lbs^ienl.ff fck 20 25 28 30 32 35 40 45 50
+)ff r p%fbgq*) &, )'0+ )'1) )'1. )'11 )'2* )'2. *')* *')0 *'*,

317
 4. Beams

Selected symbols
Symbol Definition Value Symbol Definition Value
:\ <khlll^\mbhgZeZk^Zh_\hg\k^m^ eh =blmZg\^[^mp^^gihbgmlh_s^khfhf^gm
:l :k^Zh_m^glbhglm^^e e(] LiZg&mh&]^imakZmbh
:l+ :k^Zh_\hfik^llbhglm^^e F =^lb`gfhf^gmZmma^NEL
:l% ikho :k^Zh_m^glbhglm^^eikhob]^] q =^imamhg^nmkZeZqbl !]&s"()'-
:l% k^jÃ] :k^Zh_m^glbhglm^^ek^jnbk^] qfZq Ebfbmbg`oZen^_hk]^imamhg^nmkZeZqbl !d ¾)'-"] pa^k^d ©*')
[^__ >__^\mbo^_eZg`^pb]ma s E^o^kZkf
[m F^Zgpb]mah_ma^m^glbhgshg^ a \\ <h^__b\b^gmmZdbg`Z\\hngmh_ehg`m^kf )'1._hk_e^qnk^Zg]
^__^\mlhg\hfik^llbo^lmk^g`maZg]h_ ZqbZeehZ]l
[fbg Pb]mah_[^Zfhkkb[
ng_ZohnkZ[e^^__^\mlk^lnembg`_khfma^ *')_hkhma^kia^ghf^gZ
[p Pb]mah_l^\mbhg% hkpb]mah_p^[hg_eZg`^][^Zfl pZrehZ]blZiieb^] !?khfNDGZmbhgZe:gg^q"
] >__^\mbo^]^ima d KZmbhh_ma^k^]blmkb[nm^]fhf^gmmhma^
]+ >__^\mbo^]^imamh\hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gm ^eZlmb\[^g]bg`fhf^gm
_\] =^lb`goZen^h_\hg\k^m^\hfik^llbo^lmk^g`ma a\\ _\d (g\ _hk_\d ©<.)(/) gf IZkmbZe_Z\mhk_hkfZm^kbZeikhi^kmb^l *'*._hkk^bg_hk\^f^gm!gl"
*'._hk\hg\k^m^!g\"
_\d <aZkZ\m^kblmb\\rebg]^klmk^g`mah_\hg\k^m^
r) K^_^k^g\^k^bg_hk\^f^gmkZmbh R_\d (*)))
_\mf F^ZgoZen^h_ZqbZem^glbe^lmk^g`ma )',)_\d!+(," _hk_\d ©<.)(/)
!_khfMZ[e^,'*% >nkh\h]^+" r K^jnbk^]m^glbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmZmfb]&liZg :l([] !_hkk^\mZg`neZk[^Zfl"
mhk^lblmma^fhf^gm]n^mhma^]^lb`g
a_ ?eZg`^mab\dg^ll ehZ]l!hkZmlniihkm_hk\Zgmbe^o^kl"
D ?Z\mhkmhmZd^Z\\hngmh_ma^]b__^k^gm L^^mZ[e^G:'-bg rà K^jnbk^]\hfik^llbhgk^bg_hk\^f^gmZm :l+([]
lmkn\mnkZelrlm^fl NDGZmbhgZe:gg^q fb]&liZgmhk^lblmma^fhf^gm]n^mhma^
e^__ >__^\mbo^liZgh_f^f[^k L^^L^\mbhg.','+'+!*" ]^lb`gehZ]l!hkZmlniihkm_hk\Zgmbe^o^kl"

References
1 ;KBMBLALM:G=:K=LBGLMBMNMBHG' ;L>G*22+¾*¾*% >nkh\h]^+3 =^lb`gh_\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^l¾IZkm*¾*@^g^kZekne^lZg]kne^l_hk
[nbe]bg`l' ;LB% +))-'
2 ;KBMBLALM:G=:K=LBGLMBMNMBHG' ;L1**)¾*3 Ma^lmkn\mnkZenl^h_\hg\k^m^¾IZkm*% <h]^h_ikZ\mb\^_hk]^lb`gZg]\hglmkn\mbhg' ;LB% *220'
3 G:K:R:G:G% KL;KHHD>K% H' Ahpmh]^lb`g\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+3 Bgmkh]n\mbhgmh>nkh\h]^l' Ma^<hg\k^m^<^gmk^% +)).'
4 ;KHHD>K% H' Ahpmh]^lb`g\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+3 @^mmbg`lmZkm^]' Ma^<hg\k^m^<^gmk^% +)).'
5 ;KBMBLALM:G=:K=LBGLMBMNMBHG' ;L>G*22+¾*¾+% >nkh\h]^+3 =^lb`gh_\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^l' @^g^kZekne^l¾lmkn\mnkZe_bk^]^lb`g' ;LB% +))-
6 =>I:KMF>GMH?<HFFNGBMB>L:G=EH<:E@HO>KGF>GM' AZg][hhdmh>G&*22+&*&+ ' =<E@%]n^+))/'
7 P>;LM>K% K;KHHD>K% H' Ahpmh]^lb`g\hg\k^m^lmkn\mnk^lnlbg`>nkh\h]^+3 =^_e^\mbhg\Ze\neZmbhgl' Ma^<hg\k^m^<^gmk^% +))/'

32
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

5. Columns
R Moss BSc, PhD, DIC, CEng, MICE, MIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Designing to Eurocode 2
This chapter is intended to assist engineers with the design of columns and
walls to Eurocode 21. It sets out a design procedure to follow and gives useful
commentary on the provisions within the Eurocode. The layout and content
of Eurocode 2 may appear unusual to designers familiar with BS 81102.
Eurocode 2 does not contain the derived formulae; this is because it has been
European practice to give principles and general application rules in the codes
and for detailed application rules to be presented in other sources such as
textbooks or guidance documents.

Chapter 1, originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes 3, highlighted the

key differences between Eurocode 2 and BS 8110, including terminology.

It should also be noted that values from the UK National Annex (NA) have
been used throughout this publication, including values that are embedded in
derived formulae. (Derivations can be found at www.eurocode2.info.) A full list
of symbols related to column design is given at the end of this chapter.

Design procedure
A procedure for carrying out the detailed design of braced columns (i.e.
columns that do not contribute to resistance of horizontal actions) is shown
in Table 1. This assumes that the column dimensions have previously been
determined during conceptual design or by using quick design methods, for
example those presented in Economic concrete frame elements 4. Column sizes
should not be significantly different from those obtained using BS 8110. Steps
1 to 4 of Table 1 are covered by earlier chapters and the next step is therefore
to consider fire resistance.

Fire resistance
Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design5, gives a choice of advanced, simplified
or tabular methods for determining fire resistance of columns. Using tables is the
fastest method for determining the minimum dimensions and cover for columns.
There are, however, some restrictions and if these apply further guidance can
be obtained from specialist literature.6 The simplified method may give more
economic columns, especially for small columns and/or high fire resistance periods.

Rather than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based on nominal
axis distance, a (see Figure 1). This is the distance from the centre of the main

Continues page 35
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Column design procedure

Step Task Further guidance

Chapter in the publication Standard

1 Determine design life 2: Getting started UK NA to BS EN 1990 Table NA.2.1

2 Assess actions on the column 2: Getting started BS EN 1991 (10 parts) and UK National Annexes

3 Determine which combinations of actions apply 1: Introduction to Eurocodes UK NA to BS EN 1990 Tables NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2 (B)

4 Assess durability requirements and determine concrete strength 2: Getting started BS 8500: 2002

5 Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period 2: Getting started and Table 2 Approved Document B. BS EN 1992–1–2

6 Calculate min. cover for durability, fire and bond requirements 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl. 4.4.1

7 Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and axial 2: Getting started and ‘Structural BS EN 1992–1–1 section 5
forces analysis’ section

8 Check slenderness See Figures 2 and 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 5.8

9 Determine area of reinforcement required See Figures 2 and 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 section 6.1

10 Check spacing of bars ‘Rules for spacing’ section BS EN 1992–1–1 sections 8 and 9

Note
NA = National Annex.

Table 2 Figure 1
Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for fire resistance Section through structural member, showing nominal axis distance a

Standard fire Minimum dimensions (mm)

resistance
Column width bmin/axis distance, a, of the main
bars
Column exposed on more than Column
one side exposed on
one side
( μfi = 0.7) h≥b
μfi = 0.5 μfi = 0.7
R 60 200/36 250/46 155/25
300/31 350/40
a
R 90 300/45 350/53 155/25
400/38 a 450/40 a
b
R 120 350/45 a 350/57 a 175/35
450/40 a 450/51a
b
R 240 450/75a 295/70 Table 3
Minimum reinforced concrete wall dimensions and axis distances for
load-bearing for fire resistance
Note
The table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2a (method A) and is valid under the Standard Minimum dimensions (mm)
following conditions: fire
resistance Wall thickness/axis distance, a, of the main bars
1 The effective length of a braced column under fire conditions lo,fi ≤ 3m. The value of lo,fi
may be taken as 50% of the actual length for intermediate floors and between 50% Wall exposed on one side Wall exposed on two
and 70% of the actual length for the upper floor column. ( μfi = 0.7) sides ( μfi = 0.7)
2 The first order eccentricity under fire conditions should be ≤ 0.15b (or h). Alternatively REI 60 130/10 a 140/10 a
use method B (see Eurocode 2, Part 1–2, Table 5.2b). The eccentricity under fire
conditions may be taken as that used in normal temperature design. REI 90 140/25 170/25
3 The reinforcement area outside lap locations does not exceed 4% of the concrete REI 120 160/35 220/35
cross section.
REI 240 270/60 350/60
4 μfi is the ratio of the design axial load under fire conditions to the design resistance of
the column at normal temperature conditions. μfi may conservatively be taken as 0.7. Notes
Key 1 The table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.4.

a Minimum 8 bars 2 See note 4 of Table 2.

b Method B may be used which indicates 600/70 for R 240 and μfi = 0.7. Key
See BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.2b
a Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992–1–1 will determine the cover.

34
 5. Columns

reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is a nominal (not present methods A and B. Both are equally applicable, although
minimum) dimension, and the designer should ensure that: method A has smaller limits on eccentricity than method B. Method A
a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar/2. is slightly simpler and is presented in Table 2; limits of applicability
are given in the notes. Similar data for load-bearing walls is given in
For columns there are two tables given in Eurocode 2 Part 1–2 that Table 3.

Figure 2 For columns supporting the uppermost storey, the eccentricity will
Flow chart for braced column design often exceed the limits for both methods A and B. In this situation
Annex C of Eurocode 2, Part 1–2 may be used. Alternatively,
START
consideration can be given to treating the column as a beam for
determining the design fire resistance.

Initial column size may be determined using quick design

methods or through iteration.
Column design
Determine the actions on the column A flow chart for the design of braced columns is shown in Figure 2. For
using an appropriate analysis method. slender columns, Figure 3 will also be required.
The ultimate axial load is NEd and the ultimate moments
are Mtop and Mbottom (Moments from analysis)
Structural analysis
The type of analysis should be appropriate to the problem being
Determine the effective length, lo, using either: considered. The following may be used: linear elastic analysis, linear
1. Figure 5
2. Table 4 elastic analysis with limited redistribution, plastic analysis and
3. Expression (5.15) from BS EN 1992–1–1
non-linear analysis. Linear elastic analysis may be carried out assuming
cross sections are uncracked (i.e. concrete section properties),
using linear stress-strain relationships and assuming mean values
Determine first order moments (see Figure 4)
M01 = Min {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd of long-term elastic modulus.
M02 = Max {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd
Where ei = Max {lo/400, h/30, 20} (units to be in millimetres).
M01 and M02 should have the same sign
For the design of columns the elastic moments from the frame action
if they give tension on the same side. should be used without any redistribution. For slender columns a
non-linear analysis may be carried out to determine the second order
moments; alternatively use the moment magnification method
Determine slenderness, l, from either:
l = lo/i where i = radius of gyration or
(Cl 5.8.7.3) or nominal curvature method (Cl 5.8.8) as illustrated in
l = 3.46 lo/h for rectangular sections (h = overall depth) or Figure 3. The latter is expected to be adopted in the UK.
l = 4.0 lo/d for circular sections (d = column diameter)

Design moments
Determine slenderness limit, λlim, from: The design bending moment is illustrated in Figure 4 and defined as:
l 15.4C
lim =
√n MEd = Max {M02, M0e + M2, M01 + 0.5 M2}
(See ‘Slenderness’ section on page 5 for explanation.)
where
M01 = Min {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd
Yes M02 = Max {|Mtop|, |Mbottom|} + ei NEd
Column is slender
Is l ≥ l lim? (refer to Figure 3).
ei = Max {lo/400, h/30, 20} (units to be in millimetres).
Mtop, Mbottom = Moments at the top and bottom of the column
No M0e = 0.6 M02 + 0.4 M01 ≥ 0.4 M02
Column is not slender. MEd = M02
M2 = NEd e2 where NEd is the design axial load and e2
is deflection due to second order effects

M01 and M02 should be positive if they give tension on the same side.
Use column chart (see Figure 9) to find As required for NEd
and MEd. Alternatively, solve by iteration or by using RC
Spreadsheet TCC53 from Spreadsheets for concrete design to A non-slender column can be designed ignoring second order effects
BS 8110 and Eurocode 2 7
and therefore the ultimate design moment, MEd = M02.

The calculation of the eccentricity, e2, is not simple and is likely to

Check rules for spacing and quantity of reinforcement
(see page 7) require some iteration to determine the deflection at approximately
mid-height, e2. Guidance is given in Figure 3.

35
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 3 Effective length

Flow chart for slender columns (nominal curvature method)
Figure 5 gives guidance on the effective length of the column.
However, for most real structures Figures 5f) and 5g) only are
From Figure 2 applicable, and Eurocode 2 provides two expressions to calculate the
effective length for these situations. Expression (5.15) is for braced
Determine Kr from Figure 9 or from members and Expression (5.16) is for unbraced members.
Kr = (nu - n) / (nu - nbal) ≤ 1
where
n = NEd / (Ac fcd), relative axial force
In both expressions, the relative flexibilities at either end, k1 and k2,
NEd = the design value of axial force should be calculated. The expression for k given in the Eurocode
nu = 1 + w
nbal = 0.4 involves calculating the rotation of the restraining members, which in
w = As,est fyd / (Ac fcd) practice requires the use of framework analysis software. Alternatively,
As,est = the estimated total area of steel
Ac = the area of concrete PD 6687: Background paper to the UK National annex 8 provides a
simplification, based on the stiffness of the beams attached to either
side of the column. This relative stiffness, k, can therefore be calculated
Calculate Kh from Kh = 1 + b hef ≥ 1
where as follows (provided the stiffness of adjacent columns does not vary by
hef = the effective creep ratio
b = 0.35 + fck/200 – λ/150
more than 15% of the higher stiffness):
l = the slenderness ratio.
See section on creep (page 6) EIc 2EIb
k= Σl ≥ 0.1
lc b

Calculate e2 from where

e2 = 0.1 (
Kh fyd
Kr
0.45d Es
l0
2
) Revise value
of As,est
Ic, Ib are the column and beam uncracked second moments of area
where lc, lb are the column and beam lengths
Es = elastic modulus of reinforcing steel
(200 GPa)
Once k1 and k2 have been calculated, the effective length factor, F, can
be established from Table 4 for braced columns. The effective length is
then lo = Fl.
M0e = 0.6 M02 + 0.4 M01 ≥ 0.4 M02
M2 = NEd e2
MEd = Max {M02, M0e + M2, M01 + 0.5 M2} For a 400 mm square internal column supporting a 250 mm thick flat
slab on a 7.5 m grid, the value of k could be 0.11, and therefore lo = 0.59l.
In the edge condition k is effectively doubled and lo = 0.67l. If the internal
Use column chart to find As,req’d for NEd and MEd column had a notionally ‘pinned’ support at its base then lo = 0.77l.
Alternatively, solve by iteration or by using
RC Spreadsheet7
It is also generally accepted that Table 3.19 of BS 8110 may
conservatively be used to determine the effective length factor. In the
long term, Expressions (5.15) and (5.16) will be beneficial as they are
No
Is As req’d & As, est? particularly suitable for incorporation into design software.

Yes Figure 4
Design bending moments
Check detailing requirements

M02
M ei NEd M02
Figure 5
Effective lengths for isolated members

M0e M0e + M2
M2 = NEd e2

+ =
y
y
l

y
M M01 0.5 M2 M01 + 0.5 M2
First order Additional second Total moment
moments for order moments for diagram for
a) l0 = l b) l0 = 2l c) l0 = 0.7l d) l0 = l /2 e) l0 = l f) l/2 < l0 < l g) l0 > 2l ‘stocky’ columns ‘slender’ columns ‘slender’ columns

36
 5. Columns

Table 4 Slenderness
Effective length factor, F, for braced columns
Eurocode 2 states that second order effects may be ignored if they
k2 k1 are less than 10% of the first order effects. As an alternative, if the
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.00 2.00 5.00 9.00 Pinned slenderness (l) is less than the slenderness limit (l lim), then second
order effects may be ignored.
0.10 0.59 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.76 0.77
0.20 0.62 0.65 0.68 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.81 Slenderness, l = lo/i where i = radius of gyration and slenderness limit.
0.30 0.64 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.84
20ABC 15.4C
0.40 0.66 0.69 0.72 0.74 0.75 0.77 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.86 l lim = ≤
n n
0.50 0.67 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.86 0.87
where
0.70 0.69 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.85 0.88 0.89 0.90
A = 1/(1+0.2 hef) (if hef is not known, A = 0.7 may be used)
1.00 0.71 0.74 0.77 0.79 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.92 B= (if ω, reinforcement ratio, is not known,
2.00 0.73 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.85 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.95 B = 1.1 may be used)
5.00 0.75 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.93 0.96 0.97 0.98 C = 1.7 – rm (if rm is not known, C = 0.7 may be used – see below)
9.00 0.76 0.80 0.83 0.85 0.86 0.89 0.91 0.94 0.97 0.98 0.99 n = NEd / (Ac fcd)
Pinned 0.77 0.81 0.84 0.86 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.95 0.98 0.99 1.00 rm = M01/M02
M01, M02 are the first order end moments, |M02| ≥ |M01|
Figure 6
Calculating factor C If the end moments M01 and M02 give tension on the same side,
rm should be taken positive.
105 kNm 105 kNm 105 kNm
Of the three factors A, B and C, C will have the largest impact on
l lim and is the simplest to calculate. An initial assessment of l lim can
therefore be made using the default values for A and B, but including
a calculation for C (see Figure 6). Care should be taken in determining
105 kNm 0 105 kNm
C because the sign of the moments makes a significant difference. For
rm = 1.0 rm = 0 rm = -1.0
unbraced members C should always be taken as 0.7.
a) C = 1.7 - 1 = 0.7 b) C = 1.7 - 0 = 1.7 c) C = 1.7 + 1.0 = 2.7
Column design resistance
For practical purposes the rectangular stress block used for the design
Figure 7
Stress block diagram for columns of beams (see Chapter 4, originally published as Beams 9) may also be
used for the design of columns (see Figure 7). However, the maximum
f cd d2 compressive strain for concrete classes up to and including C50/60,
ecu 2 s sc
esc As2 when the whole section is in pure compression, is 0.00175 (see Figure
dc 8a). When the neutral axis falls outside the section (Figure 8b), the
x
h maximum allowable strain is assumed to lie between 0.00175 and
n. axis
d2 0.0035, and may be obtained by drawing a line from the point of zero
ey As
s st strain through the ‘hinge point’ of 0.00175 strain at mid-depth of the
section. When the neutral axis lies within the section depth then the
a) Strain diagram b) Stress diagram
maximum compressive strain is 0.0035 (see Figure 8c).

Figure 8
Strain diagrams for columns

0.00175 0.00175 x / ( x – h /2) 0.0035 max 0.0035 max

x x
h/ 2
hinge hinge
h point h d point
x
ex ex

0.00175 0.00175 min

a) Pure compression b) When x > h c) When x < h d) General relationship

37
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

The general relationship is shown in Figure 8d). For concrete classes Creep
above C50/60 the principles are the same but the maximum strain Depending on the assumptions used in the design, it may be necessary
values vary. to determine the effective creep ratio hef (ref. Cl. 3.1.4 & 5.8.4). A
nomogram is provided in the Eurocode (Figure 3.1) for which the
Two expressions can be derived for the area of steel required, (based on cement strength class is required; however, at the design stage it often
a rectangular stress block, see Figure 7) one for the axial loads and the not certain which class applies. Generally, Class R should be assumed.
other for the moments: Where the ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) exceeds 35%
AsN /2 = (NEd – fcd b dc) / (σsc – σst) of the cement combination or where pulverized fuel ash (pfa) exceeds
where 20% of the cement combination, Class N may be assumed. Where
AsN = Area of reinforcement required to resist axial load ggbs exceeds 65% or where pfa exceeds 35%, Class S may be assumed.
NEd = Axial load
fcd = Design value of concrete compressive strength
σsc (σst) = Stress in compression (and tension) reinforcement Biaxial bending
b = Breadth of section
dc = Effective depth of concrete in compression = lx ≤ h The effects of biaxial bending may be checked using Expression (5.39),
l = 0.8 for ≤ C50/60 which was first developed by Breslaer.
x = Depth to neutral axis MEdz a MEdy a

h = Height of section ( ) + ( ) ≤ 1.0

MRdz MRdy

AsM /2 = [M – fcd b dc(h/2 – dc/2)] / [(h/2–d2) (σsc+σst)] where

where MEdz,y = Design moment in the respective direction including second
AsM = Total area of reinforcement required to resist moment order effects in a slender column
MRdz,y = Moment of resistance in the respective direction
Realistically, these can only be solved iteratively and therefore either a = 2 for circular and elliptical sections; refer to Table 5 for rectangular
computer software (e.g. RC Spreadsheet TCC53 from Spreadsheets for sections
concrete design to BS 8110 and EC27) or column design charts (see NRd = Ac fcd + As fyd
Figures 9a to 9e) may be used. Continues page 41

Figure 9a
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.05

1.3
Kr = 0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.05
0.3 Asfyk/bhfck
1.1
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.9
0.8
0.9
0.7 0.5
0.6
0.8
0.5 0.6
0.4
N/bhfck

0.7
0.3
0.7
0.6 0.2
0.1
0.5
0 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
1.0
0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
2
M/bh fck

38
 5. Columns

Figure 9b
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.10

1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.10
0.3 Asfyk/bhfck
1.1
1.0 0.4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.7 0.5
0.8 0.6
0.5
0.6
0.7 0.4
N/bhfck

0.3
0.7
0.6 0.2
0.1
0.5
0 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
Kr =1
0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
2
M/bh fck

Figure 9c
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.15

1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.15
0.3
1.1
Asfyk/bhfck
1.0
1.0 0.9 0.4
0.8
0.9
0.7 0.5
0.8 0.6
0.5 0.6
N/bhfck

0.7 0.4
0.3
0.6 0.2 0.7
0.1
0.5 0 0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
Kr =1
0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
2
M/bh fck

39
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Figure 9d
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.20

1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.20
0.3 Asfyk/bhfck
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.9 0.4
0.9 0.8
0.7 0.5
0.8 0.6
0.5
0.6
N/bhfck

0.7 0.4
0.3
0.6 0.2 0.7
0.1
0.5
0
0.8
0.4

0.3 0.9

0.2
Kr = 1
0.1

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
2
M/bh f ck

Figure 9e
Column design chart for rectangular columns d2 /h = 0.25

1.3
0.2
1.2 d2/h = 0.25

1.1 0.3
Asfyk/bhfck
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.4
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.6 0.5
0.5
0.7
N/bhfck

0.4
0.3 0.6
0.6
0.2
0.5 0.1
0 0.7
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0.2

0.1
Kr = 1
0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
2
M/bh fck

40
 5. Columns

Table 5 Selected symbols

Value of a for rectangular sections Symbol Definition Value
1/r0 Reference curvature εyd/(0.45 d)
NEd /NRd 0.1 0.7 1.0
1/r Curvature Kr Kh 1/r0
a 1.0 1.5 2.0
a Axis distance for fire resistance
Note
Linear interpolation may be used. A Factor for determining slenderness limit 1 / (1+0.2 hef)

Ac Cross sectional area of concrete bh

As Area of total column reinforcement

Unbraced columns B Factor for determining slenderness limit

c Factor depending on curvature distribution 10 (for constant cross-section)

There is no comment made on the design of sway frames in Eurocode 2.
C Factor for determining slenderness limit 1.7 – rm
However, it gives guidance on the effective length of an unbraced
member in Expression (5.16). The value for C of 0.7 should always be d Effective depth

used in Expression (5.13N). The design moments should be assessed e2 Second order eccentricity (1/r)lo/c

including second order effects. The tabular method for fire resistance ei Eccentricity due to geometric imperfections

design (Part 1–2) does not explicitly cover unbraced columns; however Es Elastic modulus of reinforcing steel 200 GPa
reference can be made to the Handbook to EN 1992–1–2 6. fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength αcc fck/γc

fck Characteristic cylinder strength of concrete

Walls l Clear height of compression member between

end restraints

lo Effective length
When the section length of a vertical element is four times greater
Kr Correction factor depending on axial load
than its thickness it is defined as a wall. The design of walls does not
Kh Factor taking into account creep
differ significantly from that for columns except for the following:
M01,M02 First order moments including the effect of
■ The requirements for fire resistance (see Table 3). geometric imperfections |M02| ≥ |M01|
■ Bending will be critical about the weak axis.
M2 Nominal second order moment NEd e2
■ There are different rules for spacing and quantity of reinforcement
M0e Equivalent first order moment 0.6 M02 + 0.4 M01 ≥ 0.4 M02
(see below).
MEd Ultimate design moment

There is no specific guidance given for bending about the strong axis MEqp First order bending moment under
quasi-permanent loading
for stability. However, the principles of CIRIA Report 10810 may be
n Relative axial force NEd/(Acfcd)
followed. Alternatively the strut and tie method may be used (section
6.5 of the Eurocode). nbal Value of n at maximum moment of resistance 0.4

nu Factor to allow for reinforcement in the column 1 +ω

Rules for spacing and NEd

rm
Ultimate axial load

Moment ratio M01/M02

quantity of reinforcement x

z
Depth to neutral axis

Lever arm
(d – z)/0.4

αcc Coefficient taking account of long term effects 0.85 for flexure and axial
Maximum areas of reinforcement on compressive strength and of unfavourable loads. 1.0 for other
In Eurocode 2 the maximum nominal reinforcement area for columns effects resulting from the way load is applied phenomena (From UK NA)

and walls outside laps is 4% compared with 6% in BS 8110. However, β Factor 0.35 + fck/200 – λ/150
this area can be increased provided that the concrete can be placed εyd Design value of strain in reinforcement fyd/Es
and compacted sufficiently. If required self-compacting concrete may γm Partial factor for material properties 1.15 for reinforcement (γs)
be used for particularly congested situations, where the reinforcing bars 1.5 for concrete (γc)

should be spaced to ensure that the concrete can flow around them. l Slenderness lo/i
Further guidance can be found in Self-compacting concrete.11 l lim Slenderness limit

μfi Degree of utilisation in a fire NEd,fi /NRd

Minimum reinforcement requirements hef Effective creep ratio h(∞,to) MEqp /MEd
The recommended minimum diameter of longitudinal reinforcement in h (∞,to) Final creep co-efficient to Cl 3.1.4
columns is 12 mm. The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement in
ω Mechanical reinforcement ratio As fyd/(Ac fcd)
columns is given by: As,min = 0.10 NEd/fyd ≥ 0.002Ac Exp. (9.12N)
|x| Absolute value of x
The diameter of the transverse reinforcement should not be less than
Max. {x,y+z} The maximum of values x or y + z
6 mm or one quarter of the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars.

41
 5. Columns

Spacing requirements for columns Particular requirements for walls

The maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement (i.e. links) in The minimum area of vertical reinforcement in walls is given by:
columns (Clause 9.5.3(1)) should not exceed:
■ 12 times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars.
As,min = 0.002Ac
■ 60% of the lesser dimension of the column.
Half of this area should be located at each face. The distance between
■ 240 mm.
two adjacent vertical bars should not exceed the lesser of either three
At a distance greater than the larger dimension of the column above times the wall thickness or 400 mm.
or below a beam or slab these spacings can be increased by a factor
of 1.67. The minimum clear distance between the bars should be the The minimum area of horizontal reinforcement in walls is the greater
greater of the bar diameter, aggregate size plus 5 mm or 20 mm. of either 25% of vertical reinforcement or 0.001 Ac. However, where
No longitudinal bar should be further than 150 mm from transverse crack control is important, early age thermal and shrinkage effects
reinforcement (links) in the compression zone. should be considered explicitly.

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1, Structural use of concrete – Part 1, Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 2004.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 GOODCHILD, C H. Economic concrete frame elements. BCA 1997.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2. Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
6 DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Handbook to EN 1992–1–2. DCLG, due 2006.
7 GOODCHILD, C H WEBSTER, R M. Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and Eurocode 2, version 3. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1 and BS EN 1992–1–2. BSI, due 2006.
9 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
10 CIRIA. Report 102: Design of shear wall buildings. CIRIA, 1984.
11 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical Report No 62: Self-compacting concrete. A review. The Society, 2005.

42
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

6. Foundations
R Webster CEng, FIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design

Scope
All foundations should be designed so that the soil safely resists the
actions applied to the structure. The design of any foundation consists of
two components; the geotechnical design and the structural design of the
foundation itself. However, for some foundations (e.g. flexible rafts) the effect
of the interaction between the soil and structure may be critical and must
also be considered. Geotechnical design is covered by Eurocode 71, which
supersedes several current British Standards including BS 59302, BS 80023
and BS 80044. The new Eurocode marks a significant change in geotechnical
design in that limit state principles are used throughout and this should
ensure consistency between the Eurocodes. There are two parts to Eurocode 7,
Part 1: General rules and Part 2: Ground investigation and testing. Guidance on
the design of retaining walls can be found in Chapter 9.

The essential features of Eurocode 7, Part 1 relating to foundation design are

discussed in this chapter. It should be emphasised that this publication covers
only the design of simple foundations, which are a small part of the scope of
Eurocode 7. Therefore it should not be relied on for general guidance on this
Eurocode. At the time of writing it is anticipated that the National Annex (NA)
for Part 1 will be published in July 2007.

Limit states
The following ultimate limit states (ULS) should be satisfied for geotechnical
design; they each have their own combinations of actions. (For an explanation
of Eurocode terminology please refer to Chapter 1, originally published as
Introduction to Eurocodes5.)
EQU Loss of equilibrium of the structure.
STR Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural
member.
GEO Failure due to excessive deformation of the ground.
UPL Loss of equilibrium due to uplift by water pressure.
HYD Failure caused by hydraulic gradients.

In addition, the serviceability limit states (SLS) should be satisfied. It will

usually be clear that one of the limit states will govern the design and
therefore it will not be necessary to carry out checks for all of them, although
it is considered good practice to record that they have all been considered.

Geotechnical Categories
Eurocode 7 recommends three Geotechnical Categories to assist in establishing
the geotechnical design requirements for a structure (see Table 1).
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

It is anticipated that structural engineers will take responsibility for the to be applied to the actions for these combinations of partial factors
geotechnical design of category 1 structures, and that geotechnical are given in Table 2 and the partial factors for the geotechnical
engineers will take responsibility for category 3 structures. The material properties are given in Table 3. Combination 1 will generally
geotechnical design of category 2 structures may be undertaken by govern the structural resistance, and Combination 2 will generally
members of either profession. This decision will very much depend on govern the sizing of the foundations.
individual circumstances.
The partial factors for soil resistance to sliding and bearing should be
Methods of design and combinations taken as 1.0 for both combinations.
There has not been a consensus amongst geotechnical engineers
over the application of limit state principles to geotechnical design. The partial factors to be applied to the actions at the EQU limit state
Therefore, to allow for these differences of opinion, Eurocode 7 are given in Table 4; the geotechnical material partial factors being the
provides for three Design Approaches to be used for the ULS. The same as for Combination 2 in Table 3.
decision on which approach to use for a particular country is given
in its National Annex. In the UK Design Approach 1 will be specified For the SLS, Eurocode 7 does not give any advice on whether the
in the National Annex. For this Design Approach (excluding pile and characteristic, frequent or quasi-permanent combination should be
anchorage design) there are two sets of combinations to use for the used. Where the prescriptive method is used for spread foundations
STR and GEO ultimate limit states. The values for the partial factors (see page 3) then the characteristic values should be adopted. For

Table 1
Geotechnical categories of structures

Category Description Risk of geotechnical failure Examples from Eurocode 7

1 Small and relatively simple structures Negligible None given

2 Conventional types of structure and foundation No exceptional risk Spread foundations

with no difficult ground or loading conditions
3 All other structures Abnormal risks Large or unusual structures
Exceptional ground conditions

Table 2
Design values of actions derived for UK design, STR/GEO ultimate limit state – persistent and transient design situations

Combination Permanent actions Leading variable Accompanying variable actions

Expression reference action
from BS EN 1990 Unfavourable Favourable Main (if any) Others
Combination 1 (Application of combination 1 (BS EN 1997) to set B (BS EN 1990))

Exp. (6.10) 1.35 Gka 1.0 Gka 1.5b Qk – 1.5b co,ic Qk,i
Exp. (6.10a) 1.35 Gka 1.0 Gka – 1.5 co,1c Qk 1.5b co,ic Qk,i

Exp. (6.10b) 0.925d x 1.35 Gka 1.0 Gka 1.5b Qk – 1.5b co,ic Qk,i

Combination 2 (Application of combination 2 (BS EN 1997) to set C (BS EN 1990))

Exp. (6.10) 1.0 Gka 1.0 Gka 1.3b Qk,1 – 1.3b co,i b Qk,i

Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk,j,sup and Gk,j,inf may be taken as Gk
b Where the action is favourable, gQ,i = 0 and the variable actions should be ignored
c The value of c o can be obtained from Table NA.A1.1 of the UK NA to BS EN 1990 (or see Table 3 of Chapter 1)
d The value of j in the UK NA to BS EN 1990 is 0.925

Table 3
Partial factors for geotechnical material properties

Angle of shearing Effective cohesion Undrained shear Unconfined strength Bulk density
resistance strength
(apply to tan h)
Symbol gh gc’ gcu gqu gg
Combination 1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Combination 2 1.25 1.25 1.4 1.4 1.0

44
 6. Foundations

direct methods of calculation the frequent combination can be used

for sizing of foundations and the quasi-permanent combination can be Spread foundations
used for settlement calculations.
The geotechnical design of spread foundations (e.g. strip and pad
Further information on design combinations can be found in Chapter 1, foundations) is covered by section 6 of Eurocode 7, Part 1 and this
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes5. gives three methods for design:
■ Direct method – calculation is carried out for each limit state.
Geotechnical design report ■ Indirect method – experience and testing used to determine
A geotechnical design report should be produced for each project, serviceability limit state parameters that also satisfy all relevant
even if it is only a single sheet. The report should contain details of limit states (included in Eurocode 7 mainly to suit French design
the site, interpretation of the ground investigation report, geotechnical methods, and is not discussed further here).
design recommendations and advice on supervision, monitoring and ■ Prescriptive method in which a presumed bearing resistance is used.
maintenance of the works. It is likely that this report will require input
from more than one consultant, depending on whether the project is in For most spread foundations in the UK, settlement will be the
Geotechnical Category 1, 2 or 3. governing criterion; traditionally ‘allowable bearing pressures’ have been
used to limit settlement. This concept of increasing the factor of safety
The foundation design recommendations should include bearing on bearing resistances to control settlement may still be used with the
resistances and characteristic values for soil parameters. It should prescriptive method. The exception is for soft clays where Eurocode 7
also clearly state whether the values are applicable to SLS or ULS and requires settlement calculations to be undertaken.
whether they are for Combination 1 or Combination 2.
When using the direct method, calculations are carried out for each
limit state. At the ULS, the bearing resistance of the soil should be
Table 4
Design values of actions derived for UK design, EQU ultimate limit checked using partial factors on the soil properties as well as on
state – persistent and transient design situations the actions. At the SLS the settlement of the foundations should be
calculated and checked against permissible limits.
Combination Permanent actions Leading Accompanying variable
Expression variable actions
reference action The prescriptive method may be used where calculation of the soil
Unfavourable Favourable Main Others
(if any) properties is not possible or necessary and can be used provided that
Exp. (6.10) 1.1 Gka 0.90 Gka 1.5b Qk – 1.5c co,i c Qk,i conservative rules of design are used. Therefore reference can continue
to be made to Table 1 of BS 8004 (see Table 5) to determine presumed
Key
a Where the variation in permanent action is not considered significant Gk, j, sup
(allowable) bearing pressures for category 1 structures and preliminary
and Gk, j, inf may be taken as Gk calculations for category 2 structures. Alternatively, the presumed
b Where the action is favourable, gQ, i = 0 and the variable actions should be ignored bearing resistance to allow for settlement can be calculated by the
c The value of co can be obtained from Table NA.A1.1 of the UK NA to BS EN 1990 geotechnical designer and included in the geotechnical design report.

Table 5
Presumed allowable bearing values under static loading (from BS 8004)
Category Type of soil Presumed allowable bearing value (kN/m2) Remarks

Non- Dense gravel, or dense sand and gravel > 600 Width of foundation not less than 1 m.
cohesive Groundwater level assumed to be below the base
soils Medium dense gravel, or medium < 200 to 600 of the foundation.
dense sand and gravel
Loose gravel, or loose sand and gravel < 200
Compact sand > 300
Medium dense sand 100 to 300
Loose sand < 100
Cohesive Very stiff boulder clay and hard clay 300 to 600 Susceptible to long-term consolidation settlement
soils
Stiff clay 150 to 300
Firm clay 75 to 150
Soft clay and silt <75
Very soft clay and silt Not applicable
Note
These values are for preliminary design purposes only.

45
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

A flow chart showing the design process for shallow foundations is Partial factors for the soil parameters used to determine the resistances
given in Figure 1. can be obtained from Table 3 above (Combination 2).

Where there is a moment applied to the foundation, the EQU limit The pressure distribution under the base should be assessed to ensure
state should also be checked. Assuming the potential overturning of that the maximum pressure does not exceed the bearing resistances
the base is due to the variable action from the wind, the following obtained from the geotechnical design report at both EQU and GEO
combination should be used (the variable imposed action is not ultimate limit states (see Figure 2). If the eccentricity is greater than
considered to contribute to the stability of the structure): L/6 at SLS, then the pressure distribution used to determine the
settlement should be modified because tension cannot occur between
0.9 Gk + 1.5 Qk,w EQU combination the base and the soil. In this case the designer should satisfy himself
where: that there will be no adverse consequences (e.g. excessive rotation of
Gk is the stabilising characteristic permanent action the base). It should also be noted that the ULS pressure distribution
(Use 1.1 Gk for a destabilising permanent action) diagram will be rectangular and not trapezoidal.
Qk,w is the destabilising characteristic variable wind action
Reinforced concrete pads
Figure 1
Procedures for depth of spread foundations Where the pad foundations require reinforcement the following checks
should be carried out to ensure:
■ Sufficient reinforcement to resist bending moments.
START
■ Punching shear strength.
■ Beam shear strength.
Obtain soil parameters from Ground Investigation report
The moments and shear forces should be assessed using the STR
combination:
1.35 Gk + 1.5 Qk STR combination 1 (Exp. (6.10))
Design using
Yes No
direct method?
However, there may be economies to made from using Expressions
(6.10a) or (6.10b) from the Eurocode.
Size foundation
Use prescriptive method.
(geotechnical design) using
Size foundation The critical bending moments for design of bottom reinforcement
the worst of Combinations
(geotechnical design) are located at the column faces. Both beam shear and punching
1 or 2 (ULS) for actions
using SLS for actions
and geotechnical material shear should then be checked at the locations shown in Figure 3. For
and presumed
properties. Combination 2
bearing resistance
will usually govern. punching shear the ground reaction within the perimeter may be
deducted from the column load (Expression (6.48), Eurocode 2–1–16).
It is not usual for a pad foundation to contain shear reinforcement,
therefore it is only necessary to ensure that the concrete shear stress
Check overturning using EQU
Is there an limit state for actions and capacity without shear reinforcement (vRd,c – see Table 6) is greater than
overturning moment? GEO Combination 2
Yes applied shear stress (vEd = VEd/(bd)).
for material properties.

No If the basic shear stress is exceeded, the designer may increase the
depth of the base. Alternatively, the amount of main reinforcement
Design foundation (structural design) using the worst of
Combinations 1 and 2 (ULS) for actions and geotechnical could be increased or, less desirably, shear links could be provided. (See
material properties.
Chapter 4, originally published as Beams8 for an explanation of how to
design shear reinforcement.)
Figure 2
Pressure distributions for pad foundations

M M M
P 6e
1
L L
P or P P

2P P
1.5 L 3 e L 2e
e e
P P
e = M/ P e
P 6e L = width of base P
1+
L L
SLS pressure distributions ULS pressure distribution

46
 6. Foundations

Design for punching shear Figure 4

Procedure for determining punching shear capacity for pad foundations
Eurocode 2 provides specific guidance on the design of foundations for
punching shear, and this varies from that given for slabs. In Eurocode 2 the
shear perimeter has rounded corners and the forces directly resisted by START

the ground should be deducted (to avoid unnecessarily conservative

designs). The critical perimeter should be found iteratively, but it is
Determine value of factor β
generally acceptable to check at d and 2d. Alternatively, a spreadsheet (β =1.0 when applied moment is zero; refer to Expressions
could be used (e.g. spreadsheet TCC81 from Spreadsheets for concrete (6.38) to (6.42) from BS EN 1992–1–1 for other cases)

design to BS 8110 and Eurocode 2 7). The procedure for determining the
punching shear requirements is shown in Figure 4.
Determine value of vEd,max
(design shear stress at face of column) from:
Table 6 vEd,max = β(VEd – DVEd) (from Exp. (6.38))
vRd,c resistance of members without shear reinforcement, MPa (u0deff)
rl Effective depth, d (mm) where u0 is perimeter of column
(see Clause 6.4.5 for columns at base edges)
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000a deff = (dy + dz)/2 where dy and dz
are the effective depths in orthogonal directions
0.25% 0.47 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.34
0.50% 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.43
Determine value of vRd,max (refer to Table 7)
0.75% 0.62 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.51 0.50 0.49
1.00% 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54
1.25% 0.73 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.58 No
Is vEd,max < vRd,max? Redesign foundation
1.50% 0.78 0.73 0.70 0.67 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.62
1.75% 0.82 0.77 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.65 Yes
≥2.00% 0.85 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.68
Determine value of vEd, (design shear stress) from:
k 1.816 1.707 1.632 1.577 1.535 1.500 1.471 1.447 vEd = (VEd – DVEd)
Key (u1deff)
where u1 is length of control perimeter (refer to Figure 5). For
a For depths greater than 1000 calculate vRd,c directly. eccentrically loaded bases, refer to Exp. (6.51).
Notes The control perimeter will have to be found through iteration;
it will usually be between d and 2d
1 Table derived from: vRd,c = 0.12 k (100r I fck)(1/3) ≥ 0.035 k1.5 fck0.5
where k = 1 + √(200/d) ≤ 2 and r I = √(rIy +r Iz) ≤ 0.02,
r Iy = Asy/(bd) and r Iz = Asz/(bd)
2 This table has been prepared for fck = 30; Determine concrete punching shear capacity vRd (without
where r l exceed 0.40% the following factors may be used: shear reinforcement) from 2dvRd,c/a (Refer to Table 6 for vRd,c)

fck 25 28 32 35 40 45 50
Factor 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19 Either increase main
steel, or provide
Is vEd < vRd at No punching shear
critical perimeter? reinforcement required.
(Not recommended
Figure 3 for foundations.)
Yes
Shear checks for pad foundations
No shear reinforcement required. Check complete.

Beam shear Punching shear perimeters,

faces (load within deducted from V Ed)

Figure 5
Typical basic control perimeters around loaded areas

2d
u1

u1 2d
2d

bz

Bends may be
d required

h d
by

47
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

flexure reference should be made to Chapter 4, originally published as

Raft foundations Beams 8.

The basic design processes for rafts are similar to those for isolated Alternatively, a truss analogy may be used; this is covered in Sections 5.6.4
pad foundations or pilecaps. The only difference in approach lies in the and 6.5 of Eurocode 2–1–1. The strut angle y should be at least 21.8° to
selection of an appropriate method for analysing the interaction between the horizontal; note that y should be measured in the plane of the column
the raft and the ground so as to achieve a reasonable representation of and pile.
their behaviour. For stiffer rafts (i.e. span-to-thickness greater than 10) with
a fairly regular layout, simplified approaches such as yield line or the flat Both beam shear and punching shear should then be checked as shown in
slab equivalent frame method may be employed, once an estimation of Figure 6. For beam shear, the design resistances in Table 6 may be used. If the
the variations in bearing pressure has been obtained from a geotechnical basic shear stress is exceeded, the designer should increase the depth of the
specialist. Whatever simplifications are made, individual elastic raft base. Alternatively, the amount of main reinforcement could be increased or,
reactions should equate to the applied column loads. less desirably, shear links could be provided. Care should be taken that main
bars are fully anchored. As a minimum, a full anchorage should be provided
Thinner, more flexible rafts or those with a complex layout may require from the inner face of piles. Large radius bends may be required.
the application of a finite element or grillage analysis. For rafts bearing
on granular sub-grades or when contiguous-piled walls or diaphragm When assessing the shear capacity in a pile cap, only the tension steel
perimeter walls are present, the ground may be modelled as a series placed within the stress zone should be considered as contributing to the
of Winkler springs. However, for cohesive sub-grades, this approach is shear capacity (see Figure 7).
unlikely to be valid, and specialist software will be required.
Figure 6
Critical shear perimeters for piles

Piled foundations f /5 Beam shear 5 d from column face

For the purpose of this chapter it is assumed that the pile design will be
carried out by a specialist piling contractor. The actions on the piles must f /5
be clearly conveyed to the pile designer, and these should be broken down
into the unfactored permanent actions and each of the applicable variable
Punching shear 5 2d from column face
actions (e.g. imposed and wind actions). The pile designer can then carry
out the structural and geotechnical design of the piles. f

Where moments are applied to the pilecap the EQU combination

should also be used to check the piles can resist the overturning forces.
These EQU loads must also be clearly conveyed to the pile designer Figure 7
Shear reinforcement for pilecaps
and procedures put in place to ensure the piles are designed for the
correct forces.
A s contributing to shear capacity

A pilecap may be treated as a beam in bending, where the critical

bending moments for the design of the bottom reinforcement are Stress zone
o
located at the column faces. For further guidance on designing for 45

Table 7
Values for vRd, max

fck vRd,max Figure 8

20 3.68 Dimensions for plain foundations

25 4.50
28 4.97
a a
30 5.28
32 5.58
hF
35 6.02
40 6.72
bF
45 7.38
50 8.00

48
 6. Foundations

Plain concrete foundations Table 8

Minimum percentage of reinforcement required

Strip and pad footings may be constructed from plain concrete fck fctm Minimum % (0.26 fctm /fyka )
provided the following rules are adhered to. 25 2.6 0.13%
■ In compression, the value of acc, the coefficient taking account of 28 2.8 0.14%
long-term effects applied to design compressive strength 30 2.9 0.15%
(see Cl. 3.1.6), should be taken as 0.6 as opposed to 0.85 for 32 3.0 0.16%
reinforced concrete. 35 3.2 0.17%
■ The minimum foundation depth, hF, (see Figure 8) may be 40 3.5 0.18%
calculated from: 45 3.8 0.20%
50 4.1 0.21%
Key
a Where fyk = 500 MPa.

where:
sgd = the design value of the ground bearing pressure
fctd = the design concrete tensile strength from Exp. (3.16) Selected symbols
Symbol Definition Value
For many situations this is unlikely to offer any savings over the current Ac Cross sectional area of concrete bh
practice of designing for hf ≥ a. As Area of tension steel
As, prov Area of tension steel provided
The possibility of splitting forces, as advised in Clause 9.8.4 of Eurocode
As, req’d Area of tension steel required
2–1–1, may need to be considered.
d Effective depth
Eurocode 2 allows plain concrete foundations to contain reinforcement deff Average effective depth (dy + dz) /2

for control of cracking. fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength acc fck /gc
fck Characteristic cylinder strength of concrete
fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength 0.30 fck2/3 for fck ≤ C50/60

Rules for spacing and Gk Characteristic value of permanent action

(from Table 3.1, Eurocode 2)

h Overall depth of the section

quantity of reinforcement leff Effective span of member See Section 5.3.2.2 (1)
M Design moment at the ULS
Crack control Qk Characteristic value of a variable action
Refer to Chapter 2, originally published as Getting started 9. Qk,w Characteristic value of a variable wind action
VEd Design value of applied shear force

Minimum area of principal reinforcement vEd Design value of applied shear stress
VRd,c Design value of the punching shear
The minimum area of reinforcement is As,min = 0.26 fctm bt d/fyk but not
resistance without punching shear reinforcement
less than 0.0013bt d (see Table 8). vRd,c Design value of the punching shear stress
resistance without punching shear reinforcement
Maximum area of reinforcement vRd,max Design value of the maximum punching shear
resistance along the control section considered
Except at lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression
x Depth to neutral axis (d – z)/0.4
reinforcement, should not exceed As,max = 0.04 Ac
xmax Limiting value for depth to neutral axis (d – 0.4)d where d ≤1.0
z Lever arm
Minimum spacing of reinforcement acc Coefficient taking account of long term 0.85 for flexure and
The minimum spacing of bars should be the greater of: effects on compressive strength and of axial loads, 1.0 for
■ Bar diameter, unfavourable effects resulting from the way other phenomena
load is applied (From UK National Annex)
■ Aggregate size plus 5 mm, or
b Factor for determining punching shear stress
■ 20 mm. d Ratio of the redistributed moment to the elastic
bending moment
Deep elements gm Partial factor for material properties
For deep elements the advice in Eurocode 2 for the side faces of deep r0 Reference reinforcement ratio fck/1000

beams may be followed. The UK National Annex recommends that 0.2% rl Required tension reinforcement at mid-span As l bd
to resist the moment due to the design
is provided in each face. The distance between bars should not exceed loads (or at support for cantilevers)
the lesser of twice the beam depth or 300 mm. For pile caps the side c0 Factor for combination value of a variable action
face may be unreinforced if there is no risk of tension developing. c1 Factor for frequent value of a variable action
c2 Factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action

49
 6. Foundations

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1997: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. BSI (2 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5930: Code of practice for site investigation. BSI, 1999.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8002: Code of practice for earth retaining structures. BSI, 1994.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8004: Code of practice for foundations. BSI, 1986.
5 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
7 GOODCHILD, C H & WEBSTER R M. Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and Eurocode 2, version 3. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
9 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started. The Concrete Centre, 2005.

50
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

7. Flat slabs
R Moss BSc, PhD, DIC, CEng, MICE, MIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Designing to Eurocode 2
This chapter covers the analysis and design of concrete flat slabs to Eurocode
21, a process which is essentially the same as when using BS 81102. However,
the layout and content of Eurocode 2 may appear unusual to designers
familiar with BS 8110. Eurocode 2 does not contain the derived formulae or
specific guidance on determining moments and shear forces. This has arisen
because it has been European practice to give principles in the codes and for
the detailed application to be presented in other sources such as textbooks.

Chapter 1, originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes3, highlighted the

key differences between Eurocode 2 and BS 8110, including terminology.

It should be noted that values from the UK National Annex (NA) have been
used throughout this publication, including values that are embedded in
derived formulae (derivations can be found at www.eurocode2.info). A list of
symbols related to flat slab design is given at the end of this chapter.

Analysis
Using Eurocode 2 for the analysis of flat slabs is similar to using BS 8110. The
following methods may be used:
■ Equivalent frame method
■ Finite element analysis
■ Yield line analysis
■ Grillage analogy

The Eurocode gives further advice on the equivalent frame method in

Annex I and designers used to BS 8110 will find this very familiar. Once the
bending moments and shear forces have been determined, the following
guidance can be used for the design of flat slabs.

Design procedure
A procedure for carrying out the detailed design of flat slabs is shown in Table 1.
This assumes that the slab thickness has previously been determined during
conceptual design. Concept designs prepared assuming detailed design would
be to BS 8110 may be continued through to detailed design using Eurocode 2.
More detailed advice on determining design life, loading, material properties,
methods of analysis, minimum concrete cover for durability and bond, and
control of crack widths can be found in Chapter 2, originally published as
Getting started 4.
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

(not minimum) dimension, so the designer should ensure that

Fire resistance a ≥ cnom + f link + f bar /2

Eurocode 2, Part 1–2: Structural fire design5, gives a choice of advanced, The requirements for flat slabs are given in Table 2.
simplified or tabular methods for determining the fire resistance. Using
tables is the fastest method for determining the minimum dimensions
and cover for flat slabs. There are, however, some restrictions and if these Flexure
apply further guidance can be obtained from specialist literature6.
The design procedure for flexural design is given in Figure 1; this
Rather than giving a minimum cover, the tabular method is based includes derived formulae based on the simplified rectangular stress
on nominal axis distance, a. This is the distance from the centre of block from Eurocode 2. Where appropriate Table 3 may be used to
the reinforcing bar to the surface of the member. It is a nominal determine bending moments for flat slabs.

Table 1
Flat slab design procedure

Step Task Further guidance

Chapter in this publication Standard
1 Determine design life 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1990 Table NA.2.1
2 Assess actions on the slab 2: Getting started BS EN 1991 (10 parts) and National Annexes
3 Determine which combinations of actions apply 1: Introduction to Eurocodes NA to BS EN 1990 Tables NA.A1.1 and NA.A1.2 (B)
4 Determine loading arrangements 2: Getting started NA to BS EN 1992–1–1
5 Assess durability requirements and determine concrete strength 2: Getting started BS 8500: 2002
6 Check cover requirements for appropriate fire resistance period 2: Getting started and Table 2 Approved Document B. BS EN 1992–1–1: Section 5
7 Calculate min. cover for durability, fire and bond requirements 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Cl 4.4.1
8 Analyse structure to obtain critical moments and shear forces 2: Getting started and Table 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 5
9 Design flexural reinforcement See Figure 1 BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 6.1
10 Check deflection See Figure 3 BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 7.4
11 Check punching shear capacity See Figure 6 BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 6.4
12 Check spacing of bars 2: Getting started BS EN 1992–1–1 Section 7.3
13 Check resistance to moment transfer from column to slab – BS EN 1992–1–1 Annex I 1.2(5)
Note
NA = National Annex

Table 2
Minimum dimensions and axis distances for reinforced concrete slabs

Standard fire resistance Minimum dimensions (mm)

Slab thickness, hs Axis distance, a
REI 60 180 15a
REI 90 200 25
REI 120 200 35
REI 240 200 50
Notes
1 This table is taken from BS EN 1992–1–2 Table 5.9.
2 The axis distance is to the centre of the outer layer of reinforcement.
3 The table is valid only if the detailing requirements (see note 4) are observed and, in the normal temperature design, redistribution of bending moments does not exceed 15%.
4 For fire resistance of R90 and above, at least 20% of the total top reinforcement in each direction over intermediate supports required by BS EN 1992–1–1 should be continuous over
the full span. This reinforcement should be placed in the column strip.
5 There are three standard fire exposure conditions that may need to be satisfied:
R Mechanical resistance for load bearing
E Integrity of separation
I Insulation
Key
a Normally the requirements of BS EN 1992–1–1 will determine the cover.

52
 7. Flat slabs

Figure 1 Whichever method of analysis is used, Cl. 9.4.1 requires the designer
Procedure for determining flexural reinforcement to concentrate the reinforcement over the columns. Annex I of the
Eurocode gives recommendations for the equivalent frame method on
START how to apportion the total bending moment across a bay width into
column and middle strips to comply with Cl. 9.4.1. Designers using
Carry out analysis of slab to determine design moments grillage, finite element or yield line methods may also choose to follow
(M) (Where appropriate use coefficients from Table 3).
the advice in Annex I to meet this requirement.

Eurocode 2 offers various methods for determining the stress-strain

No Outside scope of relationship of concrete. For simplicity and familiarity the method
Concrete class
≤C50/60? this publication
presented here is the simplified rectangular stress block (see Figure 2),
which is similar to that found in BS 8110.
Yes

M The Eurocode gives recommendations for the design of concrete up

Determine KK from:
Determine from: K =
bd 2 fck to class C90/105. However, for concrete strength greater than class
C50/60, the stress block is modified. It is important to note that
Determine K’ from Table 4 or concrete strength is based on the cylinder strength and not the cube
K’ = 0.60d – 0.18 d 2 – 0.21 where d ≤ 1.0
strength (i.e. for class C28/35 the cylinder strength is 28 MPa, whereas
the cube strength is 35 MPa).
Compression
No reinforcement Table 4
Is K ≤ K ’ ? required – not Values for K ’
recommended for
typical slabs
% redistribution d (redistribution ratio) K’
Yes 0 1.00 0.208a
10 0.90 0.182a
No compression reinforcement required
15 0.85 0.168
20 0.80 0.153
Obtain lever arm z from Table 5 or 25 0.75 0.137
d 30 0.70 0.120
z=
2 [1 + 1 – 3.53 K ≤ 0.95d] Key
a It is often recommended in the UK that K´ should be llimited to 0.168 to ensure
ductile failure
Calculate tension reinforcement required from
M Table 5
As =
fyd z
z/d for singly reinforced rectangular sections

K z/d K z/d
Check minimum reinforcement requirements (see Table 6) ≤ 0.05 0.950a 0.13 0.868
0.26 fctm bt d 0.06 0.944 0.14 0.856
As,min = where fyk ≥ 25
fyk
0.07 0.934 0.15 0.843
0.08 0.924 0.16 0.830
0.09 0.913 0.17 0.816
Check maximum reinforcement requirements.
As,max = 0.04 Ac for tension or compression 0.10 0.902 0.18 0.802
reinforcement outside lap locations 0.11 0.891 0.19 0.787
0.12 0.880 0.20 0.771
Key
a Limiting z to 0.95d is not a requirement of Eurocode 2, but is considered to be good practice
Table 3
Bending moment coefficients for flat slabs
Table 6
End support/slab connection First Interior Interior Minimum percentage of reinforcement required
interior spans supports
Pinned Continuous support fck fctm Minimum % (0.26 fctm /fyka )
End End End End 25 2.6 0.13%
support span support span 28 2.8 0.14%
Moment 0 0.086Fl – 0.04Fl 0.075Fl –0.086Fl 0.063Fl – 0.063Fl 30 2.9 0.15%
32 3.0 0.16%
Notes
35 3.2 0.17%
1 Applicable to slabs where the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2, 40 3.5 0.18%
Qk, ≤ 1.25 Gk and qk ≤ 5 kN/m2
45 3.8 0.20%
2 F is the total design ultimate load, l is the effective span
3 Minimum span > 0.85 longest span, minimum 3 spans
50 4.1 0.21%
4 Based on 20% redistribution at supports and no decrease in span moments Key
a Where fyk = 500 MPa

53
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

depth ratios are appropriate where the structure remains propped

Deflection during construction or until the concrete attains sufficient strength to
support the construction loads. It can generally be assumed that early
Eurocode 2 has two alternative methods of designing for deflection; striking of formwork will not significantly affect the deflection after
either by limiting span-to-depth ratio or by assessing the theoretical installing the cladding and/or partitions9.
deflection using the Expressions given in the Eurocode. The latter is
dealt with in detail in Chapter 8, originally published as Deflection
calculations 7. Punching shear
The span-to-depth ratios should ensure that deflection is limited The design value of the punching shear force, VEd, will usually be the
to span/250 and this is the procedure presented in Figure 3. The support reaction at the ultimate limit state. In principle the design
Background paper to the UK National Annex 8 notes that the span-to- for punching shear in Eurocode 2 and BS 8110 is similar. The main
differences are as follows.
Figure 2 ■ Standard factors for edge and corner columns that allow for
Simplified rectangular stress block for concrete up to class C50/60 moment transfer (b) are greater in Eurocode 2. However, b can
from Eurocode 2
be calculated directly from Expressions (6.38) to (6.46) of the
Eurocode to give more efficient designs.

Figure 4
Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios for flat slabs

39

37 fck = 50
Figure 3 fck = 45
Procedure for assessing deflection 35 fck = 40
fck = 35
33 fck = 32
Span-to-effective-depth ratio (l/d)

START fck = 30
31 fck = 28
fck = 25
Determine basic l/d from Figure 4 29 fck = 20

27
Determine Factor 1 (F1)
For ribbed or waffle slabs 25
F1 = 1 – 0.1 ((bf/bw) – 1) ≥ 0.8†
(bf is flange breadth and bw is rib breadth)
Otherwise F1 = 1.0 23

21
Determine Factor 2 (F2)
Where the slab span exceeds 8.5 m and it supports 19
brittle partitions, F2 = 8.5/leff
Otherwise F2 = 1.0 17

15
Determine Factor 3 (F3) 0.40% 0.60% 0.80% 1.00% 1.20% 1.40% 1.60% 1.80% 2.00%
F3 = 310/ss Percentage of tension reinforcement (A s /bd)
Where ss = Stress in reinforcement at serviceability
limit state (see Figure 5)
ss may be assumed to be 310 MPa (i.e. F3 = 1.0)
Notes
Note: As,prov ≤ 1.5 As,req’d (UK National Annex) Increase
1 This graph assumes a simply supported flat slab (K = 1.2).
As,prov
2 Compression reinforcement, r’, has been taken as 0.

Is basic l/d x F1 x F2 x F3 ≥ Actual l/d ? 3 Curves based on the following expressions:

No 1.5
1.5 fck r 0 r0
Yes
l
d [
= K 11 +
r
+ 3.2 fck
( ) ]
r
–1 where r ≤ r 0 and

Check complete
1.5 fck r 0 r’
† The Eurocode is ambiguous regarding linear interpolation. It is understood that this
was the intention of the drafting committee and is in line with current UK practice.
l
d [
= K 11 +
( r – r ’)
+
fck
12 ]
r0
where r > r 0 .

54
 7. Flat slabs

■ In Eurocode 2 the maximum value of shear at the column face is As an alternative to using shear links, proprietary shear stud rails
not limited to 5 MPa, and depends on the concrete strength used. may be used. Eurocode 2 (Figure 6.22) allows them to be laid out
■ With Eurocode 2 the permissible shear resistance when using shear
in a radial or cruciform pattern and gives spacing requirements for
links is higher, although such designs may not be economic or both. Other techniques are available for increasing punching shear
desirable. resistance and these are covered in a best practice guide10.

■ The control perimeters for rectangular columns in Eurocode 2 have

Figure 6
rounded corners. Procedure for determining punching shear capacity
■ Where shear reinforcement is required the procedure in Eurocode 2
is simpler; the point at which no shear reinforcement is required can
START
be calculated directly and then used to determine the extent of the
area over which shear reinforcement is required.
Determine value of factor β
■ It is assumed that the reinforcement will be in a radial arrangement. (refer to Figure 7 or Expressions (6.38) to (6.46)
of the Eurocode)
However, the reinforcement can be laid on a grid provided the
spacing rules are followed.
Determine value of vEd,max
The procedure for determining the punching shear requirements is (design shear stress at face of column) from:
shown in Figure 6. vEd,max = β VEd /(ui deff)
where ui is perimeter of column
deff = (dy + dz)/2 (dy and dz
are the effective depths in orthogonal directions)

Figure 5
Determination of steel stress Determine value of vRd,max from Table 7

No
320 Is vEd,max ≤ vRd,max? Redesign slab

300
Yes
Unmodified steel stress, ssu

280 Determine value of vEd, (design shear stress) from:

vEd,max = β VEd /(ui deff)
260 where u1 is length of control perimeter (see Figure 8)

240
Determine concrete punching shear capacity
(without shear reinforcement), vRD,c from Table 8
220 where r l = (r ly r lz)0.5
(r ly, r lz are the reinforcement ratios in two orthogonal
200 directions for fully bonded tension steel, taken over a
width equal to column width plus 3d each side.)

180
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
No Punching shear
Ratio Gk/Qk Is vEd > vRd,c? reinforcement not
required
c2 = 0.8, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.25 Yes
c2 = 0.6, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.25
Determine area of punching shear reinforcement per perimeter
c2 = 0.3, gG = 1.35 c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.25 from:
Asw = (vEd – 0.75vRd,c)sr u1/(1.5 fywd,ef)
c2 = 0.2, gG = 1.35 where
sr is the radial spacing of shear reinforcement (see Figure 9)
fywd,ef = 250 + 0.25 deff ≤ fywd (see Table 9)
To determine stress in the reinforcement (ss), calculate the ratio Gk/Qk , read
up the graph to the appropriate curve and read across to determine ssu .
Determine the length of the outer perimeter where shear
As,req reinforcement not required from:
ss can be calculated from the expression: ss = ssu
( As,prov )( )
d
1
uout,ef = b VEd/(vRd,c d)

c2 is the factor for quasi-permanent value of a variable action. For further

explanation refer to How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Determine layout of punching shear reinforcement
Introduction to Eurocodes3. (see ‘Spacing of punching shear reinforcement’
Section and Figure 9).

55
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 7 Table 9 Figure 7

Values for vRd, max Values for fywd,ef Recommended standard values for b
fck vRd, max deff fywd,ef
20 3.31 150 288 Corner column
25 4.05 175 294
b = 1.5
28 4.48 200 300
30 4.75 225 306
32 5.02 250 313
35 5.42 275 319 Edge column Internal column
40 6.05 300 325
45 6.64 325 331 b = 1.4 b = 1.15

50 7.20 350 338

Table 8
vRd,c resistance of members without shear reinforcement, MPa Rules for spacing and
rI Effective depth, d (mm)

≤200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 600 750 quantity of reinforcement
0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36
0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.45 Minimum area of reinforcement
0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.51 The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement in the main direction
1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57 is As,min = 0.26 fctm bt d/fyk but not less than 0.0013b d (see Table 6).
1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.63 0.61
The minimum area of a link leg for vertical punching shear
1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.65
reinforcement is
1.75% 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68
1.5Asw,min /(sr.st) ≥ 0.08fck½/fyk
≥ 2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.71
which can be rearranged as
k 2.000 1.943 1.894 1.853 1.816 1.756 1.707 1.667 1.632 1.577 1.516
Asw,min ≥ (sr.st)/F
Notes
1 Table derived from: v Rd,c = 0.12 k (100r I fck)1/3 ≥ 0.035 k1.5 fck 0.5 where where
k = 1 + R(200/d) ≤ 2 and r I = R(r ly + r lz) ≤ 0.02, r ly = Asy/(bd) and r lz = Asz/(bd)
sr = the spacing of the links in the radial direction
2 This table has been prepared for fck = 30;
Where r I exceeds 0.40% the following factors may be used: st = the spacing of the links in the tangential direction
fck 25 28 32 35 40 45 50 F can be obtained from Table 10
Factor 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19
Maximum area of reinforcement
Outside lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression
reinforcement should not exceed As,max = 0.4 Ac

Figure 8
Typical basic control perimeters around loaded areas
Minimum spacing of reinforcement
The minimum spacing of bars should be the greater of:
■ Bar diameter
u1
■ Aggregate size plus 5 mm
2d
2d u1 ■ 20 mm

bz Maximum spacing of main reinforcement

For slabs less than 200 mm thick the following maximum spacing rules apply:
■ For the principal reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm
■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3.5h but not more than 450 mm
by
The exception is in areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum

56
 7. Flat slabs

moment where the following applies: Table 10

■ For the principal reinforcement: 2h but not more than 250 mm Factor, F, for determining Asw, min

■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm fck Factor, F
Where h is the depth of the slab. 25 1875
28 1772
For slabs 200 mm thick or greater, the bar size and spacing should be
30 1712
limited to control the crack width and reference should be made to
32 1657
Section 7.3.3 of the Eurocode or Chapter 2, originally published as
35 1585
Getting started.4
40 1482
45 1398
Spacing of punching shear reinforcement
50 1326
Where punching shear reinforcement is required the following rules
Note
should be observed.
fck has been taken as 500 MPa
■ It should be provided between the face of the column and kd
inside the outer perimeter where shear reinforcement is no longer
required. k is 1.5, unless the perimeter at which reinforcement is no Selected symbols
longer required is less than 3d from the face of the column. In this Symbol Definition Value
case the reinforcement should be placed in the zone 0.3d to 1.5d Ac Cross sectional area of concrete bh
from the face of the column.
As Area of tension steel
■ There should be at least two perimeters of shear links.
As2 Area of compression steel
■ The radial spacing of the links should not exceed 0.75d
As, prov Area of tension steel provided
(see Figure 9).
■ The tangential spacing of the links should not exceed 1.5d within As, req’d Area of tension steel required

2d of the column face. b Width of slab

■ The tangential spacing of the links should not exceed 2d for any d Effective depth
other perimeter.
d2 Effective depth to compression reinforcement
■ The distance between the face of the column and the nearest shear
fcd Design value of concrete compressive strength acc fck /gc
reinforcement should be less than 0.5d.
fck Characteristic cylinder strength of concrete

Figure 9 fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength 0.30 fck2/3 for fck ≤ C50/60
Punching shear layout (from Table 3.1, Eurocode 2)

hs Slab thickness

Outer perimeter of shear K Factor to take account of the different See Table N 7.4 in
Outer control
reinforcement perimeter structural systems UK National Annex
u out
leff Effective span of member See Section 5.3.2.2 (1)

l/d Limiting span-to-depth ratio

M Design moment at the ULS

≤ 0.75d
x Depth to neutral axis (d – z)/0.4
A A
≤1.5d 0.5 d xmax Limiting value for depth to neutral axis (d – 0.4)d where d ≤1.0
≤1.5 d
(2 d if > 2d z Lever arm
sr
from column)
a cc Coefficient taking account of long term 0.85 for flexure and
st
effects on compressive strength and of axial loads.
unfavourable effects resulting from the 1.0 for other phenomena
way load is applied (From UK National Annex)

d Ratio of the redistributed moment to the

elastic bending moment
sr ≤ 0.75 d
Outer control gm Partial factor for material properties 1.15 for reinforcement (gs )
≤ 0.5 d perimeter 1.5 for concrete (gc )
kd
r0 Reference reinforcement ratio Rfck /1000

r Required tension reinforcement at mid-span As/bd

to resist the moment due to the design
loads (or at support for cantilevers)

r’ Required compression reinforcement at As2/bd

Section A - A mid-span to resist the moment due to the
design loads (or at support for cantilevers)

57
 7. Flat slabs

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – General rules and rules for buildings. BSI, 2004.
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1: The structural use of concrete – Part 1, Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.
3 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
4 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules – structural fire design. BSI, 2004.
6 DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Handbook to BS EN 1992–1–2. DCLG, due 2006.
7 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Deflection calculations. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
8 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1992–1–1 and BS EN 1992–1–2. BSI, 2006.
9 PALLETT, P. Guide to flat slab formwork and falsework. Construct, 2003.
10 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Prefabricated punching shear reinforcement for reinforced concrete flat slabs. BCA, 2001.

58
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

8. Deflection calculations
R Webster CEng, FIStructE O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Methods for checking deflection

This chapter describes the use of Eurocode 21 to check deflection by
calculation. The alternative method for complying with the code requirements
is to use the deemed-to-satisfy span-to-effective-depth ratios, which are
appropriate and economic for the vast majority of designs. Further guidance
on the span-to-effective-depth method is given in Chapters 3, 4 and 7,
originally published as Beams2, Slabs3 and Flat slabs4. However, there are
situations where direct calculation of deflection is necessary, as listed below:
■ When an estimate of the deflection is required.
■ When deflection limits of span/250 for quasi-permanent actions (see
reference 5 for Eurocode terminology) or span/500 for partition and/or
cladding loads are not appropriate.
■ When the design requires a particularly shallow member, direct calculation
of deflection may provide a more economic solution.
■ To determine the effect on deflection of early striking of formwork or of
temporary loading during construction.

Overview
In the past structures tended to be stiff with relatively short spans. As
technology and practice have advanced, more flexible structures have resulted.
There are a number of reasons for this, including:
■ The increase in reinforcement strength leading to less reinforcement being
required for the ultimate limit state (ULS) and resulting in higher service
stresses in the reinforcement.
■ Increases in concrete strength resulting from the need to improve both
durability and construction time, and leading to concrete that is more stiff
and with higher service stresses.

What affects deflection?

There are numerous factors Other factors include:
that affect deflection. These • Degree of restraint
factors are also often time- • Magnitude of loading
related and interdependent, • Time of loading
which makes the prediction • Duration of loading
of deflection difficult. • Cracking of the concrete
• Shrinkage
The main factors are:
• Ambient conditions
• Concrete tensile strength
• Secondary load-paths
• Creep
• Stiffening by other elements
• Elastic modulus
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

■ A greater understanding of structural behaviour and the ability to It is often recommended that the design value of the concrete
analyse that behaviour quickly by computer. tensile strength for a low restraint layout is taken as the average
■ The requirement to produce economic designs for slabs whose of fctm,fl and fctm, to allow for unintentional restraint. For high restraint
thicknesses are typically determined by the serviceability limit state fctm should be used.
(SLS) and which constitute 80% to 90% of the superstructure costs.
■ Client requirements for longer spans and greater operational Creep
flexibility from their structures. Creep is the time-dependant increase in compressive strain in a
concrete element under constant compressive stress. Creep is usually
considered in the design by modifying the elastic modulus using a
Factors affecting deflection creep coefficient, h, which depends on the age at loading, size of
the member and ambient conditions, in particular relative humidity.
An accurate assessment of deflection can only be achieved if Eurocode 2 gives advice on the calculation of creep coefficients in
consideration is given to the factors that affect it. The more important detail in Annex B. It also advises on the appropriate relative humidity
factors are discussed in detail below. to use in Figure 3.1.

Tensile strength The cement strength class is required in the assessment of creep,
The tensile strength of concrete is an important property because however, at the design stage it is often not clear which class should
the slab will crack when the tensile stress in the extreme fibre is be used. Generally, Class R should be assumed. Where the ground
exceeded. In Eurocode 2 the concrete tensile strength, fctm, is a mean granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) content exceeds 35% of the
value (which is appropriate for deflection calculations) and increases cement combination or where fly ash (pfa) exceeds 20% of the
as the compressive strength increases. This is an advancement when cement combination, Class N may be assumed. Where ggbs exceeds
compared with BS 8110 where the tensile strength is fixed for all 65% or where pfa exceeds 35% Class S may be assumed.
concrete strengths.
Elastic modulus
The degree of restraint to shrinkage movements will influence the The elastic modulus of concrete is influenced by aggregate type,
effective tensile strength of the concrete. A layout of walls with high workmanship and curing conditions. The effective elastic modulus
restraint will decrease the effective tensile strength. Typical examples under sustained loading will be reduced over time due to the effect
of wall layouts are given in Figure 1. For a low restraint layout the of creep. These factors mean that some judgement is required
following expression may be used for the concrete tensile strength: to determine an appropriate elastic modulus. Eurocode 2 gives
fctm,fl = (1.6 – h/1000)fctm > fctm recommended values for the 28-day secant modulus, Ecm, (in Table 3.1)
where and makes recommendations for adjustments to these values to
fctm,fl = Mean flexural tensile strength of reinforced concrete account for different types of aggregate. The long-term elastic modulus
fctm = Mean tensile strength of concrete should be taken as:

Figure 1
Typical floor layouts

a) Favourable layout of restraining walls (low restraint)

b) Unfavourable layout of restraining walls (high restraint)

60
 8. Deflection calculations

Ec,LT = Ec28/(1 + h) Commercial pressures often lead to a requirement to strike the formwork
where as soon as possible and move on to subsequent floors, with the minimum
Ec28 = 28-day tangent modulus = 1.05 Ecm of propping. Tests on flat slabs have demonstrated that as much as 70%
h = Creep factor. (Note that with Eurocode 2, h relates to a 28-day of the loads from a newly cast floor (formwork, wet concrete, construction
short-term elastic modulus, whereas a ‘true’ creep factor would loads) may be carried by the suspended floor below7. It can generally
be associated with the modulus at the age of loading.) be assumed that early striking of formwork will not greatly affect the
deflection after installing the cladding and/or partitions. This is because the
The assessment of the long-term E-value can be carried out more deflection affecting partitions will be smaller if the slab becomes ‘cracked’
accurately after the contractor has been appointed because they should be before, rather than after, the installation of the cladding and/or partitions.
able to identify the concrete supplier (and hence the type of aggregates)
and also the construction sequence (and hence the age at first loading). Cracking
Deflection of concrete sections is closely linked to the extent of
Loading sequence cracking and the degree to which cracking capacity is exceeded. The
The loading sequence and timing may be critical in determining point at which cracking occurs is determined by the moments induced
the deflection of a suspended slab because it will influence the point in the slab and the tensile strength of the concrete, which increases
at which the slab will crack (if at all) and is used to calculate the creep with age. Often the critical situation is when the slab is struck, or when
factors for the slab. A loading sequence is shown in Figure 2, which the load of the slab above is applied. Once the slab has cracked its
shows that in the early stages relatively high loads are imposed while stiffness is permanently reduced.
casting the slab above. The loading sequence may vary, depending on
the construction method. It is therefore necessary to find the critical loading stage at which
cracking first occurs. This critical loading stage corresponds with the
Smaller loads are imposed when further slabs are cast above. The loads minimum value of K, where:
are then increased permanently by the application of the floor finishes
K = fctm ^W 0.5h
and erection of the partitions. Finally, the variable actions are applied
to the structure and, for the purpose of deflection calculation, the
quasi-permanent combination should be used. (See Chapter 1, where
originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes5 for further W = The serviceability loading applied up to that stage
information on combinations of actions.) However, it is likely that the fctm = The concrete tensile strength at that stage
quasi-permanent combination will be exceeded during the lifetime Where the frequent combination is the critical load stage, then
of the building and, for the purpose of determining whether the slab the degree of cracking (z) calculated for the frequent combination
might have cracked, the frequent combination may be critical. should also be used for the quasi-permanent combination, but not for

Figure 2
Loading history for a slab – an example

14

h
12
b g

10 f
c
e
8 d
a
Load (kN/m)

6 Loading sequence
a Slab struck e Floor finishes applied
4 b 1st slab above cast f Partitions erected
c 2nd slab above cast g Quasi-permanent variable actions
2 d 3rd slab above cast h Frequent variable actions

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Duration (days)

61
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

any of the earlier load stages. If, however, an earlier stage Figure 3
proves critical, the z value at that stage should be carried Outline of rigorous method for calculating deflection
forward to all subsequent stages.
Collate input data
Further information can be found in the best practice ■ Element dimensions and reinforcement details and arrangements from the
guide Early striking and improved backpropping6. ultimate limit state design
■ Loading sequence e.g.
• Striking the formwork
Shrinkage curvature • Casting the floor above
Shrinkage depends on the water/cement ratio, relative • Erection of the partitions and/or cladding
• Application of finishes
humidity and the size and shape of the member. The effect The sequence will vary from project to project
of shrinkage in an asymmetrically reinforced section is to ■ Concrete properties (see Table 1)
induce a curvature that can lead to significant deflection in • Mean compressive strength (fcm)
shallow members. This effect should be considered in the • Mean tensile strength (fctm or fctm,fl)
• Elastic modulus (Ec28) = 1.05 Ecm
deflection calculations.
■ Critical arrangement of actions
(or repeat the calculations for each arrangement to determine the critical case)

Methods for
Assess whether the element has flexural cracking
calculating deflections ■ Determine the critical load stage at which cracking first occurs.
(See ‘Cracking’ on page 3)
Two methods for calculating deflection are presented ■ Calculate the following properties:
• Creep coefficients, h (Annex B of Eurocode 2 or Figure 4)
below, and these are based on the advice in TR58 • Long term elastic modulus, ELT (see Panel 1)
Deflections in concrete slabs and beams8. • Effective modulus ratio, ae from: ae = Es /ELT
• Neutral axis depth for uncracked condition, xu (see Panel 2)
• Second moment of area for uncracked condition, Iu (see Panel 2)
Rigorous method • Calculate cracking moment, Mcr from:
Mcr = fctm Iu/(h – xu), using appropriate value for fctm.
The rigorous method for calculating deflections is the
■ Does the moment at the critical load stage exceed the cracking moment?
most appropriate method for determining a realistic
• If yes, the element is cracked at all subsequent stages.
estimate of deflection. However, it is only suitable for z = 1 – 0.5(Mcr/M)2 [z = 0 for uncracked situation]
Repeat at 1/20 points for all three loading stages

use with computer software. The Concrete Centre has Use these critical values of fctm and z for subsequent stages.
• If no, the element will not crack at any stage.
produced a number of spreadsheets that use this method
to carry out deflection calculations for a variety of slabs
and beams9. These offer a cost-effective way to carry
Determine the curvature of the slab
out detailed deflection calculations, and they include the
■ When the slab is cracked calculate the following properties at the load stage
ability to consider the effect of early age loading of the being considered, using appropriate values for fctm, z and ELT:
concrete. Figure 3 illustrates the principles of the method • Neutral axis depth for cracked section, xc (see Panel 2)
and shows how the factors affecting deflection are • Second moment of area for cracked condition, Ic (see Panel 2)
considered in the rigorous deflection calculations. ■ Calculate the flexural curvature:
1 MQP MQP
rfl = g E e Ic + ]1 – g g E e Iu
Finite element analysis may also be used to obtain
■ Calculate the curvature due to shrinkage strain 1/rcs (see Panel 2)
estimates of deflection. In this case the principles
■ Calculate the total curvature, 1/rt = 1/rfl + 1/rcs
in Figure 3 should be applied if credible results are to
be obtained.
Repeat the calculations at frequent intervals (say at 1/20 points) and integrate
Panel 1 twice to obtain the overall deflection.
Determining long term elastic modulus of elasticity

Calculate long-term elastic modulus, ELT from: If deflection affecting cladding and/or partitions is required, repeat calculations
for frequent combination and for loading at time of installation of partitions
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
E LT = RW c + + + + m and/or cladding.
Eeff,1 Eeff, 2 Eeff, 3 Eeff, 4 Eeff, 5
where
Eeff = Ec28/(1+h) Estimate deflections:
■ Overall deflection (quasi-permanent combination)
Wn = Serviceability load at stage n
■ Deflection affecting partitions/cladding (Frequent combination deflection
h = Creep coefficient at relevant loading time
less deflection at time of installation)
and duration

62
 8. Deflection calculations

Table 1
Concrete properties

fck MPa 320 325 328 330 332 335 340 350
fcm = (fck + 8) MPa 328 333 336 338 340 343 348 358
fctm = (0.3 fck(2/3) ≤ C50/60 or 2.12 ln(1 + (fcm/10)) > C50/60) MPa 332.21 332.56 332.77 332.90 333.02 333.21 333.51 334.07
fctm* = (0.3 fcm(2/3) ≤ C50/60 or 1.08 ln(fcm) + 0.1 > C50/60)a MPa 332.77 333.09 333.27 333.39 333.51 333.68 333.96 334.50
Ecm = (22 [(fcm)/10]0.3 GPa 330.0 331.5 332.3 332.8 333.3 334.1 335.2 337.3
Ec28 = (1.05 Ecm) GPa 331.5 333.0 333.9 334.5 335.0 335.8 337.0 339.1
ecd,0 CEM class R, RH = 50% microstrain 746 706 683 668 653 632 598 536
ecd,0 CEM class R, RH = 80% microstrain 416 394 381 372 364 353 334 299
ecd,0 CEM class N, RH = 50% microstrain 544 512 494 482 471 454 428 379
ecd,0 CEM class N, RH = 80% microstrain 303 286 275 269 263 253 239 212
ecd,0 CEM class S, RH = 50% microstrain 441 413 397 387 377 363 340 298
ecd,0 CEM class S, RH = 80% microstrain 246 230 221 216 210 202 189 166
eca(∞) microstrain 325 338 345 350 355 363 375 100
Key
a fctm* may be used when striking at less than 7 days or where construction overload is taken into account.

Panel 2
Useful Expressions for a rectangular section

bh 2 where
2 + ] ae - 1 g ] Asd + As2 d2 g
xu = As = Area of tension reinforcement
bh + ] ae - 1 g ] As + As2 g
As2 = Area of compression reinforcement
bh 3 2 b = Breadth of section
I u = 12 + bh a 2 - xuk + ] ae - 1 g 6 As ]d - xu g + As2 ] x u - d 2 g @
h 2 2

d = Effective depth to tension

reinforcement

xc = # 7 ^ As ae + A s2 ] ae - 1 g h 2+ 2 b ^ As d ae + A s2d2 ] ae - 1 g h A 0.5- ^ As ae + As2 ] ae - 1 g h - b

d2 = Depth to compression reinforcement
h = Overall depth of section
bx c3 ae = Modular ratio
I c = 3 + ae As ^ d - x c g + ^ ae - 1 g As2 ^ d2 - x c g
2 2

Su = As(d – xu) – As2 (xu – d2)

1 Su Sc Sc = As(d – xc) – As2 (xc – d2)
rcs = g f cs a e I u +^1 - g h fcs ae I c

Figure 4
Method for determining creep coefficient h(∞,t0)

1 1
S N R S N R
2 2
3 3
5 5

t 0 10 t 0 10

20 20
30 30
50 50

100 100
7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300
h (?, t 0 ) h 0 (mm) h (?, t 0) h o (mm)
a) Inside conditions - RH = 50% b) Outside conditions - RH = 80%
How to use Nonogram
Ke y Notes
C20/25 C40/50 1 t0 = age of concrete at time of loading
D
C25/30 C45/55 2 h0 = 2A c /u A
C30/37 C50/60 3 Intersection point between lines D & E can also be above point A E C
B
C35/45 4 For t0 > 100 it is sufficiently accurate to assume t = 100

63
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Simplified method Figure 5

Simplified method for calculating deflection
A simplified method for calculating deflection is presented in Figure 5.
It is feasible to carry out these calculations by hand, and they could be
START
used to roughly verify deflection results from computer software, or
used where a computer is not available. Calculate the moment, MQP, due to quasi-permanent actions at
the critical section (i.e. mid-span or at support for cantilever)
The major simplification is that the effects of early age loading are not Obtain concrete properties, fctm, and Ec28 from Table 1
considered explicitly; rather an allowance is made for their effect when
calculating the cracking moment. Simplified creep factors are used and Calculate creep coefficient, h(∞,t0), using either Figure 4
or Annex B (in which case look-up fcm in Table 1)
deflection from the curvature of the slab is approximated using a factor.
1 Calculate long term elastic modulus, Eeff from: Eeff = Ec28/[1+h (∞,t0)]
Figure 6 2 Calculate effective modulus ratio, ae from ae = Es/Eeff, where Es is
elastic modulus for reinforcement (200 GPa)
Values for K for various bending moment diagrams
3 Calculate depth to neutral axis for uncracked condition, xu
4 Calculate second moment of area for uncracked condition, Iu
Loading Bending moment diagram K
0.9 fctm I u
0.125 Calculate cracking moment, Mcr from: Mcr =
M h – xu
M M (Note the factor 0.9 has been introduced into this method
because the loading sequence is not considered)

al W 3 4a 2 Yes No
48 (1-a)
Is Mcr > MQP?
l M = Wa (1-a ) l If a = 1 , K = 1
2 12
Section is uncracked Section is cracked
0.0625 z=0 z = 1 – 0.5(Mcr/MQP)2

M Calculate depth to neutral axis for cracked

condition, xc and calculate second moment of area
for cracked condition, Ic
W/2 W/2
a2
al al 0.125
6
Wal 1 MQP MQP
M= Calculate flexural curvature
rn
= g
Eeff Ic
+ ^1 – g h E
2 eff Iu

q 0.104 Calculate total shrinkage strain ecs from ecs = ecd + eca where:
ecd = kh ecd,0 = Drying shrinkage strain
ql 2 kh = Coefficient based on notional size, see Table 2
8 ecd,0 = Nominal unrestrained drying shrinkage, see Table 1
eca = bas(t) eca(∞) = eca(∞) for long-term deflection, see Table 1

q 0.102
Calculate curvature due to shrinkage strain 1/rcs (see Panel 2)
ql 2

15.6
1 1 1
Calculate total curvature r = rn + rcs
t,QP
b
q MA MC MB K = 0.104 (1 )
10 1
MA + MB Calculate quasi-permanent deflection from dQP KL 2 rt,QP=
b=
MC where K can be obtained from Figure 6 and L is the span.

al W End deflection
Wal
a (3 a ) Do you need No
= to calculate deflection
6 Finish
load at end K = 0.333 due to cladding and
partitions?
Yes
2 2
al qa l a (4 a )
q 2 12 Calculate the deflection that will occur at the time of application of
the load due to partitions and/or cladding.
if a = l , K = 0.25
1 Calculate the creep coefficient h(t,t0), where t is the age when
partition/cladding loads are applied and t0 is the age of striking.
b h(t,t0) ≈ h(∞,t0) bc(t,t0). For bc(t,t0) refer to Figure 7, alternatively
MA MB K = 0.083 (1 ) refer to Annex B of Eurocode 2.
4
MA + MB 2 Calculate the moment due to self-weight, partitions/cladding and any
MC b= other loads which have been applied prior to the installation of the
MC
cladding/partition, Mpar and use in place of MQP
al al 3 Recalculate the section properties, curvature and hence deflection,
1 (5 4a 2 )
2 dpar, using h(t,t0) or equivalent instead of h(∞,t0)
2
Wl (3 4a 2) 80 3 4a 4 The approximate deflection affecting cladding and partitions is
24 d = dQP – dpar

64
 8. Deflection calculations

Table 2
Values for Kh
Precamber
h0 kh A slab or beam can be precambered to reduce the effect of deflection
>100 1.0 below the horizontal (see Figure 8). However, in practice too much
precamber is generally used and the slab remains permanently
>200 0.85
cambered. This is because of the difficulty in accurately calculating
>300 0.75
deflection. A precamber of up to half the quasi-permanent
>500 0.70
combination deflection could be used, but a lower figure is
Notes
recommended. Precamber does not reduce the deflections affecting
h0 is the notional size (mm) of the cross-section = 2Ac/u
where partitions or cladding.
Ac = Concrete cross-sectional area
u = Perimeter of that part of the cross section which is exposed to drying
Flat slabs
Figure 7
Coefficient for development of creep with time after loading Flat slabs are very popular and efficient floor systems. However,
because they span in two directions, it can be difficult to calculate their
deflection. TR58 8 gives several suitable methods for assessing flat slab
0.60
deflection. Of these, a popular method is to take the average deflection
of two parallel column strips and to add the deflection of the middle
0.55 strip spanning orthogonally to get an approximation of the maximum
deflection in the centre of the slab.
0.50
The recommended acceptance criteria for a flat slab are shown in Figure 9.
Coefficient, bc (t, t0)

0.45
Accuracy
0.40 The calculation of deflection in Eurocode 2 using the rigorous method
presented here is more advanced than that in BS 811010. It can be
0.35 used to take account of early-age construction loading by considering
reduced early concrete tensile strengths.

0.30 However, the following influences on deflections cannot be accurately

assessed:
0.25 ■ Tensile strength, which determines the cracking moment.
100 300 500 700 900
h 0 (mm) ■ Construction loading.
■ Elastic modulus.
t = 90, t0 = 3 t = 90, t0 = 7
t = 60, t0 = 3 t = 60, t0 = 7 Therefore any calculation of deflection is only an estimate, and even the
t = 28, t0 = 3 t = 28, t0 = 7 most sophisticated analysis can still result in +15% to -30% error. It is
Notes advisable to give a suitable caveat with any estimate of deflection that
t = Age of concrete when partitions/cladding applied others are relying on.
t0 = Age of concrete when struck
fck = 30 (fcm = 38), however the coefficient is not particularly sensitive to concrete class

Figure 8 Figure 9
Precambering of slabs Recommended acceptance criteria for flat slabs

Just before installation

Precamber of partitions Notes
If maximum permitted d = L/n and
X is the position of maximum d
where
a L = Span
X n = Limiting span-to-depth ratio,
e.g. 250
then the deflection at X should not be
Deflection due to greater than 2a/n.
Deflection due to frequent combination
quasi-permanent (Maximum deflection on gridlines
may be more critical.)
combination Deflection affecting partitions

65
 8. Deflection calculations

■ Manufacturers may say that their glazed systems can only

Cladding tolerances accommodate deflection as low as 5 mm.
Deflection may affect cladding or glazing in the following ways: There should be open discussions between the designers for the various
■ When a slab deflects, the load on the central fixings will be relieved elements to determine the most cost-effective way of dealing with the
and shed to outer fixings. interaction of the structure and cladding.

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992–1–1, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for building. BSI, 2004.
2 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
3 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
4 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Flat slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
5 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005
6 BRITISH CEMENT ASSOCIATION. Early striking and improved backpropping. BCA, 2001. (Available from www.concretecentre.com)
7 PALLETT, P. Guide to flat slab formwork and falsework. Construct, 2003
8 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical report No. 58 Deflections in concrete slabs and beams. The Concrete Society, 2005.
9 GOODCHILD, C H & WEBSTER, R M. Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110 and EC2, version 3. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
10 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110–1. Structural use of concrete – Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.

66
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

9. Retaining walls
A J Bond MA, MSc, PhD, DIC, MICE, CEng O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE A J Harris BSc, MSc, DIC, MICE, CEng, FGS

Introduction
This chapter covers the analysis and design of reinforced concrete retaining
walls to Eurocodes 21 and 72. It considers retaining walls up to 3 m high and
propped basement walls up to two storeys high (7 m). These limits have been
chosen so that simplifications can be made in the geotechnical design. The
self-weight of these walls, including the self-weight of backfill on them, plays a
significant role in supporting the retained material. The chapter does not cover
the analysis and design of embedded retaining walls, which rely primarily on
passive earth pressure and flexural resistance to support the retained material.

Prior to the publication of the structural Eurocodes, the geotechnical design of

retaining walls was covered by BS 80023. Although certain provisions of this
code are superseded by Eurocode 7, the former still contains useful qualitative
information regarding the design of reinforced concrete walls.

A more general introduction to the Eurocodes is given in Chapters 1 and 2

originally published as Introduction to Eurocodes4 and Getting started5. The
essential features of Eurocode 7 Part 1 are covered in Chapter 6, Foundations6,
which includes a discussion of limit states, Geotechnical Categories,
methods of design, and the Geotechnical Design Report. It should be read in
conjunction with this chapter.

Essential features of Eurocode 7 are presented, along with theoretical models

for the analysis of retaining walls. A procedure for analysis and design is given
on page 70.

Geotechnical Categories
Eurocode 7 Part 1 defines three Geotechnical Categories that can be used to
establish geotechnical design requirements. Simple structures with negliable
risk belong in Geotechnical Category 1. Walls that retain soil or water and do
not involve exceptional risk or difficult soil or loading conditions belong in
Geotechnical Category 2, for which routine procedures for field and laboratory
testing and for design and execution may be used. The design of such
structures requires quantitative geotechnical data and analysis.

Walls that involve abnormal risk or where there is unusual or exceptionally

difficult soil or loading conditions belong in Geotechnical Category 3, for
which alternative provisions and rules to those given in Eurocode 7 may be
needed; they are outside the scope of this publication.

Limit states
The design of reinforced concrete retaining walls requires verification that the
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

following ultimate limit states are not exceeded (see Figure 1): Although Eurocode 7 provides three Design Approaches, the UK
■ Overall failure of the ground containing the wall. National Annex permits only Design Approach 1 to be used in the
UK. In this approach, two calculations must be performed with different
■ Failure of the wall by sliding.
combinations of partial factors for the STR/GEO limit state (see Table 1).
■ Failure of the wall by toppling (usually only relevant to walls
founded on rock). In calculations for Combination 1, partial factors greater than 1 are
applied to actions and structural materials only: to the self-weight of
■ Bearing failure of the ground beneath the wall (which may
the wall and backfill (treated as permanent actions); to any imposed
involve settlement and rotation of the wall).
loads or surcharges at the top of the wall (permanent or variable
■ Structural failure of the wall. actions, as appropriate); and to the earth and pore water pressures
The resistance available in fine-grained soils, such as clays and silts, acting on the wall’s boundary (permanent actions).
depends greatly on how quickly excess pore water pressures in the
In calculations for Combination 2, partial factors greater than 1 are
ground dissipate after loading. The limit states above therefore need
applied to variable actions only and to the strength of the ground
to be checked both for short-term (i.e. undrained) behaviour of the
and structure: to the soil’s undrained strength in short-term (i.e.
ground and for long-term (i.e. drained) behaviour.
undrained) situations; and to the soil’s angle of shearing resistance
and effective cohesion in long-term (drained) situations.
Figure 1
Ultimate limit states for reinforced concrete retaining walls The design value, Fd, of an action can be expressed as: Fd = gF c Fk
where
gF = partial factor for the action
Fk = characteristic value of the action
c = either 1.0, c0, c1 or c2 (see Chapters 1 and 6)

Similarly the design value, Xd, of an action can be expressed as:

Xd = Xk / gM
where
gM = partial factor for the action
a) Overall stability Xk = characteristic value of the action

It is important to note that the partial factor for h´ applies to tan h´,
i.e. tan h´d = (tan h´k)/gh.

Calculation models for

b) Sliding c) Toppling strength limit states
The mechanical behaviour of reinforced concrete cantilever walls is
commonly analysed using one of two assumed calculation models,
which are explained below.

It is assumed that soils have negligible effective cohesion c’, which

greatly simplifies the mathematics involved. This is a safe assumption
but, in the interests of economy, the effects of effective cohesion
d) Bearing e) Structural failure may be included in the design.

The beneficial effect of passive earth pressures in front of the wall

Table 1 is ignored in this publication, because its contribution to resistance
Partial factors to be used for retaining wall design according to is often small for reinforced concrete walls and is only mobilized
design approach 1 (UK National Annex) after considerable movement of the wall. Furthermore, Eurocode 7
Combin- Partial factors on Partial factors on material requires allowance to be made for unplanned excavations in front
ation actions properties of soil
of retaining walls, which further reduces the effects of passive
gGa gG,fav gQ gϕb gc gcu gγ earth pressures.
1 1.35 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
2 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.25 1.25 1.4 1.0 In the expressions used here, the self-weights of the wall stem,
Key wall base, and backfill are favourable actions when sliding and
a gG is applied to unfavourable permanent actions toppling are considered, but are typically unfavourable actions for
b gh is applied to tan h’k
bearing (but since they reduce the inclination and eccentricity of

68
2
 9. Retaining walls

the total action, they may be favourable – both situations should and the earth pressure coefficient used to calculate the thrust is
be checked). In the design calculations, favourable actions are given by Rankine’s formula.
multiplied by different partial factors to unfavourable actions – see
If bh is too small, then the wall stem interferes with the Rankine zone
Table 1.
and c should be reduced to c ≤ (h’/3 to 2h’/3) – although strictly
Rankine’s theory is no longer applicable and calculation model B
Calculation model A should be used instead.
In the first calculation model (see Figure 2), the wall including
backfill in block ABCD resists sliding and toppling caused by the For sliding and toppling, the most unfavourable location of any
earth pressures acting on the vertical ‘virtual’ plane, BF. The ground imposed surcharge is as shown in Figure 2a), with the edge of the
beneath the wall base must also be strong enough to carry the wall’s surcharge coincident with point B. In that position it increases
self-weight and any tractions (vertical components of force) on the unfavourable earth pressures acting on the virtual plane BF but does
virtual plane. not increase favourable vertical forces acting on the wall heel, DC.
For bearing, the most unfavourable location of the surcharge is when
An attractive feature of this model is that, provided the wall heel
it extends to the back of the wall, point A.
CD is large enough, the earth thrust Pa (see Figure 2b) is inclined at
an angle to the horizontal equal to the ground slope at the top of
the wall (i.e. c = b ), provided always that c ≤ h’. The test for the Calculation model B
model’s applicability is bh ≥ ha tan (45 – h’d /2), which (if met) means In the second calculation model (see Figure 3), the wall including
that a Rankine active zone forms within the confines of block ABCD backfill in block ACD resists sliding and toppling caused by earth
Figure 2
Calculation model A

a
h

Figure 3
Calculation model B

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How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

pressures acting on the inclined ‘virtual’ plane, AF. The earth

thrust Pa (Figure 3b) is inclined at an angle y + d to the horizontal. Design procedure
(The same model is used to analyse plain concrete gravity walls.) The
The overall procedure for the design of reinforced concrete retaining
ground beneath the wall base must also be strong enough to carry
walls is given in Figure 4 and explained in more detail over the next
the wall’s self-weight and the downwards component of the earth
few pages.
thrust on the virtual plane.
Since the sizing of reinforced concrete walls is often controlled by
A key theoretical advantage of this model is that it can be used
sliding with partial factors from Combination 2, it is sensible to
consistently for walls of all shapes and sizes. However, its main
undertake that verification first. The other checks should also be
disadvantage is that it involves careful consideration of trigonometry,
performed for both combinations. Bearing can also control the
with the angle y playing a significant role, leading to a complicated
design (depending on the wall geometry and soil properties).
expression for Ka and values are not so readily obtained from
published charts. To prevent the mathematics becoming too involved,
various simplifications about the wall’s geometry and that of the
Overall stability of the site
An essential part of the geotechnical design of retaining structures
enclosed backfill are usually made.
is checking the stability of the site against overall rotational failure
Except for situations where bh is very small, it is reasonable to (see Figure 1a) and other forms of overall ground failure. Guidance
assume that the angle of friction d mobilized along the virtual plane on how to perform the necessary verifications is outside the scope of
AF is equal to the angle of shearing resistance of the soil, h'. this document, but can be found elsewhere, e.g. reference 7.
The most unfavourable location of any imposed surcharge is typically
when it extends to the back of the wall, point A (as shown in Figure 3a). Initial sizing
However, since the surcharge also reduces the inclination and eccentricity The base width B of a reinforced concrete cantilever retaining wall is
of the total action, situations with it distant from the wall should also usually between 0.5 and 0.7 times its overall height8, h (see Figure 5).
be considered. The breadth of the wall stem bs is normally h/15 to h/10 , as is
the thickness of the wall base tb. The breadth of the wall toe bt is
Figure 4 typically equal to B/4 to B/3.
Overall design procedure
For basement walls in most structures, the thickness will normally
Start be determined by the waterproofing requirements; often a minimum
thickness of 300 mm is used.
Check overall stability of the site For simplicity, it is assumed that adequate drainage systems will be
installed behind the retaining wall so that pore water pressures need
Carry out initial sizing of the wall not be considered. Since this is a potentially unsafe assumption, the
expressions given here need to be adjusted if this is not the case.
Determine characteristic material properties (see Figure 6)
Figure 5
Symbols for initial sizing
Calculate the characteristic value of actions (see Figure 6)

Calculate the design value of actions (see Figure 6)

No, revise geometry

Design against sliding

(see Figure 7)
Carry out separately for both
Combinations 1 and 2

Design against toppling

(see Figure 9)
Sufficient capacity?
Design against bearing
failure (see Figure 10)
Yes

Structural design (see

Figure 13) Design complete

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 9. Retaining walls

Material properties Panel 1

General expressions for geometry and actions
The characteristic value of a geotechnical parameter is defined in
BS EN 1997–1 Cl. 2.4.5.2(2)P as “a cautious estimate of the value Wk,s = bs H gk,c
affecting the occurrence of the limit state”, determined on the Wk,b = tb B gk,c
basis of laboratory and field test results complemented by well- bh = B – bs – bt
established experience and taking account of the zone of soil involved.
Characteristic geotechnical parameters should be determined by an Ls = bt + bs
2
experienced geotechnical engineer and recorded in the Geotechnical
Lb = B
Design Report. 2
The properties chosen for the backfill behind the retaining wall are For calculation model A:
critical to the geotechnical design of the wall and should be selected
h = tb + H + bhtan b
carefully (see Figure 6). These include its weight density, g, angle of
b tan b
shearing resistance, h, and (if cohesive) undrained strength, cu. It is Wk,f = bh H + h gk,f
2
uncommon for retaining walls to retain cohesive fills, since this can bh
Lf & bt + bs +
lead to the retention of water (which should be avoided). Further, 2
considering cohesion reduces the calculated earth pressures, which W= b
is not conservative. For granular backfill the characteristic angle of Lvp = B
shearing resistance is normally taken between 30˚ and 35˚.
For calculation model B:
The foundation beneath the wall base is critical to the wall’s sliding
hb = tb + H
Figure 6 b H
Procedure for determining material properties, geometry and actions Wk,f & h gk,f
2
b
Lf = bt + bs + h
From Figure 4 3
bh
y = tan-1
Determine characteristic material properties hb
• Weight density (gk,f) and angle of shearing resistance (h’k,f) W= y
of backfill
• Weight density (gk,fdn), undrained strength (cuk,fdn), and angle Lf
Lvp = Lt + Ls +
of shearing resistance (h’k,fdn) of foundation soil 3
• Weight density (gk,c) and cylinder strength (fck) of concrete

Panel 2
Determine initial geometry and actions (see Panel 1) General expressions for material properties and earth pressures
1 Determine initial geometry (see Figure 5)
• For calculation model B find inclination of virtual plane (y ) For calculation model A:
2 Determine lever arms (see Figures 2c or 3c)
3 Calculate forces cos b – R sin2 hd,f – sin2 b
• Characteristic self-weights (Wk,s, Wk,b, Wk,f) Kad = cos b
• Total weight ΣWk,i = Wk,s + Wk,b + Wk,f cos b + R sin2 hd,f – sin2 b
• Total moment Σ(Wk,i Li) = (Wk,s Ls) + (Wk,b Lb) + (Wk,f Lf)
gk,f h2
Pad = Kad gG 2 + gQ qkh
Carry out separately for both Combinations 1 and 2

For calculation model B:

Determine design material properties and earth
pressures (see Panel 2) sin b
1 Apply partial material factors to obtain design material mt = 1 cos-1 + h’d,f – b
2 sin h’d,f
properties
• Weight density gd = gk / gg = gk since gγ = 1 1 – sin h’d,f
• Angle of shearing resistance h’d = tan-1(tan h’k / gφ’) Kn = e – 2 ( mt + b – h’d,f – y ) tan h’d,f
• Undrained strength cud = cuk / gcu 1 + sin h’d,f sin (2mt – hd,f )
2 Determine earth pressure
• Earth pressure coefficient Kad = function of h’d,f and b
(depending on calculation model used) Kq = Kn cos2 b
• Earth pressure is function of vertical load and Kad
Kg = Kn cos b cos (b – y )
gk,f h2
To Figure 4 Pad = gG Kg + gQ Kq qkh
2

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How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

and bearing resistance and its properties should be chosen carefully. If air can reach the interface between the base and a clay foundation,
These include its weight density, angle of shearing resistance, and (if then the undrained resistance should be limited to HRd ≤ 0.4Vd
cohesive) undrained strength. For consideration of sliding, it is the – see BS EN 1997–1 Cl.6.5.3(12)P. If drainage occurs at the interface,
properties of the soil/concrete interface that are required unless a drained conditions may apply even for short-term loading.
shear key is provided. For bearing resistance a conservative estimate
The thrust depends largely on the strength properties of the backfill.
of the properties of the foundation soils is required.
If necessary, its magnitude can be reduced by using backfill with a
The weight density of concrete determines part of the wall’s greater angle of shearing resistance.
self-weight and should be taken as gk,c = 25 kN/m3 for reinforced
The resistance depends largely on the properties of the soil/structure
concrete in accordance with Eurocode 19.
interface between the wall base and the foundation soil. It is usual
to assume full adhesion in calculations for the undrained condition
Design against sliding based on total stresses (i.e. to use full cu) and reduced friction in
The procedure for designing reinforced concrete retaining walls
calculations for the drained condition based on effective stresses
against sliding is given in Figure 7.
(i.e. to use dfdn ≤ ffdn). For concrete cast against soil, BS EN 1997–1
In the short-term (i.e. under undrained conditions), the horizontal Cl. 6.5.3(10) recommends dfdn = fcv, fdn ≤ ffdn, where fcv, fdn is the
component of the thrust on the virtual plane must be resisted by constant volume angle of shearing resistance of the foundation soil.
adhesion on the underside of the wall base, HEd ≤ HRd, and by friction Values of fcv, fdn are independent of the soil’s relative density and
in the long-term (under drained conditions), HEd ≤ H’Rd. typically range from 27˚ to 33˚ for granular soils. For cohesive soils
the undrained situation will be critical.
Figure 7
Procedure for design against sliding
If necessary, a shear key can be used to improve the wall’s resistance
to sliding (Figure 8). The key has three benefits:
From Figure 4
■ It moves the failure surface away from the interface between the
wall and the foundation, so that an improved value of
Determine horizontal thrust on virtual plane (see Panel 2)
dfdn = ffdn may be assumed.
Carry out separately for both Combinations 1 and 2

• HEd = Pad cos Ω

■ It lengthens the failure surface, from B to&R B2 + Dtb2.
If appropriate determine undrained sliding resistance on ■ It potentially increases the passive resistance in front of the wall,
underside of wall base which is not considered here.
• HRd = cud,fdn B

Design against toppling

Determine drained sliding resistance on underside of wall base
The procedure for designing reinforced concrete retaining walls
• Calculate vertical action Vd = ga S Wk,i
i
• Calculate vertical traction from Pad (Panel 2) against toppling is given in Figure 9. Generally this check is only
• Calculate drainned sliding resistance, H’Rd (Panel 3) needed when the retaining wall is founded on rock or very hard soil.

The destabilising moment about the wall toe (point E in Figures 2a

Verify HEd ≤ HRd (if appropriate) and HEd ≤ H’Rd
and 3a) arising from the thrust on the virtual plane must be resisted

If necessary, repeat the above with a shear key Figure 9

Procedure for design against toppling
To Figure 4
From Figure 4

Panel 3 Determine destabilising moment MEd about point E.

Expressions for drained sliding resistance (see Panels 1 and 2) MEd = Pad cos W h/3
Carry out separately for both
Combinations 1 and 2

Undrained sliding resistance:

Determine stabilising moments about point E
HRd = cud,fdn B • Wall stem Md,s = Wd,s Ls
• Wall base Md,b = Wd,b Lb
Drained sliding resistance: • Backfill Md,f = Wd,f Lf
dd,fdn = hcvd,fdn • From active thrust, Md,vp = Pad sin W Lvp
• MRd = Md,s + Md,b + Md,f + Md,vp
H’Rd = Vd tan dd,fdn = gG,fav / Wk,i tan hcvd,fdn
i

With a shear key: Verify MEd ≤ MRd

R
H’Rd & gG,fav / Wk,i tan h’d,fdn 1+ Dt0
2
To Figure 4
i B

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6
 9. Retaining walls

by the stabilising moment about the same point arising from the
Figure 8
wall’s self-weight, i.e. MEd ≤ MRd. Effects of shear key

The destabilising moment depends largely on the strength properties

of the backfill. If necessary, its magnitude can be reduced by using a
backfill with a greater angle of shearing resistance.

The stabilising moment depends largely on the wall’s self-weight,

including the backfill.

(Somewhat counter-intuitively, the stability of a reinforced concrete 0

retaining wall supporting soil is not governed by limit state EQU,
defined in Eurocode 7 as “loss of stability of the structure or the
ground, considered as a rigid body”, because the strength of the
ground is significant in providing resistance. Instead, toppling is
usually governed by limit state GEO.) Panel 4
Expressions for bearing resistance
Typically, if the retaining wall has been sized appropriately for sliding,
h
then toppling will not be critical to the design. gG / (Wk,i Li ) + (Pad sin W Lvp ) – Pad cos W
B i 3
e= –
2 Vd + (Pad sin W)
Design against bearing failure
The procedure for designing reinforced concrete retaining walls B’ = B – 2 e
against bearing failure is given in Figure 10.
Undrained bearing resistance:
The bearing pressure acting beneath the wall base must be less than qRd = cud,fdn Ncic + qd ,
both the foundation’s short-term (undrained) bearing capacity,
where Nc= p + 2
qEd ≤ qRd, and its long-term (drained) value, qEd ≤ q’Rd.

The bearing pressure depends on the wall’s self-weight, including ic = 1 1 +

2
R 1– P ad
cos W
B’ cud,fdn
backfill, and any downwards traction on the virtual plane. Since the
centre of action of the resultant bearing force is almost inevitably Drained bearing resistance:
eccentric to the centre of the wall base, the bearing pressure must be
B’
calculated over an effective width B’ (see Figure 12). q’Rd = q’d Nq iq + ( gd,fdn – gw ) N i
2 g g
2
The bearing capacity depends largely on the strength of the Pad cos W
iq = 1 –
foundation soil. Eurocode 7 gives simple analytical methods for gG / Wk,i + (Pad sin W)
i
bearing resistance calculations, based on classical bearing capacity
1.5
theory. Since the resultant bearing force is almost inevitably inclined, g q

dimensionless factors reducing the standard bearing capacity factors Values for Nc, Ng and Nq can be obtained from Figure 11

Figure 10
Procedure for design against bearing failure Figure 11
Bearing capacity factors, N, from ground properties
From Figure 4
g
Determine bearing pressure (see Panels 1 and 2) c
qEd = (Vd + Pad sin Ω) / B’
Carry out separately for both

Bearing capacity factor, N

Combinations 1 and 2

Determine undrained bearing capacity, qRd

(if appropriate, see Panel 4)

Determine drained bearing capacity q’Rd (see Panel 4)

Verify qEd ≤ qRd (if appropriate) and qEd ≤ q’Rd

To Figure 4
Angle ,

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How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

are needed. The formulation for the drained bearing capacity given in This method for compaction earth pressure calculation assumes
Figure 10 and Panel 4 assumes that the groundwater level is at the that the fill is placed using a vibrating roller that is prevented from
underside of the base of the retaining wall. This will be conservative coming up to the face of the wall AD. If the roller is allowed to reach
for situations where groundwater can be guaranteed to be a distance AD then the depth zj will be greater than that given in Panel 6, owing
≥ B below the wall base. Note that the overburden pressure used in to wall yield. Since the wall is not perfectly rigid, the equations given
the expression for bearing capacity is that due to backfill above the in Panel 6 are conservative.
wall’s toe (and is likely to be a small value).
At-rest earth pressures
Many basement walls are constructed to retain existing ground;
Structural design
they should be designed to withstand the at-rest earth pressures
A retaining wall is likely to be much stiffer than the ground it
illustrated in Figure 16.
supports, and therefore the stem of a reinforced concrete cantilever
wall must be designed to withstand earth pressures greater than The earth pressure coefficient used to determine the horizontal
the active pressures assumed in the calculations of sliding, toppling, pressures acting on the wall is given in BS EN 1997–1 Cl. 9.5.2(3)
and bearing resistance. Depending on how the wall is constructed it and (4) as: K0 = (1 – sin h’) ROCR (1 + sin b ) where OCR is the
should either be designed for ‘compaction pressures’10 or for ‘at-rest’ overconsolidation ratio of the retained soil and b is the angle of
pressures.
Figure 13
As with sliding, toppling, and bearing resistance there are two Design procedure for structural design
combinations of partial factors to check at the ultimate limit state.

The design procedure is given in Figure 13. From Figure 4

Compaction earth pressures Check the stem of the retaining wall for compaction
pressures or at-rest conditions as appropriate:
Walls that are constructed before the placement of backfill should be
Carry out separately for both

• Maximum design moment = Ms (see Panel 5 or 6)

designed to withstand the compaction earth pressures (see Figure 14).
Combinations 1 and 2

• Maximum design shear force = Vs

The wall should be constructed with adequate drainage so that water • Refer to Chapter 3, originally published as Slabs11 for the
pressures will not build up against the stem in the long-term and so do design expressions to use to check bending, shear and
deflection
not need to be considered in the design.

Panel 5 gives the earth pressure s h acting at depth z down the wall Check the toe and heel of the wall in bending and shear
stem AD owing to the characteristic compaction line load Pk. For using the expressions in Panel 5 to determine applied
static rollers, the line load should be taken as the roller’s self-weight. forces and the design expressions from Chapter 3 to
check bending, shear and deflection
For vibrating compaction equipment, the sum of the self-weight and
the centrifugal vibrator force should be used. If the centrifugal force
To Figure 4
is unknown, then for a vibrating roller twice the self-weight may be
used instead. This rule of thumb should be used with caution and is
not appropriate for use with vibrating plate compactors. All forces
should be entered per unit length along the wall. Details of typical Figure 14
compaction equipment are given in Table 2 Compaction earth pressures for structural design of cantilever
retaining walls
Figure 12
Effective base width, B’

zJ
zK

zD

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8
 9. Retaining walls

Panel 5 ground surface. The OCR is the ratio of maximum past level of
General expressions for designing walls for compaction pressures vertical stress to the current level of vertical effective stress.
Design line load (in units of kN/m), Pd = gQ Pk OCR is typically obtained from an oedometer test and/or knowledge
of the geological history of the site. It is not conservative to ignore it.
cos b – R sin2 h’d,f – sin2 b
Kad = cos b Many basements involve one or two levels of propping and so
cos b + R sin2 h’d,f – sin2 b
verification of sliding and toppling resistance is unnecessary (at least
for persistent design situations – they may still be relevant while the
cos b + R sin2 h’d,f – sin2 b
Kpd = cos b wall is being constructed).
cos b – R sin2 h’d,f – sin2 b
Verification of the structural resistance of basement walls follows
Depth of point J in Figure 13, zJ = Kpd
R 2Pd
pgK,f
the same procedure as that for cantilever walls (see Figure 13), with
suitable allowance for any water pressures that may build up on the
Depth of point K, zK = Kad 2Pd
pgK,fR back of the wall AD, especially if no provision is made for drainage.

Between A and J, horizonal stress (in units of kPa) Table 2

shd = Kpd gk,f z Typical compaction equipment12

Between J and K Description of compaction Mass (kg) Centrifugal Design

R 2PdgK,f equipment vibrator force (kN)

shd = force (kN)
p
80 kg vibrating plate compactor 80 14 14.3
Betwwen K and D 180 kg vibrating plate compactor 180 80 81.8
shd = Kad gk,f z 350 kg pedestrian-operated 350 12 15.4
vibrating roller
Forces for stem design (see Figure 14)
670 kg vibrating plate compactor 670 96 102.6
σ z 2z σ (z – z )2 (σ – σhd,K)(zD – zK)2
Moment, Ms = hd,J J zD – J + hd,J D J + hd,D 1.5 t pedestrian-operated 1530 58 73.0
2 3 2 6 vibrating roller
σhd,J zJ 2.8 t smooth wheeled roller 2800 N/A 27.5
Shear, Vs = + σhd,J(zD – zJ) + (σhd,D – σhd,K )(zD – zK)/2
2 6.9 t double vibrating roller 6900 118 185.7
where 8.6 t smooth wheeled roller 8600 N/A 84.4
σhd,J = σhd at J etc.

Forces for heel design (see Figure 15b) Panel 6

γ W b q (b – B + B’)2 Expressions for the structural design of basement walls for ‘at-rest’
Moment, Mh & G K,f h – Ed h pressures
2 2

Shear, Vh & γG WK,f – qEd (bh – B + B’) K0d = (1 – sin h’d,f ) ROCR (1 + sin b )

Forces for toe design (see Figure 15a)

sv,d = gd,f z + qd

qEd bt2 Between A and W

Moment, Mt =
2 ud = 0
Shear, Vt = qEd bt
sh,d = s’h,d = K0d sv,d
Between W and D
Figure 15 ud = gw (zD – zw)
Pressure diagram for design of reinforced concrete base
s’h,d = K0d (sv,d – ud)
sh,d = s’h,d + ud
Forces for stem design
σhd,A zw zW σhd,W ZW 2z W
Moment, Ms = zD – + zD – +
2 3 2 3
2σhd,W (zD – zW)2 σhd,D (zD – zW)2
+
6 6
σhd,A zW σhd,W zW σhd,W (zD – zW) σhd,D (zD – zW)
Shear, Vs = + + +
2 2 2 2
See Panel 5 for forces for base design.

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How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

When the structure retains: stress may be chosen but the selected value must then be used
■ Sands and gravels (i.e. high permeability soils) without a reliable in the calculation of As,min and the size of the bar should be
drainage system installed, or limited as shown.

■ Silts and clays (i.e. low permeability soils) ■ Where loading is the main cause of cracking, limit the bar
diameter or the bar spacing to that shown in Table 3.
then BS EN 1997–1 Cl. 2.4.6.1(11) requires the water table to be
In the absence of specific requirements (e.g. water-tightness), the
taken at the “maximum possible level, which may be the ground
limiting calculated crack width wmax may be restricted to 0.3 mm in
surface ... unless the adequacy of the drainage system can be
all exposure classes under quasi-permanent load combinations (see
demonstrated and its maintenance ensured”.
Chapter 1).
The relevant expressions for the total earth pressure s h (= effective
The minimum area of reinforcement in tensile zones to control
earth pressure, s’h + pore water pressure, u) acting at depth z down
cracking should be calculated for each part of the member as follows:
the wall AD are given in Panel 6 for a water table at depth dw below
the top of the wall. These expressions assume that the wall is rigid As,min = kc k fct,eff Act /ss
(owing to the propping) and no stress relief occurs during wall
where
installation. Both of these assumptions are conservative.
kc = 1.0 for pure tension and 0.4 for pure bending (allows for
the nature of the stress distribution within the section
Detailing immediately prior to cracking and for the change of the lever
arm as a result of cracking)

Control of cracking k = 1.0 where the wall is less than 300 mm and K = 0.65 where
It may be necessary to control the cracking of a reinforced concrete it exceeds 800 mm thick. For intermediate conditions
wall, e.g. for aesthetic reasons or to minimise water ingress for a interpolation may be used. Factor allows for the effect of
basement wall. For the latter, detailed guidance on the design of water- non-uniform self-equilibrating stresses, which lead to a
resisting basements is given in CIRIA Report 13913. Strictly, this report reduction of restraint forces
has been written for use alongside BS 8110 and BS 800714, but the fct,eff = mean value of the tensile strength of concrete effective
principles can be used with BS EN 1992–1–1 and BS EN 1992–33. at the time cracks may be first expected to occur at the
appropriate age fct,eff = fct,m (see table 3.1 of BS EN 1992-1-11)
Control of cracking may either be assessed by using the deemed-to-
satisfy method, which is presented here, or by calculating the crack Act = area of concrete in that part of the section which is
widths directly (refer to Cl 7.3.4 of BS EN 1992–1–1). calculated to be in the tension zone i.e. in tension just before
the formation of the first crack
Cracks may be limited to acceptable widths by the following measures:
■ Provide a minimum amount of reinforcement, As,min; so that the Table 3
reinforcement does not yield immediately upon formation of the Maximum bar size or spacing to lmit crack width (mm)

first crack. Steel Wmax = 0.3 Wmax = 0.2

stress
■ Where restraint is the main cause of cracking, limit the bar (ss) Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
MPa bar size bar spacing bar size bar spacing
diameter to that shown in Table 3. In this case any level of steel (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
160 32 300 25 200
Figure 16 200 25 OR 250 16 OR 150
Earth and pore water pressures for structural design of retaining 240 16 200 12 100
walls subject to 'at-rest' conditions
280 12 150 8 50
320 10 100 6 –
360 8 50 5 –
Note
The steel stress may be estimated from the expression below
zW fyk m As,req
W
ss =
gms nAs,prov d
where:
zD fyk = the characteristic reinforcement yields stress
gms = the partial factor for reinforcement steel
m = the total load from quasi-permanent combination
n = the total load from ULS combination
As,req = the area of reinforcement at the ULS
As,prov = the area of reinforcement provided
d = the ratio of redistribution moment to elastic moment

76
10
 9. Retaining walls

ss = absolute value of the maximum stress permitted in the For walls with a high axial load (eg basement walls), the main
reinforcement immediately after the formation of the crack. reinforcement placed nearest to the wall faces should have transverse
The value should be chosen bearing in mind the limits on bar reinforcement in the form of links with at least four per m2 of wall
size and spacing indicated in Table 3 area. Where welded mesh and bars of diameter f ≤ 16 mm are used
with cover larger than 2f, transverse reinforcement is not required.
Large radius bends
It is often necessary to provide large radius bends to the main Horizontal reinforcement
reinforcement at the base of the stem because of the high tensile The minimum area of horizontal reinforcement is the greater of
forces in the bars. The minimum mandrel diameter, fm.min should be either 25% of vertical reinforcement or 0.001 Ac. However, where
assessed as follows: crack control is important, early age thermal and shrinkage effects
should be considered.
fm.min ≥ Fbt(1/ab+1/(2f))/fcd
Where flexural forces dominate, these requirements may be relaxed
where
to 20% of the vertical reinforcement area.
Fbt = tensile force from ultimate loads in a bar at the start of
the bend
ab = half the pitch of the bars or nominal cover plus f/2
f = bar diameter
Practical issues
fcd = design value of concrete compressive strength
Design for movement
The Standard method of detailing structural concrete15, appendix B, Concrete shrinks due to early thermal effects immediately after
contains some useful tables that will assist in determining the casting. The base of a retaining structure is usually restrained by the
minimum mandrel size. soil on which it is bearing, which induces strains in the concrete.
Therefore, the reinforcement detailing, pour size and sequence of
Rules for spacing and quantity of construction should be planned to control the resultant cracking.
reinforcement
Typically pour sizes are up to one storey high, to limit hydrostatic
Vertical reinforcement pressures on formwork. The National structural concrete specification16
Where axial forces dominate, the minimum area of vertical recommends pour sizes with a maximum area of 25 m2 and
reinforcement is 0.002Ac; half this area should be placed in each maximum dimension 5 m for water-resisting walls. The contractor
face. Otherwise, the minimum percentage of reinforcement can will seek to use the largest pour size possible and will want to ensure
be obtained from Table 6 of Chapter 3. Outside lap locations, the that the minimum volume of concrete for a pour is 6 m3 (i.e. a full
maximum area of vertical reinforcement is 0.04Ac;; this may be load of a ready-mixed concrete). It is usual to cast alternate bays
doubled at lap locations. in a wall to reduce the effects of early shrinkage. Further advice on
calculating strains and crack widths for restrained walls can be found
The distance between two adjacent vertical bars should not exceed
in appendices L and M of BS EN 1992–31.
the lesser of either three times the wall thickness or 400 mm.
For long lengths of retaining walls, it is generally accepted practice
Figure 17
to have expansion joints every 20 – 30 m; even so the base of the
Typical drainage layout for a retaining wall
wall will still be restrained. For a temperature range of 40°C, the joint
should allow for 10 mm of movement for every 10 m length of wall.

Drainage
To prevent pore water pressures from building up, it is important
to provide drainage material behind a retaining wall. The zone
300 mm wide
granular backfill immediately behind the wall should be of a free-draining granular
material, which should be protected to prevent it becoming blocked
with fines. A drainage pipe, laid to falls, should be provided at the
Weep hole
Drainage pipe base of the free-draining material. The system should be designed for
the anticipated rainfall, and rodding points provided for maintenance
of the drainage systems. Weepholes should be provided as a back-up
as they act as an overflow and as a visual warning that maintenance
is required should the primary system become blocked. A typical
Large radius bend drainage system is illustrated in Figure 17.
if required

11
77
 9. Retaining walls

Construction The designer should consider how the temporary works will
It is particularly important when designing retaining walls to consider affect the installation of the water-proofing for a basement wall.
how they will be constructed. Often some form of temporary works For instance, a sheet pile wall may be used to affix an external
is required and these may impact on the design. The simplest form of waterproofing system, but this would prevent the sheet piles
construction is in an open excavation with the sides battered back to from being removed at the end of construction. Similarly, external
a safe angle to allow the construction of the wall. In this case there waterproofing should not be used where temporary propping
is little impact on the design, although the loads imposed during would penetrate it, because it will not be possible to complete the
compaction of the backfill may be onerous. waterproofing when the props are removed.

Where there is insufficient space for opening an excavation, either a The temporary works may affect the soil pressures acting on the
king post wall or sheet pile wall will be used as temporary supports, wall and the construction sequence could give rise to temporary
and these may require propping, especially for a two-storey basement. actions that exceed the permanent actions imposed on the wall.
The designer should consider this aspect and prepare a method
The designer should ensure there is sufficient space to install the
statement indicating the assumptions made so the temporary works
temporary works. It is possible to use contiguous piles, secant piles
designer can work to the assumptions made or make alternative
or diaphragm walling as temporary supports but it is more usual for
proposals.
these to be installed as part of the permanent works.

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS EN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. BSI (2 parts).
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 8002: Code of practice for earth retaining structures. BSI, 1994.
4 NARAYANAN, R S & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Introduction to Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
5 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started. The Concrete Centre, 2005.
6 WEBSTER, R & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Foundations. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
7 FRANK, R, BAUDUIN, C, DRISCOLL, R, KAVVADAS, M, KREBS OVESEN, N, ORR, T & SCHUPPENER, B. Designers’ guide to BS EN 1997–1, Eurocode 7:
Geotechnical design – General rules. Thomas Telford Publishing, 2004.
8 CLAYTON, C R I & MILITITSKY, J. Earth pressure and earth-retaining structures. Blackie & Son Ltd, Glasgow, 1986.
9 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1991–1–1: General actions – Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings. BSI, 2002.
10 INGOLD, T S. The effects of compaction on retaining walls, Geotechnique 29(3), pp. 265–283, 1979.
11 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
12 PARSONS, A W. Compaction of soils and granular materials. Transport Research Laboratory, 1992.
13 CIRIA. Report 139, Water-resisting basements. CIRIA, 1995.
14 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8007: Code of practice for design of structures for retaining aqueous liquids. BSI, 1987.
15 INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Standard method of detailing structural concrete. IStructE/The Concrete
Society, 2006.
16 CONSTRUCT. National structural concrete specification (third edition). The Concrete Society, 2004.

78
12
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

10. Detailing
O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Introduction
This chapter is intended for use by detailers to prepare reinforcement drawings
for projects that have been designed using Eurocode 21. It provides a summary
of the requirements of the Eurocode and simplifies them where appropriate.

To pave the way for the introduction of Eurocode 2, other supporting

standards have been introduced or revised, including:
■ BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary standard to BS EN 206–12, which
replaced BS 5328: Concrete on 1 December 2003 and should already be
familiar.
■ BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of
concrete3 was revised in 2005 so that it became a complementary
standard to BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete4 and
Normative Annex C of Eurocode 2.
■ BS 8666: 2005, Scheduling, dimensioning, bending and cutting of steel
reinforcement for concrete – specification5 has also been revised,
introducing Eurocode 2 requirements and a greater range of shape codes.

In this publication a number of assumptions have been made. Many of the

derived expressions and figures assume UK values for the National Determined
Parameters (NDPs). It is assumed that bars sizes are 40 mm or less and that
the bars will not be bundled together. It is also assumed that the concrete
class will not exceed C50/60. For additional requirements outside these limits,
reference should be made to Eurocode 2.

This chapter focuses on detailing the reinforcement to comply with Eurocode 2;

guidance on procedures, responsibilities and preparation of drawings can be
found in other documents6,7,8.

Type and grade of reinforcement

The 2005 revision of BS 4449 introduced a characteristic yield strength
of 500 MPa. There are now three grades of reinforcement, A, B and C (see
Table 1), which offer increasing ductility. It is expected that for the design of
UK buildings all three grades A, B or C will be appropriate and in this case the
bar size can be prefixed with an H (e.g. H12). Grade A is not suitable for use
where redistribution above 20% has been assumed in the design and a
grade B bar should be specified in these circumstances (e.g. B12). Grade C is
for seismic conditions or where additional ductility is required.
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Notation for steel reinforcement
Cover
Type of steel reinforcement Notation The nominal cover should generally be specified by the designer and
Grade B500A, Grade B500B or Grade B500C conforming to H full details of how to determine this are given in Chapter 2, originally
BS 4449:2005 published as, Getting started9. The nominal cover should be shown
Grade B500A conforming to BS 4449: 2005 A on the drawings and should refer to the reinforcement nearest to the
Grade B500B or Grade B500C conforming to BS 4449: 2005 B surface of the concrete e.g. the links in a beam.
Grade B500C conforming to BS 4449: 2005 C Also, the cover to the main bar should be at least equal to the size of
Reinforcement of a type not included in the above list having X that bar, plus the allowance for deviations, Dcdev. Where there are no
material properties that are defined in the design or contract
specification. links the nominal cover should be at least equal to the size of the bar
Note plus Dcdev, this may be significant for bar diameters greater than
In the Grade description B500A, etc., ’B’ indicates reinforcing steel. 12 mm. Dcdev may be 5 or 10 mm depending on the quality assurance
system assumed for the project. If the cover needs to be increased to
Figure 1 meet these requirements, the detailer should consult with the designer.
Description of bond conditions

Direction of concreting Direction of concreting

Anchorage and lap lengths
a Eurocode 2 introduces a range of factors (a1 to a6) for use when
250
calculating the appropriate anchorage and lap lengths. A number of
a) 45º < a < 90º c) h > 250 mm
assumptions can be made that enable Table 2 to be developed for
Direction of concreting anchorage and lap lengths. If the conditions noted in the table are not
Direction of concreting met then reference should be made to Eurocode 2. Lap lengths for
≥ 300
unequal size bars may be based on the smaller bar, although this is not
h h stated in the Code.

b) h < 250 mm d) h > 600 mm

Key Anchorage of bars and links

‘Good’ bond conditions ‘Poor’ bond conditions
All reinforcement should be anchored so that the forces in it are safely
transmitted to the surrounding concrete by bond without causing
Table 2
Anchorage and lap lengths for concrete class C25/30 (mm)

Bond Reinforcement in tension, bar diameter, f (mm) Reinforce-

condition, ment in
(see Figure 1) 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 compres-
Good 230 320 410 600 780 1010 1300 1760 40f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 330 450 580 850 1120 1450 1850 2510 58f
length, lbd Good 320 410 490 650 810 1010 1300 1760 40f
Other bars
Poor 460 580 700 930 1160 1450 1850 2510 58f
50% lapped in one location (a6 Good 320 440 570 830 1090 1420 1810 2460 57f
= 1.4) Poor 460 630 820 1190 1560 2020 2590 3520 81f
Lap length,
l0 Good 340 470 610 890 1170 1520 1940 2640 61f
100% lapped in one location (a6
= 1.15) Poor 490 680 870 1270 1670 2170 2770 3770 87f
Notes
1 Nominal cover to all sides and distance between bars ≥ 25 mm (i.e. a2 < 1).
2 a1 = a3 = a4 = a5 = 1.0.
3 Design stress has been taken as 435 MPa. Where the design stress in the bar at the position from where the anchorage is measured, ssd, is less than 435 MPa the figures in this
table can be factored by ssd/435. The minimum lap length is given in cl 8.7.3 of Eurocode 2.
4 The anchorage and lap lengths have been rounded up to the nearest 10 mm.
5 Where 33% of bars are lapped in one location, decrease the lap lengths for ‘50% lapped in one location’ by a factor of 0.82.
6 The figures in this table have been prepared for concrete class C25/30; refer to Table 13 for other classes or use the following factors for other concrete classes.

Concrete class C20/25 C28/35 C30/37 C32/40 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
Factor 1.16 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.80 0.73 0.68 0.63

80
 10. Detailing

cracking or spalling. The design anchorage length, lbd, (which can be Bars in compression
obtained from Table 2) is measured along the centreline of the bar In addition to the rules for bars in tension (Figure 6a), one bar of the
(see Figure 2). The anchorage of links is shown in Figure 3. transverse reinforcement should be placed outside each end of the lap
length of bars in compression and within 4f of the ends of the lap
length (see Figure 6b).
Arrangement of laps
Figure 2
Where possible laps in a member should be staggered (see Figure 4) Design anchorage length lbd, for any shape measured along the
centreline
and not located in areas of high stress. The arrangement of lapped bars
should comply with Figure 5, as set out below:
1. The clear distance between lapped bars should not be greater than
4f or 50 mm, otherwise the lap length should be increased by a
lbd f
length equal to the clear distance.
2. The longitudinal distance between two adjacent laps should not be
less than 0.3 times the lap length, l0. Where this is not the case, the
bars should be considered as being lapped in one section. Figure 3
Anchorage of links
3. In case of adjacent laps, the clear distance between adjacent bars
should not be less than 2f or 20 mm. 5f, but 10f, but
≥ 50 mm ≥ 70 mm

When the provisions comply with 1 and 3 above, the permissible

percentage of lapped bars in tension may be 100% where the bars are
all in one layer. In this case the design lap length, l0, from Table 2, must
be increased (see note 5). Where the bars are in several layers no more
f f
than 50% should be lapped in any one layer.

a) Bend angle > 150º b) Bend angle ≤ 150º

All bars in compression and secondary (distribution) reinforcement may
be lapped in the same location.
Figure 4
Percentage of lapped bars in one lapped section

Transverse reinforcement l0

Bars in tension bar 1

Transverse tensile stresses occur at the ends of lapped bars. Where the
bar 2
diameter, f, of the lapped bars is less than 20 mm, or the percentage
of lapped bars in any section is less than 25%, then any transverse bar 3
reinforcement or links necessary for other reasons may be assumed
bar 4
sufficient for the transverse tensile forces without further justification.
Example: bars 2 and 3 are
outside the section being
0.65l0 0.65l0
Where the diameter, f, of the lapped bars is greater than or equal considered.
Therefore a6 = 1.4
to 20 mm, the transverse reinforcement should have a total area, Ast Section considered
(sum of all legs parallel to the layer of the spliced reinforcement – see
Figure 6a) of not less than the area As of one lapped bar (ΣAst ≥ 1.0As).
The transverse bar should be placed perpendicular to the direction of Figure 5
the lapped reinforcement and between that and the surface of the Arranging adjacent lapping bars
concrete. Table 3 gives recommended minimum areas for transverse ≥ 0.3l0 l0
reinforcement. Where the lapped bars in a slab are located in an ≤ 50 mm
Fs ≤ 4f f
area of low stress, e.g. near the point of contraflexure, it is generally Fs

acceptable to assume that transverse reinforcement is not required.

a ≥ 2f
Fs
If more than 50% of the bars are lapped in one location and the ≥ 20 mm Fs
distance, a, between adjacent laps at a section is ≤ 10f (see Figure 5) Fs
Fs
transverse reinforcement should be formed by links or U-bars anchored
into the body of the section.

81
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Beams Figure 7
Illustration of curtailment of longitudinal reinforcement

Curtailment Hogging reinforcement

Unless the additional tensile force in the longitudinal reinforcement

due to shear has been calculated, the curtailment length of the Envelope of MEd/z + NEd lbd
longitudinal reinforcement should be extended beyond the point at lbd
which it is required for flexural strength (this is known as the ‘shift Acting tensile force Fs
Resisting tensile force FRs lbd
rule’) using the following expression (see also Figure 7):
al = z cot y /2 for vertical shear reinforcement.
D Ftd
al
where
z = lever arm
y = angle of compression strut al
lbd
This can conservatively be taken as: D Ftd

lbd lbd
al = 1.125d
lbd lbd
For beams designed using the co-efficients given in Table 3 of Chapter 4,
originally published as Beams,10 the simplified rules shown in Figure 8
may be used. However, the simplifications are conservative and economies Sagging reinforcement

can be achieved by curtailing bars to suit the actual moments.

Figure 6 Figure 8
Transverse reinforcement for lapped splices Simplified detailing rules for beams

Ast/2 Ast/2 Face of support Reinforcement for

l0/3 100% maximum hogging moment
l0/3
≤ 150 mm
Fs 0.15l + al ≥ lbd 60%
Fs
0.30l + al 35%*
*reduce to 25%
a) Bars in tension for equal spans
l0

a) Continuous member, top reinforcement

Ast/2 Ast/2

≤ 150 mm 30%
Fs
Fs
0.30l – al

Position of 100%
b) Bars in compression l0
effective
support Reinforcement for maximum sagging moment
4f l0/3 l0/3 4f

b) Continuous member, bottom reinforcement

Table 3
Bar sizes for transverse reinforcement
25%

Lap length Number Bar size (mm) lbd

(mm), for of bars
transverse at each 20 25 32 40 0.08l
100%
bars at 150 lap
mm centresa As = 314 As = 491 As = 804 As = 1260 Position of
effective support
≤450 2 10 16 16 25
c) Simple support, bottom reinforcement
451 – 900 3 10 12 16 20
901 – 1350 4 8 10 12 16 Notes
1351 – 1800 5 8 8 12 16 1 l is the effective length.
2 al is the distance to allow for tensile force due to shear force.
1801 – 2250 6 8 8 10 12
3 lbd is the design anchorage length.
2251 – 2700 7 N/A 8 10 12 4 Qk ≤ Gk.
Key 5 Minimum of two spans required.
a For transverse bars at less than 150 mm centres use the following expression to 6 Applies to uniformly distributed loads only.
calculate the required number of bars and hence the required transverse bar diameter: 7 The shortest span must be greater than or equal to 0.85 times the longest span.
Number of bars required = 1 + l0/(3s) where s = spacing of the transverse bars. 8 Applies where 15% redistribution has been used.

82
 10. Detailing

Reinforcement in end supports Minimum spacing of reinforcement

In monolithic construction, even when simple supports have been The minimum clear distance between bars should be the greater of:
assumed in design, the section at supports (top reinforcement) should ■ Bar diameter
be designed for a bending moment arising from partial fixity of at ■ Aggregate size plus 5 mm
least 25% of the maximum bending moment in the span (i.e. provide ■ 20 mm
25% of mid-span bottom reinforcement).
Shear reinforcement
The area of bottom reinforcement provided at supports with little or no The longitudinal spacing of vertical shear reinforcement should not
end fixity assumed in design, should be at least 25% of the area of steel exceed 0.75d. Note the requirement for a maximum spacing of
provided in the span. The bars should be anchored to resist a force , FE. 150 mm where the shear reinforcement acts as a transverse
reinforcement at laps in the longitudinal bars. The transverse spacing
FE = (|VEd| al / z) + NEd
of the legs in a series of shear links should not exceed:
where
st,max = 0.75d ≤ 600 mm
|VEd| = absolute value of shear force
NEd = the axial force if present The minimum area of shear reinforcement in beams, Asw,min should be
calculated from:
The anchorage, lbd, should be measured beyond the line of contact
Asw
between the beam and support. ≥ rw,min where rw,min can be obtained from Table 4.
s bw
Provided ssd is taken as 435 MPa in the calculation of the anchorage
length (which is assumed in Tables 2 and 13) then it should not be
necesary to calculate FE. Slabs
Flanged beams Curtailment
At supports the tension reinforcement to resist hogging moments The curtailment rules for beams should be followed, except that a
should be distributed across the full width of the effective flange as value of al = d may be used.
shown in Figure 9; part of it may be concentrated over the web.
For slabs designed using the co-efficients given in Table 3 of Chapter 3,
Minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement originally published as Slabs11, the simplified rules shown in Figure 10
The minimum area of reinforcement is As,min = 0.26 fctm bt d/fyk but may be used.
not less than 0.0013btd, where bt is the mean width of the tension
zone (see Table 4). For a T-beam with the flange in compression, only Reinforcement in end supports
the width of the web is taken into account in calculating the value In simply supported slabs, the area of reinforcement may be reduced
of bt. to half the calculated span reinforcement and continued up to the
support, otherwise 100% of the reinforcement may be continued
Maximum area of longitudinal reinforcement to the support. Beyond the face of the support 15% of the area of
Outside lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression maximum reinforcement should be provided (see Figure 10c). The
reinforcement should not exceed As,max = 0.04 Ac. bars should be anchored to resist a force, FE, as given in the section
on beams.
Figure 9 Table 4
Placing of tension reinforcement in flanged cross section
Minimum percentage of reinforcement required
beff fck fctm Minimim percentage rw, min x 10-3
(0.26 fctm / fyk2)
As
25 2.6 0.13% 0.80
28 2.8 0.14% 0.85
hf
30 2.9 0.15% 0.88
32 3.0 0.16% 0.91
beff1 bw beff2
35 3.2 0.17% 0.95
40 3.5 0.18% 1.01
45 3.8 0.20% 1.07
50 4.1 0.21% 1.13
Key
a Assuming fyk = 500 MPa

83
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Minimum spacing requirements Minimum areas of reinforcement

The minimum clear distance between bars (horizontal or vertical) The minimum area of reinforcement to be provided varies with the
should not be less than the bar size, b, (dg + 5 mm), or 20 mm, where concrete strength (see Table 4).
dg is the maximum size of aggregate.
Maximum area of longitudinal reinforcement
Maximum spacing of reinforcement Outside lap locations, the maximum area of tension or compression
For slabs less than 200 mm thick the following maximum spacing reinforcement, should not exceed As,max = 0.04Ac. At lap locations
rules apply (h is the depth of the slab): As,max = 0.08Ac.
■ For the principal reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm.
■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3.5h but not more than 450 mm.
Edge reinforcement
The exception is in areas with concentrated loads or areas of
maximum moment where the following applies: Along a free (unsupported) edge, a slab should normally contain longitudinal
■ For the principal reinforcement: 2h but not more than 250 mm. and transverse reinforcement, generally arranged as shown in Figure 11.
■ For the secondary reinforcement: 3h but not more than 400 mm.

For slabs 200 mm thick or greater, the spacing requirements are given Flat slabs
in Table 5. Where the designer has not specified the required spacing
or provided the steel stress, ss, it can generally be assumed that ss will A flat slab should be divided into column and middle strips (see
not exceed 320 MPa for a typical slab. Where the slab supports office Figure 12); the division of the moments between the column and
or residential areas it is unlikely that ss will exceed 280 MPa. middle strips is given in Table 6.

Figure 11
Figure 10 Edge reinforcement for slab
Simplified detailing rules for slabs

Face of support Reinforcement for

100% maximum hogging moment

0.15l ≥ lbd 50% h

0.30l
≥ 2h

a) Continuous member, top reinforcement

Table 5
Values for rw,min
40%
Steel wmax = 0.4 mm wmax = 0.3 mm
0.2l stress
Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
Position of 100% (es) MPa
effective bar size bar spacing bar size bar spacing
support Reinforcement for (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
maximum sagging moment
160 40 300 32 300
b) Continuous member, bottom reinforcement
200 32 300 25 250
OR OR
240 20 250 16 200
15%
280 16 200 12 150
lbd
320 12 150 10 100
Face of 100% 360 10 100 8 50
support

c) Simple support, bottom reinforcement

Table 6
Apportionment of bending moments in flat slabs – equivalent frame method
Notes
1 l is the effective length. Location Negative moments Positive moments
2 lbd is the design anchorage length.
Column strip 60% – 80% 50% – 70%
3 Qk ≤ 1.25 Gk and qk ≤ 5kN/m2.
4 Minimum of two spans required. Middle strip 40% – 20% 50% – 30%
5 Applies to uniformly distributed loads only. Notes
6 The shortest span must be greater than or equal to 0.85 times the longest span. The total negative and positive moments to be resisted by the column and middle
7 Applies where 20% redistribution has been used. strips together should always add up to 100%

84
 10. Detailing

Figure 12 The intention is to provide an even distribution/density of punching

Division of panels in flat slabs shear reinforcement within the zone where it is required. One
simplication to enable rectangular perimeters of sheer reinforcement is
lx > ly
to use an intensity of Asw/u1 around rectangluar perimeters.
ly /4 ly /4 Middle strip = lx – ly /2

The minimum area of a link leg for vertical punching shear reinforcement is
ly /4
1.5Asw,min /(sr s t ) ≥ 0.08√ f ck fyk
ly /4 which can be rearranged as:
Asw,min ≥ (s r s t )/F
Middle strip = ly /2 ly
where
sr = the spacing of the links in the radial direction
Column strip = ly /2 s t = the spacing of the links in the tangential direction
F = factor obtained from Table 7

Figure 13
Effective width, be of a flat slab

At internal columns, unless rigorous serviceability calculations are cx cx

Slab edge
carried out, top reinforcement of area 0.5 At should be placed in a
Slab edge
width equal to the sum of 0.125 times the panel width on either side cy
of the column. At represents the area of reinforcement required to cy
y
resist the full negative moment from the sum of the two half panels y
each side of the column. It is also advisable to apply this requirement
to perimeter columns as far as is possible. z
be = cx + y
be = z + y/2
At internal columns at least two bars of bottom reinforcement in each Slab edge
orthogonal direction should be provided and they should pass between y can be > cy z can be > cx and y can be > cy
the column reinforcement. Whilst it is not a code requirement it is a) Edge column b) Corner column
considered good practice to provide two bars running parallel to the Note
y is the distance from the edge of the slab to the innermost face of the column
slab edge between the reinforcement of an external column.

Reinforcement perpendicular to a free edge required to transmit Figure 14

bending moments from the slab to an edge or corner column should Punching shear layout
be placed within the effective width, be, shown in Figure 13.
Outer perimeter of
shear reinforcement Outer control
perimeter

Punching shear reinforcement u out

Where punching shear reinforcement is required the following rules ≤ 0.75d

should be observed. A A
≤1.5d 0.5d
■ It should be provided between the face of the column and kd ≤ 1.5d
sr (2d if > 2d
inside the outer perimeter where shear reinforcement is no longer
from column)
required. k is 1.5, unless the perimeter at which reinforcement is no st

longer required is less than 3d from the face of the column. In this
case the reinforcement should be placed in the zone 0.3d to 1.5d
from the face of the column. s r ≤ 0.75 d
Outer control
■ There should be at least two perimeters of shear links. ≤0.5d perimeter
■ The radial spacing of the links, sr should not exceed 0.75d (see Figure 14). kd
■ The tangential spacing of the links, sd should not exceed 1.5d
within 2d of the column face.
■ The tangential spacing of the links should not exceed 2d for any
other perimeter. Section A - A
■ The distance between the face of the column and the nearest shear
reinforcement should be between 0.3d and 0.5d

85
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Columns and walls Lapping fabric

Maximum areas of reinforcement Unless ‘flying end’ fabric is being specified, laps of fabric should be
In Eurocode 2 the maximum nominal reinforcement area for columns arranged as shown in Figure 15. When fabric reinforcement is lapped
and walls outside laps is 4% compared with 6% in BS 8110. However, by layering, the following should be noted:
this area can be increased provided that the concrete can be placed ■ Permissible percentage of fabric main reinforcement that may be
and compacted sufficiently. Self-compacting concrete may be used lapped in any section is 100% if (As/s) ≤ 1200 mm2/m (where s is
for particularly congested situations, where the reinforcing bars should the spacing of bars) and 60% if As/s> 1200 mm2/m.
be spaced to ensure that the concrete can flow around them. Further ■ All secondary reinforcement may be lapped at the same location
guidance can be found in Self-compacting concrete12. and the minimum lap length l0,min for layered fabric is as follows:
≥ 150 mm for f ≤ 6 mm
Minimum reinforcement requirements ≥ 250 mm for 6 mm < f ≤ 8.5 mm
The recommended minimum diameter of longitudinal reinforcement
≥ 350 mm for 8.5 mm < f ≤ 12 mm
in columns is 12 mm. The minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement
in columns is given by: As,min = 0.10 NEd/fyd ≥ 0.002Ac. The diameter There should generally be at least two bar pitches within the lap
of the transverse reinforcement (link) should not be less than 6 mm length. This could be reduced to one bar pitch for f ≤ 6 mm.
or one quarter of the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars (see
Table 8). No longitudinal bar should be more than 150 mm from a
transverse bar. Tolerances
Particular requirements for walls The tolerances for cutting and/or bending dimensions are given in Table 10
The minimum area of vertical reinforcement in walls is given by: and should be taken into account when completing the bar schedule.
As,vmin = 0.002Ac (see also Table 9). Half the area should be provided in
each face. Where the reinforcement is required to fit between two concrete faces
(e.g. links) then an allowance should be made for deviations in the member
The distance between two adjacent vertical bars should not exceed size and bending tolerances. There is no guidance given in Eurocode 2, but
the lesser of either three times the wall thickness or 400 mm. Table 11 gives guidance on the deductions to be made for deviations.

Table 9
The minimum area of horizontal reinforcement in each face of a wall Minimum area of vertical reinforcement in walls (half in each face)
is the greater of either 25% of vertical reinforcement or 0.001Ac.
Wall thickness (mm) As,min /m length of wall (mm2)
However, where crack control is important, early age thermal and
200 400
shrinkage effects should be considered. 250 500
300 600
There is no advice given in the Code on provision of reinforcement 350 700
to control cracking in plain walls, but reinforcement may be provided 400 800
if required.
Table 10
Tolerance
Table 7
Factor, F, for determining Asw, min Cutting and bending processes Tolerance (mm)
Cutting of straight lengths +25, –25
fck 25 28 30 32 35 40 45 50 (including reinforcement for
Factor, F 1875 1772 1712 1657 1585 1482 1398 1326 subsequent bending)
Bending:
Note
≤ 1000 mm +5, –5
fyk has been taken as 500 MPa
> 1000 mm to ≤ 2000 mm +5, –10
> 2000 mm +5, –25
Table 8
Requirements for column reinforcement Table 11
Deductions to bar dimensions to allow for deviations between two
Bar dia. (mm) 12 16 20 25 32 40
concrete faces
Max spacinga (mm) 144b 192b 240b 240b 240b 240b
Min link dia. (mm) 6 c 6c 6c 8 8 10 Distance between Type of bar Total deduction
concrete faces (mm) (mm)
Key
0 – 1000 Links and other bent bars 10
a At a distance greater than the larger dimension of the column above or below a
beam or slab, dimensions can be increased by a factor of 1.67. 1000 – 2000 Links and other bent bars 15
b But not greater than minimum dimension of the column. Over 2000 Links and other bent bars 20
c 6 mm bars are not readily available in the UK. Any length Straight bars 40

86
 10. Detailing

Figure 15 lr = the greater of the distances (in m) between the centres of the
Lapping of welded fabric columns, frames or walls supporting any two adjacent floor
spans in the direction of the tie under consideration
Fs Fs
Ft = (20 + 4n0) ≤ 60 kN (n0 is the number of storeys)
l0
The maximum spacing of internal ties is 1.5lr.
a) Intermeshed fabric (longitudinal section)

Fs
Fs
Minimum radii and end
l0
projections
b) Layered fabric (longitudinal section)

The minimum radii for bends and length of end projections are given

Tying requirements in Table 12.

Table 12
Minimum scheduling radii and bend allowances
At each floor and roof level an effectively continuous peripheral tie
should be provided within 1.2 m from the edge; this need not be
additional reinforcement. In practice, for most buildings the tie should
≥ 5d
resist a tensile force of 60 kN. An area of reinforcement of 138 mm2 is r P
sufficient to resist this force.

Internal ties should be provided at each floor and roof level in two
Nominal Minimum Mimimum end projection, P
directions approximately at right angles. They should be effectively size of bar, radius for
d (mm) scheduling, General (min 5d Links where bend
continuous throughout their length and should be anchored to the r (mm) straight), including < 150° (min 10d
peripheral ties at each end, unless continuing as horizontal ties to columns links where bend > straight) (mm)
150° (mm)
or walls. The internal ties may, in whole or in part, be spread evenly in
8 16 115a 115a
the slabs or may be grouped at or in beams, walls or other appropriate 10 20 120a 130
positions. In walls they should be within 0.5 m from the top or bottom of 12 24 125a 160
floor slabs. In each direction, internal ties should be capable of resisting a 16 32 130 210
design value of tensile force Ftie,int (in kN per metre width): 20 70 190 290
25 87 240 365
Ftie,int = [(qk + gk)/7.5](lr/5)(Ft) ≥ Ft kN/m
32 112 305 465
where
40 140 580
(qk + gk) = sum of the average permanent and variable floor loads Key
(in kN/m2) a The minimum end projections for smaller bars is governed by the practicalities of
bending bars.

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
2 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary standard to BS EN 206–1. BS1, 2002.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4449: Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete. BSI, 2005.
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 10080: Steel for the reinforcement of concrete – Weldable reinforcing steel – General. BSI, 2005.
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8666: Scheduling, dimensioning, bending and cutting of steel reinforcement for concrete – Specification. BSI, 2005.
6 INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS/CONCRETE SOCIETY. Standard method of detailing structural concrete. ISE/CS, 2006.
7 CONSTRUCT. National structural concrete specification (third edition). BCA, 2004.
8 CONSTRUCT. A guide to contractor detailing of reinforcement in concrete. BCA, 1997.
9 BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Getting started. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
10 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Beams. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
11 MOSS, R M & BROOKER, O. How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2: Slabs. The Concrete Centre, 2006.
12 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical report 62: Self-compacting concrete. CCIP–001. The Concrete Society, 2005.
13 QUEENS PRINTER OF ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations. 1994. QPOAP, 1994.

87
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 13
Anchorage and lap lengths

Bond condition Reinforcement in tension, bar diameter, f (mm) Reinforcement

(see Figure 1) in compression
8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40
Concrete class C20/25
Good 270 370 480 690 910 1180 1500 2040 47f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 380 520 680 990 1290 1680 2150 2920 67f
length, lbd Good 370 470 570 750 940 1180 1500 2040 47f
Other bars
Poor 530 670 810 1080 1340 1680 2150 2920 67f

50% lapped in one Good 370 510 660 970 1270 1640 2100 2860 66f
location (a6 = 1.4) Poor 530 730 950 1380 1810 2350 3000 4080 94f
Lap length,
l0 100% lapped Good 400 550 710 1030 1360 1760 2250 3060 70f
in one location (a6 = 1.5)
Poor 510 790 1010 1480 1940 2320 3220 4370 100f
Concrete class C25/30
Good 230 320 410 600 780 1010 1300 1760 40f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 330 450 580 850 1120 1450 1850 2510 58f
length, lbd Good 320 410 490 650 810 1010 1300 1760 40f
Other bars
Poor 460 580 700 930 1160 1450 1850 2510 58f

50% lapped in one Good 320 440 570 830 1090 1420 1810 2460 57f
location (a6 = 1.4) Poor 460 630 820 1190 1560 2020 2590 3520 81f
Lap length,
l0 Good 340 470 610 890 1170 1520 1940 2640 61f
100% lapped
in one location (a6 = 1.5) Poor 490 680 870 1270 1670 2170 2770 3770 87f
Concrete class C28/35
Good 210 300 380 550 730 940 1200 1630 37f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 300 420 540 790 1030 1340 1720 2330 53f
length, lbd Good 300 380 450 600 750 940 1200 1630 37f
Other bars
Poor 420 540 650 860 1070 1340 1720 2330 53f

50% lapped in one Good 300 410 530 770 1010 1320 1680 2280 52f
location (a6 = 1.4) Poor 420 590 760 1100 1450 1880 2400 3260 75f
Lap length,
l0 Good 320 440 570 830 1090 1410 1800 2450 56f
100% lapped
in one location (a6 = 1.5) Poor 450 630 810 1180 1550 2010 2570 3470 80f
Concrete class C30/37
Good 210 280 360 530 690 900 1150 1560 36f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 290 400 520 750 990 1280 1640 2230 51f
length, lbd Good 290 360 430 580 720 900 1150 1560 36f
Other bars
Poor 410 520 620 820 1030 1280 1640 2230 51f

50% lapped in one Good 290 390 510 740 970 1260 1610 2180 50f
location (a6 = 1.4) Poor 410 560 720 1050 1380 1790 2290 3110 72f
Lap length,
l0 Good 310 420 540 790 1040 1350 1720 2340 54f
100% lapped
in one location (a6 = 1.5) Poor 430 600 780 1130 1480 1920 2460 3340 77f
Concrete class C32/40
Good 200 270 350 510 660 860 1100 1490 34f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 280 380 500 720 950 1230 1570 2130 49f
length, lbd Good 270 350 420 550 690 860 1100 1490 34f
Other bars
Poor 390 490 590 790 980 1230 1570 2130 49f

50% lapped in one Good 270 380 490 710 930 1200 1540 2090 48f
location (a6 = 1.4) Poor 390 540 690 1010 1320 1720 2200 2980 69f
Lap length,
l0 Good 290 400 520 760 990 1290 1650 2240 51f
100% lapped
in one location (a6 = 1.5) Poor 420 570 740 1080 1420 1840 2350 3200 73f

88
 10. Detailing

Bond condition Reinforcement in tension, bar diameter, f (mm) Reinforcement

(see Figure 1) in compression
8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40
Concrete class C35/45
Good 190 260 330 480 630 810 1040 1410 32f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 260 360 470 680 890 1160 1480 2010 46f
length, lbd Good 260 330 390 520 650 810 1040 1410 32f
Other bars
Poor 370 470 560 740 930 1160 1480 2010 46f

50% lapped in one Good 260 360 460 670 870 1130 1450 1970 45f
location (a6 = 1.4) Poor 370 510 650 950 1250 1620 2070 2810 65f
Lap length,
l0 100% lapped Good 280 380 490 710 940 1210 1550 2110 48f
in one location (a6 = 1.5)
Poor 390 540 700 1020 1340 1730 2220 3010 69f
Concrete class C40/50
Good 170 230 300 440 570 740 950 1290 30f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 240 330 430 620 820 1060 1350 1840 42f
length, lbd Good 240 300 360 480 600 740 950 1290 30f
Other bars
Poor 340 430 510 680 850 1060 1350 1840 42f

50% lapped in one Good 240 330 420 610 800 1040 1330 1800 41f
location (a6 = 1.4) Poor 340 460 600 870 1140 1480 1890 2570 59f
Lap length,
l0 Good 250 350 450 650 860 1110 1420 1930 44f
100% lapped
in one location (a6 = 1.5) Poor 360 500 640 930 1220 1590 2030 2760 63f
Concrete class C45/55
Good 160 220 280 400 530 690 880 1190 27f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 220 310 400 580 760 980 1250 1700 39f
length, lbd Good 220 280 330 440 550 690 880 1190 27f
Other bars
Poor 310 390 470 630 780 980 1250 1700 39f

50% lapped in one Good 220 300 390 560 740 960 1230 1670 38f
location (a6 = 1.4) Poor 310 430 550 800 1060 1370 1750 2380 55f
Lap length,
l0 Good 230 320 420 600 790 1030 1310 1780 41f
100% lapped
in one location (a6 = 1.5) Poor 330 460 590 860 1130 1470 1880 2550 58f
Concrete class C50/60
Good 150 200 260 380 490 640 820 1110 25f
Straight bars only
Anchorage Poor 210 290 370 540 700 910 1170 1580 36f
length, lbd Good 220 280 330 440 550 690 880 1190 27f
Other bars
Poor 310 390 470 630 780 980 1250 1700 39f

50% lapped in one Good 220 300 390 560 740 960 1230 1670 38f
location (a6 = 1.4) Poor 310 430 550 800 1060 1370 1750 2380 55f
Lap length,
l0 Good 230 320 420 600 790 1030 1310 1780 41f
100% lapped
in one location (a6 = 1.5) Poor 330 460 590 860 1130 1470 1880 2550 58f
Notes
1 Cover to all sides and distance between bars ≥ 25 mm (i.e. a2 < 1).
2 a1 = a3 = a4 = a5 = 1.0.
3 Design stress has been taken at 435 MPa. Where the design stress in the bar at the position from where the anchorage is measured, ssd, is less than 435 MPa the figures in this
table can be factored by ssd/435. The mimimum lap length id given in cl 8.7.3 of Eurocode 2.
4 The anchorage and lap lengths have been rounded up to the nearest 10 mm.
5 Where 33% of bars are lapped in one location, decrease the lap lengths for '50% lapped in one location' by a factor of 0.82.

89
 10. Detailing

Table 14
Sectional areas of groups of bars (mm2)

Bar size Number of bars

(mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8 50.3 101 151 201 251 302 352 402 452 503
10 78.5 157 236 314 393 471 550 628 707 785
12 113 226 339 452 565 679 792 905 1020 1130
16 201 402 603 804 1010 1210 1410 1610 1810 2010
20 314 628 942 1260 1570 1880 2200 2510 2830 3140
25 491 982 1470 1960 2450 2950 3440 3930 4420 4910
32 804 1610 2410 3220 4020 4830 5630 6430 7240 8040
40 1260 2510 3770 5030 6280 7540 8800 10100 11300 12600

Table 15
Sectional areas per metre width for various spacings of bars (mm2)

Bar size Spacing of bars (mm)

(mm)
75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
8 670 503 402 335 287 251 223 201 183 168
10 1050 785 628 524 449 393 349 314 286 262
12 1510 1130 905 754 646 565 503 452 411 377
16 2680 2010 1610 1340 1150 1010 894 804 731 670
20 4190 3140 2510 2090 1800 1570 1400 1260 1140 1050
25 6540 4910 3930 3270 2800 2450 2180 1960 1780 1640
32 10700 8040 6430 5360 4600 4020 3570 3220 2920 2680
40 16800 12600 10100 8380 7180 6280 5590 5030 4570 4190

Table 16
Mass of groups of bars (kg per metre run)

Bar size Number of bars

(mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8 0.395 0.789 1.184 1.578 1.973 2.368 2.762 3.157 3.551 3.946
10 0.617 1.233 1.850 2.466 3.083 3.699 4.316 4.932 5.549 6.165
12 0.888 1.776 2.663 3.551 4.439 5.327 6.215 7.103 7.990 8.878
16 1.578 3.157 4.735 6.313 7.892 9.470 11.048 12.627 14.205 15.783
20 2.466 4.932 7.398 9.865 12.331 14.797 17.263 19.729 22.195 24.662
25 3.853 7.707 11.560 15.413 19.267 23.120 26.974 30.827 34.680 38.534
32 6.313 12.627 18.940 25.253 31.567 37.880 44.193 50.507 56.820 63.133
40 9.865 19.729 29.594 39.458 49.323 59.188 69.052 78.917 88.781 98.646

Table 17
Mass in kg per square metre for various spacings of bars (kg per m2)

Bar size Spacing of bars (mm)

(mm)
75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
8 5.261 3.946 3.157 2.631 2.255 1.973 1.754 1.578 1.435 1.315
10 8.221 6.165 4.932 4.110 3.523 3.083 2.740 2.466 2.242 2.055
12 11.838 8.878 7.103 5.919 5.073 4.439 3.946 3.551 3.228 2.959
16 21.044 15.783 12.627 10.522 9.019 7.892 7.015 6.313 5.739 5.261
20 32.882 24.662 19.729 16.441 14.092 12.331 10.961 9.865 8.968 8.221
25 51.378 38.534 30.827 25.689 22.019 19.267 17.126 15.413 14.012 12.845
32 84.178 63.133 50.507 42.089 36.076 31.567 28.059 25.253 22.958 21.044
40 131.528 98.646 78.917 65.764 56.369 49.323 43.843 39.458 35.871 32.882

90
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2
11. BS 8500 for building structures
T A Harrison BSc, PhD, CEng, MICE, FICT O Brooker BEng, CEng, MICE, MIStructE

Introduction
BS 8500 Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–11 was revised
in December 2006 principally to reflect changes to Special Digest 12 and bring it
into line with other standards.

The guidelines given in BS 8500 for durability are based on the latest research
and recommends strength, cover, cement content and water/cement ratios for
various exposure conditions.

Concrete design information

Exposure classification
Initially the relevant exposure condition(s) should be identified. In BS 8500
exposure classification is related to the deterioration processes of carbonation,
ingress of chlorides, chemical attack from aggressive ground and freeze/thaw
(see Table 1). All of these deterioration processes are sub-divided. The
recommendations for XD and XS exposure classes are sufficient for exposure
class XC and it is only necessary to check each face of the concrete element
for either XC, XD or XS exposure class.

Selecting concrete strength and cover

Having identified the relevant exposure condition(s), a recommended strength
class and cover should be chosen. Table 2 indicates the minimum cover and
strengths required to meet common exposure conditions for a 50-year working
life; further explanation is given below. Table 2 is not intended to cover all
concrete exposure situations and reference should be made to BS 8500 for
those cases not included, and where a 100-year working life is required.

Compressive strength
BS 8500 uses ‘compressive strength class’ to define concrete strengths; the
notation used gives the cylinder strength as well as the cube strength (see
Table 3). It is important to quote the compressive strength class in full to
avoid confusion.

Cover to reinforcement
The durability guidance given in BS 8500 is based on the assumption that the
minimum cover for durability is achieved. An allowance should be made in the
design for deviations from the minimum cover (Δcdev). This should be added to
the minimum cover to obtain the nominal cover.

Continues page 94

1
91
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 1
Exposure Classes

Class Class description Informative example applicable to the United Kingdom

No risk of corrosion or attack (XO class)
X0 For concrete without reinforcement or Unreinforced concrete surfaces inside structures. Unreinforced concrete completely buried in soil
embedded metal where there is no significant classed as AC-1 and with hydraulic gradiant not greater than 5. Unreinforced concrete permanently
freeze/thaw, abrasion or chemical attack. submerged in non-aggressive water. Unreinforced concrete in cyclic wet and dry conditions not
subject to abrasion, freezing or chemical attack.
NOTE: For reinforced concrete, use at least XC1.

Corrosion induced by carbonation (XC classes) a

(Where concrete containing reinforcement or other embedded metal is exposed to air and moisture.)

XC1 Dry or permanently wet. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces inside enclosed structures except areas of structures
with high humidity. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces permanently submerged in
non-aggressive water.
XC2 Wet, rarely dry. Reinforced and prestressed concrete completely buried in soil classed as AC-1 and with a hydraulic
gradient not greater than 5. For other situations see ‘chemical attack’ section below.
XC3 & Moderate humidity or cyclic wet and dry. External reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces sheltered from, or exposed to, direct rain.
XC4 Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces inside structures with high humidity (e.g. poorly
ventilated, bathrooms, kitchens). Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces exposed to alternate
wetting and drying.

Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from sea water (XD classes) a
(Where concrete containing reinforcement or other embedded metal is subject to contact with water containing chlorides, including de-icing salts,
from sources other than from sea water.)

XD1 Moderate humidity. Concrete surfaces exposed to airborne chlorides. Parts of structures exposed to occasional or slight
chloride conditions.
XD2 Wet, rarely dry. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces totally immersed in water containing chlorides b.
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces directly affected by de-icing salts or spray containing
de-icing salts (e.g. walls; abutments and columns within 10 m of the carriageway; parapet edge
beams and buried structures less than 1 m below carriageway level, pavements and car park slabs).

Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water (XS classes) a

(Where concrete containing reinforcement or other embedded metal is subject to contact with chlorides from sea water or air carrying salt originating from sea water.)

XS1 Exposed to airborne salt but not in direct External reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces in coastal areas.
contact with sea water.
XS2 Permanently submerged. Reinforced and prestressed concrete completely submerged and remaining saturated,
e.g. concrete below mid-tide level b.
XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones. Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces in the upper tidal zones and the splash and
spray zones c.
Freeze/thaw attack (XF classes)
(Where concrete is exposed to significant attack from freeze/thaw cycles whilst wet.)

XF1 Moderate water saturation without Vertical concrete surfaces such as facades and columns exposed to rain and freezing. Non-vertical
de-icing agent. concrete surfaces not highly saturated, but exposed to freezing and to rain or water.
XF2 Moderate water saturation with de-icing agent. Elements such as parts of bridges, which would otherwise be classified as XF1 but which are
exposed to de-icing salts either directly or as spray or run-off.
XF3 High water saturation without de-icing agent. Horizontal concrete surfaces, such as parts of buildings, where water accumulates and which are
exposed to freezing. Elements subjected to frequent splashing with water and exposed to freezing.
XF4 High water saturation with de-icing agent Horizontal concrete surfaces, such as roads and pavements, exposed to freezing and to de-icing
or sea water d. salts either directly or as spray or run-off. Elements subjected to frequent splashing with water
containing de-icing agents and exposed to freezing.
Chemical attack (ACEC classes)
(Where concrete is exposed to chemical attack.) Note: BS 8500-1 refers to ACEC classes rather than XA classes used in BS EN 206-1

Key
a The moisture condition relates to that in the concrete cover to reinforcement or other embedded develop a specification that is appropriate to the actual conditions likely to be encountered.
metal but, in many cases, conditions in the concrete cover can be taken as being that of the
c Exposure XS3 covers a range of conditions. The most extreme conditions are in the spray zone. The
surrounding environment. This might not be the case if there is a barrier between the concrete and
least extreme is in the tidal zone where conditions can be similar to those in XS2. The
its environment.
recommendations given take into account the most extreme UK conditions within this class.
b Reinforced and prestressed concrete elements, where one surface is immersed in water containing
d It is not normally necessary to classify in the XF4 exposure class those parts of structures located in
chlorides and another is exposed to air, are potentially a more severe condition, especially where the
the United Kingdom which are in frequent contact with the sea.
dry side is at a high ambient temperature. Specialist advice should be sought where necessary, to

2
92
 BS 8500 for building structures

Table 2
Selected a recommendations for normal-weight reinforced concrete quality for combined exposure classes and cover to reinforcement for at least a
50-year intended working life and 20 mm maximum aggregate size

Exposure conditions Cement/ Strength classc, maximum w/c ratio, minimum cement or combination
combination content (kg/m3), and equivalent designated concrete (where applicable)
designationsb
Typical example Primary Secondary Nominal cover to reinforcementd
15 + D c dev 20 + D c dev 25 + D c dev 30 + D c dev 35 + D c dev 40 + D c dev 45 + D c dev 50 + D c dev
Internal mass
X0 ___ All Recommended that this exposure is not applied to reinforced concrete
concrete
Internal elements C20/25,
(except humid XC1 ___ All 0.70, 240 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
locations) RC20/25
Buried concrete C25/30,
in AC-1 ground XC2 AC-1 All ___ ___ 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
conditions e RC25/30
Vertical surface C40/50, C30/37, C28/35, C25/30,
protected from ___ All except IVB ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or 0.65, 260 or <<< <<< <<<
direct rainfall RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35 RC25/30
C40/50, C30/37, C28/35,
Exposed vertical
XF1 All except IVB ___ 0.45, 340 or 0.55, 300 0.60, 280 or <<< <<< <<< <<<
surfaces
XC3 RC40/50 or RC30/37 RC28/35
& C40/50,0.45,
XC4 XF3 All except IVB ___ 340 g or <<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <<<
RC40/50XFg
Exposed horizontal
surfaces C28/35, C25/30,
C32/40,
XF3 (air
All except IVB ___ ___ 0.55, 300
0.60, 280 0.60, 280
<<< <<< <<<
entrained) plus air g,h plus air g, h, j
plus air g,h
or PAV2 or PAV1
Elements subject
to airborne XD1f
___ All ___ ___ C40/50, C32/40, C28/35,
<<< <<< <<<
0.45, 360 0.55, 320 0.60, 300
chlorides

IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C28/35,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Car park decks and
areas subject to ___ CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
de-icing spray
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340

IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C35/45, C32/40, C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Vertical elements XD3f
subject to de-icing XF2
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50, C35/45,
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 0.45, 360
spray and freezing
IIIB, IVB-V ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C32/40 C32/40,
0.40, 380 0.45, 360 0.50, 340

Car park decks, XF4

CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<<
ramps and external IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.40, 380 g
areas subject to
freezing and XF4 (air ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ C28/35, C28/35 C28/35,
IIB-V, IIIA, IIIB 0.40, 380g, h 0.45, 360g, h 0.50, 340g, h
de-icing salts entrained)

CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C35/45, C32/40,

<<< <<<
IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340
Exposed vertical
XF1 IIB-V, IIIA ___ ___ ___ See C32/40, C28/35, C25/30,
<<<
surfaces near coast BS 8500 0.45, 360 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
XS1f
IIIB ___ ___ ___ C32/40, C25/30, C25/30, C25/30,
<<<
0.40, 380 0.50, 340 0.50, 340 0.55, 320
Exposed horizontal
XF4
CEM I, IIA, ___ ___ ___ See C40/50,
<<< <<< <<<
surfaces near coast IIB-S, SRPC BS 8500 0.45, 360 g
Key d D c dev is an allowance for deviations. ___ Not recommended
a This table comprises a selection of common exposure class combinations. e For sections less than 140 mm thick refer to BS 8500.
Requirements for other sets of exposure classes, e.g. XD2, XS2 and XS3 should f Also adequate for exposure class XC3/4. <<< Indicates that concrete
be derived from BS 8500-1: 2006, Annex A. g Freeze/thaw resisting aggregates should be specified. quality in cell to the left
b See BS 8500-2,Table 1. (CEM I is Portland cement, IIA to IVB are cement combinations.) h Air entrained concrete is required. should not be reduced
c For prestressed concrete the minimum strength class should be C28/35. j This option may not be suitable for areas subject to
severe abrasion.

3
93
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 3
Eurocode 24 recommends that Δc dev is taken as 10 mm, unless the Compressive strength class for normal and heavyweight concrete
fabrication is subjected to a quality assurance ystem where it is
Example Compressive Designated Previous Grade
permitted to reduce Δc dev to 5 mm, or 0 mm if the element can be strength classes concrete of concrete
rejected if it is out of tolerance (e.g. precast elements). (BS 8500) (BS 8500) (BS 53283 & BS 81105)
C20/25 RC20/25 C25
Cement types and minimum cement content C25/30 RC25/30 C30
Table 4 may be used to understand the cement/combination
C28/35 RC28/35 C35
designations. It should be noted from Table 2 that the strength,
water/cement ratio and minimum cement content may vary depending C30/37 RC30/37 –

on the cement type used. In the UK, all cement/combinations are C32/40 RC32/40 C40
available (except SRPC), although in most concrete production plants C35/45 RC35/45 C45
either ground granulated blastfurnace slag or flyash (pfa) is available; not C40/50 RC40/50 C50
both. When using a designated concrete (see section below), it is not
C45/55 – –
necessary to specify the types of cement/combinations.
C50/60 – C60

Explanation of the compressive strength class notation NOTE: Refer to BS 8500-1: 2006, Table A.20 for full list of Compressive strength classes.

A Includes heavyweight concrete

C
‘C’ for normal
40 /50
Cylinder Cube
B Minimum characteristic 150 mm
diameter by 300 mm cylinder
Table 4
Cement and combination typea

weight strengthB strengthC

strength, N/mm2 Broad Composition Cement/combination
concrete A C Minimum characteristic cube
designationb types (BS 8500)
‘LC’ for strength, N/mm2
CEM I Portland cement CEM I
lightweight
concrete SRPC Sulfate-resisting Portland cement SRPC
IIA Portland cement with 6–20% of fly CEM II/A-L, CEM II/A-LL,
Air content ash, ground granulated blastfurnace CIIA-L, CIIA-LL,
Where air entrainment is required for exposure classes XF3 and XF4 slag, limestone, or 6–10% silica CEM II/A-S, CIIA-S
fumec CEM II/A-V, CIIA-V
the minimum air content by volume of 3.0%, 3.5% or 5.5% should CEM II/A–D
be specified for 40 mm, 20 mm and 10 mm maximum aggregate size
IIB-S Portland cement with 21–35% CEM II/B-S, CIIB-S
respectively. ground granulated blastfurnace slag
IIB-V Portland cement with 25–35% fly ash CEM II/B-V, CIIB-V
Freeze/thaw aggregates
IIB+SR Portland cement with 25–35% fly ash CEM II/B-V+SR,
For exposure conditions XF3 and XF4 freeze/thaw resisting
CIIB-V+SR
aggregates should be specified. The producer is then obliged to
IIIAd, e Portland cement with 36–65% CEM III/A,, CIIIA
conform to the requirements given in BS 8500–2: 2006, Cl.4.3.
ground granulated blastfurnace slag
IIIA+SRe Portland cement with 36–65% CEM III/A+SRf,
Aggressive ground ground granulated blastfurnace slag CIII/A+SRf
Where plain or reinforced concrete is in contact with the ground with additional requirements that
further checks are required to ensure durability. An aggressive enhance sulfate resistance
chemical environment for concrete class (ACEC class) should be IIIBe, g Portland cement with 66–80% CEM III/B, CIIIB
assessed for the site. BRE Special Digest 12 gives guidance on the ground granulated blastfurnace slag
assessment of the ACEC class and this is normally carried out as part IIIB+SRe Portland cement with 66–80% CEM III/B+SRf , CIIIB+SRf
of the interpretive reporting for a ground investigation. Knowing the ground granulated blastfurnace slag
with additional requirements that
ACEC class, a design chemical class (DC class) can be obtained from
enhance sulfate resistance
Table 5.
IVB-V Portland cement with 36–55% fly ash CEM IV/B(V), CIVB
Key
For designated concretes, an appropriate foundation concrete (FND a There are a number of cements and combinations not listed in this table that may be specified for
designation) can be selected using Table 6; the cover should be certain specialist applications. See BRE Special Digest 12. for the sulfate-resisting characteristics of other
cements and combinations.
determined from Table 2 for the applicable exposure classes. A FND b The use of these broad designations is sufficient for most applications. Where a more limited range of
cement or combinations types is required, select from the notations given in BS 8500-2:2006, Table 1.
concrete has the strength class of C25/30, therefore, where a higher c When IIA or IIA-D is specified, CEM I and silica fume may be combined in the concrete mixer using the
strength is required a designed concrete should be specified. For k-value concept; see BS EN 206-1:200, 5.2.5.2.3.
d Where IIIA is specified, IIIA+SR may be used.
designed concretes, the concrete producer should be advised of the e Inclusive of low early strength option (see BS EN 197-4 and the “L” classes in BS 8500-2:2006, Table A.1.).
f “+SR” indicates additional restrictions related to sulfate resistance. See BS 8500-2:2006, Table 1,
DC-class (see section on specification). footnote D.
g Where IIIB is specified, IIIB+SR may be used.

4
94
 BS 8500 for building structures

Table 5
Selection of the DC-class and the number of Addition Protection Fire design
Measures (APMs) where the hydrostatic head of groundwater is not more Having selected concrete cover and strength to meet the durability
than five times the section width a, b, c, d, e recommendations of BS 8500, the nominal cover should be checked
ACEC-class DC-class in accordance with Eurocode 24, for fire cover.
(Aggressive
Chemical Intended working life
Environment for
Concrete cast against uneven surfaces
At least 50 years At least 100 years
Concrete class) The nominal cover (i.e. minimum cover plus fixing tolerance) should
AC-1s, AC-1 DC-1 DC-1 be a minimum of 75 mm for concrete cast directly against the earth
and 50 mm for concrete cast against blinding.
AC-2s, AC-Z DC-2 DC-2

AC-2z DC-2z DC-2z Abrasion

BS 8500 does not contain abrasion classes; instead reference should be
AC-3s DC-3 DC-3
made to BS 8204-26 or Concrete Society Technical Report 347. Table 7
AC-3z DC-3z DC-3z summarises the factors that affect the abrasion resistance of floors.
AC-3 DC-3 Refer to BS 8500

AC-4s

AC-4z
DC-4

DC-4z
DC-4

DC-4z
Specification
AC-4 DC-4 Refer to BS 8500 Method of specifying
There are various methods of specifying concrete to BS 8500
AC-4ms DC-4m DC4m
(see Table 8). The most popular are designated and designed.
AC-4m DC-4m Refer to BS 8500 BS 8500 also introduces a new method ‘proprietary concrete’.
AC-5 DC-4f DC-4f
The specifier
AC-5z DC-4zf DC-4z/1 f
Figures 1 and 2 show standard specification forms produced by the
AC-5m DC-4mf DC-4mf Quarry Products Association for designated and designed concretes8.
Key Similar tables are included in the National Structural Concrete
a Where the hydrostatic head of groundwater is greater than five times the section width, refer to BS 8500. Specification 9 (NSCS). In BS 8500 the ‘specifier’ is the person or body
b For guidance on precast products see Special Digest 12.
responsible for the final compilation of the technical requirements,
c For structural performance outside these values refer to BS 8500.
called the specification, which is passed to the concrete producer.
d For section widths < 140 mm refer to BS 8500.
This will generally be the contractor, however, the designer will want
e Where any surface attack is not acceptable e.g. with friction piles, refer to BS 8500.
f This should include APM3 (surface protection), where practicable, as one of the APMs; refer to BS 8500.
to ensure their requirements are incorporated and this will normally
be through their own specification for the works (e.g. with the
NSCS). Figures 1 and 2 have been annotated to indicate which
Table 6 information is typically provided by the designer and contractor. The
Guidance on selecting designated concrete for reinforced concrete
foundations designer should require that any reported non-conformities are
passed to them for assessment.
DC-Class Appropriate Designated Concrete

DC-1 RC 25/30 Consistence

DC-2 FND2 The term ‘workability’ has been replaced by the term ‘consistence’ and a
series of consistence classes has been introduced. Table 9 gives the
DC-2z FND2z
slump and flow classes and the likely target slump/flow.
DC-3 FND3
DC-3z FND3z Chloride Class
DC-4 FND4 Concrete that is to be prestressed, pre-tensioned or heat cured
DC-4z FND4z should normally be specified as chloride class Cl0,10. Reinforced
concrete should be specified as class Cl0,40 except for concrete
DC-4m FND4m
made with cement conforming to BS 402710 (SRPC), which should be
NOTE
specified as class Cl0,20. Post-tensioned elements in an internal
Strength class for all FND concrete is C25/30.
building environment may also be specifed as class Cl0,10.

Continues page 98

5
95
How to design concrete structures using Eurocode 2

Table 7
Factors affecting the abrasion resistance of concrete floors

Factor Effect
Power floating Power finishing and, in particular, repeated power trowelling is a significant factor in creating abrasion
resistance, however, excessive repetitions of the process do not necessarily further enhance performance.
Curing Prompt and efficient curing is essential in order to retain sufficient water in the surface zone to complete
hydration and the development of concrete strength at and close to the surface.
Cement content Cement content should not be less than 325 kg/m3. Cement contents above 360 kg/m3 are unlikely to
enhance abrasion resistance and excessive cement content can impair the power finishing process.
Water/cement ratio Water/cement ratio is of great importance. It should not exceed 0.55. Reducing to 0.50 is likely to increase
abrasion resistance but lowering further is unlikely to give further enhancement.
Aggregates Coarse aggregate usually has no direct effect on abrasion resistance, except in floors in very aggressive
environments where the surface is expected to be worn away. Coarse and fine aggregates should not contain
soft or friable materials.
Dry shake finishes Dry shake finishes can be used to enhance the surface properties in high abrasion locations.

Figure 1
Example specification of Designated Concrete

Schedule for the specification requirements of designated concretes for use on contract
Contract Title: New Office
Contract period: June - Dec ‘04

BS 8500-1 reference Requirement Schedule

4.2.2a) The concretes below shall be supplied as Designated Concretes in accordance with
this specification and the relevant clauses of BS 8500-2A
4.2.2b) D Concrete designation FND2 z RC25/30 RC32/40 D
4.2.2c) Maximum aggregate size when other –– –– 10
D than 20 mm D
O

4.2.2d) Consistence S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4
(Ring the class required when other than F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5
the default classes of S3 for the GEN, FND
and RC series and S2 for the PAV series. Use
a separate column for different consistence
with the same designated concrete)
C Other (specify) C
4.2.3 C D Additional requirements –– –– –– C D
Exchange of information
3
BS EN 206-1, 7.1 Total volume required 48 m 12003 m3 72 m3 3
3
Anticipated peak delivery rate 6 m /day 18 m /hr 6 m /day
C Any access limitations C
KEY
5.1a) Intended method of placing, Skip + Pumping Skip + D Designer specifies
e.g. pumping, and finishing, e.g. power tamped + float tamped concrete designation,
C floating, the concrete C maximum aggregate
size and any
5.1b) Where identity testing is routine: N/A N/A N/A additional
Type of test requirements
Volume of concrete in assessment
Number of tests on this volume Contractor specifies
C
Whether a non-accredited laboratory consistence, any
additional
C will be used C
requirements and
5.1 & BS EN 206-1, 7.1 Other information from the specifier –– –– –– completes exchange
C to the producer C of information
section
5.2 & BS EN 206-1, 7.2 Information required from –– –– ––
C the producer C Red text
Example
A There is no need to cite BS EN 206-1 as BS 8500-2 has a clause that requires conformity to BS EN 206-1. specification

6
96
 BS 8500 for building structures

Table 8
Methods of specifying concrete

BS 8500 BS 5328 (superseded by BS 8500 1 Dec 2003)

Designated concrete Designated mix
Designed concrete Designed mix
Prescribed concrete Prescribed mix
Standardized prescribed concrete Standard mix
Proprietary concrete No equivalent

Figure 2
Example specification of Designed Concrete

Schedule for the specification requirements of designed concretes for use on contract
Contract Title: New Office
Contract period: June - Dec ‘04
BS 8500-1 Requirement Schedule
reference
4.3.2a) The concretes below shall be supplied as designed concretes in accordance with this specification
and the relevant clauses of BS 8500-2A
D Concrete reference, if any Pads Slab Cols D
4.3.2b) D Compressive strength class C28/35 C25/30 C32/40 D
4.3.2c) For sulfate resisting concrete, design chemical class DC-2z DC- DC- DC-
D D
For other concretes, limiting values of composition: 0.70 0.55
Maximum w/c ratio
D Minimum cement/combination content, kg/m3 240 300 D
4.3.2d) & Cement or combination types CEM 1, SRPC, CEM 1, SRPC, CEM 1, SRPC, CEM 1, SRPC,
4.3.3a) (delete those not permitted) IIA, IIB IIA, IIB IIA, IIB IIA, IIB

D
Other special property, e.g. white, low heat, +SR
(specify)
IIIA, IIIB, IVB xx
IIIA, IIIB, IVB xx
IIIA, IIIB, IVB IIIA, IIIB, IVB
D
4.3.2e) D Maximum aggregate size, mm 20 20 10 D KEY
4.3.2f) Chloride class (ring the one required) Cl 0,10 Cl 0,10 Cl 0,10 Cl 0,10 D Designer specifies
O

Prestressed or heat cured reinforced concrete RC RC RC RC compressive strength

Reinforced B Cl 1,0 Cl 1,0 Cl 1,0 Cl 1,0 class, design chemical
D Unreinforced with no embedded metal D class, maximum
4.3.2g) & h) For lightweight and heavyweight concrete, water/cement ratio,
D target density D minimum cement
O

O
O

content, cement or
4.3.2i) Consistence (Ring the class required. S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4 S1, S2, S3, S4
Use separate columns for the same basic F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 F2, F3, F4, F5 combination types
concretes with different consistence) (unless design
C D Other (specify) C D chemical class is
specified), maximum
4.3.2 UKAS or equivalent accredited third party product Yes Yes Yes Yes aggregate size,
Note 2 D conformity certification (delete if not required) D
chloride class, target
4.3.3b) Additional requirements density (excluding
to n) C D C D normal weight
Exchange of information concrete),
3 requirement for
BS EN Volume required 48 m 1200 m3 72 m3 third party product
206-1, 7.1
C
Anticipated peak delivery rate 6 m3/day 18 m3/hr 6 m3/day C conformity
Any access limitations
certification
5.1a) Intended method of placing, e.g. pumping, and Skip + Pumping Skip + (recommended)
C finishing, e.g. power floating, the concrete tamped + float tamped C and any additional
5.1b) Where identity testing is routine: requirements
Type of test
N/A N/A N/A
Volume of concrete in assessment C Contractor specifies
Number of tests on this volume consistence,
C Whether a non-accredited laboratory will be used C any additional
requirements and
5.1 & BS EN Other information from the specifier to the –– –– –– completes exchange
206-1,7.1 C producer C
of information
5.2 & BS EN Information required from the producer –– –– –– section
206-1, 7.2 C C
A There is no need to cite BS EN 206-1 as BS 8500-2 has a clause that requires conformity to BS EN 206-1.
Red text
Example
B Where RC is ringed, the chloride class shall be Cl 0.40 except where SRPC is used. In this case the chloride class shall be Cl 0,20. Specification

7
97
 BS 8500 for building structures

Table 9a
Consistence slump classes and likely target values Conformity
Under BS 8500, the concrete producer is now required to follow a
Slump class Target slump (mm)
formal procedure called ‘conformity’ to verify that the concrete is in
S1 20 accordance with the specification. It is, therefore, recommended
S2 70 that the concrete supplier should have third party certification.
S3 130 Where this is not adopted, the specifier is advised to adopt
adequate identity testing to ensure the concrete is as specified.
S4 190

Identity testing
The specifier is responsible for organising any identity testing, which
Table 9b is in all but in name acceptance testing. Identity testing can include
Consistence flow classes and likely target values strength, consistence and air content. There are a number of
Flow class Target flow (mm) situations where it is recommended:
■ where the producer does not hold third party certification
F2 380
■ in cases of doubt
F3 450
■ for critical elements, e.g. high strength columns
F4 520 ■ for spot checks on the producer.
F5 590
Exchange of information
To enable the concrete producer to design and produce a suitable
concrete, certain information must be provided in addition to the
specification, e.g. where the concrete needs to be pumped or a high
quality finish is required.

References
1 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206–1. BS1, 2006.
2 BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. BRE Special Digest 1 – Concrete in aggressive ground (3rd edition). BRE, 2005.
3 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5328: Concrete, BSI. (Withdrawn by BSI on 1 December 2003).
4 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. BSI (4 parts).
5 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110-1: The structural use of concrete – Part 1: Code of practice for design and construction. BSI, 1997.
6 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8204-2: Screeds, bases and in-situ floorings, Part 2: Concrete wearing surfaces – Code of practice. BSI, 1999.
7 THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Technical report 34: Concrete industrial ground floors. The Concrete Society, 2003.
8 QUARRY PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION. Visit the Webpage www.qpa.org/pro_rea.
9 CONSTRUCT. National structural concrete specification for building construction. Construct, 2004.
10 BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 4027: Specification for sulfate–resisting Portland cement. BSI, 1996.

98
Members of the Steering Group
John Mason Alan Baxter & Associates (Chairman)
Stuart Alexander WSP Group plc
Pal Chana British Cement Association
Charles Goodchild The Concrete Centre
Tony Jones Arup
Andy Lyle NRM Consultants
Richard Moss Formerly of Powell Tolner Associates
Nary Narayanan Clark Smith Partnership
Richard Shipman DCLG
Robert Vollum Imperial College, University of London
Russ Wolstenholme WS Atkins & DTI Project Officer
Rod Webster Concrete Innovation and Design

Members of the Concrete Industry Eurocode 2 Group (CIEG)

John Moore Consultant (Chairman)
Clive Budge British Precast Concrete Federation
Pal Chana British Cement Association
John Clarke The Concrete Society
Colin Cleverly Construct
Charles Goodchild The Concrete Centre
Haig Gulvanessian BRE
Geoff Harding DCLG
Tom Harrison Quarry Products Association
Tony Jones Arup
John Mason Alan Baxter & Associates
Richard Moss Formerly of Powell Tolner Associates
Nary Narayanan Clark Smith Partnership
Richard Shipman DCLG
Martin Southcott Consultant
Russ Wolstenholme W S Atkins
Rod Webster Concrete Innovation and Design
 CI/Sfb

UDC
624.012.4.001.63

How to Design Concrete Structures using Eurocode 2

This publication brings together in one place “How to...” Dr Andrew Bond is a UK delegate on the CEN/TC 250/SC7
guidance for the design, specification and detailing of a broad committee responsible for Eurocode 7, the geotechnical Eurocode,
range of concrete elements. and is the ICE’s representative on the National Strategy Committee
for implementation of Eurocodes.
This publication take the practising engineer through the process of
designing to Eurocode 2 and includes commentary, flow charts, data Owen Brooker is Senior Structural Engineer for The Concrete Centre
tables and design aids to enable designers to apply Eurocode 2 quickly where he promotes efficient concrete design through guidance
and confidently to the design of concrete structures. documents, presentations and the national helpline.

Andrew Harris is a former Associate Dean of Kingston University

and has prepared publications and gives presentations on Eurocode 7,
the geotechnical Eurocode.

Prof Tom Harrison is chairman of the BSI concrete committee. He

is technical consultant to the QPA–BRMCA and a visiting industrial
professor at the University of Dundee.

Dr Richard Moss is formerly of Building Research Establishment and

is author of a number of their technical publications.

Prof R S Narayanan in past Chairman of CEN/TC 250/SC2, the

committee responsible for structural Eurocodes on concrete. He is
consultant to Clark Smith Partnership.

Rod Webster of Concrete Innovation and Design is an expert in the

design of tall concrete buildings and in advanced analytical methods.

CCIP-006
Published December 2006
ISBN 1-984818-47-1
Price Group P
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