IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

3.1 Hydrogen Spectrum

Light is electromagnetic radiation that can be
produced at different energy levels.
High energy light has a short wavelength () and
a high frequency (, ) (gamma rays, x-rays,
ultraviolet). Low energy light has a long
wavelength and a low frequency (infrared, radio
waves).
These levels come in a spectrum of wavelengths
and frequencies.
c = ,
c = speed of light
Light emitted from a hot object has light at many
different frequencies (depending of the motion
of the atoms in the object).
Light that has all the frequencies forms a continuous
spectrum (all colours no gaps).
It was found that light from an electrically excited atom did
not form a continuous spectrum. It emitted a line spectrum.
These lines are caused by the energy absorbed or emitted by
an electron in an atom.
An electron moving towards the nucleus emits
energy (light), and electron moving away from
the nucleus absorbs energy (light).
The energies of these lines are specific to atoms and compounds.
(This is how atoms in stars can be identified.)
The energy is proportional to the frequency of the light

E = hf
Neils Bohr suggested that the specific energies could be explained
if the electrons could only move to specific orbits around the atom
and that these orbits had specific energies.
This is the basis of the Bohr Model of the atom: First level can
hold 2 electrons, the second and third levels can hold 8 electrons.
(This model will become more complex)
The transitions from 6-2, 5-2, 4-2, 3-2 happen to be in the visible
spectrum.
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IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

The energy levels begin to converge as they get farther from the
nucleus.
An electron that falls from level 3 to level 1 will release a specific
energy light (red)
3 to 1 will be slightly more energy, (blue)
4 to 1 will be slightly more energy, (violet)
5 to 1 will be slightly more energy, (violet)
6 to 1 will be slightly more, (near UV)
7 to 1 and higher begin to converge.
3.1 Hydrogen Spectrum
Here is a partial spectrum of hydrogen:
There will be one set of converging lines for level 1.
There will be a different set of lines for the drop to each level.
Changes between the higher levels of the hydrogen atom have very
low energies.
If an electron is given enough energy to go above the top level, it
will leave the atom, forming an ion.
Follow Up Problems 7.1, 2
Problems 7.1, 2, 11, 18, 19a, 20, 22

IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

3.2 Electrons Around Atoms
Simplified Bohr Model:
Electrons are in orbitals (shells) around the nucleus.
First orbital can hold 2 electrons
Second and third hold 8, fourth can hold 18.
Bohr diagrams show the electrons:
A more sophisticated model depends on quantum mechanics,
primarily electrons behave like waves.
To orbit the nucleus the electron must establish a standing wave.

Standing waves can only exist in whole number steps.

In an atom, the different standing waves form different orbitals.
Here is a simple representation of the fifth harmonic around an
atom. (top)
The four and a half harmonic will cancel itself out. Electrons are
not in the business of spontaneously disappearing.
In a 3 dimensional atom, the actual shapes of the standing waves
are quite complicated. As the waves get to higher harmonics, there
are more possible shapes for the standing wave.

For the first level of the atom (n = 1), the shape of the orbital
(shell) is a sphere. The letter s is used to designate this orbital.

IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

The second shell has a spherical orbital and three orbitals that have
a dumbbell shape.
They are designated 2s, 2px, 2py, and 2pz.
You need to know the shapes of these orbitals.

The third orbitals has 3s, 3p, and 3d shapes.

There is also a 4f set:

IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

Each sub-orbital can hold two electrons.
The 1s can hold 2 electrons
The 2s can hold 2 electrons, and the 2p can hold 6 electrons (two
in each of px, py, pz).
As orbitals get farther from the nucleus, they have a higher energy.
The Aufbau principle shows us the order to fill the orbitals.
The principle is that the lowest energy orbitals are filled first.
Aufbau is German for build up.
The energy levels of the different orbitals are given in the chart
below. This is a complicated chart, but the order can be found on
the periodic table.

The order of filling these orbitals is given on the periodic table.

Electrons are placed in the lowest orbitals first. Once they are full,
then the next level is filled.
Electrons behave like magnets. If two electrons are in the same
sub-orbital one is placed spin up the other spin down.
If three electrons are placed in the 2p orbitals, 1 is placed in each
of px, py, and pz. All are placed in the same direction. (Hunds
Rule). The notation is 2p3

IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

Ex 1:
Sketch the electron diagram and write the notation for:
a) Li

b) O

c) Cl-

d) Fe

e) Sn2+

Now use shorthand for d) and e)

The lowest energy arrangement of electrons will be the most

stable.
Notice the energy increase after each of the noble gasses.
A filled sub-orbital is more stable than a partially filled sub-orbital.
To add electrons to a noble gas would cause a great increase in
energy.
This is why noble gasses are stable.
Two exceptions to note are the ground states of chromium and
copper.
Cr is 4s13d5.
Cu is 4s13d10.
When an orbital is full or half full it gains some stability. Taking
one electron from the 4s makes the 3d full or half full. Overall the
atom is more stable this way.

Follow Up Problems 8.2

Problems 8.23, 27, 31, 35, 37, 39, 82 (no paramagnetism)

IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

3.3 Periodic table Properties Physical
The properties we will examine are based on three principles (in
general order of importance):
1. Electrons in large orbits are farther from the nucleus and
experience less attraction.
2. More protons means more attraction.
3. Electrons in the same sub-orbital repel each other.
These factors repeat periodically as one moves along the periodic
table. That is why the properties of elements also repeat
periodically.
Atomic size is a measure of the radius of the outer electrons in an
atom.
A trend is a general relationship that can have many exceptions.
Each family (column) increases in size
(larger orbital).
Across each period, the size decreases
from left to right because the number
of protons is increasing (more
attraction to the nucleus).
There is also a notable jump in size for
the start of the 4p and 5p orbitals.
(Further down the table, the increase in
protons has a smaller affect.)
Ionic radii is also related to orbital size
and number of protons.
We will compare a set of ions that are
isoelectric:
N3-, O2-, F-, Ne, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+
These ions are all 1s22s23p6.
What other ions combinations are isoelectric?
The difference between these species is the number of protons.
More protons means stronger attraction and a smaller radii.
These values are all given on p. 7 of your data booklet. You
will be asked to explain why these trends are present, not what
the trends are.

IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

Ionization energy is the
energy needed to remove
an electron from an atom.
First ionization energy is
the energy required to
remove the first electron
from an atom.
This property is directly
related to the attraction of
the electrons to the nucleus.
The trend should follow the
same trend as the atomic
size.
What accounts for the variations in the trend between Li and Ne
and between Na and Ar?
Successive ionization energies (to remove more than one electron)
also show evidence of periodic changes in electron configuration.
The energy to remove another electron is always higher than the
previous, be the increase in energy in not uniform.
Explain the jumps after 2, 10, and 18 electrons.

IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

Electronegativity is a
measure of the attraction an
atom has for a shared
electron.
This value will have the
same trend as ionization
energy.

Electronegativity helps identify metals and non-metals. Metals

generally form positive ions, and non-metals form negative ions.
Semi-metals can form positive and negative ions.
Metallic character is not a binary choice, it is a continuum.
Metallic character is highest on the bottom left of the periodic
table, and weakest (most non-metallic) on the top right of the table.

Follow Up Problems 8.3, 4, 5, 8

Problems 8. 46, 48, 53, 55, 57, 59, 86
9.52, 57, 59

IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

3.4 Periodic table Properties Chemical

Chemical properties provided the original clues to the periodic
nature of the modern Periodic Table.
Reactions involve the breaking and forming of bonds; this involves
the electronic configuration of the valence (outer) electrons.
Atoms that have similar electronic configurations (vertical
families) will have similar chemical properties.
The primary driver of many of the properties of elements is
stability due to low potential energy.
Atoms form ions to lower their energy (by filling, or partially
filling, an outer shell of electrons).
Atoms form ionic and covalent bonds to lower their potential
energy.
Group 1 alkali metals (family)
These atoms all have one electron in the s orbital.
To achieve a full outer shell, the atoms need to lose 1 electron
(become a +1 ion).
All the atoms in this family react similarly because they all will
give one electron to become more stable.
Alkali metals will react with water to give away an electron:
Li(s) + H2O(l) Li+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H2(g)
Na(s) + H2O(l) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H2(g)
K(s) + H2O(l) K+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H2(g)
This reaction will become more exothermic moving down the
periodic table; less attraction for electrons means the electron will
be given away easier.
Halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, generically X2) need one electron to fill
their outer shell.
Halogens will react violenty with the alkali ions, for example:
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2 NaCl(s)
Which combination of alkali metal and halogen should react most
violently? Why?

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IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

Halogens can be recognized by the precipitate they form with
silver ions:
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) AgBr(s)
Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) AgI(s)
Halogens can also remove electrons from each other. Why do the
following occur?
Cl2(aq) + 2 Br (aq) 2 Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
Cl2(aq) + 2 I (aq) 2 Cl-(aq) + I2(aq)
Br2(aq) + 2 I (aq) 2 Br -(aq) + I2(aq)
Across a period of the table (Na to Ar) there is a general trend from
metallic elements to nonmetallic elements.
This can be seen in the bonding of compounds across the table. A
metal and a nonmetal form an ionic bond. Two nonmetals form a
covalent bond.
However, just as metallic nature is a continuum, ionic and covalent
bonding does not have a clear separation.
To determine ionic or covalent nature, compare the
electronegativity of the elements in the bond. An
arbitrary dividing line is a difference of 1.7 (less than
1.7 is considered polar-covalent)
Examining oxides and chlorides of the third period,
describe the ionic or covalent nature of the bonds.
Are these trends supported by the properties?
Ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten form (mobile ions)
Ionic compounds usually have a higher melting point than covalent
compounds.
For the reactions of these oxides and chlorides:
Ionic oxides form basic solutions, covalent oxides for acidic
solutions (revisited in later units)
Ionic chlorides are very soluble in water
Covalent chlorides react slightly with water.
Now, you need to be able to explain these trend. Later you will be
expected to remember these reactions.
Problems 14.7, 11, 17, 29, 48, 52, 54, 113

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IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

3.5 Transition Metals

The transition metals are the groups of elements that are filling the
d orbital.
We will examine the elements filling the 3d orbital.
These elements have unique properties because of their d orbital.
Scandium (Sc) and Zinc (Zn) are atypical of this group because Sc
has only 1 electron in the d orbital, and Zn has a full d orbital.
Ex 1:
Write the electronic configuration for each element in the 3d
transition element period.

Atoms form ions because the ions electronic configuration is more

stable (lower energy) than the atoms.
All these elements can form a +2 ions by losing both of the 4s2
electrons.
What other ions could these elements be expected to form? (Refer
to electron diagrams above.)
A half full d orbital is also stable.
Because transition metals can have various and variable charges,
they are often good catalysts.
Iron in the Haber process
Vanadium(V) oxide in the production of sulfuric acid
(contact process)
Nickel in the hydrogenation process
Manganese(IV)oxide in the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide.

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IB Chemistry 3 Atomic Theory

Transition metals also form colourful complex ions.
A complex ion is formed with ligands. A ligand is a compound
with a pair of electrons that forms a weak covalent bond with the
small transition metal ion. Both electrons in the bond come from
one atom. It is called a coordinate covalent bond.
The ligands can be arranged in
many different ways
depending on the size and
number of the ligands.
Different ligands and different
arrangements produce
different properties.

These complexes are often very colourful.

They are colourful because there are electron
orbitals that are in the energy range that
absorbs visible light.
Some of the ligands are close to a d orbital.
That orbital gains energy. The d orbitals are
no longer degenerate. The new energy level
change often corresponds to the energy of
visible light.

Follow Up Problems 23.1, 5

Problems 23.4, 14, 16, 18
Be able to explain why colours form for complex transition metal
ions.

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This shows a complex ion

with 6 ligands.