GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Globally, whilst urbanization is a complex phenomenon that provides opportunities and benefits for
countries, it is as well accompanied by problems of social, economic and environmental nature.
These problems, and many others, constitute obstacles to the socio-economic development of
countries and therefore hinder improvements in the lives of their populations.
Ghana, as a developing nation in relation to these urban challenges is not an exception. In line with
this, Songsore (2004:5) observes that in virtually every urban centre in Ghana, from regional
capitals to district centers and small towns, many people live in neighbourhoods with little or no
provision of infrastructure, services and facilities that are essential to good health. In the trajectory
of the sustainable urban management in Ghana, sustainable solid waste management is a major
intractable urban environmental problem that confronting stakeholders.
Even though solid waste management (SWM) concerns have attained priority among governments
and non-governmental development agencies in the developing world, Oteng-Ababio (2010) notes
that the approaches and interventions generated often tend to be inclined towards short term
removal of waste from residential areas with less emphasis on effective disposal to ensure
environmental sustainability. Efforts towards reducing waste flows and exploiting its economic
value are less prioritized. In a similar stance, Zerbock (2003) posits that although most developing
countries do spend about 20 to 40 per cent of metropolitan revenues on waste management, they are
unable to keep pace with the scope of the problem. Consequently, most of the urban landscape is
characterized by open spaces and roadsides littered with refuse; drainage channels and gutters
choked with waste; open reservoirs that appear to be little more than toxic pools of solid and liquid
waste; and beaches strewn with plastic garbage. The insidious social and health impact of this
neglect is greatest among the poor, particularly those living in the low-income settlements ( OtengAbabio 2010).
Apart from the unsightliness of waste in the environment, the public health implications have been
daunting. Data from the Ghana Health Service indicate that six (6) out of the top ten (10) diseases in
Ghana are related to poor environmental sanitation with malaria, diarrhea and typhoid fever jointly
1

constituting 70% to 85% of out- patient cases at health facilities (MLGRD 2010).
The situation from personal observation, in the Wa Municipality is a growing on which needs adequate
attention in order to combat its growing negative effects.
Problem Statement
The concentration of population and business activities in Ghanaian cities is being accompanied by
a direct increase in the volume of solid waste generated from production and consumption
activities. Solid waste management in the Wa Municipality has become a significant challenge to
municipal authorities and households alike. Choked gutters, overflowing waste containers, littered
polythene bags and open defecation are common scenes in almost all communities in the
Municipality. Against this situation of mounting waste generation and littering in the Municipality,
adequate collection and safe disposal of solid waste remains a challenge to the Municipal Waste
Management Department (WMD) and Zoomlion Ghana Ltd, which are currently the two agencies
responsible for waste management in the Municipality. This worsening solid waste situation proves
to be harmful and threatens public health and the environment. Statistics provided by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) show that, the Wa Municipal Assembly (WMA) which is
largely responsible for solid waste disposal in the Municipality is only able to collect about 70
percent of solid waste generated within the Municipality (EPA, 2010). As a result of poor planning
of housing in the Municipality, it becomes very hard for waste management institutions to locate
and collect domestic waste from the numerous dumpsites of every household in most of the
communities as skips are absent in most areas of the Municipality. However, in areas with skips, the
poor disposal attitude of residents and irregular collection results in littering around waste
collection containers which eventually get blown to different areas. In a similar vein, Sule (1981)
notes that main cause of the problem of poor environmental conditions can be ascribed to the lack
of seriousness in the enforcement of solid waste disposal code. This is very pertinent in Ghana
where the enforcement of the solid waste disposal code is not effective at the local levels.Unsightly
scenes of heaped decomposed and semi-decomposed solid wastes pollute the environment and
produce offensive odour. Songsore (1992) identified the outbreak of diseases as one of the
problems associated with improper solid waste disposal. He argues that the danger with open
dumpsites comes from the spread of diseases-usually carried by rodents and bugs. An example of
this is malaria, which festers in open areas with standing water and particularly hot temperatures.
2

Showing improper disposal and irregular collection of waste in a section of the WMA

Objectives of the Study

The main aim of the study is to examine the factors affecting effective solid waste management in
the Municipality as well as the health impacts of the problem and suggest possible measures to
tackle it sustainably. Specifically, the research aims at achieving the following objectives.

To outline the methods employed in solid waste management in the Wa Municipality

To identify the factors contributing to poor solid waste management in the Municipality
To assess the health implications of the poor solid waste management situation.
To make recommendations for improving solid waste management in the Municipality

Scope of Study:
The study area covered is WMA in the Upper West Region of Ghana. To give a better representation
of all other areas in the study and to ensure effective investigation of the problem the study covered
major parts of the Regional capital Wa, thus Zongo, Wapaani, and SSNIT as well as some
communities outside Wa including Bamahu, Charia and Tiegbere. The study focused on households
as a major proportion of solid waste generated in the Municipality comes from domestic activities.
The communities considered for the study in the WMA are depicted in the map below.

Map of WMA showing the communities of study.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The time waste was just some kind of leftover that had to be disposed of is long gone. With the
realization that our resources are not inexhaustible came the awareness that our waste offers
economic opportunities that have to be taken advantage of. While the recycling goal for some
products containing glass, metal, etc. is clear, it is important to point out that even the garbage we
put outside can be used to make electricity or can be used in other useful products. While
emphasizing the durability of waste, we have to think about running the waste cycle efficiently too.
Waste management is more than just collecting waste. It is the collection, transport, processing,
recycling, disposal and monitoring of waste materials. Numerous factors, such as environmental,
economic, technical, legislational, institutional and political issues, have to be taken into
consideration. Several important decisions have to be made. Amongst them is the opening of a new
facility as available locations are becoming increasingly more scarce, or the expansion of a current
facility. Secondly, we have to allocate trucks to certain disposal facilities. Thirdly, we need to
develop efficient routes. Naturally, collection is the most important and costly aspect of the cycle
because of the labor intensity of the work and the massive use of trucks in the collection process.
According to Clark and Gillean 1 [1] and Or and Curi [2], the collection activity accounts for
approximately 80 % of all costs associated with waste disposal. Consequently, this paper gives a
review of the available literature on waste management problems with a special focus on the
collection of municipal solid waste. Literature about facility location and truck allocation are
included as well to point the reader to the importance of these issues. In the past, solid waste
collection was carried out without analyzing demand and the construction of the routes was left
over to the drivers. Cities, however, continue to expand. Because of this ongoing urbanization, the
importance of an efficient collection system only increases. Optimally, there should be a method
that tries to maximize the general acceptance of a solution. However, as this is hard to realize,
different methods have been developed that focus on route length, costs, number of collection
vehicles, etc. In essence, the collection of waste is a Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP). This means
that a solution has to be sought for servicing a number of customers with a fleet of vehicles.
Generally, different types of models can be applied to solve the optimal routing problem: namely,
linear programming, hierarchical methods and several heuristics. A vehicle routing problem
typically consists of a set of vehicles, stops and a depot. A vehicle starts from the depot, visits a
6

number of stops and ends at the depot. Depending on the complexity of the problem one can add
different characteristics such as different types of vehicles, number of disposal facilities (single or
multiple), various types of constraints, etc. The routing of one vehicle for a given set of stops often
reduces to a Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP) or a Chinese Postman Problem (CPP). TSP
belongs to the class of NP-hard problems, while CPP, can be solved in polynomial time. The
addition of capacity constraints, however, turns the CPP in a capacitated-CPP, which is NP-hard too
[3]. As NP-hard problems are difficult to solve, many papers rely on heuristics to solve this type of
problem. Some authors choose to simplify their assumptions, thereby reducing the computation
time needed to solve the problem. The TSP and CPP are explained in more detail in section 3. The
purpose of this paper is to guide the reader through the available literature on waste management
problems. The different classifications in this review make it possible to select the papers of
interest. If one is, for example, interested in a solution for a problem with various types of vehicles
and several disposal facilities, a manuscript paperthat fits this description can be easily found

Whilst the attempt for interventions to the problem of solid waste management has been on the
global agenda for centuries with efforts from international organizations, non-governmental
institutions, and scholars across various disciplines, most countries especially developing nations
are increasingly saddled with improper solid waste management. This chapter therefore explores
literature on solid waste management. It examines key concepts, methods and problems of waste
management. A conclusion of the key lessons learnt from the review is as well presented.

Waste
7

Despite the wide range contribution to the discourse of waste management from various authors
over time, a definite definition of the term is quite rare in literature on the topic. As noted by Palmer
(2005: online) the term is frequently left as an undefined primitive in spite of its critical
importance and frequently, a list of types of waste is substituted for the underlying definition.
However, Gilpin (1996) provides an elaborate definition of the term waste. According to him, the
concept of waste embraces all unwanted and economically unusable byproducts or residuals at any
given place and time, and any other matter that may be discarded accidentally or otherwise into the
environment (Gilpin, 1996:228). Gilpin further notes that what constitutes waste must occur in
such a volume and concentration as to cause a significant alteration in the environment. Thus,
apart from waste being an unwanted substance that is discarded, the amount of it and the impact it
makes on the environment also become important considerations in defining waste. Davies (2008:5)
further notes that what some people consider as waste material or substance is considered a source
of value by others. To him, just as a material becomes a resource when it gains use-value, it also
becomes waste when it loses its use-value.
Solid Waste
In the literature of waste management, several contributions have been offered to define solid
waste. Tchobanoglous et al; ( 1993) defines solid waste as any tangible material that arises from
human and animal activity and are often discarded as useless or unwanted.
From the above solid waste can be conveniently said to be any tangible material that arises from
human or animal activity that has no use value to human life.

Classification of Solid Waste

Just as the term waste defies a definite definition, solid waste has been classified differently into
various categories. Solid waste is often classified based on various criteria including its source,
material composition, physical state, as well as the level of danger it presents.
In the literature, the material composition of waste is also a commonly used criterion in solid waste
classification. With the material composition criteria, waste is commonly classified into plastic,
organic, paper and cardboard, glass, ceramics, textiles and metal waste. The Surrey County, UK in
2003/2003 in an analysis of household waste streams outlined the major waste classes as paper,
plastic film, dense plastics, textiles, miscellaneous combustibles, glass, ferrous metal, garden waste
and food waste.
Waste can also be classified by whether it is biodegradable or non-biodegradable. Biodegradable
waste typically originates from plant or animal sources and can easily be broken down by bacterial
action or by other living organisms and so has a relatively short lifespan in the environment. This
type of waste is commonly found in municipal solid waste as food waste, yard waste and paper.

Constraints and problems of solid waste management in urban areas

Despite the importance of adequate solid waste management to the urban environment, the
performance of many city authorities in this respect leaves much to be desired. According to
Malombe (1993), irregular services rendered to producers of refuse by municipal councils compel
them to find ways of disposing of refuse. He observed that the main methods adopted by the
producers are burning, composting, or indiscriminate dumping. This is very pertinent in Ghana
where waste management services are largely inefficient and ineffective. It is estimated that about
83% of the population dump their refuse in either authorised or unauthorised sites in their
neighbourhood, and due to weak capacity to handle solid waste, unsanitary conditions are created
(Benneh et al, 1993).
Although these weaknesses have been attributed to lack of logistics and financial management,
peoples attitudes towards waste management should not be ignored (Nze 1978). He outlined
several factors, which have conspired to promote the massive build up of urban garbage and waste.
Nze (1978) noted that they resulted from inadequate and deficient infrastructure, inadequate
structures for environmental administration, lopsided planning pastures and disregard for basic
aesthetics, industrial and commercial growth, and other human factors. According to him, urban
wastes in Nigeria are regarded as non resources having at best a nuisance value and therefore not
surprising that an equally negative posture has been adopted in managing wastes from urban
concentrations in the country.
Navez-Bounchaire (1993), stated that the management of household refuse is tied to perceptions
and socio-cultural practices which result in modes of appropriation of space which are greatly
differenced according to whether the space is private or public. This is relevant to the study, because
the area has diverse socio-cultural practices, as the population is heterogeneous.
To Sule (1981), the main cause of the problem of Nigerian citys poor environmental condition can
be ascribed to improper management of solid wastes and the lack of seriousness in the enforcement
10

of solid waste disposal code. This is very pertinent in Ghana where the enforcement of the solid
waste disposal code is not effective at the local levels.
Karley (1993), in an article entitled, Solid Waste and Pollution, in the Daily Graphic (October 9,
1993) identified the main problem facing Ghana as the lack of suitable sites for disposal of solid
waste, of which we attribute to the failure of social and economic development to keep pace with
the natural population increase and rural-urban migration.
Benneh et al. (1993) observed that residential domestic waste forms the bulk of all sources of solid
waste produced in urban areas. These household wastes are known to have high densities with high
moisture content and the organic component of solid wastes, which properly accounts for about
70% to 90%, while tins, cans and paper are probably responsible for about 5% to 10% of the total
waste produced. They further argued that because the capacity to handle all of the household waste
generated is still weak, about 83% of the population dump refuse in either authorised or
unauthorised sites in their neighbourhood which creates unsanitary conditions. They also argued
that insufficient communal facilities can lead to open defecation along beaches, drains, and open
spaces and the tendency for faecal materials to become intermixed with household refuse. This view
expressed by Benneh et al. (1993) is relevant to the study because areas like Wapaani, Zongo,
Charia, and Bamahu are densely populated and are low-income areas. They are also not served with
adequate sanitary facilities. These inadequacies lead to indiscriminate disposal of refuse into drains,
gutters, and waterways, and to open defecation in these areas. Benneh et al. proposed the
involvement of local groups in solid waste management side by side the operations of governmental
agencies.
Environmental and health implications of improper solid waste disposal
When solid waste from food remnants and other materials is not discarded properly it can pose farreaching consequences on both man and the environment.
According to Leach (2008), improper solid waste disposal may lead to ground water contamination.
If waste is not discarded properly on land, when it rains the waste is soaked and is then carried
through landfill, eventually making its way into the water bodies. Dangerous chemicals such as
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which come from household detergents have been linked to
causing cancers and birth defects (The Agency for Toxic substances and Disease Registry, 2008).
11

Songsore (1992), identified the outbreak of diseases as one of the problems associated with
improper solid waste disposal. He argues that the danger with open pits comes from the spread of
diseases-usually carried by rodents and bugs. An example of this is malaria, which festers in open
areas with standing water and particularly hot and muggy temperatures. In addition, there may be a
propensity for people to scavenge wastes in landfills and open pits, which as well present a health
risk and aid the spread of disease (Songsore, 1992). This view is relevant to the study because, areas
like Zongo, Bamahu, and Wapaani in the Wa Municipality record the highest incidence of disease.
Benneh et al (1993), also attribute the destruction of habitats to poor solid waste management and
disposal. He argues that, disposal of locations may encroach upon existing habitat for native flora
and fauna, especially near wetlands.
According to Stirrup (1965), improper solid waste disposal may also affect drainage. When solid
wastes are dumped in drainage channels and gutters, they block the flow of sewerage. This may
cause flooding. At the same time, solid wastes also affect soil drainage which hinders the growing
of crops. Since some of the waste materials are water proof, they can be dangerous to the aeration
system of the soil hence hindering agriculture. This leads to the reduction of fertile cultivatable
land. Even though sustainable waste disposal and management policies are available at the urban
level, the enforcement of the solid waste disposal code is not effective at the local levels in Ghana
(Songsore, 1992).
Solid Waste management in Ghana :
In Ghana like other developing countries, solid waste management generally involves the process of
waste generation, collection and disposal, literature on the general waste management process
situation of Ghana as a whole is lacking. The situation has been considered by various scholars
within different regions and sub areas of the country. This section of the study therefore seeks to
analyze the general solid waste management strategies in Ghana based on consideration of waste
management methods across the country.
With regards to waste generation, based on an estimated population of 22 million and an average
daily waste generation per capita of 0.45 kg, Mensah and Larbi ( 2005) notes that, Ghana generates
about 3.0 million tonnes of solid waste annually. Boateng and Nkrumah (2006) have further added
12

that, solid waste generated daily in Accra was between 1500-1800 tonnes. According to Anomanyo
(2004) about 1800 tonnes of municipal solid wastes were generated per day in the Accra Metropolis
and the average waste generated per capita per day was estimated at 0.5 tonnes.
Also, according to KMA (2009), the current domestic waste generation in Kumasi was
approximately between 1000-1500 tonnes a day. This was based on the projected population of
1,610,867. In similarity to the AMA, Ketibuah et al (2010), notes that in Kumasi the bulk of
household waste is found to be organic waste which largely includes food waste with an average of
55 per cent.
With regards to solid waste collection, Anomayo (2000) notes that two main modes of waste
collection are in use in the AMA and KMA. These are door-to-door or house-to-house collection
and communal collection which are carried out in the high class and low class residential areas
respectively. In the Wa Municipality, domestic waste collection strategies largely involves the
communal collection method where skips are stationed at vantage points within communities and
emptied at specific intervals. The door to door payment system is however in little use in the
Municipality as it is limited to residential areas of formal workers including SSNIT and Tiebere
residential areas probably because of the ability to pay for the service unlike the communal system
which is at no fee.
Concerning waste disposal, Anomanyo (2000), notes that in most urbanized areas of Ghana landfills
are used as disposal sites for urban solid waste. He noted that in Accra and Kumasi waste collected
is usually hauled to landfills in the outskirts and dumped where compacting and in most cases crude
burning is used to breakdown the waste. The situation in the Wa Municipality is similar as all
municipal solid waste are sent to a landfill located at the outskirts of Wa along the Wa-Charia main
road where crude burning is applied to reduce the waste to ashes. Other households without
collection services often resort to dumping in open spaces and the use of crude burning within the
residential areas when waste grows into heaps. These landfills in the Municipality are major
contributing sources of pollutants to both underground and surface water sources as well as
obstructions to flow of water during and after storms. More importantly due to the open nature of
these landfills, individuals especially children are often found in them searching for valuable waste
substances for recycling as a source of income generation even though they are often directly prone
to the bad stench as well as danger of injury from these landfills.
13

Key Issues
From the review of the literature above, solid waste collection and disposal are the critical issues in
solid waste management. In Ghana landfills are mainly used for final waste disposal.
Also, there are two main modes of solid waste collection system in Ghana namely door-to-door and
communal.
Furthermore, the provision of solid waste collection facilities, frequency of waste collection, and
equipment for managing solid waste is very important for sustainable waste management.
Much study therefore needs to be undertaken aimed at bringing to light the issues confronting solid
waste management and its implications. This research is intended to provide insight to government
officials, citizens and business people who might want to help resolve the solid waste management
crisis in the Wa Municipality
In the above framework, three main issues have been considered. These are: capacity for managing
solid waste (resources), methods used (source separation, recycling, and landfill) and the role
stakeholders (NGOs, Waste Management Institutions and households) play in managing solid
waste. It is important to recognize that, the major portion of solid waste comes from domestic
sources. However its proper disposal and care towards sustainability depends heavily on availability
of skips and dustbins and attitudes of the people. The waste that is disposed of from the households
has to be collected and transported for final disposal. The collection and transportation and
management of landfills depend heavily on resources. Based on this framework, sustainable waste
management therefore can be achieved with the active involvement of all relevant urban
stakeholders in the collection and disposal of urban solid waste in the Wa Municipality. Adequate
government attention and proper allocation of waste management resources is very paramount. This
will help in the provision of waste collection materials ( skips and vehicles) as well as enhance the
regular collection removal of waste from various communities of the Municipality by waste
management institutions.

14

Stakeholders
Waste Management Institutions, Households, NGOs and Government

Conceptual framework of Solid Waste Management

Solid Waste Sources
This study
is centered on the framework of sustainable development. Within
the broader framework
Management
Methods
Households and Business outlets
Source separation,Actions
recycling and land-filling
Waste Collection, treatment, disposal, Education, and legislation

of sustainable development, the concept of sustainable waste management is an appropriate

framework for studying not only the effects of improper waste management on human health and
the natural environment but also the implications of current waste management practices for
resource conservation and environmental sustainability.

Sustainable

Waste

management

Resources
Funds, Technology, Manpower, Equipment

15

PROFILE OF STUDY AREA

Introduction
This provides baseline information of the environment of the study area for the purpose of gaining
an in-depth understanding of the features of the environment and the bearing they have on solid
waste management in the Municipality. Baseline parameters covered include location and size,
demography, culture and revenue.
Location and Size
The Wa Municipality is one of the eleven administrative districts of the Upper West Region of
Ghana. It shares administrative boundaries with the Nadowli District to the north, Wa East district
to the east and south and Wa West District to the west. It lies within latitude 9 32N to 10 20N
and longitude 1 40W and 2 45 W. The Municipality covers a land area of approximately 234.74
kilometers square, which is about 6.4% of the size of the Upper west Region.
16

Demography
According to the 2000 population and housing census, the Wa Municipality has a population of
98,675 people with a growth rate of 4% and a density of 542 persons per square kilometers. The
population reveals a youthful and female dominated structure as the youth form 49%, potential
working population 47% and the aged 4%. With regard to the sex structure, 51% of the total
populations are females whilst 49% are males.

Ethnicity and Culture

Apart from Municipal centre where there is ethnic diversity almost all people in the surrounding
villages are Waalas. Before the advent of both Christianity and Islam religions, the Waalas were
mostly traditionalists. Their culture was deeply enshrined in their customs and beliefs. The Damba
festival which is a major traditional festival of the Waalas is celebrated annually to test the physical
fitness of the existing chief to further rule his people and to sacrifice to their ancestors. However,
the introduction of Christianity and Islam in the Municipality has greatly influenced the culture of
the people as the celebration of other festivals such as Christmas, Easter, New year, Idul Fetir and
Idul Adhar has dominated the traditional Damba festival. The celebration of these festivals in the
Municipality often results in the generation of a lot of domestic solid waste.
Revenue
Apart from internally generated funds from market levies and other taxes, the Municipality relies on
funds from government through the disbursement of the consolidated fund. The waste management
department therefore receives funding from the District Assembly Common Fund (DACF) to
finance waste management. Even though this common fund is meant for several developmental
17

projects, greater proportion is often channeled into waste management. The common fund is
supplemented by internally generated revenue usually through local government levies such as the
property tax and market levy in the Municipality. However, the general delay of the release of funds
by government greatly affects solid waste management in the Municipality.

Research Methodology
Introduction
Data was collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data constituted
information obtained from surveys and interviews while secondary data included information
obtained from both published and unpublished works.
Methods of data collection
The primary data for the research was obtained through the administration of a structured
questionnaire and the conduction of two in-depth interviews with a representative each from The
Municipal Waste Management Department and Zoomlion Ghana Ltd.
Secondary data for the study included Ghana EPA reports, books, journals, newspapers, and the
internet. These reports were relevant for establishing the current state of solid waste management in
the Wa Municipality.
Data Instruments
18

The primary data were collected using structured questionnaires. The questionnaires contained both
closed and open-ended questions, and they were self-administered. In all, 60 questionnaires were
administered to households. Forty (40) females and twenty (20) males were selected. This
distribution was used because it is observed that the females, mostly mothers, are responsible for
domestic waste handling. Also, solid waste production in the Municipality is greatest at the
household level. Random sampling was done to select ten households from the six localities which
within the scope of the study. The available woman or man in a selected household was assisted to
answer the questionnaire where the need arose.
Two in-depth interviews were conducted with authorities of the WMA and Zoomlion Ghana Ltd,
who are the two waste management entities in the Municipality.

Study Themes
The study themes included methods employed in solid waste management, types of receptacles for
solid waste, disposal methods, factors responsible for improper waste management, attitudes and
perceptions towards sanitation, and the health implications associated with poor solid waste
management.
Data Analysis
The data gathered from various sources were processed and analyzed using SPSS. Simple
descriptive statistical and analytical tools including as frequencies, percentages, bar charts and pie
charts were also employed in the analysis of the data. Relationships were established by cross
tabulations.
Limitations of the study
The study did not cover all the localities of the Municipality due to lack of resources and time
constraints. As a result, the study was based on selected localities in the municipality.
Also, the prevailing unstable condition of chieftaincy riots in Wa affected the scope of the study.
The intended areas of study included all sections of the Wa Township. However, the unstable peace
19

situation necessitated the exclusion of the Nayiri section in the municipal capital for the study
where the riot is centered.

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

The State of Solid Waste Management in WA Municipality

This chapter presents details of the findings gathered from the field survey and in-depth interviews
of key respondents and discusses it in line with the objectives of the study. Data collected covered
the types and components of solid waste generated in the area, disposal sites of household solid
waste, solid waste collection and final disposal, causes of improper solid waste disposal as well as
its health implications.
Types and Components of Solid Waste Generated

Knowledge on types and the components of solid waste generated will inform management to use
the appropriate method to effectively deal with the various components of solid waste.
The Waste Management Department (WMD) and ZoomLion Ghana Ltd, estimated that 0.0045kg
daily per capita of waste was generated in the Municipality. This amounts to 67.50 tonnes a day.
According to ZoomLion and WMD, the commonest types of waste generated in the area were food
waste, rubbish, and ashes. These components are shown in table 4.1 below.
20

Waste components and generation in percentage in the Wa Municipality

Waste Component

Percentage Generated (%)

Plastic
Food waste

50.5
29.3

Wood

10

Glass

Metal

3.2

From the above table, plastic is the waste component that is highly generated in the Municipality
with food waste been the second largest waste component. The growing use of polythene for
packaging of goods and food in recent times in the Municipality largely justifies the high
component of plastic waste and the littering of surroundings in the Municipality with polythene.
The next section looks at how the above waste components are disposed for final collection in the
Municipality.
Methods of Disposal of Household Solid Waste
The disposal of household solid waste is one of the functional elements in the management of
waste. Figure 4.1 below illustrates the methods of disposal sites of solid waste by respondents in
WMA

21

Bar Graph of Mode of Disposal of Household Waste

45
40
35
30
25
20

Percentage of Respondents

15
10
5
0

Place of Disposal

Mode of household waste disposal.

From figure above, the commonest place of waste disposal was the skip (39.7 per cent). This
method was mostly used in the low class residential areas in the Municipality. These areas include:
Zongo, Wapaani, Charia and Bamahu. This is followed by dumping in the backyard where crude
burning is often done to reduce the waste into ashes. This is also widely used in the low class
residential areas where there were no skips or where skips are far from homes. Wind-blown waste
in the form of polythene bags are a regular scene in these areas. Also 14.3 percent of respondents
use waste bins for temporal storage of waste before collection by waste management institutions for
final disposal. This method is in use in SSNIT flats and Tiegbere residential area.
Interestingly the immediate vicinity of most of the waste containers in the Municipality are used as
defecation points for children, which often deter people from walking through the excreta to dump
waste. In most cases, waste is eventually dumped on the ground by the skip making the work of
waste collectors tedious.
Factors contributing to improper solid waste management
22

The factors identified were time spent and distance covered to dispose waste, low income and
unemployment levels of respondents, infrequent collection of waste and negative attitudes and
perceptions towards solid waste management. These factors have been discussed below.
Time spent to dispose of waste in skips

The study showed that in areas where skips are available for the collection of solid waste, the time
and distance spent by respondents to access these skips significantly influenced the mode or place
of disposal of household solid waste. Fig 4.1 below shows time spent by respondents to dispose
household waste into skip.

Bar graph of time spent to dispose waste into Skips

60
50
40
30
20

Percentage of Respondents

10
0

Time spent

Time spent by respondents to dispose waste into skip

From table above, 79.2 per cent of respondents spent above 10 minutes to dispose of their
household waste in the skip. Out of the 77.5 percent, 62.3 per cent of them responded that, it
inconveniences them to spend such time to dispose of waste in the skip. As a result, 57.9 per cent of
them burnt their household waste, 31.6 per cent dumped their waste in the nearest gutter and 10.5
per cent dumped their waste in nearest available space. Therefore, the time spent to dispose of
23

waste in the skip goes to add up the dumping of waste at unapproved sites. Most waste containers
were stationed at public toilets which often are relatively far from homes. This makes the aspect of
carrying waste to these containers by most households difficult.

Relationship between income level and method of waste management used

A remarkable number of the respondents had low incomes and average incomes. There was also the
problem of unemployment. Since chi square test obtained (16.2) is greater than chi square critical
value (3.8), there is therefore, a significant relationship between income level and the type of solid
waste management practiced.
Relationship between monthly income level and type of waste management practiced
Type of waste management

High income

Average income

Low income

( > 500)

(between 100 to

Below 100

Total

500)

Proper waste management

10

16

Improper waste management

36

44

Total

16

40

60

Source: Field survey, 2013

Chi square value = 16.2; p-value (at 5% level of significance) = 3.84
24

Tsiboe and Marbell (2004) stated in their study that a combination of poverty, population pressure,
and economic hardships is placing a considerable strain on household environments in Ghana.
Majority of the people in Ghana live below the internationally recognized poverty line of one dollar
a day. Satterthwaite (1998) virtually agrees in principle that the waste problem emanates from
poverty and lack of funding as a result of low level of economic growth. Financial constraint
undoubtedly is a factor that contributes to improper solid waste management.

Perceptions on Responsibility for Ensuring Clean Surroundings

Most of the respondents (64%) think it is the responsibility of the WMD to clean their surroundings,
9% think it is the job of individuals and 27% strongly believe it is the responsibility of both the
WMA and individuals.
Opinions on responsibility for ensuring environmental sanitation
WMD

INDIVIDUALS

WMD & INDIVIDUALS

27%

9%

64%

Pie chart showing respondents opinions on responsibility for ensuring clean surroundings.
Source: Field Survey, 2013
With a large percentage of the population (74.6%) of the view that the WMA and Zoomlion Ltd are
solely responsible for ensuring clean surroundings, it is likely that the people may not support clean
25

up campaigns meant for making the surroundings clean. This may partly explain why the Wa
Municipality is engulfed in filth and yet the respondents seem unconcerned. This confirms the
studies of Songsore (1992) that with the establishment of the Waste Management Department
(WMD) of Metropolitan and Municipal Assemblies, the public tend to have the view that the WMD
should be solely responsible for managing waste.

Involvement of children in waste disposal

From the survey, majority of the respondents (42) involved children less than 10 years in the
management of household solid waste management whilst 18 of the respondents did not involve
children in the management of solid waste.
Pie Chart of Involvement of Children by Respondents in Waste Solid Disposal
YES

NO

30%

70%

Pie chart showing involvement of children by respondents in solid waste disposal Source:
Field Survey 2013
The respondents who involved children in solid waste disposal claimed it was childrens
responsibility to carry the household waste to the sanitary sites or the communal refuse containers
as part of their roles of running errands in the family. Thus, according to these respondents, carrying
of household waste was not the duty of adults. The respondents who did not involve such children
26

in solid waste disposal explained that they did not have such children in their household to carry
refuse. As a result of the inability of children to reach the top openings of most waste containers,
they are often unable to throw waste perfectly inside but often litter waste around the immediate
sides of containers.
More importantly the situation is aggravated as these children often engage in open defecation
around such waste containers and dump sites.

Involvement of children in waste disposal and open defecation around skips in the Zongo
locality of WA
Solid Waste Collection

Solid waste management includes the hauling and final disposal at landfills. Solid waste collection
in the Municipality involves the use of varied methods. Figure 4.4 displays the mode of collection
of solid waste in the Municipality.
27

Pie Chart Showing Mode of Waste Collection

None; 24%

Communal Skip System; 57%

Door to Door; 19%

Mode of Solid Waste Collection in the Wa Municipality,

Source Field Survey, 2013
As shown in figure 4.5 above, there are two main modes of waste collection in WMA. These are;
door-to-door and the communal skip system. These methods differ less from that observed by
Anomanyo (2000) in his study in the KMA and AMA, where he notes that the main modes of waste
collection are the communal and the door to door collection method. However the communal skip
method is widely in use in the Wa Municipality. Some respondents (24%) are not under the
coverage of either the communal skip system or the door to door collection method, hence they
dump their waste at unapproved sites where crude burning is applied to reduce the waste into ashes.
Frequency of Solid waste collection
With regards to the number of times waste is collected in a week by Zoomlion Ltd and the WMD in
areas under the coverage of the communal and door to door modes of collection the Municipality,
49.2% of respondents indicate that waste was collected once a week, whilst 19% of respondents
indicate waste is collected twice in a week. 3.2% of respondents indicated waste is collected thrice a
week whiles 28.6% of respondents indicated waste was not collected at all in their vicinities.

28

Bar Graph of Frequency of Waste Collection

60
50
40

Percentage of Respondents

30
20
10
0

Once

Twice

Thrice

Not at All

Number of Times Per Week

Frequency of waste collection (weekly) in the Wa Municipality

The infrequent collection of waste in the Municipality leaves most waste containers and public
dump sites chocked with waste. Evidence of infrequent waste collection in the Municipality is
depicted below, with this waste skip at Wapaani which has not been emptied for a long time on
which a tree is currently growing.

29

Showing an irregularly emptied communal waste container with a tree growing on it.
Source: Field Survey, 2013
The Health Implications of Improper Solid Waste Management
Unsightly scenes of heaped decomposed and semi-decomposed solid wastes pollute the
environment and produce offensive odour. Songsore (1992), identified the outbreak of diseases as
one of the problems associated with improper solid waste disposal. It is in this respect that the issue
of solid waste management assumes critical importance, especially when up to 40 per cent of
diseases reported at hospitals are those directly or indirectly influenced by poor waste management
(Fuseini, 2007).

30

Problems associated with poor waste management in the WA Municipality

The improper management of solid waste in the Wa Municipality has both direct and indirect
negative impacts on the health of the people. Crude data from the Wa Regional Hospital indicates
that malaria and cholera are among the major health problems in the Wa Municipality. Whilst these
diseases continue to claim many lives, the search for solutions have often precluded ensuring proper
sanitation and hygiene to the use of modern drugs and vaccination.
Major diseases recorded in the WA Regional Hospital from January to December 2012.
Pie chart of Incidence of Major Diseases Recorded at the Wa Regional Hospital

3%

8%

Malaria

4%

Cancers

3%

43%

16%

Cholera
Typhoid
Dermal Infections

22%

Acute Eye Infections

Others

Source: Wa Regional Hospital,(Out Patient Department Data), 2013

31

The data shows that, malaria, cancer and cholera are the main health problems recorded in the Wa
Regional Hospital.
Even though the Wa Regional hospital records referral cases from other districts outside the
geographical frontiers of the Wa Municipality, it is apparent the situation in the area of study
significantly contributed to these incidence of diseases recorded as the regional hospital is the main
point of call for residents of the Wa Municipality.
Its worthy of note that improperly disposed solid waste such as plastics and polythene may act as
receptacles of water or inhibit the smooth flow of water out of drains. These serve as the breeding
grounds for mosquitoes. Also improper waste disposal within localities of the Municipality
increases the risk of food contamination from house flies and other pathogens.
Songsore (1992), argues that, the danger with open pits is from the spread of diseases usually
carried by rodents and insects. An example of this is malaria, which festers in open areas with
stagnant water and particularly hot and muggy temperatures. In addition, improper solid waste
disposal may lead to ground water contamination. If waste is not discarded properly on land, when
it rains the waste is soaked and is then carried through landfills, eventually making its way into
water bodies.
Dangerous chemicals such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which come from household
waste sources have been linked to causing cholera, cancers and birth defects (The Agency for Toxic
substances and Disease Registry, 2008). The study therefore shows that, there is a significant
relationship between improper waste management and health problems in the study area as the
major diseases recorded (malaria, cancers and cholera) have causations directly related to
unsanitary conditions of which improper solid waste management is paramount.

32

FINDINGS
Introduction
Sixty (60) respondents were interviewed on the assessment of solid waste management in the Wa
Municipality using simple random sampling. Forty (40) females and twenty (20) males were
interviewed. A few of the respondents had tertiary education (8%), primary education (25%), with
the majority having had secondary education (67%). Most of the respondents either had average or
low income with a few being unemployed. On the religious front, respondents were either
Christians or Muslims with the former forming the dominant group.
Key Findings
In relation to the first objective, the study observed that the main modes of household waste
disposal were the use of the communal skip, communal dump site, backyard and the use of waste
bins. From the study, 39.7% of the respondents dump their waste in municipal communal skips
provided by the Waste Management Department of the Municipality and Zoomlion Ltd, while
28.6% also dump their waste in the backyard where crude burning is done to reduce the waste to
ashes. Also, 17.5% of respondents used communal dumpsites and 14.3% of respondents stored their
waste in waste bins for onward disposal on contract basis by the WMD or Zoomlion through the
door to door collection system.
The study also demonstrates that the low level of income of respondents, low level of education,
irregularity of waste collection and negative attitudes and perceptions towards solid waste
management account for the solid waste management problem in the study area. This affirms the
proposition that, the solid waste menace in the Wa Municipality is as a result of irregular waste
collection by waste management institutions and negative attitudes and perceptions of individuals
towards solid waste disposal.
In relation to the third objective, the study found out that malaria was the commonest sickness
(44%) of cases recorded, followed by cancers (22%) and cholera (16%). This adds to the literature
by empirically demonstrating that, there is a relationship between improper solid waste
management and incidence of disease such as malaria and cholera as these are among the major
diseases facing the Municipality and directly related to unsanitary environmental conditions.
33

Finally, the study observed that the supply of household refuse containers and communal skips was
the most popular suggestion by respondents for improving solid waste management with
intensification of health education as the runner-up. Other respondents suggested household
payment for waste collection service as a measure. The regular collection of waste by waste
management institutions was also mentioned as a means of ensuring sustainable solid waste
management in the Municipality as some respondents indicated that they suffer from the bad stench
and windblown litter from such long un-emptied waste skips and bins.

Recommendations

34

From the study, some relevant findings were established in relation to the causes and health impacts
of the menace of improper solid waste disposal in the Wa Municipality. Based on these findings the
following measures are recommended for consideration by relevant stakeholders including
households and waste management institutions in the Wa Municipality towards sustainable solid
waste management.
Adequate dustbins and skips should be provided by ZoomLion Ghana Ltd in collaboration with the
WMD and Metropolitan Assembly for residents in the Municipality for waste storage. This will
help serve the needs of those sections that resort to backyard dumping and crude burning of waste
due to lack of skips or skip insufficiency.
Also, there should be regularity of waste collection by the Municipal Waste Department and
ZoomLion Ghana Ltd to avoid heaping of waste and over flowing of skips with solid waste. At
least, waste should be collected four times a week in all areas of the Municipality.
Public sensitization on the dangers of improper waste disposal should be advanced to raise peoples
awareness on the need for a clean environment through collective responsibility.

Crosscutting options
The prevalent 3R options forth coming from the study worthwhile to recommend is
enactment of the draft national SWM Act, at the earliest, embracing;
i) Enhancement of international/regional waste management cooperation,
ii) Waste separation mandate to all citizens/residents/ stakeholders,
iii) Polluter pays principle (taxation on non-degradable goods and containers and
MSW management fee on residents based on volumetric waste discharge) to ensure
financial security,
iv) Nurturing/promotion of private (including industries) initiatives in the MSW
management.
v) Institutional and manpower capacity building, and
vi) Enhancing public awareness and education.

Waste component specific options

Specific options for predominant waste components are:
i) Composting for managing organic wastes. Otherwise, separation of food waste
35

and vegetable wastes for donation to animal caring centers and livestock rearing
residents is a food waste quantity reduction option.
ii) Imposing municipal tax on the packing materials for all imported goods at the
entry points and on in-country producer agents and charging municipal service
fees on the local business vendors and the residents according to their waste
generation capacity is expected to reduce significantly waste components like
plastics, paper and cardboard boxes. Encouraging/nurturing private parties to
participate in recycling of waste paper and cardboard boxes like that of Jungshi
Paper Recycling Plant in Jemina are in-country recycling options for waste
paper.
iii) Industries requiring heat energy could collect and consume wastes products
other than hazardous and recyclable components as refuse derived fuel (RDF)
in their furnaces.
iv) Streamlining business licenses and making mandatory for the waste dealers to
deal with all sorts of recyclable waste products is an option to manage low
value, high liability waste products. The policing duty of the waste product
business also can be entrusted to the specific waste dealers in such a system.
v) Controlling the market for survival of the in-country recycled products is an
enabling instrument option to encourage more waste recycling ventures.
vi) Making mandatory for the in-country manufacturers to accept back their
product wastes (worn-out/obsolete and containers) will be another option to
encourage industries participation in MSW management,
vii) Very importantly, institutional capacity building.

Conclusion

36

In the study, the following objectives were set to be achieved. The first objective was to examine
means of waste disposal by households (place of disposal). The survey revealed that the commonest
places of waste disposal in the Municipality were the skip and backyard.
Secondly, the research sought to analyse the factors contributing to improper waste management in
the Wa Municipality. It was observed that the poor attitude of residents towards waste disposal, the
low incomes and low education of residents, inadequate skips and irregular collection of waste by
waste management institutions contributed to the improper management of solid waste in the
Municipality.
In relation to the third objective, it was observed that improper solid waste management posed a
health burden in the Wa Municipality. The high incidence of malaria and cholera in the
Municipality confirms this.
Therefore, all the objectives set were achieved and with regard to the main objective of the study it
can be appreciably concluded that the following are indeed the key factors affecting effective waste
management in the Wa Municipality. These include inadequate skip supply for storing waste; lack
of routine collection of waste; poor attitude of individuals in waste disposal; low levels of income
and education of residents.
The municipal solid waste although comparatively smaller in quantity and less complexity
in composition is an emerging challenge in Bhutan particularly in Thimphu. The Thimphu
City Corporation lacking authority, resources, knowledge and public support is facing
daunting challenges to tackle the MSW appropriately. Memelakha landfill disposal site is
overflowing. Implementations of recycling options are constrained by financial resources,
human resources and the technological capacity. There are effective but affordable policy
options in the 3Rs concept, potential to address the MSW challenges in Thimphu. The
study has come forth with various crosscutting and specific options to apply for
predominant waste components. For a country like Bhutan, which cannot afford to
establish many technocratic and expensive waste recycling plants within the country, the
regional/international cooperation for MSW management considered in the APFED on 3Rs
(IGES, 2006a; TEI and Sasaki, 2006) is one suitable 3Rs option. The other 3R options
requiring immediate application in Thimphu are; institution of waste separation system,
37

polluters pay concept adoption and promotion of private party initiative in the MSW
management.
In an overriding manner, a large gap exists between documented policies and the
implementation. The reasons for the failure are; i) lacking of a legal instrument that
explicitly addresses municipal solid waste management, ii) lack of financial resources, iii)
lack of capacity and organizational liberation/upgradation of the waste management sector
under TCC, and iv) absence of specified technological options for management of the
predominant waste components. Adoption of the NSWM Act encompassing solutions for
all the identified gaps and implementation of the specific waste component management
options is expected to significantly narrow the gaps and enhance the MSW management
situation in Thimphu. A transfer station is deeming necessary to ensure quality of waste
separation and reduce waste transportation cost and hassles.

38

Questionnaire for the survey

Questionnaire for household survey

Area House is Located...
House Number ( If available)....
Background Information of respondent
Q1. Age
15-20

21-25

26-30

31-35

36-40

41-45

45-50

50+

Q2. What is your level of education?

1. None

3. J.S.S/ J.H.S

5. Vocational

2. Primary

4. S.H.S/ Technical [

6. Tertiary

]
]

Q3. What is your major occupation?

1. Farming

2.Petty Trading [

3. Business

4. Public Servant [

5. Other, specify

39

Q4. Approximately, how much do you earn in a month? ( in Ghana cedis)

1. 50-100

2. 110-200

3. 210-300

4. 310-400

5. 410- 500

6. 510-1000

7. Above 1000 [

Disposal of Household Waste

Q5. Where do you dump your waste?
1. Dump site [

3. Communal Skip/ container

2. Backyard [

4.Road side [

5. Waste bin
Q6 If waste is dumped in a skip do you pay as you dump?
1. Yes [

2. No

Q7 If yes, how much are you charged?

1. 20 pesewas

2. 50 pesewas

3. 1cedi

4. Other

] specify...

40

Q8. Have you ever dumped at an unapproved site?

1. Yes [

2. No [

] ( if No, Skip to Q10)

Q9. If yes briefly state the reason(s)

..........
..
Q10. If waste is dumped in a skip, how long does it take you to get to the site?
1. 5-10 minutes
3.16.20 minutes

[
[

]
]

2. 11-15 minutes [

4. More than 20 minutes [

Q11. Does the distance to the skip inconvenience you?

1. Yes [

2. No

] (If no go to Q12)

Q12. If yes what do you do to the waste?

1. Burn it [

2. Bury it [

3. Dump it at the nearest available space [

4. Other

] specify......

Q13. Do you involve children in household waste disposal?

1. Yes [

2. No [

41

Waste Collection and management

Q14. Which of the following types of solid waste do you generate in your home? (You can tick
more than one option)
1. Organic (food/Wood) [

2. Metal

3. Plastic

4. Glass

4. Other

] specify.....

Q15. Which waste management institution collects waste in your area for disposal?
1. Municipal waste Department [
3. None

2. Private waste company

] (if none skip to Q16)

4. Dont Know [

] (if dont know skip to

Q16 )
5. Other [

] specify...

Q16. How many times is the waste collected in a week?

1. Once

2. Twice

3. Thrice

4. Four times [

5. Daily

7. Not at all [

Q17. What mode of collection is used in your area?

1. Door to door

3. Communal/skip

2. Curb
4. Other

]
[

specify

42

Q18. How will you describe the sanitation situation around the waste container or disposal site?
1. Very satisfactory [

2. Satisfactory

3. Poor

4. Very poor

Q19. Do you suffer any nuisance from the waste container or disposal site?
1. Yes [

2. No [

Q20. What inconvenience do you suffer?

1. Bad stench
3. Pollution
4. Other [

2. Choked gutters [

] if other, specify

Q21. How will you describe the general waste situation in your neighbourhood?
1. Very satisfactory [
3. Poor

]
]

2. Satisfactory [
4. Very poor

]
]

Q22. In comparing with other districts in this Region, would you say your community receives a
fair share and proper allocation of resources for waste management?
1. Yes [

2. No [

] if no specify why?..............

...

Q23. What in your opinion are the causes of improper waste management in your area?
43

1. Inadequate waste containers

2. Irregular waste collection

]
[

3. Poor disposal attitude of residents [

4. Other [

] if other specify.......................

Q24. In your opinion, who is responsible for ensuring cleanliness in your community
1. Waste management institutions

2. Individuals

2. Both individuals and institutions

4. None

Q25. In your opinion, how can solid waste be managed effectively in your area by residents? (You
can tick more than one option)
1. Use of waste bins at home [
3. Reducing source generation [
4. Other [

2. Paying for waste collection services [

] specify.

Thank you for your time and assistance.

Bibliography
44

www.treehugger.com/clean-technology/e-waste-in-india-a-growing-industry-environmental-threat
www.itnews.com.au/News/333525,standards-australia-debuts-e-waste-collection-guidelines.
www.sita.com.au/commercial-solutions/resource-recovery-recycling/e-waste-recycling
www.doyourpart.com/green-living/terris-top-5-sources-of-e-waste
www.livinggreener.gov.au/waste/reducing-waste/manage-e-waste
www.marrickville.nsw.gov.au/services/waste/alternative_waste_disposal
www.academia.edu/9535418/Solid_Waste_Management_in_urban_Ghana_insights_from_the_Wa_
Municipality
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