Concrete Structures

Special edition for courses within Concrete Structures.
Faculty of Building Technology and Construction

Management
VIA University College Denmark
Bjarne Chr. Jensen
Concrete structures
in accordance with DS/EN1992-1-1
2. edition. (Preliminary edition)
Translated extracts from

Bjarne Christian Jensen, Betonkonstruktioner efter DS/EN1992-1-1.
2. udgave
Preface to the translated

version
At the VIA University College, School of Technology and Business
the international exchange students work with projects, where they apply engineering principles to practical problems.
Furthermore a new study started in 2009 - BSc in Civil Engineering
with the possibility to specialize within structures - and as a consequence the need for a good textbook covering basic concrete calculation has arisen.
In the search of literature only text books that cover calculation methods strictly in accordance with DS/N 1992-1-1 came up.
However, the Danish textbook Bjarne Chr. Jensen, Betonkonstruktioner efter DS/EN 1992-1-1 covers not only methods from
DS/EN 1992 -1-1, but also methods included in the Danish National
Annex and other well documented methods that are useful in structural concrete design. Among these methods are for example the stringer
method.
The choice was to translate extracts from this textbook and the extracts have been chosen so as to cover the need from several courses
that includes concrete calculations.
The translation has been done by Ernest Mller, MSc. in Construction
Management and structural engineers, lecturer BSc. Karsten Vlcker
and senior lecturer MSc. Pauli Andreasen, all teaching at VIA University College.
June 2011
Pauli Andreasen
Content
All of the sections are not translated in full
1
1.1
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.1.7
1.1.8
1.1.9
1.2
1.2.1
1.3
1.3.3
Properties of materials 9
Concrete 9
Breach condition by multiaxial tension conditions 9
Stress-strain relations for compression and modulus of
elasticity 11
Shrinkage 13
Creep 17
Thermal expansion coefficient 20
Overview 19
Reinforcement 22
Special conditions for reinforcement with plain surface 25
Environmental conditions 26
Crack widths 26
2
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
Principles of calculation 27
Use and failure modes 27
Safety 27
Structures cast in situ 29
Precast concrete elements calculation 30
Precast concrete with functional test 31
Statistical evaluation of carrying capacity models 31
Dimensioning 32
Serviceability limit condition/state 32
Ultimate limit state 32
3
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.2
Anchorage, laps and detailing of members 35

Anchoring and overlap 35
Precast concrete elements calculation 38
Laps 44
Minimum reinforcement and other rules for
reinforcement 50
Minimum reinforcement with regard to crack control 50
Ties 50
Pure bending 50
Consideration to size and other influences 51
Alternative minimum reinforcement 52
Other reinforcement rules 53
Bending reinforcement in beams 53
Shear reinforcement in beams 54
3.2.1
3.2.1.1
3.2.1.2
3.2.1.3
3.2.1.4
3.2.2
3.2.2.1
3.2.2.2
Content
3.2.2.3
3.2.2.4
3.2.2.5
3.2.2.6
3.3
Torsion reinforcement in beams 55

Massive slabs 55
Columns 56
Reinforced walls 56
Spacing 57
4
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.1.1
4.2.2
4.2.2.1
4.2.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.3.1
4.2.5
4.2.5.1
4.2.5.2
4.2.5.3
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.1.1
4.3.2.3
Beams with bending and axial force 59

General 59
Linear Elastic conditions 60
Uncracked cross sections 61
Bending 61
Generel eguations for cracked cross sections 64
Bending 64
Bending with axial forces 66
Rectangular cross sections 68
Bending without compression reinforcement 68
Serviceability limit states 72
Stresses 72
Deflections 73
Load induced cracking 76
Ultimate limit state calculations 79
Bending 82
Rectangular cross sections without compression
reinforcement 82
Rectangular cross sections with compression
reinforcement 86
T-cross section 88
Bending with axial load 90
Simple method for normally reinforced cross section 90
Rectangular cross section without compression
reinforcement 92
M-N interaction diagrams 96
5
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.2.1
5.1.2.2
5.1.5
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.1.1
5.2.1.2
5.2.2
5.3
Beams and shear 99

Shear reinforced beams 100
Shear theory for shear reinforced beams 100
Practical calculations of shear reinforced beams 104
The general approach 104
Dimensioning 107
Using different angles for the diagonal concrete strut 112
Non shear-reinforced beams 113
Calculation in accordance with DS/EN 1992-1-1 114
Shear resistance 114
The shear force 115
Calculation with great influence from the arch-effect 118
Reinforcement of T-beams flanges 120
4.3.1.2
4.3.1.3
4.3.2
4.3.2.1
4.3.2.2
Content
6
6.1
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.3
6.4
6.5
Torsion 127
In-plane stress conditions in diaphragms 127
Tensions from torsion 131
Thin-walled cross section 131
Massive cross sections 132
Complex cross sections 133
Dimensioning of torsion 134
Combined stresses 137
Assignments 144
7
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.4
7.5
Columns 147
Centrally loaded columns 148
Non-reinforced columns 149
Reinforced columns 151
Unreinforced, eccentric loaded columns 154
Unreinforced columns using formula in
DS/EN 1992-1-1 154
Non-reinforced columns after the element formula 158
Reinforced, eccentric loaded columns 160
Method based on nominal stiffness 161
Simplified method II 166
Biaxial bending with 2nd order effects 167
Taking into account the eccentricities 169
8
8.1
8.2
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.3
8.4
Casting joints 171

Theoretical resistance 171
Execution of casting joints 173
Indented casting Joints 173
Rough, smooth and very smooth casting joints 174
Casting joint calculations in practice 174
Particular characteristics of element joints 178
9.
9.1
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.2.1
9.2.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.3.1
9.2.3.2
Concentrated loads 183

Punching 183
The basic control perimeter 184
Resistance without shear reinforcement 186
Bearing stress 189
General 189
Calculation in accordance with DS/EN 1992-1-1 190
Local crushing 190
Transverse tensile forces 191
Calculating in accordance with newer method 192
Splitting 192
Local crushing 193
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
Continuous beams and slabs 197

Continuous beams 197
Indirect supported beams 204
Beams and slabs that are casted together 204
Slabs spanning in one direction (one-way) 206
Content
10.5
10.5.1
10.5.2
Slabs spanning in two directions 211

A lower bound method 211
Practical approach 214
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.3.1
11.3.1.1
11.3.1.2
11.3.2
11.3.3
The strut and tie model 221

Method description 221
Corbels 221
General about strut and tie models 223
Nodes 223
Node with hydrostatic pressure 223
Node with shear along the reinforcement 226
Ties 227
Struts 227
12.
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
Stringer Calculations 229

Description of Method 229
Tensile stringers 242
Compression stringers 245
The shear fields 246
Serviceability limit state 249
Exercises 250
13
13.1
13.2
Literature 253
General literature 253
Literature about specific subjects 253
Properties of materials
1.1 Concrete
The previous part of this section is intentionally not translated
1.1.4 Breach condition by multiaxial tension conditions

Not all stress conditions are uniaxial pull or uniaxial pressure. Since it
is impossible to test a material for all of the tension combinations that
may be present, one uses a breaking condition.
A breakage condition predicts which tension combinations leads to
breakage. As breakage condition for concrete, the friction hypothesis
with limited tensile strength is used, also called Coulomb modified
breach hypothesis. After the friction hypothesis, breaches in sections
occur where
c c tan
(1.7)
where
shear stress in the breach section
c cohesiveness
the friction coefficient
the angle of friction
normal stress in the breach section
c, and are material constants.
The break condition, consisting of the friction hypothesis and the limited tensile strength, is depicted in fig. 1.1.
Figure 1.1:
Coulombs modified
breach hypothesis and
compression tests
Is the breach the condition known, random stress conditions can be examined by plotting Mohr tension circles along with breach hypothesis.
In fig. 1.1. are written Mohr's circle for the uniaxial compressive that
just gives compressive failure.
10
1. Properties of materials
The figure shows that the breach section at a uniaxial compression
tests, forms the angle /4 /2 with the thrust direction. As it turns out
that is almost constant 370, it is seen that the height of the test body
must be two times the cross dimension, in order a breakage freely can
be developed.
From fig. 1.1 one can find
fc
2c cos
1 sin
(1.8)
As mentioned above, it turns out that remains almost constant 370.

For a concrete, where the compressive strength are known, one is
therefore capable of determining the breach condition. With = 370
(1.8) becomes to
f c 4c
On the main tension form the breach condition will be
41 3 f c
1 f t
(1.9)
where
1 = the largest main tension

3 = the smallest main tension
fc = compressive strength
ft = tensile strength
The main Tensions are positive by tensile. In practical calculations, the
starting point is the characteristic concrete strengths as described in
section 2.2.
Particularly interesting is the plane stress conditions where the tensile strength is set to zero. In this case, the breach condition plotted as
in fig. 1.2, and it is noted that the compression strength in one direction
is independent of the transverse compression. More about breach conditions for concrete can be found in [2], [4] and [5].
Figure 1.2:
Break condition by
plane stress and
tensile strength ft = 0
11
1.1.5 Stress-strain relations for compression and modulus

of elasticity
Pressure tests are normally performed as short-term tests, i.e., tests
lasting only a few minutes. Short-term strength and short-term stressstrain relations are found using such tests.
At very small tensions, there is an almost linear correlation between
stress and strain . However, there is a tendency for the stress-strain
relation to be curved. The trend becomes clearer at higher tensions.
The maximum tension (compressive strength fc) is achieved for a strain
of approx. 2 .
For strain beyond the strain that corresponds to the maximum tension, the tension drops. When strain reaches the ultimate strain, cu,
fracture occurs. DS/EN 1992-1-1 sets cu at 3.5 for all concrete
strengths less than or equal to 50 MPa, while its value decreases for increasing strengths of high strength concrete. Experiments show, however, that there is a very large spread for ultimate strain, which can become especially great in weak concrete.
Figure 1.3:
Stress-strain relation
for concrete in
compression
The principal shape of the stress-strain curve is shown in figure 1.3.

Through time, various equations have been implemented for this
shape. Test results show many variations, and give no indication of one
equation being significantly better than the others. The influence from
the type and size of aggregates, additives, etc, has a huge impact on the
shape. If one is designing a concrete structure where the stress-strain
relationship has a significant influence, tests must be carried out in order to determine the stress-strain curve for the type of concrete specified.
For a given stress-strain relationship, an initial modulus of elasticity,
a secant modulus of elasticity and a tangent modulus of elasticity is defined, see figure 1.3.
DS/EN 1992-1-1 has chosen a stress strain relation given by
12
2
c c
c1 c1
c
f
cm
1 (k 2) c
c1
k
(1.10)
where
c is the compressive stress in the concrete
c is the strain in the concrete
c1 is the strain in the concrete at maximum stress
The factor k is determined from
k 1,05Ecm
c1
(1.11)
f cm
where
Ecm is the secant modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity can be determined as
c12
Ec c
f
c 1 (k 2) c cm
c1
k
c1
(1.12)
Decreasing the value of c and inserting the expression for k shows that
the initial modulus of elasticity is 1,05 times the secant modulus of
elasticity.
The secant modulus of elasticity is in DS/EN 1992-1-1 determined
as
f
Ecm 22 cm
10
0,3
; fcm and Ecm in MPa
(1.13)
The value is given as a secant value for a concrete stress equal to 0,4fcm
At the same time it is pointed out that the values are for concrete with
quartzite aggregates and that the values are approximations, because of
the variations in stress-strain relations for different concrete mixtures
The modulus of elasticitys variation with time can be estimated
from
f t
Ec0k (t ) Ec0k cm
fcm
0,3
(1.14)
where Ec0k(t) and fcm(t) are the values for an age of t days, and Ec0k and
fcm are values at 28 maturity days.
For small tensions, Poisson's Ratio v is usually is set to 0.2.
The stress-strain relation for compression depends a lot on the load
speed, since creep initially plays a role. Even for very small tensions,
13
permanent deformation is found, and that is why the elasticity limit

must be set to zero.
Fig. 1.4 shows a typical example of the impact of creep. Curve 1 is
the normal short-term stress-strain relation up to fracture.
If we impose a load to a particular stress and let the load remain, the
strain will grow. Curve 2 shows the strain after 100 min. and curve 3 is
the creep limit (Point A). For tensions above 0.8fc, the creep limit is
never accomplished, since fracture occurs before this point (Point B).
Figure 1.4:
Stress-strain relation
for compression
For the illustrated example, the long-term strength is 80% of shortterm strength. The curves are valid for concrete with specific concrete
creep conditions. If these are altered the creep limits are altered, and
you find other stress-strain relations for different load speeds.
Stress-strain relations depend, therefore, on many factors, and the
relation to be used in calculations depends on the type of calculation,
since different approximations must also be made to facilitate these
calculations. To calculate the fracture loadbearing capacity in crosssections, DS/EN 1992-1-1 introduces three different stress-strain diagrams for one to choose from; see section 4.3.
1.1.6 Shrinkage
Concrete will usually shrink over time, ie. its volume will be reduced.
Four factors are particularly important for shrinkage. The concrete
composition, body size, time and the surrounding humidity. There is
no generally accepted theory for calculating shrinkage. One is therefore referred to empirical calculations and hence there are many different methods to calculate shrinkage, with a consequent significant difference in the calculated results. Thus, it is also indicated that the calculations are not very accurate.
When you refer to the empirical data and have many factors to consider, on seek often to establish empirical formulas after additions or
multiplication principle. For shrinkage DS / EN 1992-1 -1recommend
an equation for a combination of addition and multiplication principle
by dividing the total shrinkage strain in the strain from drying shrinkage and strains of autogenous shrinkage, ie.:
14
cs cd ca
(1.15)
where
cs is the total shrinkage strain
cd is the strain from drying out shrinkage
ca is the strain from the autogenous shrinkage
Desiccation shrinkage
The strain from drying out shrinkage develops slowly because it is a
function of capillary water migration through the concrete and its
evaporation to a state of equilibrium with ambient (surrounding) air
humidity. The basic amount of strain due to desiccation shrinkage cd,0
is calculated by
cd ,0 1,32 220 110ds1 exp ds 2
3
f cm RH 6
1
10 (1.16)
10 100
where
fcm is the middle strength in MPa
ds1 is a coefficient that depends on the type of cement
= 3 for cement class S
= 4 for cement class N
= 6 for cement class R
ds2 is a coefficient that also depends on the type of cement
= 0,13 for cement class S
= 0,12 for cement class N
= 0,11 for cement class R
RH is the ambient relative humidity in %.
For the relative humidity, may be used as a reasonable estimate:
In water RH = 100 %
Of water RH = 90 %
Outdoor RH = 70 %
Indoor
RH = 50 %
Very dry RH = 30 %
The desiccation shrinkage development over time cd(t) can be termined by
cd t ds t, ts kh cd ,0
ds t, ts
t ts
t ts 0,04 h03
where
t is the concrete age in days at the viewed time
(1.17)
(1.18)
15
ts is the concrete age at the beginning of desiccation shrinkage, ie.

usually the time when the plastic cover is removed and/or curingens
cease to have effect.
h0 is the theoretical size of the cross section in mm
kh is a factor which depends on h0, see Table 1.1.
Cross-sections theoretical sizes can be found by
h0
2 Ac
u
(1.19)
where
Ac is the cross-sectional area of the concrete
u is the circumference (the perimeter) of the part of the cross section,
which is subjected to desiccation.
Table 1.1:
Value of kh in (1.17)
h0 in mm
kh
100
200
300
100
1,0
0,85
0,75
0,70
It should be noted that the factor ds(t,ts) goes toward 1 when time goes
toward infinity, ie. Final desiccation shrinkage no matter what time
you let the drying commence, are:
ud kh cd ,0
(1.20)
Autogenous shrinkage
The strain of autogenous shrinkage develops when the concrete hardens, ie. the fastest developing the first days after casting. The strain is a
linear function of the concrete strength and its development over time
can be found by;
ca t as t ca
(1.21)
ca 2,5 fck 10106
(1.22)
as t 1 exp 0,2 t
(1.23)
Where t is time in days

Example 1.2:
Calculating of
shrinkage
Given:
A cross section of 800 300 mm is made with concrete C40 and cement class N.
The member is located outside.
After being casted the member is covered in plastic and insulations
for 14 days.
16
Desired:
Final drying shrinkage and the total shrinkage after 2 months (= 60
days).
Solution:
C40, so f ck 40 MPa
f cm fck 8 40 8 48 MPa
Desiccation shrinkage
Outdoor environment: RH = 70 %
Cement class N: ds1 4
ds 2 0,12
cd ,0 1,32 220 110ds1 exp ds 2
3
f cm RH 6
1
10
10 100
3
f RH 6
1,32 220 110 4 exp 0,12 cm 1

10
10 100
0,32 103
h0
2 Ac
2 800 300
218mm, and from table 1.1 is

u
2 800 300
kn 0,85 0,85 0,75
218 200
0,83
300 200
Final strain: ud kh cd ,0 0,83 0,32 103 0,27 103
ds t, ts
t ts
t ts 0,04 h0
60 14
60 14 0,04 2183
0,26
Strain after 60 days
cd 60 ds t, ts kh cd ,0 0,26 0,83 0,32 103 0,07 103

Autogenous shrinkage
Final strain:
ca 2,5 fck 10106 2,5 40 10106 0,075 103
as 60 1 exp 0,2 t 1 exp 0,2 60 0,79

Strain after 60 days
ca t as t ca 0,79 0,075 103 0,06 103
17
Accumulated strain
After 60 days
cs 60 d 60 ca 60 0,07 103 0,06 103 0,13 103

Final strain
cs cd ca 0,27 103 0,075 103 0,35 103
1.1.7 Creep
As mentioned in section 1.1.5 concrete creeps. In figure 1.5 the strain
is shown as a function of time. The time t = 0 is applied the load and
strain grows momentarily to c0. For small tensions; c0 = /E, and over
time the growth of strain as illustrated in fig. 1.5 (and in fig. 1.4).
Figure 1.5:
Strain as a function of
time
The growth cc is the creep strain that can be attributed
cc
(1.24)
E
where is creep figure
The total amount of strain is found as
c co cc
(1.25)
The effective modulus of elasticity Ec,eff defined in terms of total strain

c can be found through (1.25) of
E
Ec,eff
(1.26)
c 1
In practical calculations used secant modulus of elasticity, ie. in (1.26)
is added E = Ecm given by (1.13). Is the creep coefficient known, the
effective modulus of elasticity can be found. The value is then used in
the calculation of, for example, deflection of beams. The creep coefficient (t,t0) at the time t, when the load is applied at the time t0, can
according to DS/EN-1992 be estimated as:(notice the word: estimate
this tells that we can expect great variations in concretes behaviour)
18
t, t0 t, t0
(1.27)
where
is the final creep coefficient, or the theoretical creep coefficient,

as it is called in DS/EN 1992-1-1
(t,t0) is a coefficient to describe the development of creep with time
after loading.
The final creep coefficient is estimated from
RH fcm t0
(1.28)
The first factor is taking into account the relative humidity in the surrounding environment by
RH
1 RH / 100
1
0,13 h0
1 1 RH / 100
1 2
0,13 h0
for f cm 35MPa
(1.29)
for f cm 35MPa
where RH is the relative humidity in the surrounding environment in

%.
Usually one assumes
RH = 50 % for dry indoor environment
RH = 80 % for outdoor environment
h0 is the theoretical size of the cross-section (see 1.19) and 1 and 2 are
coefficients given by
35
f cm
0,7
35
f cm
f cm in MPa
(1.30)
f cm in MPa
(1.31)
0,2
The second factor takes into account the concrete strength by

16,8
f cm
f cm in MPa
f cm
(1.32)
The third factor takes into account the concretes age when applying the
load at the time t0 in days from
1
t0
(1.33)
0,1 t00,2
One is usually interested in the final creep coefficient. If you want to
follow the time flow or want to find the creep coefficient at the time t,
it is possible to find a useful expression for (t,t0) in DS/EN 1992-1.1.
19
The above standing is valid for cement class N. In DS/EN 1992-1-1

there is given a possibility to adjust to another cement class and a possibility to find a temperature adjusted age at the time of loading.
As mentioned in the description of modulus of elasticity and creep
coefficient, the variations can be significant and describing concrete totally only by its strength alone is not possible. The determination of deflections is therefore not very accurate, but for a normal assessment of
structures ,the long term deflection can be estimated on the safe side, if
the final creep coefficient is set to 3, so one can use
E
(1.34)
Ec,eff Ec cm
4
This rule is usually on the safe side, meaning that the found deflections
are too big, especially for outdoor structures and stronger types of concrete. In these cases it is possible to find a more accurate deflection by
determining the final creep coefficient as described here, but the best
solution is to test the actual type of concrete.
Example 1.3:
Given:
A cross section of 800 300 mm is made with concrete C40 and cement class N.
Desired:
The final creep coefficient when the member is located indoor and
outdoor, and the load is applied after 28 days.
Solution:
First find the two factors
35
f cm
0,7
35
2
f cm
0,2
35
40 8
0,7
35
40 8
0,2
0,80
0,94
h0 = 218 mm, see example 1.2

Then RH is found for RH = 50 % and RH = 80%
RH = 50 %:
RH
RH
50
1
1
100
100
1
1 2 1 3
0,80 0,94 1,56
3h
0,1
0,1
218
0
RH = 80 %:
20
RH
RH
80
1
1
100
100
1
1 2 1 3
0,80 0,94 1,19
0,13 h0
0,1 218
Influence from concrete strength

16,8
16,8
f cm
2,42
f cm
40 8
And finally the influence from the time of applying the load:
1
1
t0
0,49
0,1 t00,2 0,1 280,2
Thereafter the final creep coefficients are found
RH 50 %: RH fcm t0 1,56 2,42 0,49 1,85

RH 80 %: RH fcm t0 1,19 2,42 0,49 1,41
1.1.8 Thermal expansion coefficient

Concrete's thermal expansion coefficient is normally set to
105 m m K
For steels thermal expansion is normally used 1,2 10-5 m/(m K). The
difference is so small that you can ignore the tensions caused by differential expansion.
One should rather be aware of coercion forces (forced forces) from uneven heating. These temperature tensions can be significant.
21
1.1.9 Overview
Concrete strength divided into strength classes corresponding to the
characteristic cylinder strength. Calculations are carried out with concrete strengths corresponding to these strength classes. table 1.2 shows
values for the different strength parameters corresponding to these
strength classes.
Strength class
fck (MPa)
fck,cube
(MPa)
fcm
(MPa)
fctm
(MPa)
fctk, 0,05
(MPa)
fctk, 0,95
(MPa)
Ecm
(GPa)
Ec
(GPa
12
16
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
90
15
20
25
30
37
45
50
55
60
67
75
85
95
105
20
24
28
33
38
43
48
53
58
63
68
78
88
98
1,6 1,9 2,2
2,6 2,9 3,2
3,5 3,8
4,1
4,2 4,4
4,6
4,8
5,0
1,1 1,3 1,5
1,8 2,0 2,2
2,5 2,7
2,9
3,0 3,1
3,2
3,4
3,5
2,0 2,5 2,9
3,3 3,8 4,2
4,6 4,9
5,3
5,5 5,7
6,0
6,3
6,6
27
31
35
36
37
38
41
42
44
8,8 9,0
9,3
9,6 9,8 10,2 10,6 10,9
29
30
6,8 7,2 7,5
33
34
7,9 8,2 8,5
Tabel 1.2: Concretes strength parameters.
39
22
1.2 Reinforcement
The reinforcement can be divided into two main groups. Reinforcement for pre-stressed concrete structures and reinforcement for traditionally reinforced concrete structures.
The reinforcement of pre-stressed concrete comes in two forms.
Strings are used to pre-tensioned concrete and cables used for posttensioned concrete. The steel used in pre-stressed concrete is a special
steel with very high strengths.
The strengths of reinforcement for pre-stressed concrete is so high
that they cannot be used in ordinary concrete structures, so one have to
carry out tensioning in order to get benefit from the high forces. In addition, pre-stressed reinforcement types very diverse and are often patented with special systems for clamping and fixing of the pre-stressed
reinforcement. For further details, please refer to the companies. Prestressed reinforcement is dealt with in the DS / EN 10138 and DS / EN
1992-1-1, and will not be further discussed here.
For other (traditionally) reinforced concrete structures, one distinguished between rib steel, surface corrugated profiled steel and smooth
structural steel.
The DS / EN 1992-1-1 only applies to ribbed and weldable reinforcement, including welded mesh. Welded mesh is rebars delivered
"ready-bonded" by tack welding.
Surface Corrugated steel bars can be used in precast concrete where
the detailed rules for their use can be found in the relevant product
standards.
Plain (smooth) structural steel was previously widely used for reinforcement of concrete structures, but ae now more or less been discontinued. With the European concrete standard DS / EN 1992-1-1 the final step to leave the plain reinforcing was taken. Plain reinforcement
was provided typically as what is known as mild (soft) steel, ie. with
low forces, but with very large elongations to break. The additional
price and the advantages of using reinforcement with higher forces are
so great that the reinforcement of such types is in use today mostly.
However, the plain reinforcement ability to be bent on small bending
radii and its ability to bend back and forth several times is being
missed now and then. That is why the National Annex from 2011 introduced rules for the use of reinforcement with plain surfaces, see section 1.2.1. However, the economically advantageous higher reinforcement strengths, requires better anchoring conditions than we have for
plain rebars. Hence why reinforcement with high strengths are made of
of ribbed steel with associated anchoring, according to rules in DS /
EN 1992-1-1, see chapter 3.
Reinforcing the standard DS / EN 10080 states the properties that
characterize reinforcement and the test methods to be used to demonstrate the properties. The requirements for the properties of the rein-
23
forcement can be used in conjunction with DS / EN 1992-1-1 is indicated in DS / EN 1992-1-1.

The slack reinforcement is also characterized by
the tensile yield strength or 0.2 percentage tension
ductility
anchorability
allowable bending diameter
manufacturing process.
For reinforcement with distinct yield strength the tensile strength fy is
specified as the upper limit of the tensile yield strength, see figure 1.6.
After some yielding tension increases again - the occurrence of a strain
hardening happens. After the maximum tension (= tensile strength ft) is
achieved, a decrease in the tension of growing strains happens. The
strain at maximum force is described as u.
Figure 1.6:
Typical stress-strain
diagram for steel with
a distinct yield
strength
For reinforcement without distinct yield strength, apply f0,2-tension as tensile yield strength fy. f0,2 is the tension there by a unloading would provide
0.2 % permanent elongation, see figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7:
Typical stress-strain
diagram for steel
without a distinct
yield strength
On the basis of multiple measurements of yield stresses fy, tensile strengths

ft and strain at maximum force u the corresponding characteristic values
24
of 5% and 10% fractile is determined, as defined in section 1.1.2 for concrete compressive strength. It is to such values being required in DS/EN
1992-1-1.
When speaking about the strength of reinforcement - whether in the
case of yield strength or breaking strength - the tension is calculated from
nominal diameters. That is, it is the nominal diameter used in the calculation of strengths etc. regardless of the actual diameter that naturally may
vary due to manufacturing tolerances.
DS / EN 1992-1-1 is working with reinforcement in three classes
called class A, class B and class C. Some of the requirements are given
in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3:
Overview of some of
the requirements for
reinforcement
Product
Rebars, straightened
Fractile
Reinforcement and welded mesh

B
(%)
Class
Characteristic yield strength
fyk or f0,2 (MPa)
Minimum value of k = (ft/fy)k
1,05
1,08
1,15
< 1,35
10
Characteristic strain at
maximum force, uk (%)
2,5
5,0
7,5
10
400 - 600
5,0
It is noted that it separates the three classes is their ductility. It is such

that the class C reinforcement aim primarily of use in earthquake impacts, where high ductility helps to provide high energy absorption and
large strain at break. class B reinforcement is intended to apply in relation to DS / EN 1992-1-1 and calculations are based on the theory of
plasticity. Class A reinforcement has a more limited use. It can be used
in some cases and the issue is discussed in section 2.3.2.
To all reinforcement types applies, that the computational basis for
the characteristic line of work - according to DS/EN 1992-1-1 - is assumed to consist of two straight lines, as shown in fig. 1.8. It is stated
in DS/EN 1992-1-1 that if this assumption is followed - what it has to
according to the danish annexe - you do not need to control the strain
limit.
Figure 1.8:
Characteristic stressstrain relation for use
in DS/EN 1992-1-1
The characteristic value of the modulus of elasticity of reinforcement is

set to Esk = 200 . 103MPa.
25
The strain at the beginning yielding y corresponding to the characteristic yield strength are by;
f yk
(1.35)
Esk
In order to prevent damage to the reinforcement, limits on how small

bending diameters may be used in the design of the reinforcement of
the structures are set. The minimum diameter as a reinforcing bar diameter must be bent over the (dowel bar diameter) is given in DS/EN
1992 - 1-1 and are shown in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4:
Minimum dowel bar
diameter to avoid
damaging the
reinforcement
Bar diameter
Smallest dowel diameter
16 mm
4
7
> 16 mm
For welded mesh there are also limitations on the dowel diameters,
depending on bar diameter and distance to the crossbar. Refer to DS /
EN 1992-1-1.
1.2.1 Special conditions for reinforcement with plain

surface
As previously mentioned the danish national annex has introduced
rules, making it possible to use reinforcement with plain surface together with DS/EN 1992-1-1.
Reinforcement with plain surface must be manufactured as structural steel according to DS/EN 10025-2 or as reinforcement steel according to DS/EN 10080. Structural steel must be of the types S235, S275
or S355.
The lower limit for the yield strength described in table 1.3 is not
valid for plain reinforcement and the yield stress must not exceed 250
MPa is forces are planned to be transferred from reinforcement to concrete by bonding.
The characteristic yield strength for structural steel according to
DS/EN 10025-2 can, for diameters up to and including 16 mm be set to
respectively 235 MPa, 275 MPa and 355 MPa for the steel types S235,
S275 and S355. For plain reinforcement according to DS/EN 10080
table 1.3 is also valid, except the limits for yield strength. The lower
limit is not valid and the characteristic yield strength must be lower
than 500 MPa.
For plain reinforcement, it is necessary to introduce special rules for
anchoring. As plain reinforcement is seldom used as main reinforcement, this topic is not covered in this book. The rules are the same as
the ones introduced in the exceeded Danish standards and can be found
in e.g. Bjarne Chr. Jensen: Concrete Structures according to DS 411, 3,
edition and Teknisk Stbi 19. Edition (only available in Danish).
26
As mentioned, it is possible to bend plain reinforcement more than
ribbed reinforcement. Instead of table 1.4, one must use table 1.5.
Table 1.5:
Minimum dowel bar
diameter for plain
reinforcement
Bar diameter
Smallest dowel diameter
12 mm
2
3
> 12 mm
1.3 Environmental conditions

The previous part of this section is intentionally not translated
1.3.3 Crack widths

In areas with tensile in steel- reinforced concrete, cracks will occur in
the concrete. In such load caused cracking is a kind of self-healing effect, which among other things is due to un-hydrated cement, continues to hydrates. However if the crack width is too large, there is a danger of corrosion of the reinforcement. Therefore, it is recommended
that one limit the width of the load-caused cracks.
However, there is no clear relationship between the width of the
cracks and the corrosion hazards. Therefore you see different countries
many different proposals for maximum crack widths. Simultaneously
there is very wide dispersal on crack widths, and they are very hard to
calculate.
DS / EN 1992-1-1 recommend some calculated maximum crack
widths, depending on environmental classes and it also forward instructions on estimation of crack widths, see Section 4.2.5.3.
The recommended calculated maximum crack widths from DS / EN
1992-1-1 is seen in table 1.7.
Table 1.8:
Recommended,
calculated maximum
crack widths
Environmental class
Extra aggressive
Aggressive
Moderate
Un-stressed
reinfocement
Prestressed
reinforcement
0,2 mm
0,3 mm
0,4 mm
0,1 mm
0,2 mm
0,3 mm
27
Principles of calculation
2.1 Use and failure modes
Calculation of load-bearing structures include two different situations.
Partly, by calculating, it is assessed whether structures behave appropriately under normal use. E.g. a floor partition does deflect too
much, or that there are no unwanted cracks in the structures. This situation is called the serviceability state.
Partly, by calculating, assessing whether structures have the necessary safety against failure. This is done by conducting a failure structural calculation. This situation is called the ultimate state. For calculations in ultimate state, securities are introduced, ie. the calculations are
typically carried out with greater loads than those that occur and with
material strengths that are lower than those that occur.
2.2 Safety
When theories or empirical formulas are established for bearing capacities and these should be compared with tests, one must use the present
forces. However, the present forces are not well-defined sizes. Two
major problems arise immediately. How are strength parameters determined and how large correlation is there between the measured
strengths and the strengths of the current structure?
Compressive and tensile strengths are determined after carefully described methods (see, for example. Sections 1.1.2 and 1.1.3). Based on
these average values are calculated as the best estimate of the present
strength. These strengths are used, for example, when test results must
be evaluated. Calculation methods and formulas are normally based on
these "true" values.
In order to take into account the random variation in the material
properties, the standards are using, as a basis for calculations, the characteristic strengths see section 1.1.2. These strength parameters are
named with the index k.
The strengths used in calculations, are called design strengths, and
they appear as one of the characteristic strengths divided with partial
factors. Together with the partial factors on the loads, is hereby granted
a guarantee against breakage. The design strengths depend on the load
combinations, the level and types of failure and hence whether it is reinforced or non-reinforced concrete structures. The design strength parameters are referred to with the index d (d = design).
For concrete, the same partial factor for compressive strength and
modulus of elasticity are used, while using a larger partial factor of
tensile strength, see below. An example of the basic relationship between stresses and strains is shown in fig. 2.1.
28
2. Principles of calculation
Figure 2.1:
Principal stress-strain
relation for concrete
Average
Characteristic
Design
For reinforcement is used a design modulus of elasticity that is equal to

the characteristic, whereby the design yield strain should be less than
the characteristic yield strain. The design yield strain yd is thereby
yd
f yd
(2.1)
Esd
Fig. 2.2 shows the correlation between characteristic and design related
work line.
Figure 2.2:
Principal working
lines for
reinforcement
The design strengths are generated by the characteristic forces by division with a material partial factor M, for reinforcing the index s and the
concrete index c instead of M. Table 2.1 shows an overview of the design strengths. It is noted that the reinforcement tensile and compressive forces are considered equal.
Table 2.1:
Design value of forces
reinforcement
f yk
tension
f yd
compression
f yd
modulus of
elasticity
Esd Esk
s
f yk
concrete
fctd
fctk
f cd
f ck
Ecd
Eck
29
Material partial factors M laid down according to DS / EN 1990
M 1 2 3 4
(2.2)
where
1 take into account the failure type (unwarned failure or warned failure with or without security reserve)
2 takes into account the uncertainty of the calculation
3 takes into account the control class
4 takes into account the variation in the strength parameters or measured load bearing capacity.
The factor 4 depends as mentioned by the random variability in the
material properties. The variation is less for concrete in precast concrete elements than it is for concrete in situ cast concrete structures.
Therefore, the partial factors for concrete in precast concrete are smaller than they are for concrete in structures, cast on site. The variation of
the concrete compressive strength is less than the variation of the tensile strength of concrete, therefore, the partial coefficient for concrete
tensile strength is greater than that of concrete compressive strength
and modulus of elasticity.
Failure type of concrete (1) in unreinforced structures is unannounced as they are announced in reinforced concrete, so there is a difference between the partial factors for reinforced and unreinforced
concrete.
It is also possible to assess the prefabricated concrete elements safety by performance test. This eliminates uncertainty in the calculation
models. You could say that one has come the elements usage even
closer when the force is assessed. This means that the partial factors on
the carrying ability found by functional tests of precast concrete elements is different from the partial factors used in calculating the bearing capacities of precast concrete elements.
In the concrete standard DS/EN 1992-1-1 the individual factors size
is considered, so that only 3 is determined in current projects.
2.2.1 Structures cast in situ

Partial factors for use in the calculation of concrete cast on site are
found of
Compressive strength and modulus of elasticity
of reinforced concrete
of unreinforced concrete
Tensile strength of concrete
Reinforcement strengths
c = 1,45 3
(2.3)
c = 1,60 3
c = 1,70 3
c = 1,20 3
(2.4)
(2.5)
(2.6)
The factor 3 takes into account the inspection level prescribed in the
project. What is required of control in each level are described in
30
DS/EN 13670 and associated standards. Correlation between 3 and inspection level is available in table 2.2.
Table 2.2:
3 in dependency of
the inspectionlevel
(KK)
Inspection level
3
Tightened
Normal
Relaxed
0,95
1,00
1,10
Structures located in high consequence class, must not be prescribed in

relaxed inspection level.
Structures cast in situ is usually performed in normal inspection level (3)=1,0 and the partial factors are thus as shown in table 2.3.
Table 2.3:
Partial factors for
normal inspection
level and in-situ cast
concrete
3 for normal
inspection level
Strength of reinforcement
1,45
1,60
1,70
1,20
2.2.2 Precast concrete elements calculation

Partial factors for the calculation of prefabricated concrete elements
are found of
Compressive strength and modulus of
elasticity of reinforced concrete
Compressive strength and modulus of
elasticity of unreinforced concrete
Reinforcement strengths
c = 1,40 3
(2.7)
c = 1,55 3
c = 1,60 3
c = 1,20 3
(2.8)
(2.9)
(2.10)
Table 2.2 concerning the inspection level also applies here.

Precast concrete is usually performed in the tightened inspection
level (3 = 0,95) and the partial factors are thus as shown in table 2.4.
Table 2.4:
Partial factors for
prefabricated
structures in tightened
inspection level
3 for tightened
inspection level
Strength of reinforcement
1,33
1,47
1,52
1,14
31
2.2.3 Precast concrete with functional test

Partial factors for use in the provision of prefabricated concrete elements carrying capacity when they are functionally tested, are found
by
Performance testing with ductile fracture
M = 1,20 3
(2.11)
Functional testing of brittle fracture
M = 1,45 3
(2.12)
Table 2.2 for the inspection levels also applies in connection with the
functional tests.
Functional testing is rarely used in concrete, but as the rule of separate partial factors for functional tested precast concrete is new, you
might see a development where functional test is gaining ground.
It should be noted that the partial factor for ductile fracture only applies to bending fractures if certain specified requirements are met, see
DS/EN 1992-1-1. Other fracture modes are regarded as brittle fractures.
2.2.4 Statistical evaluation of carrying capacity models

DS / EN 1990 contains an annex about design, based on experiments.
It may be relevant in specific cases, where there are no computational
models. The annex has also a section on statistical analysis of the carrying capacity models.
On the basis of observations of elements behaviour in experiments
and theoretical considerations, a computational model is worked out.
This model's validity is checked by a statistical analysis of all test data.
Thereafter, if necessary, the calculation model must be adapted until
there is sufficient coherence between the theoretical values and the experimental data.
A difference in the predictions by using the calculation model,
should also be determined from experiments. It is necessary to combine this deviation with the deviations of the other variables in the calculation model, to get an overall indication of deviations and thus one
can calculate the partial factor to be used in conjunction with the calculation model.
The procedure is described step by step in DS / EN 1990 and it is
new compared to standard systems in Denmark and is so far applied to
a new model for unreinforced wall panels, see [17] and Section 7.2.2.
32
2.3 Dimensioning
2.3.1 Serviceability limit condition/state
The requirements for the serviceability state is called the serviceability
limit state. It is worth noting that the DS / EN 1992-1-1 does not provide actual requirements for the serviceability limit state, but says that
one should formulate requirements for serviceability state, and that it
must be determined whether they are fulfilled or not.
In the serviceability limit state it is therefore the designer himself
who formulate the requirements, which usually occurs in conjunction
with the owner of the structure. When calculating the serviceability
limit state, the characteristic material strengths is used and there are no
partial factors added on the loads. In some cases, only parts of the
moveable load.
DS / EN 1992-1-1 gives guidance on how deflections can be controlled by calculation or respecting simple design rules are respected.
DS / EN 1992-1-1 also recommends some limits on deflections of
beams, slabs and cantilevers (see section 4.2.5.2) in its quasipermanent load combination (quasi = apparently).
Serviceability limit states are normally assessed on the loads that are
so small compared with the structure's load bearing capacity that it is
reasonable to assume that the structures behave as linear elastic structures, ie. assessment of serviceability limit states is generally carried
out by using the theory of elasticity.
2.3.2 Ultimate limit state
Fracture limit state calculations consist in calculating whether a designs capacity is greater than the applied load, where the partial factors
on the strengths is used according to DS/EN 1992-1-1 and on loads according to DS/EN 1990.
In assessing ultimate resistance one must partly find a cross sections
bearing capacity and also find the actual internal forces. Both will be
described in detail in the following chapters.
Section forces
The section forces can be determined by both the theory of elasticity or
the theory of plasticity. Elasticity theory has among other things the
advantages that it is well known, it allows superposition (addition of
different loads effects) and that it can be used to assess the serviceability state. Disadvantages include that it can be expensive to use, since
there seems to appear section force peaks which it is unreasonable to
reinforce for, if not demands to crack widths or similar demands it. Finally, it should of course be noted that concrete is not a linear elastic
material. As described in Section 1.1.5, the elastic modulus varies with
the stresses, ie. it varies in the structure. Second area moments also
33
vary according to whether the cross sections are cracked or not, and it
varies with the amount of reinforcement. A very accurate determination of internal forces by the theory of elasticity is not necessary, of
course, one must simply ensure that internal forces are static permissible, ie. they must satisfy the equilibrium conditions.
The theory of plasticity has especially the advantage that it is a calculation of fracture condition. It provides significantly better potential
for exploitation of the reinforcement, so it is usually cheaper to use
than the theory of elasticity. Moreover, it is often simpler to use than
the theory of elasticity. One drawback, however, is that the serviceability limit state requires a different calculation, but according to the notes
on the theory of elasticity, it does not need to be so accurate. Qualified
estimate or simple approximation methods are often sufficient for the
serviceability state.
Finally, it should of course be mentioned that the theory of plasticity
with its advantages may only be utilized when the required plasticity
(ie yielding capacity) are present. According to DS/EN 1992-1-1 it requires the use of reinforcement in Class B or C unless you can prove
that a yielding capacity is present.
If fatigue fractures or instability is essential for bearing capacity, the
internal forces are determined by the theory of elasticity, since the use
of yielding then cannot take place.
In connection with the theory of plasticity must include some important concepts:
Static permissible force distributions are section force distributions
that meet the equilibrium equations and the static boundary conditions.
Secure internal force distributions are distributions that everywhere
is less than or equal to the internal forces that may be included in the
sections in which they appear..
Geometric possible failure figures are deformation conditions that
meet compatibility conditions and geometric boundary conditions
(compatibility = compatibility, ie. fracture figure must be compatible with the materials and the structure's physical conditions).
Upper bound theorem:
The load, which is found by the work equation for any possible geometric fracture, is greater than or equal to the load of the bodys float
load.
Lower bound theorem:
The, to a safe and static permissible distribution of forces, associated
load is less than or equal to the bodys float load.
34
Uniqueness theorem:
If there to a load is a corresponding geometric possible fracture figure
as well as a safe and static permissible distribution of forces, the load is
equal to the bodys float load.
By using the work equation are upper values of carrying capacities
found, why it is important to find the one that gives the minimum capacity. The minimum is often flat so fracture figures that slightly differ
from the one that gives minimum, provide useful values.
By using lower bound theorem, lower values of bearing capacity are
found, and in this case it is about finding the safe and static distribution
of forces which provides the highest load bearing capacity.
Lower bound theorem has in fact been used for many years. Many
structural parts through the ages were calculated by drawing tensile
and compressive forces, and you have then reinforced against the tensile forces. Often professionals have sinned against verifying compressive forces in the concrete. This there must be warned against, since
compressive failure in concrete of course also can occur. Especially after studies have shown that one in some cases only can utilize about
half of the compressive strength.
Carrying Capacities
Carrying capacities are in many cases based on the theory of plasticity,
and also in such case, the necessary yielding capacity must be present.
Unfortunately, DS / EN 1992-1-1 does not account for this, although
many of its calculation rules are based on the theory of plasticity, for
which reason the Danish annex introduced additional rules in this area.
In general, it can be said that using reinforcement in Class B or Class
C, the required yielding capacity is expected to be present, while the
use of reinforcement in Class A requires a number of more detailed
documentations that you are not always able to perform with the
knowledge we have today. A discussion of the topic can be found in
[19].
35
Anchorage, laps and

detailing of members
3.1 Anchoring and overlap
In reinforcement anchorage or lap length means the distance from reinforcement bars free end of the concrete to the point where it can carry
full load. By anchoring, the force is transferred from the reinforcement
to the concrete and by laps that the force of a reinforcing bar is transmitted through concrete to a second reinforcing bar.
On homogeneous conditions of anchorage length, the force in the reinforcement is calculated to increase linearly over the anchorage length
equivalent to a uniformly distributed shear stress along the reinforcement surface, see Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1:
Forces at anchoring
Shear along the reinforcement
Force in reinforcement
There are a number of factors that have influence on the shear stress
that can be transmitted between the reinforcement and the concrete.
Studying the different fracture shapes by anchoring breakage and perform calculations on those using the theory of plasticitys upper bound
theorem has helped well in understanding the anchoring effect, and the
important factors have been identified.
Unfortunately the calculations end with more complicated equations, where a number of parameters must be determined by analysis of
experimental results. All in all, this means that the theory ends up in
methods of calculation that are too complicated for everyday design.
Regarding the calculation of the plastic anchoring fracture, reference is
made to the specialist literature.
The method used in DS/EN 1992-1-1 is a classic method, where factors to cover various influences upon the bearing capacity are applied.
The method in DS / EN 1992-1-1, and described here, does not cover reinforcement with smooth surface according to comments made in
1.2.1.
36
3. Anchorage, laps and detailing of members

The characteristic force T - which may be in a rebar - is determined
by the cross sectional area of the reinforcement and its typical yield
stress
2 f yk
(3.1)
where
is the diameter of reinforcement
fyk is the characteristic yield strength of the reinforcement.
If the anchorage strength fb between the surfaces of concrete and reinforcement is known, one can calculate the surface area of reinforcement needed to anchor it in the concrete. The necessary surface area
equals the perimeter of the reinforcement multiplied with the anchorage length lb, and one finds
T fb 2 lb
(3.2)
By setting the two expressions for T equal one finds
f yk
lb
4 fb
(3.3)
This expression gives the ratio between anchorage length and diameter,
if fb is known.
If the stress in the reinforcement has been determined to a value sd
being lower than the yield strength, the anchorage length will reduced
to the basic anchorage length lb,rq. When introducing design values we
get
lb,rqd
sd
4 fbd
(3.4)
The design anchorage strength is set to
fbd 2,25 fctd
(3.5)
Where fctd is the design tensile strength, based on a 5 % fractile of the

tensile strength of concrete, fctk,0,05. For concrete strengths higher than
fck = 60 MPa, the values for fck = 60 MPa are used. The presence of the
design anchorage strength requires a minimum concrete cover, equal to
the diameter of the reinforcement , see also section 1.3.2 and section
3.3.
The formula for the anchorage strength is valid for diameters < 32
mm and for good bond conditions.
Good bond conditions exist for bottom reinforcement when concrete
is poured traditionally, in layers from the bottom and up, and when
each layer is vibrated properly.
For top reinforcement, the good bond conditions are present if the
height of the casted element is < 250 mm.
37
For bigger heights reinforcement located in the upper 300 mm poor

bond conditions are assumed, see fig. 3.2, but the lower 250 mm will
always have good bond conditions.
If the bond conditions are poor as described above and for casting in
sliding forms, the design anchorage strength is reduced with the factor
0,7.
If reinforcement with a diameter > 32 mm is used, the design anchorage strength is reduced with the factor :
132
32 mm
100
Figure 3.2:
Good and poor
conditions
(3.6)
A = casting direction
a) & b) good bond conditions for all bars
c) & d) unhatched area good bond conditions

hatched area good bond conditions
For good bond conditions and diameters < 32 mm, the anchorage
length corresponding to total use of the reinforcement, can be described as
f
lb
yd c
9 f k ,0,05
(3.7)
If the bond conditions are poor, the anchorage length is increased by

the factor 1/0,7.
If reinforcement is carrying a design stress sd < fyd, the anchorage
length is reduced to the socalled basic anchorage length, determined as
the anchorage length multiplied with the ratio sd/fyd.
38

Table 3.1 gives the anchorage lengths lb/ for full use of the reinforcement, for different strength classes for concrete and characteristic
yield strengths for reinforcement, determined on basis of (3.7). The table is valid for in-situ casted concrete, but can on the safe side be used
for anchorage lengths in prefabricated concrete elements, since the partial factor on the tensile strength of concrete is lower than for in-situ
casted concrete.
Table 3.1:
Anchoring lengths lb/
by good anchoring
conditions in the insitu concrete and
32 mm
Strength class
fck (MPa)
fyk = 550 MPa
fyk = 500 MPa
12
16
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60-90
79
65
56
48
43
39
35
33
30
29
28
72
59
51
44
39
35
32
30
28
27
26
3.1.1 Precast concrete elements calculation

Anchoring length lb are as mentioned by (3.7) or table 3.1, corresponding to the full use of the reinforcement.
With a calculated stress sd < fyd in the reinforcement the basic anchorage length lb,rqd is found by multiplying with the ratio between the
stresses, ie.
(3.8)
lb,rqd lb sd
f yd
The basic anchorage length found by (3.8) applies both to tensile and
compression anchorage.
The basic anchorage length can be used as the design anchorage
length lbd, but it is sometimes possible to reduce the basic anchorage
length, so that the needed anchorage length becomes smaller.
The factors that can make it possible to reduce the length are:
the reinforcement bars shape
additional concrete coverage
the use of transverse reinforcement
the presence of cross-pressures
The reinforcement bars shape
If you use bending, hooks or U-clamp on the reinforcement, the tensile
anchorage ability increases, ie. the calculated anchorage length may be
reduced, provided sufficient coverage for the utilization of the increased anchorage ability. Design of folding, hooks or U-clamp is
shown in fig. 3.3.
39
Figure 3.3:
Anchorage with
bending, hooks and
U-clamp
Bending
Hook
U-clamp
The design anchorage length lbd can when using bending, hook or uclamp be set to
lbd 1lb,rqd 0,7lb,rqd
for cd 3
(3.9)
For less concrete cover and for straight reinforcement the design tensile anchorage length is set equal to the basic anchorage length, ie. lbd =
lb,rqd
For bend reinforcement and hooks, the anchorage length is measured along the centerline of the bars as indicated in fig. 3.4.
Figure 3.4:
Anchorage lengths
are measured along
the centerline
Determination of the cover cd when using (3.9) can be found from fig.
3.5.
Figure 3.5:
Values of cd for
calculation of
anchorage
a) Straight bars
cd min a 2, c1, c
b) Bending or hooks
cd min a 2, c1
c) U-clamps
cd c
Notice that bending, hooks and u-clamps has no influence on the compressive anchorage length.
Additional concrete cover
An increased concrete cover increases the anchorage capacity, because
the force needed to split the concrete will increase. This increase in anchorage capacity can be taken into account by multiplicating the basic
anchorage length with a factor 2 determined from:
2 1 0,15
cd
for straight bars
(3.10)
2 1 0,15
cd 3
for bending, hooks and u-clamps
(3.11)
The value is limited to 0,7 < 2 < 1,0, and cd is determined according
to fig. 3.5.
40

The increased anchorage capacity must only be taken into account
for tensile reinforcement, and the effect of bending, hooks or u-clamps
is an addendum to the value found from (3.9)
Transverse reinforcement
As anchorage failures, one often see a splitting of the concrete along
the reinforcement bars to the free surface. A transverse fixing of the reinforcement bars will therefore increase the anchorage capacity. For
slabs a transverse expansion is difficult due to the extension of the
slab, whereas beams has a lesser dimension perpendicular to the reinforcement bars that must be anchored. For this reason minimum demands for transverse reinforcement when anchoring in beams must be
respected. No such demands exists for slabs. The minimum demand for
transverse reinforcement in beams is
(3.12)
Ast,min 0,25As
Where Ast ,min is the minimum cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement located within the design anchorage length and As is the
cross-sectional area of one anchored reinforcement bar.
Usually stirrups are used for minimum transverse reinforcement,
and for stirrups with the diameter t and longitudinal reinforcement
with the area , the necessary amount of stirrups distributed over the
design anchorage length lbd can be found from table 3.2.
Table 3.2:
Number of stirrups
needed over the
design anchorage
lenght
Longitudinal reinforcement mm
t mm
12
14
16
20
25
32
6
8
10
12
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
5
3
2
2
8
4
3
2
If one uses more transverse reinforcement over the design anchorage

length lbd than needed, The anchorage length can be reduced by multiplying it with 3, found from
3 1 K
Ast Ast ,min

As
(3.13)
where
Ast is the cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement located
within the design anchorage length
Ast,min is the minimum cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement. For beams it can be determined from (3.12) and for slabs
it can be set to 0
As is the cross-sectional area of one anchored reinforcement bar
K is a factor that depends on the location of the transverse reinforcement, see fig. 3.6.
41
Figure 3.6:
Values for K for use
in (3.13)
The value is limited to 0,7 < 3 < 1,0 and 3 can only be taken into account for tensile anchoring. Notice that, in order to be taken into account, the transverse reinforcement must be located between the concrete surface and the reinforcement that must be anchored. Please notice that the use of additional transverse reinforcement only has a small
effect on the anchorage length.
Transverse reinforcement can also be welded to the reinforcement
that must be anchored, e.g. if one uses mesh reinforcement. If the
transverse reinforcement is located according to fig. 3.7, (3.13) is substituted with a fixed value 4 = 0,7
Figure 3.7:
Location of welded
transverse
reinforcement for the
use of 4
DS/EN 1992-1-1 gives further possibilities for reduction of the anchorage length by the use of welded transverse reinforcement, if a check of
the quality of the weldings is carried out. These possibilities will not be
described in this book.
Transverse pressure
A transverse pressure contributes to a higher resistance against splitting of concrete, and gives thereby a higher resistance against anchorage failure. This effect can only be taken into account for tensile anchoring.
The transverse pressure is taken into account by multiplying the
basic anchorage length with 5, determined from
5 1 0,04 p
(3.14)
Where p is the design transverse pressure in MPa along the design anchorage length lbd.
The value of a5 must not be set below 0,7 corresponding to a transverse pressure of p = 7,5 MPa. Higher transverse pressures can therefore not be taken into account when reducing the design anchorage
length.
Summary on the anchorage length
The anchorage length lb corresponding to 100 % use of the reinforcement is found from (3.7) or table 3.1.
The basic anchorage length lb,rqd corresponding to the design stress
sd < fyd is found from (3.8)
42

When anchoring for compression this basic anchorage length is used as
design anchorage length lbd.
When anchoring for tension you can do the following as well:
Used bending, hook or U-clamp , the design anchorage length can
be found by (3.9) , if the cover is sufficient
Use extra cover layer, the anchorage length is reduced by a factor
that is found from (3.10) or (3.11)
If more transverse reinforcement is used at the anchorage than the
required minimum, anchorage length can be reduced by a factor that
is found from (3.13)
Used welded transverse reinforcement, which satisfies the condition
shown in fig. 3.6, the designed anchorage length can be reduced by
a factor of 0.7 - but not while using (3.13) simultaneously.
It is possible to take account of transverse pressure by reducing the
anchorage length by a factor that is found from (3.14)
The effects can be combined, provided that the total reduction of the
factors 2, 3 and 5 not exceed 0,7, ie. 235 0,7
(3.15)
The minimum calculated tensile anchorage length lbd one can
achieve without using welded transverse reinforcement is lbd = 0,7
0,7lb,rqd 0,5lb,rqd
The anchoring length must never be less than the minimum anchorage
length lb,min found by
lb,min max 0,6lb,req ;10;100mmcompression

lb,min max 0,3lb,req ;10;100mm tension
Example 3.1:
Anchoring at beam
end
(3.16)
(3.17)
Given:
A beam is cast in situ and is supported on 250 mm so that the reinforcement reaches 200 mm in from the support edge. See figure;
Stirrups
6
43
Reinforcement: 3 20, fyk = 500 MPa

Concrete C30
Inspection level normal
Prescribed concrete cover: 30 mm
Reaction: 90 kN
Tensile force in reinforcement at the support: T = 113 kN
Desired:
Can longitudinal reinforcement be anchored by only taking the basic
anchorage length into account?
Can longitudinal reinforcement be anchored following the reduction
rules in DS/EN 1992-1-1?
Solution:
c 1,45,
f cd
s 1,20
30
500
20,7 MPa , f yd
417 MPa
1,45
1,2
3 20 gives As = 942 mm2

Stress in reinforcement at support:
sd
T 113 103
120 MPa
942
As
The anchorage length is found from table 3.2 to
lb
39 lb 39 20 780mm
Design basic anchorage length
lb,rqd lb
sd
f yd
780
120
224 mm 200 mm
417
The longitudinal reinforcement cannot be anchored over the basic anchorage length.
The anchorage length can be reduced due to transverse pressure
REd
90 103
1,50 MPa
b l 300 200
5 1 0,04 p 1 0,04 1,50 1 0,060 0,94

Design anchorage length:
lb 5lb,rqd 0,94 224 211 mm 220 mm
44

More anchorage length than present is needed.
The stirrups are 6 mm and for minimum transverse reinforcement 3
stirrups are required, according to table 3.2. It is possible to introduce
further stirrups, but let us see if the concrete cover can provide the
needed reduction, see the figure.
1
Spacing a 300 36 2 20 3 84 mm
2
The size cd for use in (3.10) is found from figure 3.5a to
a
42 mm
cd 2
c 36 mm
From (3.10) we get: 2 1 0,15
cd
36 20
1 0,15
0,88
20
lb 25lb,rqd 0,88 0,94 224 185 mm 220 mm OK
3.1.2 Laps
In laps forces are transferred from one reinforcement bar to another. In
order to transfer forces from one bar to another there must be an overlap, so that the force in one bar grows from 0 at the end to the full value of the force where the overlap ends. The force in the other bar decreases corresponding and ends with 0, see fig. 3.8
Figure 3.8:
Forces in
reinforcement bars at
overlaps
Force in upper
reinforcement bar
Force in lower
reinforcement bar
At overlaps the two bars are places next to each other. The distance between the two bars must not exceed 4 or 50 mm. If the distance is
made bigger the anchorage length must be increased with the difference between the spacing and the limit.
The longitudinal distance between to overlaps must be bigger than
0,3 times the design lap length l0, and by close overlaps the free spacing between two neighboring bars should exceed 2 or 20 mm, see figure 3.9.
45
Figure 3.9:
Minimum spacings at
close loops
When the rules of spacing are respected, one is allowed to make laps in
100 % of tensile reinforcement, when located in one layer. If two or
more layers of reinforcement are used 50 % of the reinforcement must
be lapped.
All reinforcement bars in compression and secondary reinforcement
must be lapped in a cross section.
Laps can also be performed by providing the reinforcement bars
with a bend or a hook. Furthermore laps can be performed by the use
of weldings or mechanical fixtures, connecting the 2 bars. Regarding
welding and mechanical fixtures one must look up relevant literature or
follow guidelines from suppliers.
Despite the idealized distribution of stresses around the reinforcement as shown in figure 3.8, there will be concentrated stresses at the
free ends of the bars lapped, causing a tendency of cracks to concentrate. It is recommendable to avoid overlaps in areas with the biggest
values of moments or compressive/tensile forces.
Anchorage and laps are much alike and at laps one determines a design lap length which equals the anchorage length determined from
(3.7). Thereafter one finds a basic lap length lb,rqd based on the design
stress sd < fyd in the reinforcement bar, following the same rules as for
basic anchorage length, ie. from (3.8)
This basic lap length can be subject to further reduction, if a number
of favorable conditions are present, in the same way as for anchorage
lengths.
The conditions that can be used to reduce the length are
the shape of the bars
additional concrete cover
the use of transverse reinforcement
presence of a transverse
Finally it can be necessary to increase the overlap length, depending on
the number of laps over a limited area.
Shape of reinforcement
Same rules as for anchorage
Additional concrete cover
Same rules as for anchorage
46

Laps also require transverse reinforcement to resist transverse forces,
but in some situations the tranverse reinforcement present due to demands for strength or as secondary reinforcement will be suficcient,
e.g. if the diameter of lapped bars is lesser than 20 mm or if less than
25 % of the reinforcement is lapped in the same cross-section.
If 20 mm or if 25% or more of the reinforcement is lapped in the
same cross section, one must use transverse reinforcement.
Ast,min As
(3.18)
where
Ast,min is the minimum cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement located along the overlap length
As is the cross-sectional area of one anchored reinforcement bar.
In beams transverse reinforcement is usually provided by adding stirrups, and in slab either secondary reinforcement or reinforcement carrying load in a direction perpendicular to the lap, will act as transverse
reinforcement. If additional transverse reinforcement is needed, the
number or transverse reinforcement bars with diameter t can be found
from table 3.3, depending on the diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement.
Table 3.3:
Number of tranverse
bars over the design
overlap lenght
t mm
Longitudinal reinforcement mm
8 10 12 14 16 20 25 32
6
8
10
12
14
16
20
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
6
4
2
2
1
1
1
8
4
3
2
2
1
1
12
7
4
3
3
2
1
18
10
7
5
4
3
2
29
16
11
8
6
4
3
One should notice that the use of bars > 20 mm in slabs, is rare, so if
laps are shifted so only every 5th bar is lapped in the same crosssection, the use of additional transverse reinforcement in slabs is not
necessary.
If additional transverse reinforcement is needed, it must be placed as
shown in figure 3.10.
For the determination of the transverse reinforcements contribution
to a reduction of the overlap length one must use (3.13), but for the
minimum reinforcement in overlaps the actual stress in the reinforcement must be taken into account, so for the use in (3.13) one can use
(3.19) instead of (3.18)
Ast,min As
sd
f yd
(3.19)
47
If the yield line theory has been used for the determination of reinforcement in slabs, one does not know the actual stress in the reinforcement. In this case the actual stress must be set equal to the yield
stress, so (3.19) will be equal to (3.18)
Figure 3.10:
Location of transverse
reinforcement in laps
a) in tension
b) in compression
Transverse reinforcement can be fixed by welding and if it meets the

conditions given in figure 3.6 the factor 3 can be replaced with a fixed
value 4 = 0,7.
For laps in welded mesh special rules are valid and we refer to
DS/EN 1992-1-1 regarding these rules.
Presence of transverse pressure
Will rarely occur at laps, but if it occurs, it can be taken into account
by following the same procedure as for anchorage.
The ratio of laps within a limited area
Previously in this book it is mentioned that laps in all reinforcement is
allowed in the same cross-section. Despite this fact one should not do
so. If all reinforcement is lapped in the same cross-section the overlap
length must be increased with 50 %. If one out of four bars is lapped in
the same cross section it is not necessary to increase the overlap length.
If the number of bars lapped in the same cross-section exceeds 25 %
DS/EN 1992-1-1 has rules for the increase of the overlap length, but as
a rule of thumb one can remember that laps in more than 25 % of the
reinforcement demands an increase of 50 % of the overlap length and
48

additional transverse reinforcement must be used, as described previously.
If the ratio of lapped bars in a cross section is 1, the increase of the
overlap length can be found from
1,5
0,25 1,0
(3.20)
Laps in the same cross section is defined as laps within 0,65 times the
overlap length from the center of the overlap length under investigation, see fig. 3.11
Figure 3.11:
The number of lapped
bars in a crosssection
Bar 1
Bar 2
Bar 3
Bar 4
Actual cross section

Example : Bar 2 and bar 3 are outside the actual cross section: Ratio 50%
Summary on overlap lengths

Overlap length = anchorage length lb corresponding to 100 % use of
reinforcement is found from (3.7) or table 3.1.
Basic overlap length = basic anchorage length lb,rqd corresponding to
a design stress of sd < fyd is found from (3.8)
For laps in compression the basic anchorage length is used as design
anchorage length l0.
For laps in tension one can additionally do the following:
If bending, hooks or U-clamps are used the design lap length can be
found from (3.9) if the cover is sufficient.
If additional concrete cover is used, the lap length can be reduced
with a factor found from (3.10) or (3.11).
If the amount of transverse reinforcement exceeds the demands for
minimum reinforcement the lap length can be reduced with a factor
determined from (3.13) as the minimum reinforcement is determined from (3.19)
It is possible to take transversal pressure into account by reducing
the lap length with a factor determined from (3.14)
The effects can be combined, provided that the total reduction of the
factors 2, 3 and 5 not exceed 0,7, ie. 235 0,7
(3.15)
The lowest design lap length l0 one can achieve without using welded transverse reinforcement is l0 = 0,7 0,7lb,rqd 0,5lb,rqd
49
The lab length must not be a lesser value than the minimum lap length
lb,min found from
lb,min max 0,36lb,req ;15;200mm tension

If more than 25 % of the reinforcement is lapped in the same crosssection, the anchorage length must be increased, on the safe side with
50 %. This increase must also be taken into account in the first expression in (3.21).
Example 3.2:
Laps in slab reinforcement
Given:
A slab casted in situ has a height of 150 mm
It is reinforced with = 10 mm spacing 150 mm in both directions
The lower layer of reinforcement has an effective height d = 125 mm
Concrete C20
Reinforcement with fyk = 500 MPa
Desired:
The reinforcement must be lapped.
1) lap length if only 20% is lapped in the same cross-section
2) lap length if all reinforcement is lapped in the same cross-section
Solution:
c 1,45,
f cd
s 1,20
30
500
20,7 MPa , f yd
417 MPa
1,45
1,2
lb
51 is found. Since we are dealing with a slab the
stresses are unknown, so reduction following (3.8) is not possible. The

basis lap length is set to lb,rqd = lb = 51 = 510 mm.
From table 3.1
1) lap length is only 20% is lapped in the same cross-section:

The lap length can be reduced due to the concrete cover. With cd = c =
20 mm, formula (3.10) is used and we get:
2 1 0,15
cd
20 10
1 0,15
0,85
10
The design lap length is
lo 2lb,rqd 0,85 510 433 mm

There is no addition for many laps in the same cross-section and it is
noted that the use of the basic lap length is on the safe side
50

2) lap length if all reinforcement is lapped in the same cross section:
The lap length must be increased with the factor 6 following (3.20).
When all bars are lapped in the same cross section, the factor can be
determined to 1,5, ie. the design lap length is
lo 62lb,rqd 1,5 0,85 510 650 mm
= 10 mm is < 20 mm so no additional transverse reinforcement is
needed in these 2 situations.
3.2 Minimum reinforcement and other rules

for reinforcement
There are two fundamentally different reasons for using minimum reinforcement in reinforced concrete structures. First, minimum reinforcement is used to be able to control crack widths, and secondly,
minimum reinforcement means that the construction can be considered
reinforces so that further assessment methods can be used with partial
coefficients for reinforced concrete.
3.2.1 Minimum reinforcement with regard to crack

control
The amount of reinforcement is assessed by finding the tension force
in the concrete corresponding to the force that would just make the
concrete crack, and then setting this force equal to the required reinforcement force.
For this calculation, the concrete tensile strength fctm is traditionally
used, but for larger cross sections, account must be taken of the unevenly distributed own tensions, which leads to reduction of restraint
forces.
3.2.1.1 Ties
For ties, the minimum reinforcement area, As,min, is set according to
f A
As,min ctm c
(3.21)
f yk
where
Ac is the area of the concrete
fctm is concretes mean tensile strength
fyk is reinforcementss mean tensile strength
3.2.1.2 Pure Bending

For rectangular cross sections, and for profiles in box cross sections
and T-sections, the minimum reinforcement area As,min is set to
As,min 0,4
fctm Act
f yk
51
(3.22)
where the Act is the area of concrete in the tension zone, i.e., the part of
the cross section that is intended to be a tension affected just before
formation of the first crack.
The minimum area in accordance with(3.22) can be reduced by a
coefficient k, which takes into account the effect of unevenly distributed own tension, which leads to a reduction of restraint forces. For section heights less than 300 mm, the effect cannot be taken into account,
and for section heights greater than 800 mm, the effect is set constant
to k = 0.65, and for intermediate values interpolated, i.e.:
k 1 0,35
h 300 1
500
0,65
(3.23)
The area Act is found using transformed cross-sections as described in

4.2.1.
If one looks at a rectangular section with width b and height h,
where the reinforcements effect on the stiffness is ignored is
Act
bh 1
Ac
2
2
(3.24)
The above is correct if there is as much compression as tension reinforcement, and in the frequent case where more tension than compression reinforcement is prevalent, then (3.24) is on the safe side.
If one omits to reduce the height effect after (3.23), to be on the
safe side, one can insert (3.24) in (3.22) and then one can find a reliable value for the minimum reinforcement with consideration to crack
control in rectangular beams for pure bending using
As,min 0,2
fctm Ac
f yk
(3.25)
This minimum reinforcement is smaller than that required for the beam
to be considered reinforced; see Section 3.2.2.1.
For T-sections, the area is found as the area under the line for the
centre of gravity in the transformed cross section (see example 4.2.2),
but again one can omit reinforcement to quickly find the area for use in
(3.22).
3.2.1.3 Consideration to size and other influences

For bending due to compressive axial forces, one is on the safe side if
one uses (3.22). This means that for rectangular cross-sections without
tensile forces, (3.25) is on the safe side, and it is therefore sufficient to
look at the rules in Section 3.2.2.1.
For bending with tensile axial forces and for other cross sections,
more detailed and complex rules are found in DS/EN 1992-1-1.
52
3.2.1.4 Alternative minimum reinforcement

As shown in the preceding section, the calculation of minimum reinforcement in order to control crack widths, can be quite complicated
according to DS/EN 1992-1-1, especially by non-rectangular crosssections and combined stresses. Therefore, in the Danish annex is inserted an alternative to the rules set forth in the common European
part. These rules have been transferred from the former Danish concrete standard DS 411
In contrast to DS / EN 1992-1-1 DA 411 included here conditions
concerning the coarse crack system. The fine crack system, that is covered with DS / EN 1992-1-1 are cracks that occurs locally on the reinforcement, while the coarse grated system covers the whole of the area
subject to tension, see Fig. 3.12.
For structures where there is a requirement that a crack width wk
must not be exceeded (e.g. watertight structures), the minimum reinforcement As in areas with tension can be determined by:
As Ac,eff
f ct ,eff
4 Es k wk
(3.26)
where:
is the diameter of the used reinforcement bars

fct,eff is the effective tensile strength for concrete that can be set to
wk
Ac,eff
0,5 0,1 f ck where fck is the cylinder-strength in MPa

is the maximum allowed crack width
is the effective concrete area
The formula applies to reinforcement with ribbed or profiled surface. If

using reinforcement with a plain surface, then multiply the right side of
the expression by 2 . However, for the fine crack system is used k =
1, while for the coarse crack system is used k = 2
The size of the effective area Ac,eff depends on which crack system
that are considered.
For a design influenced by bending or flexing with axial load is Ac,eff
the largest concrete area whose center of gravity will coincide with the
tensile reinforcements center of gravity, see fig. 3.12.
For cross-section only exposed to tension is Ac,eff for the fine crack
system the sum of the largest concrete area whose center of gravity
will coincide with the gravity center of reinforcement. For the coarse
crack system is Ac,eff the entire tensile area, see fig. 3.12.

Figure 3.12:
Effective tensile areas
when calculating
minimum
reinforcement
according to (3.26)
53
Fine
cracksystem
Coarse
cracksystem
These alternative rules are particularly useful in cases where a structure

or part thereof, is retained to shrinkage and/or temperature strains, and
where joints to prevent cracking are not made.
3.2.2 Other reinforcement rules

As mentioned previously, DS/EN 1992-1-1 specifies some reinforcement rules for different design elements to ensure what we commonly
call sound constructions. The rules are based largely on experience and
are established in accordance with detailed discussions among a range
of professional people and are not based on scientific studies.
DS/EN 1992-1-1 also contains minimum reinforcement for different
structural elements that must be present in order to use the standards
calculation rules for reinforced constructions and the associated partial coefficients. Again, these rules are determined by experience and
discussions among professionals and are not based on scientific experiments.
The following reviews some of the most important rules for a number of concrete structures.
3.2.2.1 Bending reinforcement in beams
The minimum reinforcement is set to
As,min
fctm
0,26 f bt d
yk
0,0013b d
t
(3.27)
where
bt indicates the tension zones medium width. For T-beams with compression affected flanges, only the width of the web is included for
the calculation of the value of bt
d is the reinforcements effective depth, i.e., the distance from the
edge of the compressed area to the centre of gravity of the tensile reinforcement.
54

For rectangular cross-sections the minimum reinforcement ratio is
min
fctm
As,min 0,26
f yk
bd
0,0013
(3.28)
or the design minimum mechanical reinforcement ratio
min
As,min f yd
bd fcd
fctm f yd
0,26 f f
yk cd
0,0013 f yd
fcd
(3.29)
The maximum reinforcement should not exceed As,max 0,04 Ac

Supports in monolithic structures are reinforced at the top, corresponding to a moment of at least 15% of the maximum moment in the
beam. This also applies to the supports that are considered simple.
The reinforcement area in the underside of an end-support must
be at least 25 % of the reinforcement area in the middle of the span.
Reinforcement in the underside of intermediate supports in monolithic structures are designed for a moment, which is at least 25 % of
the maximum moment in the adjacent span ( 25 % of the reinforcement being passed over the intermediate supports) even if simple supports are assumed.
Compression reinforcement, which is taken into account, is fixed
by transverse reinforcement at a distance of no more than 15 , where
the is the compression reinforcements diameter.
3.2.2.2 Shear reinforcement in beams

The shear reinforcement ratio is given by
Asw
sin
s bw
(3.30)
where
is the ratio of shear reinforcement
Asw is the area of shear reinforcement over the length s
s
is the spacing between shear reinforcement measured along the
length axis
bw is the width of the cross-sections web
is the angle between the shear reinforcement and the length axis
A
For vertical stirrups is w sw
s bw
55
The minimum shear reinforcement ratio is
w,min 0,063
fck
f yk
The maximum spacing measured along the length axis is

d
sl ,max 0,75
1 cos
(3.31)
(3.32)
For vertical stirrups sl ,max 0,75d

The transverse distance between the legs in a row of stirrups should
not exceed:
st,max = 0,75d 600 mm, where d is the effective depth.
3.2.2.3 Torsion reinforcement in beams

The longitudinal distance between the torsion stirrups should not exceed u/8, the requirement for stirrup spacing for shear or the smallest
dimension of beam cross section. u is the torsion cross sections exterior length.
Longitudinal reinforcement is placed so that there is at least one
bar in each corner, while the remainder is evenly distributed along the
stirrups inner periphery at a maximum distance of 350 mm.
3.2.2.4 Massive slabs
Minimum reinforcement as for beams
Transverse reinforcement at least 20% of the main reinforcement
3h
Maximum bar spacing for the main reinforcement is smax
400mm
where h is the thickness of the slab
3,5h
Maximum bar spacing for secondary reinforcement is smax
450mm
In cases of concentrated loads and maximum moments, the maximal
distances are decreased to
2h
Maximum bar spacing of main reinforcement is smax
250mm
3h
Maximum bar spacing of secondary reinforcement is smax
400mm
56

For simple-supported slabs, at least half of the calculated span reinforcement should be anchored at the supports.
At the edges, where fixing can occur, but where the fixing is not
taken into account, the top reinforcement is set to 25% of the reinforcement which has to absorb the maximum moment in the adjacent
spans(s). The extent is 0.2 times the length of the adjacent bays length
measured from the edge of the support. Since there will virtually always be the possibility of small fixings, this means that this top reinforcement should always be present at the edges.
3.2.2.5 Columns
Longitudinal reinforcement bars must have a diameter not less than
min = 8 mm.
The total area of longitudinal reinforcement should not be less than
N Ed
0,1 f
As ,min
(3.33)
yd
0,002 A
c
where
fyd is the design yield strength of the reinforcement
NEd is the axial design load
The area of longitudinal reinforcement should not exceed As,max = 0.04
Ac outside areas with overlapping bars. The limit can be increased to
0.08 Ac for overlapping bars.
For columns with polygonal cross sections, at least one bar should
be place in each corner. The number of longitudinal bars in a circular
column should be no less than four.
The diameter of transverse reinforcement (stirrups or spiral reinforcement) should not be less than 6 mm, or one quarter of a longitudinal bars largest diameter, where the maximum value applies. The diameter of wire in welded mesh for transverse reinforcement should not
be less than 5 mm.
The distance between the transverse reinforcement along the column should not exceed the lesser of the following three distances:
20 times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars
The minimum dimension of the column
400 mm.
At the end of the columns at a distance equaling the largest column
dimension, the transverse reinforcement spacing is reduced by 0.6. The
same reduction occurs at laps in the longitudinal reinforcement.
3.2.2.6 Reinforced walls

The area of vertical reinforcement should be between As,vmin = 0.002
Ac and As,vmax = 0.04 Ac outside areas with laps. The upper limit may be
doubled at laps in the reinforcement.
57
If the minimum area of reinforcement, As,vmin, is dimension giving,

half of that area should be placed at each surface.
The distance between two adjacent vertical bars must not exceed
3 times the thickness or 400 mm, but the minimum of the two values
applies.
Horizontal reinforcement, which lies parallel to the walls surface,
should be positioned at each side of the wall. It should be at least
As,hmin, which can set to the largest of the values determined as 25 % of
the vertical reinforcement or 0.001 Ac.
The distance between two adjacent horizontal bars should not be
greater than 400 mm.
3.3 Spacing
To ensure that the concrete can be cast sufficiently well around the reinforcement requires that the bar is not placed with too little spacing.
Parallel bars must, therefore, have a distance that ensures that the concrete can enter between the bars.
To ensure a good pour and compacting, horizontal and vertical spacing, a, between parallel reinforcement bars must qualify to the following conditions
a d g 5mm
20mm
(3.34)
where
is the diameter of the reinforcement bar
dg is the maximum aggregate size
If there is horizontal reinforcement in several layers, the bars in the
layers must lie over one another.
If bars are overlapped at joins, they can touch each other throughout
the length of the overlap/join.
With the requirements of section 1.3.2 in mind with regard to cover
layer, fig. 3.13 may be used to illustrate the different requirements for
reinforcement placement.
Figure 3.13:
Placement of
reinforcement (not
prestressed)
see table 1.6

deviation
deviation + 5
58

The remaining part of this chapter is intentionally not translated
59
Beams with bending and

axial force
4.1 General
Beams, see fig. 4.1, are usually perceived as an element of length,
which is somewhat greater than the height and width. If its width is
significantly greater than its height, one approaches a slab, and if its
height is significantly greater than its width, one approaches a wall.
Figure 4.1:
Beam
DS/EN 1992-1-1 stipulates that a beam must have a span, which is

greater than or equal to 3 times the cross-sections total height, and a
width that is less than or equal to 5 times the total height, i.e., l3h and
b 5h.
In reality, these definitions temporarily replace the real definition,
which is that a beam is a structural element that can be calculated on
the basis conditions that are presumed for the calculation of that beam;
see subsequent section.
The beams most dominant affect is bending, which is both theoretically and experimentally extremely well documented. Bending combined with an axial force is thus a combination over which we have
good control. Both are calculated on the basis of the geometrical precondition that planar cross sections remain planar (flat), i.e., the strains
are assumed to be linear; see fig. 4.2. One notices that the assumption
is valid whether the concrete is cracked or not. That is, in a cracked
cross section, one expects that concrete and reinforcement follow each
other.
Figur 4.2:
The distribution of
strains
60
4. Beams with bending and axial force

Therefore, when calculating beams, one observes 3 conditions:
the geometric condition, i.e., planar cross sections remain plane.
the physical condition, i.e., the link between strain and tension.
the static condition, i.e., there must be equilibrium between cross
sectional stresses and the section forces that affect the cross section.
We imagine a cross-section that is subjected to moment effects alone.
For small moments, the stresses that occur in the concretes tensile
zone will be less than the tensile strength - we have an un-cracked section.
If we increased the moment, the tensile stresses increase, and eventually, the tensile fracture strength of the concrete is reached.
Further increases in moment cracks the concrete and it is left largely
to the steel reinforcement to absorb the tensile force. There will still be
an area with stress in concrete in the tension zone near the zero line,
but this is ignored in the calculations. When the moment is still of a
moderate size, the concrete and reinforcement is considered linear elastic. Calculations done in the serviceability limit state are performed
under these conditions.
When moment is further increased, the reinforcement and concretes
plastic properties begin to assert themselves. Fracture usually occurs
when the reinforcement has yielded so much that the concretes ultimate strain is reached. Other fracture modes can also occur as described in section 4.3.
Figure 4.3:
The development of
stresses for increasing
moments
When this chapter considers cross-sections subjected to bending with
normal forces, it is only for cross-sections where no column effects occur.
For bending with axial forces, the section forces from the loads are
usually attributed to the cross sections centres, which rarely coincide
with the cross sections or the transformed cross sections centre of
gravity lines. One should, therefore, in the following sections note at
which point the stress resulting moment and axial force are allocated
to. section forces must then be assigned to the same point in order that
a comparison can be made.
4.2 Linear elastic calculations

The correlation between strain and stress for concrete and reinforcement are shown in (4.1) and (4.2), where the strain is considered positive and tensile stresses in reinforcement and compressive stress in
concrete is considered positive.
(4.1)
c Ec
s Es
(4.2)
61
For places in a cross section where the concrete and reinforcement has
the same strain, there is, therefore, the following relationship between
concretes and reinforcements stresses
Es
c
Ec c
(4.3)
The relationship is also valid in the tension area for cracked cross sections, since c must then be perceived as a fictional stress, which is
used solely as a design magnitude to find the reinforcement stress.
Formula (4.3) shows that the reinforcements contribution to the
cross sections force absorption can be written as
Fs s As As c
(4.4)
It appears that reinforcement with area As has the same effect on the
cross section as a concrete area of the size As placed with the same
centre of gravity as the reinforcement. This leads to the introduction of
the transformed cross section, where the reinforcement area is transformed into an times as large a concrete area. The centres of gravity
for the reinforcement area and the times as large a concrete area coincide; see Fig. 4.4.
Figure 4.4:
Actual and
transformed cross
section
The use of the transformed cross sections is very effective in calculating un-cracked cross sections and hence the pre-stressed concrete
structures.
4.2.1 Un-cracked cross sections

4.2.1.1 Bending
In un-cracked cross sections, the stress distribution is usually determined without taking into account the reinforcement. For pure bending, the concrete tension is, therefore, the following
M
y
(4.5)
c
I
where I is the cross sections second area moment and y is the distance
from the zero line.
If one wants to take into account the reinforcement, this can be done by
applying (4.5) together with the transformed cross sections second area moment It. The reinforcement stress is found by
M
s
y
(4.6)
It s
where ys is the distance from zero line to the reinforcement.
62

The second area moment, It, of the transformed cross section must be
found about the centre of gravity axis for the transformed section. If reinforcement has not been placed symmetrically about the bending axis,
this centre of gravity axis will be different from the gravity axis of the
concrete cross section.
For a rectangular cross section, as shown in Fig. 4.5, the necessary
formulas must be revalued. It may also serve to show how to proceed
with other cross-sections
Figure 4.5:
Reinforced concrete
cross section
AA is the axis of the centre of gravity of the concrete cross section,

and BB is ditto for the transformed cross section. The distance a must
be found. For As2> As1, a is positive, as shown.
One finds
Aca As1 (c a) As 2 (c a)
ac
( As 2 As1)
Ac ( As1 As 2 )
(4.7)
(4.8)
Then one finds the second area moment for the transformed cross section about BB
2
2
I t I co Ac a2 As1 (c a) As 2 (c a)
(4.9)
For revaluation of (4.8), the usual relocation phrase (Knig's theorem)

has been used. For reinforcement, only the relocation contribution, Ico,
has been included. Ico is the second area moment for the concrete cross
section about AA
Ico
1
12
b h3
(4.10)
The limit for the use of un-cracked cross sections for pure bending is
concretes flexural tensile strength, see section 1.1.3 (not translated).

Example 4.1:
Un-cracked cross
section
63
Given:
Concrete cross section as
shown
Actions: M 8 kNm
Material data: 21
Desired:
a) Determine the concrete stresses in top and bottom, not taking into account the stresses in the reinforcement
b) Determine the concrete stresses in top and bottom taking the stresses
in the reinforcement into account.
Solution:
a) W 16 bh2 16 200 3502 4,08 106 mm3
o
8 106
M
1,96 MPa
W
4,08 106
u
3
2
b) Ac 200 350 70 10 mm
c 140 mm
Distance a to the centre of gravity of the transformed section is found

from (4.8)
a 140
21 (603 157)
15 mm
70 103 21 (603 157)
3
3
6
4
I co 121 b h 121 200 350 715 10 mm
Second area moment of the transformed cross section around BB is

found from (4.9)
6
3
2
2
2
I t 715 10 70 10 15 21 157 (140 15) 21 603 (140 15)
1008 106 mm4
M h
8 106 350
15 1,5 MPa
a
6
2
1008 10
It 2
M h
8 106 350
15 1,3 MPa
a
6
2
2
1008 10
It
64
so
su
M
8 106
(c a) 21
(140 15) 26 MPa
1008 106
It
M
8
(c a) 21
(140 15) 21 MPa
1008
It
Section 4.2.1.2 is intentionally not translated
4.2.2 General equations for cracked cross sections

4.2.2.1 Bending
The geometric, physical, and static conditions in a cross-section are illustrated in Fig. 4.6, as the geometric condition gives strains, the physical condition translates strains to stresses, and the static condition
means that the stresses must be in equilibrium with section forces.
Figure 4.6:
Cracked cross section
in bending
Based on the assumption that plane cross sections remain plane, ordinary beam theory states that
x y
(4.15)
where
x is the strain,
is the curvature
y is the distance from the zero line.
As mentioned earlier, one ignores the small tensile wedge in a cracked
cross section, which is located just below the zero line; see fig. 4.3.
Concrete stresses are only found in the compressed area, and they may
be found via
c Ec x Ec y
for x 0
(4.16)
c 0
for x 0
(4.17)
The stresses in the reinforcement at a distance yi from the zero line is
s Es x Es yi Ec yi c
As for the un-cracked section, is:
(4.18)
Es
.
Ec
65
What is significant for the formula is that s = c, which means that

the reinforcement stress in the compression zone is times the concrete stress at the same distance from the zero line. The reinforcement
stress in the tensile zone is times the concrete stress that one would
find by using (4.16) for x0. Using the equilibrium equations, one can
find expressions for the stresses.
By projection onto the x-axis and N = 0, one finds
A xdA A Ec y dA Ec yi Asi 0
(4.19)
or by division with Ec
A y dA yi Asi 0
(4.20)
Integration of Ac means integration over the compressed part of the

cross section. (4.20) can be used to locate the zero lines placement. In
words,(4.20) means that the static moment of the transformed cross
section is 0 about the zero line. The zero line thus coincides with the
centre of gravity line for the transformed section.
The moment equation can be formulated on the same principles
A x y dA A Ec y
c
dA Ec yi 2 Asi M
(4.21)
or
M Ec y 2 dA yi 2 Asi
Ac
(4.22)
The parenthesis in (4.22) is equal to the second area moment of the

transformed cross section about the center of gravity line, i.e.:
It
A y
c
dA yi 2 Asi
(4.23)
after which (4.22)can be rewritten as
M Ec It
(4.24)
From (4.16) and (4.18) one can now find
M
y
It
M
y
It i
(4.25)
(4.26)
When calculating It, it should be remembered that only the compressed

part of the concrete cross section is included. Reinforcement in the
compression zone is normally disregarded when calculating It.
66

The general formulas derived here can usefully be replaced by yet
simpler formulae, in the cross sections that are often used. This is done
for the rectangular cross-section in Section 4.2.3 and the T-shaped
cross section in Section 4.2.4.
4.2.2.2 Bending with axial forces

The geometric, physical and static condition is shown in Fig. 4.7, corresponding to Fig. 4.6s conditions for pure bending.
Figure 4.7:
with bending and
axial load
When one assumes that plane cross sections remain plane, the Beam
Theory gives us
x y
(4.26)
equivalent to (4.16)-(4.18) we find
c Ec ( y)
for x 0
(4.27)
c 0
for x 0
(4.28)
s c
(4.29)
The projection equation gives
A xdA A Ec y dA Ec yi Asi N
(4.30)
The moment equation gives
A x y dA A Ec ( y) y dA Ec ( yi ) yi Asi M
(4.31)
We now insert the transformed cross sectional area At as
At Ac As
(4.32)
Furthermore, the second area moment is inserted via (4.23), and we put
the zero point on the y-axis so that the static moment about the z-axis
is zero, i.e., (4.20) is satisfied. After that (4.30) and (4.31) can be written as
N Ec At
(4.33)
M Ec It
(4.34)
67
Stresses are found using (4.27) and (4.29)
N M
y
At It
N M
y i
At I t
si
(4.35)
(4.36)
When calculating the sectional constants for the transformed cross section, only the compressed part of the concrete cross section is included.
For a given cross section, this will vary with M and N, so that the centre of gravity axis has no fixed location.
As for pure bending, the general formulas are sometimes complicated to work with. Often, the calculations are carried out easily by estimating the zero lines location and then verifying that the estimate is
correct.
It is noted that using the general formula assumes that M and N are
attributed to the transformed cross sections centre of gravity line.
Example 4.3:
Cracked cross
section with bending and axial load
Given:
Cross section as shown
Around the centre line:
M 91 kNm
N 80 kN
and 33
Desired:
Maximum concrete stress and stress in reinforcement.
Solution:
Assumption:
x 262 mm
At Ac As
250 262 33 942
96586 mm2
Distance to centre of gravity yo
2 1
21
250 y o 250 (262 y o) 33 942 (460 y o)
2
2
y o 237 mm
1
1
It 250 2373 250 (262 237)3 33 942 (460 237)2
3
3
4
6
2657 10 mm
68

M and N are relocated to the centre of gravity of the transformed cross
section
N 80 kN
M 91 N (250 237)103 90 kNm
Control of x (Concrete stress is 0)
N M y
0
At
It
80 103
90 106
y 0 y 25 mm
96586 2657 106
x 237 25 262 mm, ok
c,max
N M
80 103
90 106
237 8,9 MPa

yo
96586 2657 106
At I t
N M
(d y o)
At I t
80 103
90 106
33
(460 237) 222 MPa

6
96586 2657 10
4.2.3 Rectangular cross sections

Rectangular cross sections are the most commonly used cross sections,
and when calculating cross sections, one often fails to include reinforcement in the compressed concrete, since this is rarely of any significant size. The poor application of compression reinforcement in the
beams is due to its poor impact on fracture resistance; as explained in
section 4.3. In the elastic situation, the pressure reinforcement can,
however, increase the beam stiffness and hence have some effect on
the size of the deflection.
4.2.3.1 Bending without compression reinforcement

Below, we will consider a rectangular cross section with width b and
height h. The significant height for cracked cross sections is the effective depth d, which is the distance from the compressed edge to the reinforcements centre of gravity.
69
Figure 4.8:
With the designations in fig. 4.8, the following equation for the strain
condition is derived
s c
dx
x
(4.37)
x is the height of the compressed area. If one inserts the stresses into
(4.37), one finds
s
Es
c d x
Ec
(4.38)
Horizontal projection gives

1
As s c xb
2
(4.39)
Moment around the reinforcement
M 12 c b x d 13 x
(4.40)
From the derivation of the general formulas, the continued procedure is

known. Using (4.38) and (4.39), the zero lines location is found, i.e.,
x. When this is known, the moment for (4.40) is derived. Using (4.38)
in (4.39) we get
2
x
As
A x
2 s 0
2
d
bd
bd d
(4.41)
4.41) determines the zero lines location. One sees that it is independent of the tensions.
Usually, some dimensionless quantities are inserted, which are defined as
x
(4.42)
As
b d
(4.43)
is called the reinforcement ratio or geometric degree of reinforcement. Often, this is expressed in % and is called the reinforcement percentage. With these magnitudes, (4.41) becomes
2 + 2 2 = 0
(4.44)
70

If (4.44) is solved with respect to , the zero lines location is known.
One finds
= 1+
1

2
(4.45)
The moment equation can be written
1
1
M c bd 2 1
3
2
The dimensionless magnitude b is inserted as
1 1
b 1
2
3
(4.46)
(4.47)
After that (4.46) is written as
M bbd 2 c
(4.48)
It is noted that c is the edge stress, i.e., the maximum concrete stress.
For a given beam, (4.48) can, therefore, be used to find the concrete
stress as a function of the moment.
From (4.38), one finds
s c
(4.49)
Traditionally yet another dimensionless size is inserted

1
=
(4.50)
After which one finds
s c
(4.51)
By considering the strain state in Fig. 4.8, the curvature, which can be
rewritten using (4.48), is found
c
x
c
Ec x
M
M
2
bbd Ec x Ecb bd 2
(4.52)
The second area moment for the transformed cross section is, therefore, obviously
It b bd 3
(4.53)
The curvature can also be written as
c
Ec x
c
Es d
(4.54)
71
The introduced dimensionless quantities , b and are all functions of

. Teknisk Stbi establishes a table of sizes as a function of .
The established formulas can, for example, be used for stress analysis. First, is found. From (4.45), is found, and then b and are
found using respectively (4.47) and (4.50). Finally, the stresses are
found using (4.48) and (4.51). If deflection calculations are to be done,
the curvature is found using (4.52) or (4.54).
The value of , which in practical calculations must be included in
the formulas, depends on calculations purposes and will be detailed in
Section 4.2.5.
Example 4.4:
Rectangular,
cracked cross
section
Given:
M 30 kNm
21
As 603 mm2
Desired:
Compression zone x, Maximum concrete stress c og reinforcement
stress s
Determined by
1) Naviers formula
2) The -method.
Solution:
1) Ac 12 x As (d x)
250 x
1
2
x 21 603 (315 x) x 135mm
I t 13 b x3 As (d x)2
13 250 1353 21 0 603 (315 135)2
615 106 mm4
M
30 106
x
135 6,6 MPa
615 106
It
M
30 106
(d x) 21
(315 135) 184 MPa
615 106
It
2) 21
603
0,161
250 315
Teknisk stbi: b 0,183; 1,332; 0,429
72
x d 0,429 315 135 mm
M
30 106
6,6 MPa
b b d 2 0,183 250 3152
s c 21 1,332 6,6 185 MPa

The remaining part of this section and section 4.23 and 4.24 are intentionally not translated
4.2.5 Serviceability limit state

The limits placed on the serviceability limit state concerns:
stresses
deflections
crack widths.
Depending on the function of the building or beam, other application
states may apply, which may require the introduction of limits, e.g.,
oscillations, but this is not dealt with in DS/EN 1992-1-1 and will not
be reviewed further in this book.
4.2.5.1 Stresses
Large compressive stresses in the concrete can cause longitudinal
cracks, micro cracks, or high creep strains.
For concrete stresses below 0.45 fck for quasi-permanent loads, the
final creep coefficient can usually be set, with reasonable accuracy, to
3 - as described in Section 1.1.7. For greater concrete stresses, a more
accurate and non-linear calculation of creep may be necessary. This
situation can occur if either the dead load is dominant or for prestressed structures. Traditional beams in building constructions seldom
need such an accurate creep calculation.
The formation of cracks can lead to reduced sustainability, and if no
action is taken to ensure sustainability in aggressive and extra aggressive environmental classes, DS/EN 1992-1-1 recommends that stresses
under the characteristic load combination is kept below 0.6 fck.
Large tensile stresses in the reinforcement can mean inelastic strain,
unacceptable cracks or unacceptable deformations.
DS/EN 1992-1-1 indicates that one can assume that there is no unacceptable cracking or unacceptable deformations if the tensile stress
under the characteristic load combination does not exceed 0.8 fyk. The
limit for crack widths and deflections are thus dependent on the reinforcements tensile strength, which is not the case. Thus, it is all about
a very simple, crude and easy way to check crack widths and deflections.
73
It is noted that there is no formulation of actual requirements for the

limitation of stresses, but that one point to things that require further
studies if certain stress levels are exceeded.
4.2.5.2 Deflections
For deflections, however, one should formulate actual requirements
dependent on the constructions application. The application of the
construction places different demands on deflection. For example, a
floor or beam in a building must not bend down (deflect) too far, because then one gets the impression of the construction "hanging".
However, there will obviously be differences in what one can accept in
a storeroom area which is rarely frequented by people, and what one
can accept in one's home. This type of deflection is calculated for longterm loads, i.e., those also termed quasi-permanent loads.
Another type of deflection of floor slabs or beams that may be of interest are deflections that follow after lightweight walls are established
under the aforementioned. If the deflection becomes too large, it may
damage the lightweight walls established under the slab or beam.
DS/EN 1992-1-1 states that adequate limits should be set, which
take account of the structures type, finish, the partitions method of
fixation, and the structural behaviour of the construction. Then there
are some suggestions for deflection limits that normally ensure satisfactory operation of structures for residential, office buildings, public
buildings and factories. One should examine especially factories to see
whether production equipment requires enhanced provisions in relation
to the specified limits.
The following limits are given for deformations of quasi-permanent
loads:
l/250 will normally secure the appearance and the structures general
applicability.
l/500 will normally secure adjoining structural elements.
Deflections can be controlled either by calculation or by observing
specified spans/height conditions stipulated in DS/EN 1992-1-1.
The stated spans/height conditions are indicated via two equations
and are the result of a parametric study where a range of assumptions
(e.g., reinforcement stress of 310 MPa) are made, and where corrections must be made for various factors. If the study is to be done
properly, one needs to check if the stress is 310 MPa for the loading
cases one assess, and if not, corrections must be made. If stresses are to
be found anyway, it is just as easy to calculate deflection. Therefore,
the method is not discussed further with spans/height conditions, and
the method is not generally recommended.
Calculation of deflections cannot be done very accurately. Partly
because we have cross sections that are cracked and others that are not.
The module of elasticity varies with stresses, and the second area moment varies due to variable reinforcement, etc.
74

The loads in the serviceability limit state are usually so small that
deflections with reasonable accuracy can be calculated using the Elasticity Theory. From this, the relationship between deflection and moment is known.
d 2u
M

EI
dx2
(4.78)
This equation is general and can be used with the modulus of elasticity
for concrete and the transformed second area moment of the cross section, e.g., determined as (4.23), or, for rectangular cross-section, by
(4.53) or (4.69), or can be inserted directly. It is noted that the formulas for the transformed cross section and curvature corresponds to the
cracked section, i.e., no account is taken that in beams there may be areas that are un-cracked.
For a simple supported beam, (4.78) is solved thus
umax
1 M max 2 1
l max l 2
k EI
k
(4.79)
In this, k is a factor which depends on the loads shape. For a single

force in the middle, k = 12, and for a uniformly distributed load, k =
48/5; see Fig.4.12.
With sufficient accuracy this can be set to 10 for all simple-supported
beams, and 3 for cantilevered beams.
Figure 4.12:
Loads, moments and
deflections
umax
4 M 2
l
48 E I
umax
5 M 2
l
48 E I
umax
6 M 2
l
48 E I
A beam subjected to bending is considered. Two parallel sections will,

after deflection, form an angle with each other; see fig. 4.13.
Figure 4.13:
Beam with deflection
75
Since this is a case of small angles, one can set tan = , and from fig.
4.13 one thus finds
s c
(4.80)
d
x
It is noticed that (4.80) is the same as (4.52) and (4.68) for rectangular
beams.
If is found for the maximum moment and inserted into (4.79), the
following expression for the deflection of simply supported beams is
found
1 s c 2
(4.81)
umax
l
10 d
or
1 c 2 1 c 2
umax
l
l
(4.82)
10 x
10 Es x
For cantilevered beams, 10 is replaced by 3 in (4.81) and (4.82).
For short-term deflection, a stress-strain relation is used for the concrete, where a straight line is assumed, corresponding to a secant gradient where the modulus of elasticity is given by (1.13).
One must take creep into account in long-term deformation. This is
done by using (1.25), i.e., one finds an effective modulus of elasticity
for long-term effects, which in practice is often set to (1.26).
Tabel 4.1:
In connection with deflection calculations and crack widths, any
compression reinforcement present has a certain amount of influence Values for for
calculations in the especially during long-term loading.
serviceability limit
The values of , for use in the elastic calculations for the short and
long-term effects, respectively, are shown in Table 4.1.
state
T
a
Strength class
12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90
fck (MPa)
b
e
for short
7,4 7,0l 6,7 6,4 6,1 5,9 5,7 5,5 5,4 5,2 5,1 4,9 4,7 4,6
term effects
for long
term effects
30
284 27 25 24 23 23 22 21 21 20 20 19 18
.
1 simple calculation of deflection described above is normally fully
The
:
adequate
when consideration is taken of the fact that deflections cannot
be determined particularly accurately in calculations.
V
DS/EN
1992-1-1 indicates a method that can be used if one wishes to
into account the greater rigidity from un-cracked parts of the contake
r
struction.
In principle, it consists of a kind of interpolation between a
d
deformation
parameter calculated for the current load and cracked seci
tion and a corresponding deformation parameter for the load that only
e produces a cracked cross section. Deflections calculated in this
just
r are usually changed only slightly in comparison to the deflections
way
found by the simple calculations for non-pre-stressed constructions.
a
The remaining part of this section is intentionally not translated
f
76
4.2.5.3 Load induced cracking

Reinforcement is normally used in reinforced concrete to absorb tensile forces. To take full advantage of the reinforcement, the concrete
must, therefore, crack so that the reinforcement can absorb the tension.
The formation of cracks are thus normal in reinforced concrete, but
these must be limited so that they do not lead to deteriorated durability
of the construction and the reduction of its structural behaviour - and
not least lead to an unacceptable appearance of the structure.
Unacceptable appearance is a broad term and it is very subjective.
An interior component in, e.g., a dwelling will normally be in so dry an
environment that there is no reason to require crack control for the sake
of durability, but too large a crack in such elements can make the residents insecure about the structure, and for those structures, one must
(in cooperation with the developer/client) set out demands for the
cracks maximum width the so-called the crack widths.
Large crack widths can lead to corrosion of the reinforcement,
whereas smaller crack widths are acceptable, among other things because of what is called the self-healing effect, where the cracks are
filled with hydration products from the continued hydration of the concrete.
There is no clear correlation between crack width size and the danger of corrosion of the reinforcement - as long as the crack width is
kept under 0.4 to 0.5 mm. The danger of corrosion is very much dependent on the concretes quality, which in this context primarily is its
density.
Crack widths are a statistical size with very large variation coefficients. Therefore, there are a myriad of different methods for crack
width calculation and other forms of control of load-induced crack
widths.
Actual crack widths cannot be predicted because of the randomness
that the crack phenomenon is subject to. On the other hand, it can be
expected that crack widths calculated using the method in DS/EN
1992-1-1, which does not exceed the recommended maximum calculated values, will hardly lead to the degraded behaviour of the structure
as a result of the cracks.
The recommended maximum crack widths given in DS/EN 1992-11 are thus linked to the calculated crack widths. It should be emphasized that they are calculated crack widths and not crack widths measured at an actual construction element. This relationship is not entirely
clear from DS/EN 1992-1-1, but is clearly written in the Concrete
Norm, DS/EN 1992-2.
The recommended maximum, calculated crack widths, wmax, in
DS/EN 1992-1-1 are linked to environmental classes and to the quasipermanent load combinations for slack reinforced structures and to the
frequent load combination for pre-stressed concrete structures, and
these are stipulated in table 1.7 of Section 1.3.3.
77
Calculations are performed under the assumption that concrete and

reinforcement move together during cross-section deformation. However, this is a common consideration, which does not apply to
cracked concrete. In cracks, the reinforcement absorbs the entire tension, but in-between the cracks, because of the concrete, there will be
less tension in the reinforcement than there is in the cracks. If we consider a length, sr, where the average strain in reinforcement is sm and
the average strain in the concrete is cm, the length change for the reinforcement and the concrete will be, respectively, given by
ls sr sm
lc sr cm
(4.86)
(4.87)
If the length, sr, is the crack spacing, and cm is the average strain in the
concrete between the cracks, the difference between the two lengths is
equal to the crack width, w, i.e.
w ls lc sr sm cm
(4.88)
Crack spacing is a very variable dimension, and DS/EN 1992-1-1 indicates that crack widths, wk, are calculated based on the maximum crack
spacing, i.e.
wk sr ,max sm cm
and the maximum crack spacing sr,max in mm is determined by
A
sr ,max 29 3 c 0,17 c,eff
As
(4.89)
(4.90)
for reinforcementspacing as which satisfy
s 5 c 2
(4.91)
where
c
is the concrete cover over the longitudinal reinforcement in mm
As is the reinforcement area
Ac,eff is the effective area of concrete in tension surrounding the reinforcement
is the reinforcement diameter in mm
The limitation in (4.91) expresses that a reinforcement bar only can

govern crack widths within a limited distance from the bar.
The effective concrete area in tension surrounding the reinforcement
is determined using the effective height hc,ef; see also fig. 4.14
hc,ef
2,5(h d )
h x
min
3
h
2
(4.92)
78

where
x is the height of the compression zone and then is h x the distance
from the zero line to the free edge
The expression (h-x)/3 is only valid for slabs and prestressed members,
where the height of the tensile zone can be very small.
Figure 4.14:
Determination of the
effective concrete
area
If reinforcement with different diameters are used, a weighted diameter

is calculated according to
ni i 2
ni i
(4.93)
where ni is the number of reinforcement bars with diameters i.

The formula (4.90) applies to bending and ribbed reinforcement. For
reinforcement with a smooth surface, e.g., pre-stressed reinforcement,
the last term in (4.90) is multiplied by 2. For purely tensile forces, the
last term of (4.90) is again multiplied by 2, and for eccentric tension,
multiplied by the factor k given by:
1 2
1
(4.94)
79
where 1 is the largest and 2 is the smallest tension strain at the boundaries of the considered cross section, evaluated on the basis of a
cracked cross section.
Factor (4.94) is, therefore, not applicable as long as there is pressure in
the cross section; see also fig. 4.14.
The strain difference is found by
sm cm
s kt Ac,eff
fctm

E Es As
max s
0,6 s
Es
(4.95)
where
s is the stress in the reinforcement
Es is the reinforcements modulus of elasticity
is a factor taking into account the load duration
kt
= 0,6 for short term load
= 0,4 for long term load
As is the reinforcement area
Ac,eff is the effective area of concrete in tension surrounding the reinforcement
is the ratio between the elasticity modules for short-term load;

see table 4.1
fctm is concretes mean tensile strength
It is apparent that the last link in the upper expression in (4.95) is a deduction for the strain in the concrete between the cracks, and it will be
on the safe side to ignore the contribution, i.e., it will be on the safe
side to put sm cm s / Es .
When (4.91) is fulfilled the crack widths are related to the system of
fine cracks, that appears in an area symmetric around the reinforcement. If the spacing exceeds the value in (4.91) DS/EN 1992-1-1 defines that one can find an upper value for the crack width by assuming
a maximum crack spacing of sr,max = 1,3(h - x). This rule cannot be
used in the system of rough cracks and must be used carefully when
dealing with cross sections subject to bending.
For cross sections in tension the crack widths can be determined
from (4.89), if the effective concrete area Ac,eff is determined as shown
in figure 3.12 and the right side in the expression is multiplied with .
4.3 Ultimate limit state calculations

In connection with fracture calculation of cross sections, DS/EN 19921-1 gives no less than three different physical conditions that can be
used for calculating the pressure in the concrete.
The starting point is the so-called parabolic-rectangular stress-strain relation, which is as shown in fig. 4.15
80
Figure 4.15:
Parabolicrectangular stressstrain relation
The stress-strain relation is somewhat cumbersome to work with, so a

simplified bilinear stress-strain relation is given that can be used instead; see fig. 4.16.
Figure 4.16:
Bilinear stress-strain
relation
Finally, a rectangular stress block is given, which disregards the stresses closest to the zero lines, while calculating with the design strength
on a length from the depressed edge, which is times the depressed area, but such that there is a reduction of the design strength in the case
of high-strength concrete, i.e., for forces greater than 50 MPa; see Fig.
4.17.
Figure 4.17:
Rectangular
distribution of
stresses
To each of the physical conditions are attached some strains, corresponding to the stress-strain relations "peak" c and to its end point cu.
The three methods are aligned with one another so that the choice of
81
method has no practical importance; see, e.g., [6]. The adjustment

means that various strains are used for the "peak" and end points, and
these strains are marked with different indexes. As will be illustrated
below, the bearing capacity is determined primarily by the reinforcement force, i.e., the concrete strength has less importance and, therefore, the chosen method has quite a small impact on the loadbearing
capacity.
Since the rectangular stress distribution is by far the easiest to work
with, it is only one used in what follows, and it is only one shown in
the shortened Danish version of Euro Code 2. Index 3 is used for the
strains in this physical condition, i.e., c3 and cu3.
For those values shown in Fig. 4.17, the following constant values for
concrete strengths less than or equal to 50 MPa are valid:
=0,8, = 1,0, cu3 = 0,35% for fck 50 MPa

The following is valid for high-strength concrete
f 50
(fck i MPa), 50 < fck 90 MPa
0,8 ck
400
1,0
fck 50
200
90 fck
100
cu3 (%) 0,26 3,5
(4.96)
(4.97)

(4.98)
In the case of pure compression in a cross section, the concrete

strength across the cross section can obtain reasonable compressive
strength, i.e., we have the stress block all over. The maximum stress is
obtained for a strain in the concrete that is less than the fracture strain;
see Fig. 1.4. the strain corresponding to the compressive strength is described by c3 and for normal strength concrete the following is valid:
c3 = 0,20% for fck 50 MPa

For high-strength concrete, the following is valid
f 50
c3 (%) 0,175 0,055 ck
40
(4.99)
The values for the different strength classes are given in Table 4.2 below.
82
Table 4.2:
Strength parameters
for rectangular stress
distribution

Strength class
cu3 (%)
c3 (%)
C12-C50
C55
C60
C70
C80
C90
0,8
1,0
0,35
0,175
0,79
0,98
0,31
0,18
0,78
0,95
0,29
0,19
0,75
0,90
0,27
0,20
0,73
0,85
0,26
0,22
0,70
0,80
0,26
0,23
In the following, the formulas, etc., will be established with the characteristic strengths. In practical calculations, the appropriate design
strengths must be used.
4.3.1 Bending
4.3.1.1 Rectangular cross sections without compression
reinforcement
Lets first look at a case where the fracture occurs as a result of the reinforcement yielding, and when the strains in the concrete are sufficiently large, the concrete is crushed. As in the serviceability limit
state, we can use adopt the assumption that planar cross sections remain plane.
In the compression zone, we have a compressive stress at fracture,
which in its form follows the stress-strain relation for concrete, but
which is simplified, and as mentioned above, we will use the simplification of a rectangular stress distribution; see fig. 4.18
Figure 4.18:
Cross section at
fracture
Equilibrium between compression and tension gives
xb fck As f yk
(4.100)
where b is the rectangular cross-sections width.

In fracture calculations, it has proved appropriate to introduce the term
reinforcement degree , thus
As f yk
bd fck
(4.101)
The degree of reinforcement is seen to be equal to the reinforcement

ratio multiplied with the relationship/proportion between the reinforcement strength and the effective concrete strength, where fck is
called the effective strength. Observe the terms mechanical reinforcement ratio, , and geometric reinforcement ratio about .
83
If (4101) is used in (4100), one can rewrite the formula thus

1
(4.102)
x d
If is inserted into (4.26), one finds
x 1

d
(4.103)
The moment about the reinforcement gives
M d x b x fck
(4.104)
(4.104) gives the loadbearing capacity (resistance), which can be rewritten as
M 1 bd 2 fck
(4.105)
By introducing yet another dimensionless term, , given by
1
2
(4.106)
After that, the resistance can be written as
M bd 2 fck
(4.107)
It is seen that the internal lever arm, z, can be written as
1
1
z d x d 1
2
2
(4.108)
Teknisk Stbi has tables for associations between a number of these

dimensionless quantities.
In the above, we have made the assumption that the reinforcement
yields before pressure fracture in the concrete occurs. Cross sections
that are reinforced in this way are usually described as being normally
reinforced.
For large quantities of reinforcement, one can experience strains in
the concrete being equal to the fracture strain before the strain in the
reinforcement being equal to the yield strain. Such cross sections are
described as being over reinforced.
The transition, called the balanced cross section, is the cross-section
where the concretes fracture strain is reached at the same time as the
reinforcement reaches its yield strain. With the designations in Figure
4.19, the balanced cross section is found thus
xbal
cu3
d
cu3 y
(4.109)
84
Figure 4.19:
Balanced cross
section
Using (4.102), the reinforcement ratio for the balanced cross section
can be found as
bal
cu3
cu3 y
(4.110)
The value of cu3 can be found from (4.98). can be found from (4.96),
or one can use Table 4.2, while y is determined for the current steel
type. Since there is only a partial coefficient on the strength, in the design case, it will also depend on the control class, i.e., we get a design
yield strain to be used in (4.109) and (4.110), which is given by:
f
f
yd yd yk
(4.111)
Esk s Esk
For normal strength concrete, i.e., C12-C50, and for reinforcement
B550 (fyk = 550 MPa) in normal control class, cu3 is thus equal to
0.35%, is equal to 0.8, yd is equal to 0.23%, and bal is thus equal to
0.482.
For small quantities of reinforcement, one can be in the situation
that the reinforcement cannot yield so much that the concrete can reach
its fracture strain before the reinforcement breaks. To guard against
this situation, the reinforcements strain, y, must be less than the reinforcements fracture strain, uk. The limit for this situation is analogous
to the balanced cross-section
xund
cu3
d
cu3 uk
(4.112)
Using (4.102), the reinforcement ratio for the transition to the underreinforced cross section can be found to be
und
cu3
cu3 uk
(4.113)
The values to be inserted into (4.113) are found as for the balanced
cross section, but the reinforcements fracture strain is, however, taken
from table 1.3.
For normal strength concrete, i.e., C12-C50, and for reinforcement
of class B, cu is thus equal to 0.35%, is equal to 0.8, uk is equal to
5.0%, and und is thus equal to 0.052.
DS/EN 1992-1-1 states that if one applies a stress-strain relation for
reinforcement without strain hardening, i.e., the horizontal line of the
strains is larger than yield strain, one does not need to control the strain
limit. In Denmark, we use just such a stress-strain relation, and the
background that the situation does not require an investigation is that
the bearing capacity is largely barely affected by the limit, since the resistance, as mentioned, is determined by the yield force in the reinforcement.
85
For the over reinforced cross section, the equilibrium equation is
xb fck As s As Es s
(4.114)
The reinforcement strain, s, is found to be

dx
s cu3
x
By insertion into (4.114), and with x = d, one finds
1 E
1 E
2 s cu3 s cu3 0
f yk
f yk
(4.115)
(4.116)
The solution to (4.116) is
f yk
1 Escu3
1
1 4
2
f yk
Escu3
(4.117)
When the above is resolved, the location of the zero line is known, and
the moment can be found from (4103), which can be rewritten as
M 1 bd 2 fck
Tabel 4.3:
Formulas for design
values
Value
M Rd
bal
(4.118)
When the aforementioned formulas are to be used for dimensioning,

the design values for forces are used, i.e., fck is replaced by fcd, etc. For
the given cross sections, the design moment loadbearing capacity (resistance), MRd, therefore, is found via (4.105) for normal reinforced
cross sections, and (4.118) for over reinforced sections - where the design forces are inserted in the determined formulas.
Since the vast majority of concrete structures are executed with concrete strengths less than high-strength concretes, the main formulas are
reviewed in the following for design values for normally reinforced
cross sections, partly as the general formulas, and partly the formulas
that apply to strength classes C12-C50.
All strength classes
As f yd
bd f cd
Strength class C12-C50

(4.101)
As f yd
b d f cd
(4.101a)
2
1 bd fcd
2
(4.105)
2
1 2 bd f cd
(4.105a)
x 1

d
(4.103)
x
1,25
d
(4.103a)
(4.110)
0,8
cu3
cu3 yd
cu3
cu3 yd
Example 4.9 4.12 are intentionally not translated
(4.110a)
86
4.3.1.2 Rectangular cross sections with compression

reinforcement
If you want to take into account the compression reinforcement, it is
done by using the compressive force in the reinforcement and include
it in the equilibrium and moment equations. As in the serviceability
limit state, the compression reinforcement is of only moderate importance. For beams that are normally reinforced, the compression reinforcement only increases the distance between the tensile and compressive resultant modest. For beams - that are overreinforced - when
the compression reinforcement is not included, a compression reinforcement will increase the compression resultant and can change the
cross section to a normally reinforced cross section, ie. the compressive resultant can be increased so much that there can be yielding in
the tensile reinforcement. Hence the compression reinforcement has
the greatest impact on cross section that are overreinforced, when the
compression reinforcement is not included.
Using the notation in fig. 4.20 the strains of compression reinforcement is found to:
x d0
(4.119)
sc cu3
x
Figure 4.20:
Cross section with
compression
reinforcement
B
a
r
1
B
a
r
2
B
a
r
Strains
Stresses
Section forces
The stresses in the compressive reinforcement is found by viewing the

reinforcement as linear elastic, i.e.
sc Es sc
B
a
(4.120) applies to strains in the reinforcement less than the yield strain.
r
For larger strains the stress is equal to the yield stress.
(4.120)
Equilibrium gives
xb fck Asc sc As s
(4.121)
The moment around the tension reinforcement gives;

1
M x d x b f ck Asc sc d d0
(4.122)
2
Consider first the normally reinforced cross-section, ie. with yielding

of the tensile reinforcement and thus s = fyk. The calculations proceed
now by estimating x. sc is determined by (4.119) and sc by (4.120).
Finally x is determined by (4.121) as s = fyk. Recalculations are made
until sufficient accuracy is obtained.
It is checked whether the cross section is really normally reinforced,
ie.
dx
s cu
y
(4.123)
x
87
If (4.123) is fulfilled the moment capacity is found by (4.122)

Then consider the overreinforced cross section, where there is no
yielding in the tensile reinforcement, ie. s = Ess, where
dx
(4.124)
s cu
y
x
The calculations proceed by estimating x. The strains s and sc are determined from (4.124) and (4.120). The stresses sc and ss are determined from (4.119) and s = Es s. Finally x is found from (4.121). Recalculations are made until sufficient accuracy is obtained.
The moment capacity is then found from (4.122).
As described in section 4.3.1.1 design values are used for practical
design.
Example 4.13:
Capacity including
compression reinforcement
Given:
Cross-section as shown
Concrete C25 prefabricated element
Tightened inspection level
Reinforcement: fyk = 550 MPa
Desired:
Moment of resistance
Solution:
c 1,33;
s 1,14
As 616 mm2 ;
see table 2.4
Asc 226 mm2
d h cs 480 30 450 mm; d0 30 mm

25
18,8 MPa
1,33
550
550 MPa; f yd f ycd
482 MPa
1,14
f ck 25 MPa;
f yk f yck
f cd
Yield stress in tensile reinforcement is assumed, and the depth to the

neutral axis x is found by iteration.
First guess x = 75 mm
sc cu 3
x d0
x 30
0,0035
x
x
sc sc Es sc 2 105 f ycd
From (4.121) we get
5 As f yd Asc sc 5 616 482 226 sc
4
4
200 18,8
b f cd
88
x 75 sc 0,00210 sc 420 x 67
x 67 sc 0,00193 sc 387 x 70
x 70 sc 0,00200 sc 400 x 69
x 69 sc 0,00198 sc 396 x 69
Control of yielding in the tensile reinforcement
450 69
dx
0,0035
69
x
f yd
482
0,0193 yd
0,00241
Es 2 105
s cu 3
From (4.122) is found
4
4
M Rd 450 69 200 69 18.8 106
5
10
226 396 450 30 106 125 kNm
4.3.1.3 T-cross section

As in the serviceability state, the cases are divided into thick slab and
thin slab. One speaks of thick slab when x (l/) hf , where hf is flange
thickness. This is equivalent to that all the compression in concrete is
located in the flange and that the cross section is treated as a rectangular beam with a beam width equal to the flange width bf.
Figure 4.21:
T-cross section
Strains
Stresses
Section forces
For a thin slab, that is normally reinforced, the equilibrium equation

with definitions from fig. 4.21 goes
b h
f
b x h f f ck As f yk
(4.125)
Hereby is found
1 As f yk b f b h f f ck
b f ck
(4.126)
The moment capacity is found by taking the moment around the tension reinforcement
M bf h f d h f
2
f ck b x h f d 2 x h f f ck
(4.127)
89
The definition of a normally reinforced cross-section is, that the effective depth x becomes so small that the reinforcement yields, ie.
u3
u3 y
(4.128)
If the cross section is overreinforced, the yield stress is not achieved in

the reinforcement and then the equilibrium equation for determining x
is;
dx
(4.129)
b f h f b x h f f ck As Es cu
x
The easiest way to determine x is by iteration. Hereafter the moment

capacity can be determined from (4.126). In practical design and determination of capacities, the design values for strengths and yield
strains must be used.
Example 4.14:
Moment of resistance, special
cross-section
Given:
Concrete C25 prefabricated element
Normal control class
Wanted:
Moment of resistance
Solution:
Compressive zone
f ck 20 MPa;
f cd
f yk 550 MPa;
20
14,3 MPa
1,40
f yd
550
458 MPa;
1,2
As 1570 mm2
Estimation: Yielding in tension reinforcement
F 1570 458 103 719 kN

Compressive force
C 100 80 350 x1 14,3 103 kN
F C x1 121 mm
90

Height of compressive zone
5
5
80 x1 80 121 251 mm
4
4
Control of yielding
550 40 251
dx
0,0035
251
x
f yd
458
0,00361 yd
0,0029
Es 2 105
s cu 3
Moment around tension reinforcement
80
M Rd 100 80 14,3 550 40

2
121 6
350 121 14,3 550 40 80

10
2
278 kNm
4.3.2 Bending with axial load

By bending with axial load, the section forces consists usually of two
mutually dependent sizes. In order to assess a cross sections capacity,
one often determine the moment of resistance, under the conditions
that the cross section is subject to the axial load. The thus found moment of resistance must be greater than or equal to the design moment,
the cross-section is subject to.
As in Section 4.3.1, the formulae in the following are derived using
the characteristic material values. In practical design and determination
of design resistances, the design material values are used.
4.3.2.1 Simple method for normally reinforced cross section
The present method can be used to determine the moment of resistance
of a cross-section subject to an axial load N. When assuming that the
cross section is normally reinforced, the tensile force in the reinforcement is
F As f yk
(4.130)
Figure 4.22:
Forces in the ultimate
state
By the equilibrium equation, one finds
N CF
(4.131)
91
Then the compressive zone is easily found. In the case of a rectangular

cross section is
C
f ck b
(4.132)
The moment of resistance is then found by example, to take the moment about the tensile reinforcement. For a rectangular cross section is;
1
h
M C d x N d
2
2
(4.133)
A prerequisite for this calculation is, as mentioned, that the cross section is normally reinforced. It should therefore be checked, according
to (4.109), that;
u3
u3 y
(4.134)
The formulas (4.132) and (4.133) applies to the rectangular crosssection, but also for other cross-section the method is simple to use.
Example 4.15:
Simple method, Tshaped crosssection
Given:
Concrete C30 cast in situ
Design axial load NEd = 900 kN.
Wanted:
The design moment of resistance MRd.
Solution:
30
20,7 MPa
1,45
f
550
6 20; As 1880 mm2 ; f yd
458 MPa; yd yd 0,00229
1,2
Es
s 1,2; c 1,45;
f cd
Estimate: Yielding in the reinforcement
F 1880 458 103 861 kN

N 900 kN
C N F 861 900 1761 kN
92
Compression in the entire flange C1 80 1000 20,7 103 1656 kN

Compression in the web under the flange C2 1761 1656 105 kN
a 250 20,7 103 105 a 20 mm

4
x x 80 20 100 x 125 mm
5
Control of yielding in reinforcement (4.134)
d 600 40 20 540 mm
3,5
x
540 326 mm, ok
3,5 2,29
Moment around tension reinforcement
1
h
M Rd C1 d 40 C2 d 80 a N d
2
2
1656 540 40 105 540 80 20 900 540 300 103

2
659 kNm
4.3.2.2 Rectangular cross section without compression

reinforcement
With the designations in fig. 4.17, the equilibrium equation for a
normally reinforced cross section can be found as
xb fck As f yk N
(4.135)
By using the reinforcement ratio in (4.101) one find;
x 1
N

d
bd f ck
The analogy to (4.100) and (4.102) is apparent.
(4.136)
93
Figure 4.23:
Rectangular cross
section
Strains
Stresses
Section forces
Moment around the tension reinforcement gives

h
1
N
N 2
M N d 1

bd f ck
2
2
bd f ck
bd f ck
(4.137)
By comparison with (4.105) we see that the moment about the tension
reinforcement is equal to the carrying capacity of a beam with the
reinforcement ratio of
(4.138)
bd f ck
The limit of the validity of (4.137) is that the cross section as normally
reinforced, ie. (4,134). By insertion of (4.136) in (4.134) one finds
N
bd f ck
cu3
(4.139)
cu3 y
Comparing with (4.110) we see that here too, the reinforcement ratio is
changed with a contribution from the axial load.
Thus we see, that if we refer our moment to the tensile reinforcement, the formulas, tables, etc. for pure bending and a normally reinforced cross section is used, when the reinforcement ratio is replaced
by an equivalent reinforcement ratio 1 given by (4.138).
For an overreinforced cross section, the reinforcement is calculated
linear elastic as described in Section 4.3.1.1. Reinforcement strain is
found by using (4.115), then the equilibrium equation states
xb f ck As Es u3
dx
N
x
(4.140)
When inserting of x = d (4.140) kan be written as
1 Es cu3
N
f yk
bd f ck
1 E
s cu3 0
f yk
(4.141)
The equation is used to determine , whereafter the moment can be determined. About the tensile reinforcement one finds
1
1
M N d h x d x d f ck
2
2
(4.142)
The formulas for overreinforced cross-sections requires, that there is

tension in the reinforcement, i.e. x < d. For other cases, see the next
section.
94
Example 4.16:
Carrying capcity
Given:
Concrete C25,
cast in situ
Reinforcement:
fyk = 550 MPa
The cross section is affected by the design loads
NEd = 250 kN
MEd = 100 kNm
Wanted:
The design capacity.
Solution:
s 1,2; c 1,45;
30
17,2 MPa
1,45
f
550
458 MPa; yd yd 0,00229

1,2
Es
f cd
3 16, As 603 mm2 ; f yd
d 400 40 360 mm
N Ed
603 458
250 103
bd f cd 250 360 1,0 17,2 250 360 1,0 17,2
0,178 0,161 0,339 bal
cu 3
0,484
cu 3 y
h 1
M Rd N Ed d 1 1 1 bd 2 f cd
2 2
0,339
M Rd 1
0,339 250 3602 1,0 17,2 106
2
250 360 200103
117 kNm > M Ed

Example 4.17:
Determination of
reinforcement
Given:
Concrete C30 in
precast concrete element
Reinforcement:
fyk - 550 MPa
Moderate envirometal class
Tolerance 10 mm
Aggregates dg =32 mm
95
Stirrups 6
Design values of forces: NEd = 320 kN
MEd = 160 kNm
Wanted:
A reinforced cross section.
Solution:
s 1,2 ;
f cd
c 1,4 ;
1,0 ;
0,8
30
550
21,4 MPa ; f yd
458 MPa ;
1,4
1,2
yd 0,00229
Estimate: d 0,9 h 450 mm

About tension reinforcement is found
h
M d M Ed N Ed d
2
160 23 450 250103 224 kNm
Md
224 106
0,185
bd 2 f cd 280 450 21,4
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 0,185 0,206
1
0,206
bd f cd
As 458
320 103
As 514 mm2
280 450 21,4 280 450 21,4
3 16 are chosen, As = 603 mm2
cover 20 10 30 mm
10 26 mm
c1
30 6 36 mm
16 mm
a d g 5 37 mm
20 mm
cs c1 12 36 8 44 mm
96

Needed beam width
bneed 2c1 2 a 3
2 36 2 37 3 16 194 mm < 280 mm ok
d h cs 500 44 456 mm
Load carrying capacity
N Ed
603 458
320 103
bd f cd 280 456 21,4 280 456 21,4
0,101 0,117 0,218 bal

0,8
cu 3
cu 3 y
0,0035
0,448
0,0035 0,0039
M Rd N Ed d 1 12 1 1 bd 2 f cd
2
M Rd 1 0,218 0,218 280 4562 21,4 106

2
320 456 250103

176 kNm > M Ed ok
4.3.2.3 M-N interaction diagrams

Connected values of moments and axial forces that a given cross section can absorb can be drawn-up beneficially on an M-N Interaction
Diagram. The correlation observed in this way is called the failure
condition for moments and normal forces.
The drawing-up of an accurate failure condition is quite complicated.
The approximation outlined in Fig. 4.24 is, therefore, often used.
Points A-E is defined on the basis of the strain condition, then the corresponding stresses are calculated, and finally the moment and axial
force which corresponds to tension state is calculated. In-between the
calculated points on the failure condition, straight lines are drawn, and
one thus gets a safe failure condition, since the selected points are located on the failure condition and one exploits the fact that a fracture
condition is convex.
The points correspond to the following situations:
A
Yield stress in all main reinforcement
B og B1 Pure bending
C og C1 The strain in the one edge equal to the concretes ultimate
strain and the strain equal to the reinforcements yield tension in the reinforcement at the opposite edge.
97
D og D1 The strain equal to concretes ultimate strain at the one edge

and zero in the reinforcement at the opposite edge.
E
Evenly distributed compression strain corresponding to the
concrete stress-strain relationss maximum ordinate, i.e., c3
(see Table 4.2)..
It is seen that Point C on a balanced cross section coincides with Point
B.
Figure 4.24:
M-N interaction
diagram
For a rectangular cross section, the individual points are calculated below, and it is assumed that the cross section is normally reinforced for
bending without an axial force. The effective depth is assumed to be
the same on the reinforcements over-and undersides. If they are different, the respective effective depths, dn and do, are used together with
the reinforcement areas Asn and Aso.
Fig. 4.25 shows the cross section along with the strains, which correspond to the individual points in the M-N interaction diagram.
Figure 4.25:
Strain distribution
with design yield
strain for
reinforcement
Point A
During yielding of the reinforcement, one finds
N Asn Aso f yk
(4.143)
The moment is found about the midpoint
M Asn Aso d f yk
(4.144)
98
Point B
By ignoring the reinforcement in the compression zone, we find
1
M 1 bd 2 fck
(4.145)
Point C
It is assumed that there is yielding in both the tension and compression
reinforcement.
In the compression side there is the strain, cu3, and in the tension reinforcement there is the y, i.e., yd in the design situation. The compression zone is, therefore, found by
cu3
(4.145)
x
d
cu3 y
N xb fck Asn Aso f yk
The moment about the center point gives
h
h 1
M xb fck x Asn Aso f yk d

2 2
(4.146)
(4.147)
Point D
On the compression side there is the strain cu, and on the 'tension side'
it is 0, i.e., x = d.
It is assumed that there is yielding of the compression reinforcement.
We find
N d b fck Aso f yk
(4.148)
h
h 1
M d b fck d Aso f yk d
2 2
(4.149)
Point E
Everywhere, the strain is c3 (see e.g. Table 4.2), which is rarely
enough to ensure yielding of the reinforcement. The reinforcement tension corresponding to c3 is s, and one finds
N bh fck Asn Aso s
(4.150)
h
M Aso Asn s d
(4.151)
It is noted that the compression reinforcement is taken into account

with its yield tension in C and D. One should, however, investigate
whether the strains are greater than the yield strains. Otherwise, the
current strains must be used.
The M-N Interaction Diagram is used to verify that the combinations
of moment and normal forces occurring are within the drawn-up curve,
which, as mentioned, is a safe failure condition.
99
Beams and shear

When bending occurs in beams, normally shear stresses accompany it.
A beam, which is exerted to classical bending and shear effects, together with the corresponding section forces, is shown in Fig. 5.1.
Figure 5.1:
Beam with bending
and shear
In areas where shear occurs, the so-called shear spans, there are in
principle two ways the internal forces work on their way from the load
to the reaction. One way is the arch-effect, as shown in Fig. 5.2a, and
the second way is the truss model, as shown in Fig. 5.2b.
Figure 5.2:
The working method
in the shear span
100
5. Beams and shear

During the arch-effect, the compressive force C is turned down by the
external load in such a way that it affects the reaction, and in such a
way that there is equilibrium between the reinforcements tensile force
F, the reaction and the sloping concrete pressure.
In the truss model, the stirrup reinforcement is utilized as tension
forces between the beams top and bottom. With sloping concrete
compression in the concrete, a kind of internal truss, as indicated in
Fig. 5.2b, occurs in the concrete beam.
It is quite clear that the arch-effect is suitable for beams without stirrups (non-shear reinforced beams), while the truss model is useful for
beams with stirrups (shear reinforced beams).
Lastly it should be stated that beams without shear reinforcement
are rarely used, however, see Section 5.2.
5.1 Shear reinforced beams

5.1.1 Shear theory for shear reinforced beams
Let us look at the case with the span with constant shear force again.
The following tension distributions are now assumed in the shear span:
The tension and compression zones are now seen as chords, i.e.,
without dimension in the height; see fig. 5.3.
The concrete between the chords have a compressive stress, c,
which forms an angle, , with the horizontal.
The stirrups are assumed to be evenly distributed with an area per
length unit of As and a tension of s in the reinforcement. We consider only the case of the vertical stirrups.
Figure 5.3:
Stresses in a shear
span
The concrete contains, therefore, the main stresses 0 and - c, and the
stresses are considered positive as tensile stresses.
In the displayed coordinate system, the concrete tensions are found,
for example, with the aid of Mohr's circles
cx c cos2
(5.1)
cy c sin 2
(5.2)
cxy c sin cos
(5.3)
5. Beams and shear
101
The reinforcement stresses converted to evenly distributed stresses are

similar
sx sxy 0
sy
(5.4)
As s
b
(5.5)
where As is the reinforcement area per length unit of the beam.

The total stress is found by adding the reinforcements and concretes
stresses
x c cos2
y c sin 2
(5.6)
As s
b
xy = c sin cos
(5.7)
(5.8)
In a cross section perpendicular to the beam, the stresses, as shown in

Fig. 5.4, are found.
Figure 5.4:
Stresses and section
forces
By using the equilibrium equations, the link between tensions and section forces is found. Vertical projection gives
xy
V
bz
The moment around the tensile reinforcement gives

1
M C z x z2 b
2
(5.9)
(5.10)
From (5.8) and (5.6), one finds
xy cot x
(5.11)
If (5.11) and (5.9)are inserted into (5.10), one gets
M 1
V cot
z 2
(5.12)
Similarly, one finds
M 1
V cot
z 2
(5.13)
102
5. Beams and shear

We note, of course, that in the shear zone, the tension force increases
in relation to the moment contribution, while the compression force is
reduced.
For the tensions between the chords, we require that y = 0, since
there are no external forces perpendicular to the beam. If y is set to
equal 0 in (5.7), and if c is inserted into (5.8), one finds
(5.14)
xy As s cot
b
A lower value for the loadbearing capacity is now found by setting the
stirrup reinforcements tensile stress equal to the yield stress, fyk, and
setting the concrete stress to equal the compression fracture stress. In
other words, the same condition as for bending, namely that rupture
occurs when both the concrete and the reinforcement breaks or yields.
Concrete has no plasticity. This is expressed in bending when one
cannot take into account concretes compressive strength over the
whole compressed cross section. In the case of shear, one has not such
a simple distribution of strain as one has with bending. A reasonable
way to take account of the limited plasticity is, therefore, to introduce
the concept of plastic concrete strength, fck*, through
fck * fck
(5.15)
where 1 is called the effectivity factor. Therefore, for the lower

value calculation, one uses fck as the compressive strength for concrete.
From (5.8) one thus finds (since c fck and xy )
fck (tan cot )
(5.16)
Into this is inserted (5.14), since s fyk
b
As f yk
b
As f yk
fck
We now introduce a shear reinforcement ratio, defined by

A f
s yk
b fck
(5.17)
(5.18)
By insertion into (5.17) and a bit of recalculation, the shear loadbearing capacity is found
fck ( )
(5.19)
The above formula is thus a lower value for the shear loadbearing capacity. Strictly speaking, it requires a closer examination of stress
states about the reactions and force application points. However, it can
be shown that also in these places, the stress states are statically permissible so that (5.19) is really a lower value for the loadbearing capacity.
5. Beams and shear
103
In fact, (5.19) is a plasticity-theoretically correct loadbearing capacity since coincident upper values have been found. The upper value is
found for a fracture figure as shown in Fig. 5.5; see, e.g., [5]. The fracture occurs at fractures in the two oblique fracture lines at an angle
with the beams horizontal axis.
Figure 5.5:
Fractures
The illustrated process for the shear theory can be extended to inclined
stirrups and to beams with evenly distributed loads. For a closer study
of these conditions, incl. upper value calculations, refer to specialist
litterature, e.g., [4].
Formula (5.19) applies to
, while the loadbearing capacity is

2
constant for large shear reinforcement ratios, i.e.:
if
(5.20)
To understand this, (5.19) can be rewritten as

2
2
2

2
f ck
(5.21) is a circle in a
f ck
(5.21)
, -coordinate system with the circle cen-
tered at
, 0, and with a radius equal to . The exact
2
f ck 2
loadbearing capacity is depicted in the subsequent Figure 5.6, where
one notices that an increased shear reinforcement beyond
,
2
however, does not increase the loadbearing capacity corresponding to
there being reinforced for shear.
This means that for such large amounts of reinforcement, one gets
fractures in the concrete without being yielding in the reinforcement.
Figure 5.6:
Shear loadbearing
capacity for beams, as
showm in fig 5.5
Overreinforced
104
5. Beams and shear
5.1.2 Practical calculations of shear reinforced beams

The practical calculation of shear in the shear reinforced beams is
based on the lower bound solution. One chooses a gradient, , for the
diagonal concrete stress. One checks that the stress is less than the
plastic concrete strength and finally, one finds the necessary stirrup reinforcement using the equilibrium equations so that in total one gets a
statically admissible and safe stress state. Design values for the loads
and forces are used in the calculation.
5.1.2.1 The general approach

Selecting the angle for the diagonal concrete strut
In principle, can be chosen arbitrarily, but experiments have shown
that very oblique concrete pressure requires very large deformations
with consequent shear cracks in order to become active. This is why an
upper limit on the angle is set. It is set because of considerations to
the use state, where one wants restrained crack widths from shear effects.
The upper limit for choosing is, therefore, cot 2.5, but cot 2.0,
if curtailed longitudinal reinforcement is used.
The lower limit for the selection of the pressure angle is 45 when
using vertical stirrups, i.e.
(5.22)
1 cot 2,5
However, for curtailed longitudinal reinforcement:
1 cot 2,0
(5.23)
A certain amount of deformation of the stirrup reinforcement is required to develop the plastic shear fracture. Therefore, it requires the
use of reinforcement in Class B or C if one chooses other angles than
cot = 1; see also comments on reinforcement classes in Section
2.3.2(not translated).
Checking the compression:
On the basis of (5.16), one must verified that the diagonal concrete
compressive stress, c, is less than the plastic design strength vfcd,
where v is found from
f
v 0,7 ck , but not less than 0,45 (fck in MPa)
(5.24)
200
This means that one must check if
c Ed tan cot v fcd

where Ed describes the design formal shear stress
V
Ed Ed
bw z
(5.25)
(5.26)
z is the internal lever arm and bw is the lesser widt of the cross-section.
5. Beams and shear
105
For normally reinforced cross sections, z can be found by
1
z 1 d
2
(5.27)
vv can be found from (5.22) or table 5.1

Table 5.1:
The efficiency factor
for pure shear v
fck MPa
12
0,64
16
20
25
30
35
40
45
50-90
0,62 0,60 0,58 0,55 0,53 0,50 0,47 0,45
When v is used here for the efficiency factor, this is because the plastic concrete strength fck varies for different influences. Index v on
indicates a case involving the plastic concrete strength because of
shear. For, e.g., torsional influences, a different value of is used, see
Chapter 6. The different values of are found on the basis of analysis
of experimental results.
Determination of shear reinforcement.
A beam with an uniformly distributed load is considered. A beam end
of length x is studied, and a section is drawn through the beam with the
same angle, , as the diagonal concrete compressive stress. The section
will, therefore, only have horizontal tension and compression forces (F
and C), and vertical stirrup forces N; see Fig. 5.6.
Figure 5.7:
Beam with section
along the diagonal
concrete compression
The vertical projection gives
N R p x Vx
(5.28)
Therefore, the stirrup force in the sloped section is exactly the same as
the shear force V at distance x.
The area of a stirrup is called Ast (often of 2 bar cross sections) and
the number of stirrups over the length z cot is n. Then (5.28), by insertion of the formal shear tension, Ed, be written as
N nAsw f yd Ed bw z
(5.29)
106
5. Beams and shear

We introduce the stirrup spacing s
z cot
s
n
(5.30)
Using (5.29), one finds that the stirrup spacing is
Asw f yd
cot
Ed bw
(5.31)
Note that the shear reinforcement is dimensioned for the shear force
that is least on the length z cot, and that the reinforcement can be distributed evenly over that length.
If one is considering a beam with variable width, one uses the
smallest body width in the shear zone for bw.
In order that the shear reinforcement can be counted as evenly distributed over the cross section, the stirrup spacing must not get too big.
Measured perpendicular to the shear reinforcement, the distance (according to the Eurocodes) must not be greater than 0.75 d.
To ensure a minimum level of plasticity during shear, there is a requirement for minimum shear reinforcement in beams; see (3.30) in
Section 3.2.2.2.
The shear reinforcement ratio w must be at least
w,min 0,063
As w
fck
f yk
(5.32)
Asw
it requires that the spacing s fulfills the following condisbw
tion
s 15,9
Asw f yk
bw fck
(5.33)
The two sets of requirements can be summarized as
0,75d
s
Asw f yk
15,9 b
fck
w
(5.34)
Formula (5.31) shows that the stirrup reinforcement diminishes with

increased pressure angle. Formula (5.25) shows that the diagonal concrete pressure, at the same time, also increases. The lower bound solution, which underlies the formulae, will just coincide with the upper
bound when one chooses the angle that just gives a concrete compressive stress equal to the plastic strength v fcd.
5. Beams and shear
107
5.1.2.2 Dimensioning
This section summarizes the rules of the preceding section into a sort
of dimensioning practice.
The angle, , is chosen. Because of economic reasons elections it is
chose as large as possible, unless other conditions indicate otherwise.
These may be anchoring conditions, see 3.1.1, or a desire for a structure with very limited crack widths if, for example, it is placed in the
extra aggressive environmental class.
The concrete compressive stress is controlled by (5.25). If it is too
large, a lower angle is chosen and the control is repeated.
The next step is to calculate Ed at a distance l = z cot from the reaction. The stirrup dimension is chosen and the minimum stirrup spacing, s, is found via (5.34). If this minimum distance is greater than the
required stirrup spacing at the reaction, the shear loadbearing capacity
is sufficient. The required stirrup spacing is found through (5.31) while
applying design values, i.e., fyd, and the ascertained Ed at distance l = z
cot from the reaction.
If the minimum reinforcement is not sufficient, the beam is divided
into stretches of l = z cot , and within each stretch, the dimensioning
is done for minimum Ed; see Fig. 5.8.
The figure shows s beam section from maximum moment (shear =
0) to reaction. The beam is shown with a uniformly distributed load
and the formal shear stress is drawn up.
The loadbearing capacity of the minimum reinforcement, min,d, is
drawn up, and it is found by using
A f
min,d sw yd cot
(5.35)
sbw
Figure 5.8:
Beam with shear
stress
One inserts the minimum spacing that one has chosen for the current
beam, for s. This must be less than or equal to s found by using (5.34).
Usually, s is calculated by using (5.34), after which one chooses an s
which is slightly less, but which gives a nice subdivision of the beam.
If, e.g., s is found to equal 322 mm in (5.34), one may choose 300 mm,
which then is inserted in (5.35)
108
5. Beams and shear

The size of the area where the minimum reinforcement is sufficient is
seen from Figure 4.27, where min,d is plotted as a horizontal line. The
minimum reinforcement can be used from the maximum moment to z
cot after the lines intersection with the shear tension curve, since, as
previously mentioned, it is necessary to reinforce for the smallest shear
tension on the stretch z cot. The remainder of the beam can then be
divided into stretches z cot, where reinforcement must be established
for the smallest shear tension. Appropriately, the subdivision must be
made from the reaction, which has the largest shear tension; see Fig.
5.8.
Figure 5.9:
Beam with shear
stress
So, a lot of variation in the shear reinforcement, which the subdivision

may give rise to, is usually inappropriate. This gives greater opportunity for errors on the building site, and it requires greater planning, etc.
Fig. 5.8 suggests a solution with two stirrup spacings, partly corresponding to the minimum reinforcement, and partly corresponding to
the shear stress at a distance z cot from the reaction.
The rule that the minimum shear stress over stretch z cot can be
used for dimensioning is not valid if there are jumps in the shear force
curve within the stretch. In such a case, one must conduct subdivisions
of stretch z cot on either side of the jump; see the example in Fig. 5.9.
Example 5.1:
Shear,
Recctangular
cross-section
Given:
A simply supported beam, casted in-situ,
length = 6 m, is carrying a uniformly distributed design load of pd 40 kN/m (self-weigth
included
Concrete C25
Reinforcement fyk = 550 MPa
Moderate environmental class
Deviation addition 10 mm
5. Beams and shear
109

Max. aggregate size dg 32 mm
Desired:
Design the beam for bending and shear.
Solution:
c 1,45 ,
s 1,2 ,
25
17,2MPa ,
1,45
550
458MPa ,
1,2
fcd
f yd
v 0,58
f yd
458
2,29 103
5
Es
2 10
cu3
3,5
0,8
0,8
0,484
cu3 yd
3,5 2,29
yd
bal
Bending:
1
M Ed 40 62 180kNm
8
z 0,8h 0,8 600 480mm
M
180
F
375kN
z
0,48
F
375
As
819mm2
f yd 0,458
Choosing 3 20 with As = 942 mm2
c 20 10 30 mm
c t 30 6 36 mm
c1
10 20 10 30 mm
cs c1
36 10 46 mm
2
20 mm
a d g 5 32 5 37 mm
20 20 mm
Effective depth: d h cs 600 46 554 mm
110
5. Beams and shear

Necessary width:
bndv 2c1 3 2a 2 36 3 20 2 37 206 mm 250 mm

OK
As f yd
942 458
0,181 bal 0,484

bd fcd 250 554 17,2
Moment of resistance:
1
0,181
2
6
M Rd 1 bd 2 fcd 0,1811
250 554 17,2 10
2
2
217 kNm M Ed 180 kNm
Shear
1
1
z 1 d 1 0,181 554 504 mm
2
2
R 3 40 120kN VEd ,max
Ed ,max
VEd ,max 120 10
0,952 MPa
bw z
250 504
3
cot 2,5
1
1
0,952 2,5
cot
2,5
2,76MPa fcd 0,58 17,2 9,98 MPa OK
c Ed ,max cot
l z cot 0,504 2,5 1,26 m

Stirrups 6: Asw = 56 mm2
Max. spacing:
0,75d 0,75 554 416mm
s
Asw f yk
56 550
15,9
392 mm
15,9 b
250 25
fck
w
5. Beams and shear
111
Spacing s = 333 mm (3 stirrups pr. m) is chosen.

A f
56 458
min,d sw yd cot
2,5 0,77MPa
sbw
333 250
This stress is found in the distance l1 from midspan:

0,77
l1 3,00
2,43m
0,952
The spacing s can be used over the distance l + l1 = 1,26 + 2,43 = 3,69
m > 3 m, meaning that s = 333 mm can be used for the entire beam
Anchorage
1
1
F V cot 120 2,5 150kN
2
2
With As = 942 mm2 we find: s
F 150 103
159 MPa
As
942
lb
48 and the basic anchorage length is
159
48 20
333 mm
458
From table 3.1 we find
lb,rqd
lb s
f yd
Transverse reinforcement: 3 6 mm bars from table 3.2.

The anchorage length can be reduced because of increased concrete
cover. We find
c t 30 6 36mm
cd a 250 2 30 2 6 3 20
30mm
2
22
c
30 20
2 1 0,15 d
1 0,15
0,925
20
Furthermore we can reduece because of transverse pressure.
112
5. Beams and shear

Plate 300 times 250 mm
R 120 103
p
1,6 MPa
Al 300 250
5 1 0,04 p 1 0,04 1,6 0,936

lbd 25lb,rqd 0,925 0,936 333 288 mm

Shear reinforcement can be sketched as follows
5.1.5 Using different angles for the diagonal concrete

strut
As expressed in (5.13) the tensile force in the reinforcement is increased with a lower angle but in return for this, the amount of stirrups needed decreases.
Since the amount of longitudinal reinforcement usually is determined on basis of the maximum moment often the work with designing curtailment is more expensive than the amount of reinforcement
saved it makes sense to us the upper limit value for cot , since this
gives the lowest amount of stirrups without demanding extra longitudinal reinforcement.
The great addition to the tensile force will cause big forces at the
anchoring at supports. In order to reduce the forces at supports, one can
use different values for the angle for the diagonal concrete strut along
the beam. Close to supports one can chose to have a length l1 = z cot 1,
where cot 1 = 1 and design stirrups and anchorage based on this angle.
The rest of the beam can be divided into sections where bigger values
for cot are used, fig. 5.11
5. Beams and shear
113
Figure 5.11:
Part of beam with
different angles for
the diagonal concrete
strut
5.2 Non shear-reinforced beams

Normally, one should use shear reinforcement even though a calculation shows that it can be omitted.
Shear reinforcement may, however, be omitted in structures without
tensile forces in the bearing direction, where significant redistribution
across the main bearing direction (axis) can occur. This is, for example, true for slabs where one has defined that the significant redistributions can take place if the ratio between the ultimate moment resistance
in a section parallel and perpendicular to the main bearing direction is
at least 0,2, corresponding to the minimum reinforcement, which is
prescribed as transverse reinforcement in slabs. For one-way slabs, this
therefore means that there must be at least 20% reinforcement (called
distribution reinforcement or secondary reinforcement) across the reinforcement used in the bearing direction. If this is not the case, the singular span slabs must be considered as a beam, which must be reinforced for shear.
Shear reinforcement can also be omitted in reinforced structures of
secondary importance, for instance in small door and window lintels.
The same unique relationship between theory and experiments has
not been found as for shear reinforced beams. Work is still being done
on providing exact solutions in accordance with the theory of plasticity, but until then one has to work with empirical solutions where experience of previous years development is incorporated. The arch-effect
is of great significance for non-shear reinforced beams, but DS/EN
1992-1-1 has chosen a fairly conservative approach to the arch-effect,
which is usually taken into account by increasing the loadbearing capacity significantly in areas near the supports, i.e., just where the shear
forces are at their greatest.
The following shows two different methods for calculating the bearing capacity of beams without shear reinforcement. The first follows
DS/EN 1992-1-1, while the second method takes the arch effect into
account as it is stated in the Danish annex DS/EN 1992-1-1 DK
NA:2011.
114
5. Beams and shear

5.2.1 Calculation in accordance with DS/EN 1992-1-1
5.2.1.1 Shear resistance
The design value of the shear resistance in a cross-section can be denoted with expressions from DS/EN 1992-1-1 as
0,18
1/ 3
VRd ,c
k 100l fck 0,15 cp bwd
(5.44)
however as minimum
0,051 3/ 2
VRd ,c
k
f ck 0,15 cp bwd
c
(5.45)
where:
fck is in MPa
bw is the cross sections minimum width in the tensile area [mm]
cp = NEd/Ac < 0,2 fcd [MPa]
NEd is the normal force in the cross section from the effect of action
or prestressing [in N] (NEd> 0 for compression). The impact of
imposed deformations can be ignored in NE.
Ac is the concrete cross sections area [mm2]
VRd,c is [N]
k 1
200
2,0 (d inserted in mm)
d
Asl
0,02
bwd
(5.46)
(5.47)
Asl is the area of the tensile reinforcement, which extends more than
(lbd + d) beyond the considered cross section, and lbd is the design anchorage length, see Fig. 5.12
Figure 5.12:
Definition of Asl in
equation (5.47)
5. Beams and shear
115
It should be noted that formulas (5.44) and (5.45) are not correct with
regard to units. Therefore, it is indicated in which units the different
factors should be inserted into the formulas.
The shear force VEd, which is calculated without reduction of , (see
later regarding ) must satisfy the condition:
VEd 0,5 bwd fcd
(5.48)
where is given by (5.24) or Table 5.1.

.
If the formal shear tension is inserted as:
V
bwd
(5.49)
the ultimate resistance can be written in front as:
Rd
VRd ,c 0,18
1/ 3
k 100l fck 0,15 cp

bwd
c
but minimum as
0,051 3/ 2
Rd ,min
k
f ck 0,15 cp
(5.50)
(5.51)
and maximum as
1
2
Rd ,max v fcd
(5.52)
where the factors of the formulas are inserted in units as in (5.44),

(5.45) and (5.48).
5.2.1.2 The shear force
The shear force, VEd, is calculated in the usual way, but at the bearings,
where the longitudinal reinforcement is fully anchored, it must be reduced according to the following rule to take consideration to the archeffect (quote from DS/EN 1992-1-1):
"For members with loads applied on upper side within a distance of
0.5d av 2d from the edge of a support (or the centre of bearing
where flexible bearings are used), the contribution of this load to the
shear force, VEd, may be multiplied by = av/2d. For av 0.5 d , the
value av = 0.5 d should be used".
This means that at distance av 2d, the full load is included in the
shear force, while at distance av 0.5d, 25% of the load is included in
the designed shear force. For loads in the range 0.5d av 2d from the
edge of a support, there is linear variation.
Furthermore, EN 1992-1-1 specifies that for predominantly uniformly distributed loads, one can design for the shear force at a distance of d from the supports/bearings edge.
116
5. Beams and shear

The reduction is particularly important for point forces positioned
near bearings, whereas almost no account is taken of the arch-effect for
evenly distributed loads
Example 5.4:
Ultimate shear
resistance
Given:
Concrete slab cast in-situ
Slab reinforcement
f yk 500 MPa, = 10 mm per 250 mm in both directions
Effective height: d = 110 mm
Concrete class: C25
Normal control level
Desired:
The slabs design value of shear resistance
Solution:
c = 1,45
fcd
25
17,2MPa
1,45
Asl
79
0,0029 0,02
bwd 250 110
cp = 0
k 1
200
200
1
2,35 2,0 , dvs. 2,0 is used
d
110
0,18
1/ 3
VRd ,c
k 100l fck 0,15 cp bwd
c
0,18
1/ 3
2 100 0,0029 25 0 1000 110

1,45
52,8 103 N/m 52,8 kN/m

Expressed in terms of stresses, this corresponds to:
V
Rd Rd ,c 0,48MPa
bwd
The minimum value is:
0,051 3/ 2
VRd ,c
k
f ck 0,15 cp bwd
c
0,051 3/ 2
2
25 0 1000 110 54,4 103 N/m 54,4 kN/m
1,45
Expressed in terms of stresses, this corresponds to:
Rd
VRd ,c
0,49MPa
bwd
5. Beams and shear
117
The maximum value is:
0,7
fck
25
0,7
0,58
200
200
VEd 0,5 bw d fcd 0,5 1000 110 0,58 17,2

548 103 N/m 548 kN/m
i.e., the minimum value is crucial for the ultimate resistance
Example 5.5:
Shearforce
Given:
Slab cast in-situ
Supported (simple supported) at both ends on lx= 200 mm bearings
Total length 6 m and effective height d= 190 mm
Design load of the slab is q= 7kN/m2.
Desired:
The shear force that the slab is to be designed for (calculated for), assuming that the longitudinal reinforcement is fully anchored, i.e., VEd is
at a distance d from the bearings
1) Without regard to the reduction factor
2) With regard to the reduction factor .
Solution:
Reaction: R 7
l
7 3 21 kN/m
2
1) VEd without regard to the reduction factor
VEd R p(lr d ) 21 7(0,2 0,19) 18,27 kN/m

2) VEd with regard to the reduction factor
VEd R p(lr d ) d 0,5 p 12

21 7(0,2 0,19) 0,19 0,5 7 12 17,94 kN/m
118
5. Beams and shear

5.2.2 Calculation with great influence from the arch-effect
The arch effect can be taken into account by calculating an increased
capacity at supports (e.g. direct supports). The enhancement factor is
called 1 and is determined from:
1 2
d
5
x
(5.53)
where
d is the effective height
x is the distance from the cross-section under investigation to the edge
of the support.
Lower limit for 1 is 1,0. The arch effect (5.53) with 1 > 1,0 can only
be taken into account if direct supports are used.
The reduction of the shear force VEd, described in 5.2.1.2, may still be
taken into account, but in this case one must not use the value for VEd
determined in the distance d from the edge of the support, but instead
the maximum value for VEd.
It is required that
VEd 1VRd ,c
(5.54)
Where 1 is determined from (5.53) and VRd,c is determined from (5.44)

and (5.45)
If we transform the forces into stresses we get:
Ed
1 Rd
1
2 v f cd
(5.55)
The values on the right side comes from (5.53) and (5.50), (5.51) and
(5.52)
Example 5.6:
Non- shear
reinforced slab
using the method
with great
influence from the
arch-effect.
Given:
Concrete slab, as shown.
d 110 mm
Reinforcement: fyk = 550 MPa, 10/250 in both directions
Concrete class C25, cast in-situ
Desired:
The shear resistance of the slab.
5. Beams and shear
119
Solution:
c 1,45;
f cd
25
17,2 MPa; v 0,58; ct 1,70
1,45
Rd
1
1
2 v f cd 2 0,58 17,2 4,99 MPa
Rd
Rd 0,48 MPa (from example 5.4)
2,0
d
d 0,22
x 2,0
x
1 x 0,22 m
5 x 0,044 m
Rd Rd
0,22
0,48
x
x m
0,22
0,20
0,15
0,10
0,044
Rd MPa
0,48
0,53
0,70
1,06
2,40
120
5. Beams and shear
5.3 Reinforcement of T-beams flanges

In order to make T-beams compressive zone work, there must be a
transfer of forces from the web to the flanges. This force transmission
can be considered from a lower value solution, see fig. 5.13.
Figure 5.13:
Names at T-beam
Longitudinal
reinforcing
bar anchored
behind this
line
Compressive struts
Length shear stress, Ed, in the cut between one side of the flange and
the web, is determined by the change of the axial force (longitudinal)
over the considered part of the flange according to
Ed
Fd
hf x
(5.56)
where
hf is the flange thickness on the connections
x is the considered length, see fig. 5.13
Fd is the change of the axial force in the flange over the length x.
The axial force F in the beams compressive zone is calculated by F =
M/z. If we consider a beam with a constant cross section and uses the
same value of z in the entire length of the beam, the compressive force
F, and hence the proportion of the compressive force Fd of the flange of
the beam length, vary in the same way as the moment varies. In this
way it is possible to calculate the shear stress variation in the beams
length direction, but DS / EN 1992-1-1 allows one to expect constant
shear stresses across the section x.
The largest value that can be assumed for x, is half the distance between the cross-section, where the moment is 0, and the cross-section
with maximum moment. When applying point loads, the length x
must not exceed the distance between the point loads.
The stresses in the flange computes as a constant concrete pressure
c with the slope , see fig. 5.13, and the tensile stresses in the reinforcement perpendicular to the cut and parallel to the cut between the
flange and the web. The total stress condition of concrete and rein-
5. Beams and shear
121
forcement must be kept in balance with the shear stress Ed determined

by (5.54). See section 6.1 with respect to this balance in plane stress
conditions.
The angle of the compressive strut can of Class B and C steels be
chosen according to
(5.57)
1,0 cot 2,0 compressive flanges
1,0 cot 1,25 tensile flanges
(5.58)
For class A-steel, there are special rules to ensure sufficient deformation capacity.
Small concrete stresses can be absorbed without reinforcement and
DS / EN 1992-1-1 allows that there should not be reinforced for longitudinal shear between the body and flanges, if Ed 0,4 fctd.
The transverse reinforcement per unit length Asf/sf can be determined
as follows
Asf
sf
Ed h f
f yd cot
(5.59)
The required longitudinal reinforcement Asl, in each flange can be

found by
h b bw
Asl Ed f f
cot
(5.60)
f yd
2
The formula resulting from formulas for plane stress conditions in diaphragms, see (6.10) and (6.11).
In order to prevent compressive failure in the compressive struts in
the compressive flange, the following condition must be met
1
c Ed cot
f cd
(5.61)
cot

The longitudinal reinforcement in the flanges is anchored behind the

first compressive strut, see fig. 5.13.
The transverse reinforcement is anchored, for example, by enclosing
the reinforcement as closed stirrups in the flange. If the T-beam is part
of a beam/slab structure, transverse reinforcement is anchored in the
slab.
If combining the shear between the flange and web with transverse
bending, the transverse reinforcement area can be set to the value one
finds from (5.59) or to the value one get as half the area from (5.59)
plus the area which is necessary for transverse bending. The latter is
due to that the transverse bends tension and compression, contributes
with equal values for absorbing the shear between the web and the
flange.
In the case of a simply supported T-beam with a span l and the load
p per unit length, x can be set to a maximum of l/4 and determination
of moment at the support, at l/4 and l/2 respectively
3 2
1
0,
pl og pl 2 . This gives prompts for the following
32
8
122
5. Beams and shear

On the stretch from the support to l/4
Fd
3 pl b f bw
16 z
bf
(5.62)
Ed
3 pl b f bw
16 zh f
bf
(5.63)
3 pl b f bw 1
16 zf yd b f
cot
(5.64)
Asf
sf
3 pl b f bw
Asl
16 zf yd
2b f
cot
(5.65)
On the stretch l/4 to l/2 the equivalent can be found
Fd
1 pl b f bw
16 z
bf
(5.66)
Ed
1 pl b f bw
16 zh f
bf
(5.67)
1 pl b f bw 1
16 zf yd b f
cot
(5.68)
Asf
sf
1 pl b f bw
Asl
16 zf yd
2b f
cot
(5.69)
The formulas (5.62)-(5.65) are used for the distances l/4 closest to the
supports, and (5.66)-(5.69) is used on the stretch l/2 in the middle
Example 5.7:
Flange
reinforcement in
simply supported
T-beam
Given:
Beam with cross section as
shown
Design load
pd = 80 kN/m
Concrete C25,
cast in situ
Inspection level normal.
The beam is simple supported with l = 5.0m
Wanted:
Suggestions for flange reinforcement
5. Beams and shear
123
Solution:
s 1,2; f yd
f yd
500
417
417 MPa; yd
0,22%
1,2
Es
2 105
Compressive strength: c 1,45; f cd
25
17,2 MPa; 0,58
1,45
Tensile strength: f ctm 2,6 MPa; c 1,70; f cd
2,6
1,53MPa
1,70
Bending reinforcement:
As 1880mm2 ,
d 500 40
50 434mm
cu
1880 417
0,105 bal 0,8
1000 434 17,2
cu yd
0,8
3,5
0,491
3,5 2,2
Compression zone: 0,8x d 0,105 434 46mm 100mm
1
1
Internal liver arm: z 1 d 1 0,105 434 411mm

2
2
It is chosen to use cot 1

For the stretch l/4 closest to support:
From (5.63):
3 pl b f bw
3 80 5200 1000 250
Ed
1,42 MPa
16 zh f
bf
16 411 100 1000
Ed 1,42 0,4 fctd 0,4 1,53 0,61 MPa , i.e to be reinforced.

From (5.61):
1
1
c Ed cot
1,42 1 2,84 f cd 0,58 17,2
cot
1
9,98 MPa
So, no compressive failure.
Transverse reinforcement from (5.64)
Asf
3 pl b f bw 1
3 80 5200 1000 250 1
103
sf
16 zf yd b f
cot 16 411 417 1000 1
341 mm2 /m
If stirrups, say = 6 mm per 150 mm, is chosen:
As
377 mm2 /m (2 cuts per stirrup)
s
124
5. Beams and shear

Longitudinal reinforcement from (5.65)
3 pl b f bw
Asl
16 zf yd
2b f
3 80 5200 1000 250

cot
1
16 411 417
2 1000
2
128 mm2
In each flange, 5 bars with = 6 mm is chosen, that is Asl = 141 mm2
For the stretch l/2 in the middle of beam:
From (5.67)
1 pl b f bw
1 80 5000 1000 250
Ed
0,47 MPa
16 zh f
bf
16 411 100 1000
Ed 0,47 0,4 fctd 0,4 1,53 0,61 MPa ,

i.e. there should not be reinforced beyond what the transverse bending
requires. The transverse bending is not calculated in this example.
Example 5.8:
Flange
reinforcement in
cantilevered beam
Given:
A beam is casted together with a slab so that it has an effective crosssection as shown in the figure.
Concrete cast in situ, C20
The internal liver arm z = 400 mm
Design load including selfweight pd = 40 kN/m
The beam is cantilevered out 1.5 m and 5.5 m between the supports. In
the slab there is reinforcement 8/200 in both directions for both the
top side and bottom side, corresponding to As = 251 mm2/m in both directions for both the top side and bottom. 251 mm2/m in the upper side
corresponds to the required transverse bending.
Wanted:
An investigation for whether additional flange reinforcement is needed.
5. Beams and shear
125
Solution:
s 1,2 ;
f yd
500
417 MPa;
1,2
Compressive strength: c 1,45; f cd
20
13,8 MPa; 0,60
1,45
Tensile strength: f ctm 2,2 MPa; c 1,70; f cd
2,2
1,29 MPa
1,70
Reactions:
RC
40 7 5,5
5,5
7
102 kN
2
RB 7 40 102 178kN
Moment at B: M B 40 1,5
1,5
45kNm
2
Moment maximum in distance x from C: 40 x 102 2,55m ,
M max 102 2,55 40
2,552
130kNm
2
Maximum value for x is 2,55 = 1,23m

Maximum increment occurs from C and halfway to Mmax where one
has
1,262
M 102 1,26 40
97 kNm
2
126
5. Beams and shear

Force growth in the distance is F
M 0 97
243kN
z
0,7
Force increment of a flange is

1 b f bw
1 1880 280
Fd F
243
103 kN
2 bf
2 1880
From (5.56): Ed
Fd
103 103
0,60 MPa
h f x 140 1230
Ed 0,60 0,4 fctd 0,4 1,29 0,52 MPa

Hence the reinforcement must be calculated.
It is chosen to use cot 1
From (5.61)
c Ed cot
1
1
0,6 1 1,2 f cd
cot
1
0,6 13,8 8,28MPa
i.e. no compressive fracture.

Transverse reinforcement of (5.59):
Asf
sf
Ed h f
f yd cot
0,60 140
0,201mm2 /mm 201mm2 /m
417 1
If shear between the flange and web is combined with transverse bending, the following reinforcement must be present:
Asf
sf
201mm2
1
2
201 254 352 mm
2
With 251 mm2/m in both top and bottom, ie. a total of 502 mm2/m, no
additional transverse reinforcement is required.
Longitudinal reinforcement of (5.60):
Asl
Ed h f b f bw
f yd
cot
0,60 140 1880 280

1 161mm2
417
2
Is met by 4 8 that gives As = 201 mm2, which is no problem with

8/200 in both top and bottom.
127
Torsion
6.1 In-plane stress conditions in diaphragms
Diaphragms are characterized by the fact that stresses only occur in
their planes i.e., one speaks of in-plane stress conditions.
We will study piece of such a diaphragm made of reinforced concrete with bars perpendicular to each other, see fig. 6.1.
Figure 6.1:
Piece of diaphragm
with stresses
The reinforcement lies in the x and y direction, and in the concrete there
is uniaxial pressure c with the inclination to the x-direction.
The stress condition for the piece of the diaphragm is compiled by
finding the tension in the x-and y-coordinate as the sum of the stresses
of from concrete and from the reinforcement
The stresses in the concrete is found to be the following using
Mohr's Circle:
cx c cos2
(6.1)
cy c sin 2
(6.2)
cxy c sin cos
(6.3)
If the reinforcements cross-sectional area per. unit length perpendicular to the respective x-and y-directions is respectively called Asx and
Asy, and if the stress in the reinforcement is s, the force in the reinforcement is assumed to be evenly distributed over the concrete with
the following magnitudes:
A
sx sx s
(6.4)
t
sy
Asy s
t
where t is the thickness of the diaphragm.
(6.5)
128
6. Torsion
The total stresses from the concrete and reinforcement is thus
Asx s
t
A
y c sin 2 sy s
t
x c cos2
xy c sin cos
(6.6)
(6.7)
(6.8)
The stresses (6.6) - (6.8) must, therefore, be in equilibrium with the

stresses induced by the external load. If the stress in the reinforcement
is less than or equal to the yield stress, and stress in the concrete is less
than or equal to the plastic concrete compressive strength, then we have
a lower bound (static) solution.
It is noted that (6.8) can be written as:
c xy cot
cot
(6.9)
If this value for the concrete tension is inserted into (6.6) and (6.7), one
gets:
Asx s
(6.10)
x xy cot
t
Asy s
1
y xy
(6.11)
t
cot
If the stress in the reinforcement is set equal to the reinforcements
yield stress, fy, the required reinforcement area can be found dependent
on the selected i inclination of the concrete compression.
As the inclination of the concrete compression can be chosen, this
means that there is one unknown and, of course, it is possible to optimize the required amount of reinforcement with regard to the inclination of the concrete . You can read about these conditions in [4].
The plastic strength of concrete, as was briefly touched upon in
connection with Formula (5.15), expresses the concrete strength to be
utilized when calculations are done in accordance with the theory of
plasticity, since concrete is far from being an ideal plastic material. If
the concrete is a confined concrete, it becomes more plastic (malleable) than concrete subjected to pressure that is not confined. This means
that concrete can be utilized for different levels, depending on the stress
condition in which it occurs. This can be taken into account by using
different efficiency factors for various influences.
The problem with finding efficiency factors dependent on stress
combinations is far from resolved, and this is not reflected in the European edition of DS/EN 1992-1-1, which probably is due to fact that the
most extensive application of the theory of plasticity primarily takes
place in Denmark. The Danish annex has, therefore, some general information pertaining to the application of the theory of plasticity, allowing a wider use of the theory than in the European edition.
6. Torsion
129
The design concrete stress, Ed, which is found via (6.9), must satisfy the following condition:
Ed fcd
(6.12)
where the index Ed is used to underline the fact that it is a design stress
caused by a design load.
If the requirement for minimum reinforcement is not fulfilled, is used,
which is determined by:
2
fck
(fck in MPa)
(6.13)
The value determined by (6.13) always constitutes a lower limit for the
value of v.
Pure compressive axial stress
The efficiency factor for pure pressure is denoted v n and should be determined by
1,0 where the axial stress is produced by an axial force

m swhere the axial stress is produced by compression
due to bending
The efficiency factor vm is determined by:

f
f
m 0,97 yk ck , but not less than 0,6 (fck and fyk in MPa)
5000 300
(6.14)
However, for cross sections that are normally reinforced with respect
to the bending moment, one may use:
f
m 0,98 ck , but not less than 0,6 (fck in MPa)
(6.15)
500
For combined normal (axial) forces and bending - to be on the safe
side - one can use the value m, or you can use a weighted mean value
of n between the values for pure axial force and pure bending
Pure shear
The efficiency factor for pure shear is termed vv and is determined by:
v 0,7
fck
, but not less than 0,45
200
(fck in MPa)
(6.16)
The value of vv also applies to beams in cases where inclined reinforcement is used as shear reinforcement.
130
6. Torsion
vv is applicable where the shear is caused by a shear effect. If the
shear is caused by a torsional effect, the efficiency factor is called vt
and is determined by:
f
(6.17)
t 0,7 (0,7 ck ) (fck i MPa)
200
For pure shear caused by both an external shear force and an external
torsional force, a weighted mean value of v og t should be used, but t
can be used to be on the safe side.
For thin-walled sections with torsion where the individual subwalls
constituting the section are reinforced with closed stirrups along the
perimeter and uniformly distributed longitudinal reinforcement at both
sides, t should be taken as v .This also applies to reinforced slabs
provided with shear reinforcement along edges subjected to torsion.
Figure 6.2:
Efficiency factor for
pure torsion
Where concrete struts in compression contribute to resist shear forces,

e.g. in the strut-and-tie model, the efficiency factor should as a maximum be taken as v = vv.
Figure 6.3:
Effektivitetsfaktor
for trykstnger der
medvirker ved
forskydningsoptagelse
For nodes (joints), e.g. in the strut-and-tie analogy and at bearings, the
efficiency factor can generally be set to = 0.8. However, for nodes
where no reinforcement is provided through the node and the stress in
the node alone is caused by an external pressure, the efficiency factor
can be set to = 1.0.
Where a compressive axial stress is subject to a perpendicular tensile axial stress due to a tensile axial force or a bending moment, the
efficiency factor is denoted nr and should be determined by
nr n 0,2
Ed
f yd
(Ed og fyd i MPa)
(6.18)
where Ed is the external design tensile axial stress and fyd is the reinforcement ratio times the design yield strength perpendicular to the
pressure direction (fyd corresponds to the design tensile strength).
6. Torsion
131
Figure 6.4:
Efficiency factor for
pressure combined
with transversal
tension
On the safe side, one can use the efficiency factor corresponding to
pure shear for combined shear and normal stress actions. As an alternative, the concrete compressive stress is obtained by fulfilling the following conditions.
(6.19)
Edx fcdx
Edy fcdy
(6.20)
2
Edxy
( fcdx Edx )( fcdy Edy )
(6.21)
Edxy fcdv
(6.22)
where
Edx, Edy and Edxy are the external actions , assumed to be positive as
tension.
fcdv is the effective design compressive strength for pure shear, i.e.,
either fcdv = vvfcd, fcdv = vtfcd or a weighted value of vvfcd and vtfcd
depending on the external action.
fcdx and fcdy is design compressive strength of the considered point in
the x and y directions, respectively , whilst the concretes contribution in formulas (6.19) and (6.20) may be maximum set to
vnrfcd, while in formula (6.21) maximum set to vnfcd.
For slabs with small reinforcement ratios, i.e., (fyd/ fcd) less than approx. 0.1, the efficiency factor is set to v = vm when calculating the
moment actions - i.e., the torsional influence on the efficiency factor
can be ignored.
6.2 Tensions from torsion

6.2.1 Thin-walled cross section
A thin walled closed cross-section is considered. The shear force v per
unit length of the cross-section is found by Bredts formula.
v
T
2 Ak
(6.23)
where T is the bending torque and Ak is the area enclosed by the thinwalled cross-sections centerline.
132
6. Torsion
The shear stress in a wall with thickness t is found by
v
T

t 2 Ak t
(6.24)
Figure 6.5:
Thin-walled cross
section
6.2.2 Massive cross sections

In massive cross section, the plasticity theorys lower value method
considerations are required.
The cross-section seen as a thin-walled cross-section with a selected
effective thickness tef, located along the margin of the original crosssection. Such a design-effectiveness, cross section is shown in fig. 6.6.
Outer perimeter of the effective
cross section, circumference u
Figure 6.6:
Effective cross section
Centerline
Cover layer
The effective thickness is determined as
tef
A
u
max
2 c
t

2
(6.25)
where
A is the total area within the outer perimeter
u is the cross-sectional circumference
c is cover layer
t is the diameter of the transverse reinforcement usually stirrups
is the diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement.
6. Torsion
133
It is noted that it is possible to have walls in such a design thin-walled

cross-section, which have different effective thicknesses.
In the design thin-walled cross-section, can shear stresses in the individual walls be found on (6.24)
A wall, of the thin-walled cross-section of fig. 6.6, has the shear
force Vi, from the torsion given by
Vi i tef ,i zi
T
zi
2 Ak
(6.26)
where
i is the shear stress in the wall
tef,i is the thickness of the wall
zi is the side length of the wall, defined as the distance between the
thin walls centrelines cross point, see fig. 6.6.
In experiments often seen that there is flaking of the cover layer when
a torsional affected section is nearing its breaking strength. It is therefore often discussed if the cover should be subtracted when the thinwalled cross-section is designed and formed. In DS / EN 1992-1-1, one
has decided to ignore this effect by designing the thin-walled cross section. On the other hand, one has set limits for the wall thicknesses of
the thin-walled cross-section, which is narrower than necessary at a
given plasticity theoretically considered.
6.2.3 Complex cross sections

When massive cross-section of another form, the method may also be
used, since the cross section is divided in partial cross-section, see. Fig.
6.7
Figure 6.7:
Cross sections divided
into partial cross
sections
The twisting torque can be distributed in part cross sections, and it is

often done so that the bearing capacity by pure torsion maximized. If
each part section has the same thickness in all the walls, is tantamount
allocation of the torque, so that the shear stress is similar in the partial
cross sections. For example, therefore in fig. 6.7 is distributed a twisting torque T on the two cross sections after
tef ,1 Ak1
T1
T
(6.27)
tef ,1 Ak1 tef ,2 Ak 2
T2
tef ,2 Ak 2
T
tef ,1 Ak1 tef ,2 Ak 2
(6.28)
134
6. Torsion
6.3 Dimensioning of torsion

As a starting point for the design of pure torsion, one works with lower
value solutions (6.9), (6.10) and (6.11), although normal tension in
(6.10) and (6.11), is zero, since we only have the shear stress found by
(6.24).
When combined torsion and shear, the same limits on the sloping
concretes pressure inclination are chosen with the structure's longitudinal axis as by shearing see. DS / EN 1992-1-1. When transverse reinforcement must be perpendicular to the longitudinal reinforcement,
there will be vertical hangers and one gets
(6.29)
1,0 cot 2,5
If there is a shortened longitudinal reinforcement, the upper limit is set
to 2.0, i.e., same choice as in bending with displacement.
The upper limit of cot usually ensures against unacceptable torsional cracking in the use condition borderline. It is noted that the limits of pressure inclination (like limits by bending with displacement) is
set based on experience by testing on crack widths, ie they are justified
in the use condition and not in the failure condition.
By pure torsion i.e., with normal tension x = y = 0 there is no need
for differences between the x and y axis and therefore the analog limits, equal to (6.29), becomes
0,4 cot 2,5
(6.30)
One method of dimensioning for an effect of a design torque TEd, shall
be as follows:
The design torsion t,i in wall with thickness tef,i can be found by
(6.24) and the concrete pressure inclination is selected so that (6.30) is
satisfied.
Thus appears the inclined concrete pressure from (6.9), when there
for xy is inserted the shear stress t,i that is found from the design load,
i.e.
1
c t ,i cot
(6.31)
cot
The found concrete tension must be less than the plastic concrete compressive strength in torsion, i.e.
c vt fcd
(6.32)
where the efficiency factor vt correspond to pure torsion, can be found
of (6.17).
Combines (6.31) and (6.32) with (6.24) and is the design resistance
to twisting TRd used instead of T, one finds that the plastic concrete
strength provides a maximum carrying capacity whatever the reinforcement, becomes
2v f t A
TRd ,max t cd ef ,i k 2vt f cd tef ,i Ak sin cos
(6.33)
1
cot
cot
6. Torsion
135
where tef,i is the minimum wall thickness in the designed thin-walled

cross-section.
Length reinforcement can be found of (6.10), where x = 0 and the reinforcement tension s is set to the design yield tension fyd.
For the side with e.g. the length zi of fig. 6.6, the total required
length of the reinforcing Asi (6.10) is found to
Asi i
tef ,i zi
cot
f yd
(6.34)
Thus the longitudinal reinforcement can be found for each side in the
thin-walled cross sections.
For the entire cross section of area Ak, the total length reinforcement
required Asl can also be found using (6.10). In (6.34) Asi is replaced
by Asl and the length zi of uk, which is the circumference of Ak. Is
(6.23) and (6.24) used simultaneously with the design torque TEd for T
Asl
TEd uk
cot
2 Ak f yd
(6.35)
Length reinforcement is either evenly distributed along the sides, or it

can be concentrated in a few points. However, there must always be
positioned a substantial reinforcement in the corners, as this reinforcement contribute to turn the force of the transverse reinforcement, see
fig. 6.8. The distance between the longitudinal reinforcement bars must
not exceed 350 mm.
Figure 6.8:
Effect of the corner
reinforcement
Transverse reinforcement can be found following the same principle in

(6.11), taking s= fyd. Asy denotes reinforcement amount per. unit length
in the longitudinal direction of the structure. Instead of Asy can be used
Asw/s, where Asw is the area of the reinforcing bars used as transverse
reinforcement, and s is the distance between the bars. Analogously to
(6.35) for transverse reinforcement is found
Asw
TEd
1
s
2 Ak f yd cot
(6.36)
Usually transverse reinforcement consists of hangers and s is therefore

the hanger distance and Asw is the area of a hanger bar - usually on
cross section.
In order for the transverse reinforcement to be considered useful in
torsion, the distance s should not exceed u/8 where u is the crosssectional outer circumference.
136
6. Torsion
Example 6.1:
A beam with pure
tension
Given:
A beam with the cross section 300 400 mm
Cover layer 25 mm
Concrete C35 cast in situ
The beam is affected only by a design bending torque of 23 kNm
Desired:
The beam is required dimensioned for torsion
Solution:
f cd
35
24,1 MPa
1,45
f
35
vt 0,7vv 0,7 0,7 ck 0,7 0,7

0,37
200
200
f yd
500
417 MPa
1,2
Pressure inclination is set to cot = 1

Estimated hangers = 8 mm and estimated longitudinal reinforcement
= 16 mm
Circumference: u = 2 (300 + 400) = 1400mm
Effective thickness:
A 300 400
u 1400 86 mm
tef
2 c t 2 25 8 16 82 mm

2
2
The area enclosed by the center line of the design thin-walled crosssection: Ak 300 86 400 86 67,2 103 mm2
Control of concrete tension:
TRd ,max
2vt f cd tef ,i Ak
2 0,37 24,1 82 67,2 103 6
10
1
1
cot
1
cot
1
49,1 kNm TEd 24 kNm

Length of the centerline uk 2 300 86 400 86 1056 mm
Length Reinforcement:
Asl
TEd uk
24 106 1056
cot
1 452 mm2
2 Ak f yd
2 67,2 103 417
6. Torsion
137
If selected 4 pcs. 16 mm one finds As1 = 804 mm2, which is ample.

When placing one reinforcement bar in each corner, the requirement
for maximum distance of 350 mm will be met.
Asw
TEd
1
24 106
1
0,424 mm2 / mm
3
s
2 Ak f yd cot 2 67,2 10 417 1
428 mm2 / m
By selecting 8 mm per 100 mm, it can be found;
Asw
503 mm2 / m 415 mm2 / m
s
Maximum hanger spacing = u/8 = 1400/8 = 175 mm is met.
6.4 Combined stresses

Torsion occurs rarely as the only impact and therefore dimensioning or
loadbearing capability verification should be demonstrated for several
other impacts.
A simple and very simplified method to check whether the loadbearing capacity of a given set of forces and moments is sufficient is to examine
SEd 1
Rd
(6.37)
where SEd are the single design cutting forces, while SRd is the loadbearing corresponding to the different sectional forces acting alone.
If the, for the displacement used longitudinal reinforcement - beyond what the bend requires - is present, M and V must not be inserted
at the same time in the above formula, so there are performed two independent studies of M and V separately, i.e. if the impacts are torque,
shear and torsion.
M Ed TEd
1
M Rd TRd
(6.38)
VEd TEd
1
VRd TRd
(6.39)
The method mentioned in (6.37) is a simplified method based on that

the breakage conditions are convex, see for example [5]. That the
method is usually on the very safe side, can be illustrated by plotting
(6.37) for bending and axial force in Figure 4.25, see fig. 6.9.
138
6. Torsion
Figure 6.9:
M-N.diagram with
(6.37)
Alternatively, to the above one can let the cross section from torsion
impacts absorb all the design sectional forces. Subsequently the necessary reinforcement of the individual walls of (6.10) and (6.11) and
concrete compressive stress for the individual walls in the design cross
section is controlled by (6.9) and (6.12). DS / EN 1992-1-1 addresses
internal forces according to this principle, although it is described so it
is difficult to understand.
In DS / EN 1992-1-1 torsion combined with shear are treated, as is
written that the impact can be combined using the same pressure inclination and that the maximum carrying capacity is limited by the concrete pressure. This means that the transverse reinforcement (hangers)
from torsion and displacement can be summed and the concrete pressure controlled by
TEd
TRd ,max
Where
TEd
VEd
TRd,max
VRd,max
VEd
TRd ,max
(6.40)
is the design torsional moment

is the design shear force
is determined by (6.33)
is the maximum possible shear bearing capacity determined by
(5.23) og (5.24) to
VRd ,max Rd ,max bw z
bw zvv f cd
1
cot
cot
(6.41)
by introducing the term bw for the minimum width in the cross section,
and z is the inner moment arm.
If we imagine a rectangular cross section, which is divided into a
design in terms of thin-walled cross section, one now has dealt with the
vertical walls.
About longitudinal reinforcement is written, that it can reduce for
available pressure force and that there should be longitudinal reinforcement for torsion in addition to other reinforcement.
If we imagine again a rectangular cross section subjected to a positive torque, it indicates a pressure force in the upper side from bending.
This compressive force may reduce the longitudinal reinforcement that
exist for torsion and possibly make it completely unnecessary. Dis-
6. Torsion
139
placement also causes pull in the upper side, see. (5.41), i.e. the final
resultant in the upper side consists of pressure from bending and pull
from torsion and displacement, ie the resultant can end up being pull.
In the lower side there is pull, and thus the longitudinal reinforcement from bending and from displacement, see (5.40). Add to this the
longitudinal reinforcement determined by the torsion.
Hereby one has worked the two horizontal walls in the design cross
section for torsion.
Are there additional normal force applied to the cross section, these
are distributed on the 4 sides so that the balance is kept. Normal forces
in each of the walls causes a decrease or an increase in the longitudinal
reinforcement, depending on whether there is compressive or tensile
normal force.
The inclined concrete pressure in the top and bottom from torsion
should actually also be checked, even if it is not listed in DS / EN
1992-1-1. In areas with shear and pull (underside of the beam) must be
used an efficiency coefficient equal to pure torsion, see. Fig. 6.3 and
therefore, the concrete pressure is not a problem when the combined
torsion and shear (6.40) is satisfied.
In areas with shear stress and normal stress impacts (the upper side
of the beam) one can normally do by leaving the upper part of the
beam absorb the normal stress and the remaining part of the thin
walled cross-section upper part, cope with the concrete pressure of torsion normally. This means that one converts the inclined concrete pressure in the upper surface, calculated from (6.31) to a pressure distributed over the part of the upper side, which is the left over after the top is
used for the compressive force. If the pressure force absorbs the distance t from the top side, the requirement to the inclined pressure to be
absorbed by the rest is
c t ,i
Example 6.2:
Rectangular section with combined
stresses
tef
1
cot
vt f cd
tef t
cot
(6.42)
Given:
Concrete beam cast in situ with cross section w h = 300 600 mm
Cover layer 25 mm
Concrete C30
Design sectional forces
Bending moment:
MEd = 130 kNm
Torque:
TEd = 12 kNm
Shear force:
VEd = 50 kN
Normal force:
NEd = -40 kN (Tension)
Desired:
The beam-cross-section dimensions, when for shear and torsion is used
cot = 2
140
6. Torsion
Solution:
c 1,45;
f cd
s 1,2
30
20,7 MPa;
1,45
v 0,7
f yd
500
417 MPa
1,2
f ck
30
0,7
0,55
200
200
t 0,7 vv 0,7 0,55 0385

We estimate = 20 mm as longitudinal reinforcement and hangers =
8 mm
Bending:
Work height:
d h c t 1 2 600 28 8 1 2 20 557 mm
M Ed
130 106
0,067
bd 2 f cd 300 5572 20,7
1 1 2 1 1 2 0,067 0,069
z 1 1 2 d 1 1 2 0,069 577 538 mm
Pressure and pulling force:
C M Ed 130 103
241 kN
F
z
538
Pull reinforcement area: As
F 241 103
578 mm2
f yd
417
Torsion:
Circumference: u 2 300 600 1800 mm
Effective thickness
A 300 600
u 1800 100 mm
tef max
2 c t 2 25 8 20 86 mm

2
2
i.e. 100 mm.

The area enclosed by the centreline of the design thin-walled cross section: Ak 300 100 600 100 100 103 mm2
Length of the centreline: uk 2 300 100 600 100 1400 mm
6. Torsion
141
Longitudinal reinforcement:
Asl
TEd uk
12 106 1400
cot
2 403 mm2
2 Ak f yd
2 100 103 417
Asw
TEd
1
12 106
1
0,72 mm2 / mm
3
s
2 Ak f yd cot 2 100 10 417 2
72 mm2 / m
Shear:
The design shear force corresponding to a calculated shear stress
Ed
VEd
50 103
0,31 MPa
bw z 300 538
The required hanger reinforcement are of (5.29) that by rewriting becomes
Asw
b
0,31 300
Ed w
0,112 mm2 mm 112 mm2 m
s
f yd cot
417 2
Subtraction and addition for pressure and tension forces in the top side
and under side are referring to (5.12) and (5.13)
C
1
1
VEd cot 50 2 50 kN
2
2
F
Normal force:
If the normal force is only distributed on the walls of the top- and under side, it gives a tensile force of 20 kN for each.
142
6. Torsion
Overall results:
Concrete pressure for shear and torsion is controlled by (6.33), (6.40)
and (6.41)
TRd ,max
2 t f cd tef ,i Ak
2 0,385 20,7 100 100 103
1
1
cot
2
cot
2
63,8 106 Nmm 63,8 kNm
VRd ,max Rd ,max bw z
bw z v f cd
300 538 0,55 20,7
1
1
cot
2
cot
2
735 103 N 735 kN

TEd
TRd ,max
VEd
VRd ,max
12
50
0,188 0,068 0,256 1,0 OK

63,8 735
Hanger reinforcement is the sum of hangers from displacement plus

transverse reinforcement from torsion. In this regard, it is recalled that
the shear reinforcement is the sum of the reinforcement in a horizontal
section of the beam, while the torsional reinforcement is reinforcement
in a wall.
In a horizontal section, where two cuts hangers the necessary reinforcement area becomes therefore
Asw Aswf
A
2 swv 112 2 72 256 mm2 m ,

s
s
s
where the index f stands for displacement and v for torsion.
A two cuts shackle = 8 mm cross-sectional area is 100 mm2.
There are some requirements for hanger distance to be met. For displacement, the requirements are given in (5.32) and for torsion it is u/8
or the beams smallest dimension, see section 3.2.2.3, i.e.;
0,75d 0,75 557 417 mm
Asw f yk
100 500
15,9
484 mm
15,9
bw f ck
300 300
s
u 1800
225 mm

8
8
b 300 mm
w
Is s 255 mm chosen, one finds
Asw
100
444 mm2 256 mm2 OK

s
0,225
6. Torsion
143
Longitudinal reinforcement from torsion must have a maximum distance of 350 mm, see section 3.2.2.3. Therefore a reinforcing bar is
placed in the center of the vertical sides of the hangers. Is reinforcement with = 12 mm selected, are the remaining longitudinal reinforcement from torsion;
Asl = 403-226 = 177 mm2, distributed by half in the top and half in the
bottom. The reinforcement is corresponding to a tensile force, respectively on the top and bottom
A
177
Fv sl f yd
417 103 36,9 kN
2
2
The normal force is divided half in the top and half in the bottom.
In the bottom are the pulling force to the contribution of torque F,
contributions from torsion Fv contribution from shear F and contributions from the normal force N.
We find
1
1
Fres F Fv F N 241 36,9 50 40 368 kN
2
2
Necessary tension reinforcement is As
Fres 368 103
882 mm2
f yd
417
With longitudinal reinforcement = 20 mm must be used 3 pcs with As

= 942 mm2
In the upper side is similarly the compressive force to
Cres C Fv C
1
1
N 241 36,9 50 40 134 kN
2
2
There is talk about pressure i.e. longitudinal reinforcement is unnecessary. For reasons of execution and to rotate the hanger force at the corners, a reinforcing bar is placed in each corner of the hanger top. Select
reinforcement with = 12 mm.
Control the pressure stresses in the upper side. For compressive
force the top part of t is used;
Cres
134000
t
23 mm ,
30
b m f cd
300 0,98
20,7
500
since (6.15) on the safe side is used for vm.

The inclined concrete pressure is controlled by (6.42)
t
1
c t ,i ef cot
tef t
cot
12 106
100
1
2 1,9 MPa
3
2
2 100 10 100 100 23
t f cd 0,385 20,7 7,10 MPa OK
144
6. Torsion
For the calculation of the shear stress is used (6.24)
It is extremely rare to have all impacts as in Example 6.2, but the example is included to show how the effects can be combined.
In practical calculations one will divide a beam of part-lengths
where one will have constant reinforcement. For the breakdowns one
will look to the calculation rules of displacement by dimensioning for
the smallest shear. In many cases, the maximum torque the same location as the shear force and perhaps also where the torque is zero, and
therefore the length of the reinforcement in the underside of the bending moment may be sufficient in the entire beam length, such as it is
known from the calculation of shear deflection.
6.5 Assignments
Exercise 6.1
A precast concrete beam with the dimensions 300 x 400 mm is impacted by a bending moment of T = 10 kNm.
For the beam also apply:
Concrete C30
Normal safety class
Cover layer 20 mm
The cross-section is requested dimensioned torsion.
Exercise 6.2
A cantilevered beam - molded on site - is constrained for torsion and

bending. At the end of the beam is a vertical design action Pd = 25 kN
with an eccentricity of 400 mm.
6. Torsion
145
For the beam also apply:

Concrete C30
Normal safety class
Cover layer 20 mm
The beam is requested dimensions and the required reinforcement by
the restraint, is applied throughout the beam.
146
6. Torsion
147
Columns
With regard to columns, a distinction is made between centrally loaded
columns and eccentrically loaded columns.
The eccentricities may be due an axial force that is located eccentrically about the columns cross section, or it may be due to an applied
moment, which is statically equivalent to an eccentrically located axial
force - except that an applied moment may be due to a transverse load.
In the latter case, literature will often use the term: a beam column. In
this section, we will only use the terms centrally and eccentrically
loaded columns.
According to DS/EN 1992-1-1, a column is a structural component
whose cross-section height (thickness) is not greater than 4 times its
width and whose length is at least 3 times the cross sectional height.
Otherwise, it should be considered as a wall. Walls are calculated in
principle as columns, although deflection happens only about a single
axis and the constructive requirements, including reinforcement rules,
are different for walls and columns. Similarly, DS/EN 1992-1-1 recommends that the total cross-section height, i.e., thickness hw of a loadbearing wall, should not be less than 120 mm for concrete walls cast
in-situ.
One can ignore the second order effects, whose slenderness ratio is
under the value lim given by
lim 20 ABC
Ac f cd
N Ed
(7.1)
where
the slenderness ratio
l
i
l is the effective length of the column
I
. For calculation of I and A, norA
mally only the concrete cross section is included
Ac is the columns cross sectional area
NEd is the columns design load.
minimum radius of gyration i
A, B and C is determined from

1
A
1 0,2ef
(7.2)
B 1 2
(7.3)
C 1,7 rm
(7.4)
148
7. Columns
where
efis the effective creep coefficient, se following
is the reinforcement ratio, se (4.101), but taking the whole concrete
section Ac and the total area of the reinforcement As into account:
As f yd
Ac f cd
(7.5)
rm is the ratio between the design 1. order end moments M0Ed1 and
M0Ed2, say M0Ed1/M0Ed2, and M0Ed2 M0Ed1. If M0Ed1 and M0Ed2 causes
tension in the same side of the column rm is positive, otherwise negative.
C equals 0,7 for simply supported columns, where M0Ed1 = M0Ed2 = 0
If the parameters used in the formulae for A, B and C are unknown,
they can, on the safe side, be set to A = 0,7, B = 1,1 and C = 0,7.
On the safe side one can disregard the second order effects if the
slenderness ratio is under limgiven by
lim 10,8
Ac f cd
N Ed
(7.6)
More accurate values for lim can be determined by calculating the

values for A, B and C and inserting them in (7.1).
In column design creep is taken into account by using the effective
creep ratio ef determined from (7.52) as described later.
7.1 Centrally loaded columns

Centrally loaded columns are an ideal condition, which do not occur in
practical buildings, but the situation is permitted used in building structures where reinforced columns that are cast as one with beams or
plates can be calculated as the centrally-loaded structure, while taking
the eccentric load into account by increasing the columns axial force.
The approximate calculation can be done under the condition that
<90, since the columns free length is taken as being equal to the
columns shaft length,
the column is not affected by significant moments and are part of a
construction with fixed node point figure and with commonly used
dimensions,
that the design total load from the slab that is immediately above the
column in question is multiplied by
a) a factor 2 when the column is loaded unilaterally in two directions by beams or slabs
b) a factor of 1.25 when the column is loaded by continuous beams
or continuous slabs. For a beam or slab to be considered as continuous, it must, on two sides of the column, have approximately
the same stiffness. Otherwise, it is considered as a, respectively c.
c) a factor of 1.5 for all other columns.
7. Columns
149
The situation is illustrated in fig. 7.1.

Figure 7.1:
Factors in the
calculation of
reinforced, centrally
loaded columns cast
in situ
7.1.1 Non-reinforced columns

Centrally loaded, linearly elastic columns loadbearing capacities, Ncr,
are calculated by using the Euler Equation, i.e.
Ncr
2 EI
l02
(7.7)
where
E is the modulus of elasticity
I is the second area moment of the cross-section
l0 is the columns effective length.
Materials with curved stress-strain relations, e.g., concrete, are called
soft materials as opposed to linearly elastic materials.
The loadbearing capacity of a soft column can be determined by using Engessers First Column Theory. According to this theory, the tangential slope, Ek, for a non-linear elastic material, is used. If Ek is inserted into (7.2) and divided by the cross-sectional area Ac, the critical
stress is found
cr
2 E k
l0

i
(7.8)
herein i2 I/Ac.
In order to determine the critical stress one must know a stress-strain
relation that makes a solution of (7.8) possible. There are many different proposals for analytical solutions suitable for hand calculations
Calculating centrally loaded columns is not a part of the Eurocodes,
as the basic assumption is that centrally loaded columns are an ideal
condition that will not occur in practice. The rules given in relation to
fig. 7.1 are special Danish rules according to the danish annex to EC2.
150
7. Columns
It seems reasonable to use the previous Danish rules for centrally
loaded columns.
Here the characteristic initial modulus of elasticity can be found
from
f ck
Ec0k 51000
units in MPa
(7.9)
f ck 13
The cohesion between the tangent modulus of elasticity, Ek, and the
initial modulus of elasticity, Ec0k, is often set on the safe side at

E k Ec 0k 1
fck
(7.10)
If (7.10) is inserted into (7.8) with = cr, one finds:
cr
2 Ec 0k 1
l0

i
cr
fck
(7.11)
By solving the equation in terms of cr, the so-called Ritters Formula

is found
fck
(7.12)
cr
2
fck l0
1 2
Ec 0k i
For practical dimensioning, the design values are used.
The design values in (7.12) are hereinafter
fcd
crd
2
f
l
1 2 ck 0
Ec 0k i
(7.13)
This formula has been used in Denmark for many years to calculate
centrally loaded columns. Often, one has introduced an additional restriction, because one has used a conservative value for the elasticity
module, as one has used a special value for the stability calculations of
E0crd, instead of E0k, the first named being determined by
1000 fcd
E0crd min
(7.14)
0,75E0d
In DS/EN 1992-1-1, (7.7) is indicated as the loadbearing capacity of a
centrally loaded column, where a representative value, EI, for the stiffness, is inserted.
For non-reinforced columns, a representative value is a value where
I is determined for the cross section and E is determined for the concrete by way of (7.10), thus the critical stress (and hence the loadbearing capacity) is determined by (7.12), or for the design situation by
(7.13). Initial modulus of elasticity is determined by (7.9), after which
the extra security provided by (7.14) is introduced. Factor fck/(2Ec0k),
i.e., fcd/(2E0crd) for use in (7.13), is given in table 7.1.
7. Columns
151
7.1.2 Reinforced columns

The principle of a loadbearing capacity determination is to determine
cr without taking consideration to the reinforcement. This means using (7.13) without including the contribution from the reinforcement
when the radius of gyration, i, is determined.
The strain, which belongs to cr, is determined from the concrete
stress-strain relation, and the associated reinforcement tension, sc, is
found. The ascertained concrete and reinforcement contributions are
summed.
The columns loadbearing capacity will therefore be:
Ncr cr Ac sc As
(7.15)
The reinforcement stress is found to be
sc Es Es
cr
Ec
cr
(7.16)
Inserted into (7.15), one finds
Ncr cr Ac 1
(7.17)
In (7.17), the reinforcement ratio Asc is introduced.

Ac
Traditionally, for the determination of , one uses a secant modulus
of elasticity for concrete through the top point in the stress-strain diagram for concrete. c1 is used for the strain in the top point, which corresponds to the top point of the stress-strain relation, which DS/EN
1992-1-1 recommends for nonlinear analysis.
For practical dimensioning, design values and values found in Table
7.1 for fcd/(2 E0d) for use in (7.13), and values for for use in (7.17),
are used. is calculated for concrete cast in-situ, but can with sufficient accuracy, also be used for concrete elements.
fck MPa
104 f cd
2 E0crd
12
16
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
90
1,0 1,0
1,0
1,0
1,1
1,3
1,4
1,5
1,7
1,8
1,9
2,2
2,5
2,7
44
29
24
21
19
17
15
14
13
13
11
10
34
Table 7.1: Values for use in the column calculation. ( is for the normal inspection level
The strain found in the reinforcement for a given crd is too large with
regard to the curved stress-strain relation; see fig. 7.2. The reinforcement contribution one should use in (7.17) is, therefore, larger than the
equivalent concrete stress, crd. The error is, however, hampered by the
fact that crd is found without consideration to the reinforcements increased stiffness, i.e., one applies a little too small a crd.
152
7. Columns
Figure 7.2:
Stress-strain diagram
for concrete using a
secant value for
column calculation
Reinforcement cannot be used for greater stresses than the yield stress,
and DS/EN 1992-1-1 also stipulates an upper limit for the reinforcement volume at 0.04Ac, where Ac is the concrete cross section. This
constitutes the design loadbearing capacity of a reinforced and central
loaded column determined by:
Ncrd
Example 7.1:
Resistance against
central load
crd Ac 1
min crd Ac f ycd As
crd Ac 1 0,04
(7.18)
Given:
Precast concrete column,
dimensions as shown
Concrete C25
Desired:
Determine
a) The concretes contribution to the resistance
b) Load carrying capacity if reinforced with 4 16 mm bars
with f yk 400MPa
c) Load carrying capacity if reinforced with 4 16 mm bars
with f yk 600MPa.
Solution:
c 1,4;
fcd
25
17,9MPa;
1,4
c1 2,1103;
24
fcd
104
E0crd
2
s 1,2;
f yk 400MPa;
f yd
400
333MPa
1, 2
7. Columns
153
f yk 600MPa;
l0 3 m;
f yd
2 105 2,1103
350MPa
1,2
I
h
200
58mm
Ac
12
12
4 16 mm: As 804mm2 ,
a) crd
Es c1
fcd
f
l
1 2 cd 0
E0crd i
As
804
0,0161 0,04
Ac 250 200
17,9
3000
1 10
58
4
14,1MPa
Ncrd ,beton 14,1 200 250 103 705kN

b)
crd Ac 1
3
14,1 200 250 10 1 24 0,0161 977 kN
Ncrd min
972kN
A f A
ycd s
crd c
14,1 200 250 103 333804 103 972kN
c)
crd Ac 1
3
14,1 200 250 10 1 24 0,0161 977 kN
Ncrd min
977 kN
A f A
ycd s
crd c
14,1 200 250 103 350 804 103 986kN
154
7. Columns
7.2 Unreinforced, eccentric loaded columns

The slenderness of walls of unreinforced concrete cast on site should
generally not exceed = 86 (i.e. l0/hw = 25, see the meaning of symbols below).
By unreinforced columns and walls tensile strength is not included
and an area symmetrical about the axial loads attack line are taken into
account, see fig. 7.3. The thus loaded area is calculated centrally loaded.
When, by using (7.1), it is assessed whether 2nd order effects should
be taken into account, the calculation of the slenderness is based on the
compressed part of the cross section only, whereas for the fulfilment of
the requirement to slenderness of walls cast in situ, the wall thickness
should be included. The difference is based on the fact that the assessment of 2nd order effects is related to the calculation rule, saying that
only the area symmetrical about the load should be included, while the
other demands on the slenderness is a design requirement.
Figure 7.3:
Excentric load
applied on the column
and/or wall
7.2.1 Unreinforced columns using formula in DS/EN

1992-1-1
The design load bearing capacity NRd of a slender unreinforced wall or
column according to DS / EN 1992-1-1, is calculated by the following
simplified method
(7.19)
N Rd bhw f cd
is a factor that takes into account the eccentricity, including 2nd order
effects and general effects of creep.
The factor are found by using (7.20)
l0
e
1,14 1 2 0,02
h
h
w
w
min
e
1 2
hw
l0 is the effective length determined by
l0 lw
lw is the free length of the column.
(7.20)
(7.21)
7. Columns
155
is a factor that takes into account the support conditions. For simply
supported columns and walls is = 1, for cantilevered columns and
walls is = 2 and for other support conditions can found from table
7.2
Support conditions
Sketch
Factor
Expression
= 1,0 for all
2 sides
values of lw/b
3 sides
1
l
1 w
3b
For b lw
4 sides
1
l
1 w
b
For b < lw
b
2lw
A Floor slaps
B Free boundary
C Cross wall
Table 7.2: -values for different support conditions
b/lw
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
0,26
0,59
0,76
0,85
1,0
1,5
2,0
5,0
0,90
0,95
0,97
1,00
b/lw
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
0,10
0,20
0,30
0,40
1,0
1,5
2,0
5,0
0,50
0,69
0,80
0,96
156
7. Columns
Example 7.3:
Centrally loaded
wall
Given:
Concrete element:
Column length l0 = 2.6 m, wall thickness hw = 150 mm.
Characteristic concrete strength fck = 25 MPa.
Wanted:
Design the load bearing capacity according to the simplified formula in
DS/EN 1992-1-1
Design the load bearing capacity after Ritter formula, i.e. using (7.13)
Solution:
Safety factor, unreinforced concrete elements c = 1,55
Design resistance of concrete strength:
f ck
f cd
f cd
25
16,1 MPa ,
104
1,55
2 E0crd
a. Design resistance according to the simplified formula in DS/EN

1992-1-1.
l
0
2600
e
1,14 1 2 0,02 0 1,14 1 2

0,02
0,79
150
150
hw
hw
The load bearing capacity is found by (7.19)
N Rd bhw f cd 1000 150 103 16,1 0,79 1908 kN/m

b. The load bearing capacity after Ritter formula.
h
I
150
w
43,3 mm
Ac
12
12
crd
f cd
f
l
1 2 cd 0
E0crd i
16,1
4 2600
11,8 MPa
1 10
43,3
N Rd bh crd 1000 150 103 11,8 1770 kN/m
Example 7.4:
Excentric loaded
wall
Given:
Insitu cast concrete wall
Eccentricity e = 25 mm
7. Columns
157
Wanted:
The design load bearing capacity
Solution:
Safety factor, unreinforced concrete, in situ c = 1,60
Design strength: f cd
f ck
25
15,6 MPa
1,6
1
bhw3
h
I
150
12
w
43,3
3
Ac
bhw
12
12
l0 2600
60 86 OK
i 43,30
l
25
2600
e
1,14 1 2 0,02 0 1,14 1 2

0,02
0,41
150
150
hw
hw
N Rd bhw f cd 1000 150 103 15,6 0,41 959 kN/m
Example 7.5:
Transversely loaded wall
Given:
Concrete wall element
Design loads: NEd = 200 kN/m
MEd = 9 kNm/m
Wanted:
The design load bearing capacity verified
Solution:
Safety factor, unreinforced concrete elements c = 1,55
Design strength: f cd
Eccentricity: e
f ck
25
16,1 MPa
1,55
M Ed
9
0,045 m 45 mm
N Ed 200
Compressed height: h hw 2e 150 2 45 60 mm

Slenderness:
l0 l0 12 2600 12
150
i
h
60
158
7. Columns
Limit for 2nd order effect:
lim 20
Ac f cd
60 1000 16,1 103
20
44 150 ,
N Ed
200
i.e. 2nd order effect must be included.

l
45
2600
e
1,14 1 2 0,02 0 1,14 1 2

0,02 150 0,11
150
h
h
w
w
N Rd bhw f cd 1000 150 103 16,1 0,11 265 kN/m
7.2.2 Non-reinforced columns after the element formula

The stress-strain relation for concrete can be selected from the following context

sin
(7.22)
fc
2 1
where 1 is the peak of the work line, i.e. strain for = fc.
From the expression is found
2

2
1 1 sin 2
cos
2 1
2 1
fc
The modulus of elasticity is found from (7.22)
Ec

f c
cos
2 1
2 1
(7.23)
(7.24)
The initial modulus of elasticity is found for = 0 to

fc
Ec 0
2 1
(7.25)
By the aid of (7.25) and (7.23) the modulus of elasticity can be written
as

Ec Ec 0 cos
Ec 0 1
2
1
fc
(7.26)
Insert the value of E in the formula for the critical stress (7.8) and
solved for = cr the critical stress is now found to
fc
cr
(7.27)
2
f c l0 2
1 2
Ec 0 i
7. Columns
159
Only the compressed area is taken into account, i.e. for rectangular
cross-section are included
h hw 2e
(7.28)
For i is used
h 2e
h
w
12
12
(7.29)
The compressed area are A`c
Ac b hw 2e
(7.30)
Where b is the length of the wall, se figure 7.3.

The load carrying capacity is found as
Ncr cr Ac cr hw 2e
(7.31)
The DS / EN 1990 has been given rules for the assessment of calculation models in comparison with experiments. The rules allow to evaluate computational models and find the partial factors to be used in the
calculation models.
The drawn up formula (7.27) is compared with experiments on concrete wall elements, see [17]. On this basis, it is found that for ls/i < 95
one uses the usual partial factors and for ls/i > 95, a partial factor,
which is 1.25 times the usual partial factor, can be used.
It can be taken into account by applying the factor 1.25 in the denominator for the critical stress, and then apply the usual partial factors.
Based on the work presented in [17] it can therefore be recommended that unreinforced concrete wall elements, which are centrally loaded, eccentrically loaded and/or transverse loaded can be calculated as
follows:
The design capacity NRd it is found by
N Rd crd Ac crd b h 2e
For
l0
95 is
i
crd
For
(7.32)
f cd
2
f
l
1 2 ck 0
Ec 0k i
(7.33)
l0
95 is
i
crd
f cd
f
1,25 1 2 ck
Ec 0k
l0
i

2 2
(7.34)
160
7. Columns
since
Ec0k 51000
f ck
f ck 13
(7.35)
and
h hw 2e
i
12
12
where
b is the width of the wall
hw is the thickness of the wall
l0 is the effective column length of the wall
e is the eccentricity from the axial force
fck is concretes characteristic compression strength
fcd is concretes design compression strength
(7.36)
7.3 Reinforced, eccentric loaded columns

When a column is loaded eccentrically, or a transverse load is applied,
it suffers a deflection. This deflection gives rise to an increase in moment, i.e.
M E M 0E NE u
(7.37)
where M0E is the moment from the eccentricity and transverse load
without consideration to deflection, NE is the applied axial force, and u
is the deflection.
One must then consider whether the column can absorb the resultant
section forces.
Calculating the additional deflection is exceedingly complicated to
perform by manually because of the non-linear stress-strain relations
for concrete and for some types of reinforcement. Furthermore, the
calculations are complicated by the fact that there may be areas in the
column that are cracked and others that are not cracked. A variety of
approximation methods have therefore been developed to implement
practical calculations of eccentrically loaded columns.
DS/EN 1992-1-1 gives a general method, which is not suitable for
practical daily calculations. The method and its background is described in [18], which also reviews the two approximation methods also indicated in DS/EN 1992-1-1. The two methods are equivalent, and
it is up to each country to choose which method one wants to use. In
the Danish National annex to DS/EN 1992-1-1, one has chosen the
method that is based on nominal stiffness and this method will be described in Section 7.3.1.
An approximation method, which is very simple and only suitable
for simply supported columns and fixed-end columns, will be discussed in Section 7.3.2.
Finally, it must be clarified that one can disregard the second order
effects if they are less than 10% of the corresponding first order effects, or if the slenderness ratio is below the value lim given by (7.1).
7. Columns
161
7.3.1 Method based on nominal stiffness

For a simply supported column is the second order, the moment M2 is
written as
l2
(7.38)
k
where is the curvature, l is column length and k is a factor that depends on the distribution of the curvature (see also (4.78) and (4.79).
The curvature can be written as
M M2
M
(7.39)
E 0E
EI
EI
M 2 N E u N E
Insertion of (7.39) into (7.38) enables the isolation of the second order
moment and one finds
M 2 N E
M M2 l2
l2
l 2 M 0E M 2
NE 0E
NE
k
EI
k
EI k1
k2
k2
l2
k1 EI
k1
M 2 M 0E
M 0E
2
k
EI
l
2
1
1 NE
l 2 NE
k2 EI
NE
(7.40)
Instead of one value for k, k1 and k2 are introduced to highlight that

there may be differences of the curvatures distribution for the first and
the second order moment.
An often reasonable assumption for the second order moment is a
sinus-formed curvature, which means that k2 = , i.e.
2
M 2 M 0E
where
Ncr
k1
M 0E
N
EI
cr
1
1
NE
l 2 NE
2
(7.41)
is the critical load for centrally loaded columns (7.7) and

2
k1
moment.
is a factor taking into account the shape of the first order
The total moment can now be written as
M E M 0E

M 2 M 0 E 1
Ncr
NE
(7.42)
162
7. Columns
The factor k1 in depends on first order moments shape. For constant
curvature, k1 = 8, for a curvature corresponding to a second grade parable, k1 = 9.6, for a triangle-shaped curvature, k1 = 12, and for a sinusshaped curvature, k1 2 .
Assuming the same form of the first order moment as the second order moment, the formula for the moment, including second order effects, is found to be
ME
M 0E
N
1 E
Ncr
(7.43)
For practical calculations, design values are used, i.e.:
M Ed
M 0 Ed
N
1 Ed
Ncr
(7.44)
When calculating the critical column load, the effective column

length, , is included in accordance with the usual rules for determining effective column lengths for linear elastic materials.
The nominal stiffness is used for stiffness, which contains contributions from both the concrete and the reinforcement and is determined
by
EI Kc Ecd Ic Ks Es I s
(7.45)
where
Ecd is the concretes design modulus of elasticity
Ic is the second area moment oft he concrete cross-section
Es is the reinforcementsdesign modulus of elasticity
Is is the reinforcements second area moment about the center of
gravity of the concrete cross section
Kc is a factor in the effects of cracking, creep, etc.
Ks is a factor for the reinforcements contribution,
Factors Kc and Ks are adjusted, so the calculation method (7.44) with
(7.45) gives good agreement with the general calculation method specified in DS/EN 1992-1-1.
For reinforcement ratio 0.002, the factors can be found by using:
Ks 1
Kc
k1k2
1 ef
where
is the geometric reinforcement ratio, As /Ac
As is the reinforcements total area
Ac is the concrete cross-sections area
ef is the effective creep coefficient, see (7.52)
(7.46)
(7.47)
7. Columns
k1
k2 = n
fck
20
170
163
(fck i MPa)
0,20
(7.48)
(7.49)
where
n is the relative axial load, NEd / (Acfcd)
is the slenderness ratio
The reinforcement ratio 0.002 means that the column must be considered as unreinforced, see (3.32).
For the reinforcement ratio 0.01, the factors can be simplified to
Ks 0
Kc
0,3
1 0,5ef
(7.50)
(7.51)
In the determination of the loadbearing capacity, it appears however

that the labor savings when calculating with the simplified factors is
modest.
In column calculations, consideration is taken to creep by using the
effective creep coefficient ef determined by
M
ef ,t 0 0 Eqp
(7.52)
M 0 Ed
where
, t 0 ) is the final value of the creep coefficient
M0Eqp is the first order bending moment in a quasi-permanent load
combination, i.e., serviceability limit state
M0Ed is the first order bending moment in a design load combination,
i.e., in the ultimate limit state.
The final value of the creep coefficient can be found using methods described in DS/EN 1992-1-1, but can often be set with sufficient accuracy to be 3.
If the moments vary in the column, the maximum values must be
used.
One can disregard the effect of creep i.e. ef = 0, if the following 3
conditions are met:
(, t 0 ) 2
75
M0Ed /NEd h
Here M0Ed is the 1. order moment, and h is the cross-sectional height in
the corresponding direction.
164
7. Columns
Example 7.8:
Eccentrically loaded column 1
Given:
Prefabricated column,
200 x 400 mm,
column length 6 m
Design loads:
NEd 250kN
M 0 Ed 25 kNm
Moment in the quasipermanent situation (serviceability limit state)
M 0 Eqp 15kNm
Reinforcement: f yk 500MPa
Concrete C25
Desired:
The design section forces, which the column should be designed for.
Solution:
25
fcd
17,9MPa
1, 4
Ecm 31000MPa
Ecd
31000
22100 MPa
1,4
f yd
500
417 MPa
1, 2
I
200 4003
400
mm
Ac
12 200 400
12
l 6000mm
l
i
6000 12
52
400
The effective creep coefficient:

M
15
ef ,t 0 0 Eqp 3 1,8
25
M 0 Ed
Reinforcement ratio:
Af
1570 417
s yd
0,457
Ac f cd 200 400 17,9
7. Columns
165
Ratio between the 1. order end moments rm = 1 (both are 0):

Limit for taking 2. order effects into account:
1
1
A
0,74
1 0,2ef 1 0,2 1,8
B 1 2 1 2 0,457 1,38
C 1,7 rm 1,7 1 0,7

Ac f cd
N Ed
lim 20 ABC
20 0,74 1,38 0,7
200 400 17,9

34
250 103
i.e. the deflection must be included.

Reinforcement ratio:
A
1570
s
0,0196 0,01 ,
Ac 200 400
i.e. simplified values can be used.
Ks 0
Kc
0,3
0,3
0,158
1 0,5ef 1 0,5 1,8
Nominal stiffness:
EI Kc Ecd I c Ks Es I s 0,158 22100
1
200 4003
12
3,72 1012 N mm2

Critical load:
N cr
2 EI
l
2 3,72 1012
2
6000
103 1020kN
Total design moment:

M 0 Ed
25
M Ed
33kNm
N Ed
250
1
1
1020
N cr
The cross-section must therefore resist the following section forces
166
7. Columns
M Ed , N Ed 33kNm,250kN ,
which is calculated as bending with axial load.
Using the more accurate coefficients instead of the simplified, one
finds the following:
fck / 20
k1 =
k2 = n
170
25
1,12
20
N Ed
250 103
52
0,054
Ac fcd 170 200 400 17,9 170
Ks 1
Kc
k1k2
1,12 0,054
0,0216
1 ef
1 1,8
EI Kc Ecd I c Ks Es I s
1
2
0,0216 22100 200 4003 1,0 2 105 1570 200 40
12
12
8,55 10 Nmm
Critical load:
N cr
2 EI
l2
2 8,55 1012
60002
103 2340kN
Total design moment:

M 0 Ed
25
M Ed
28kNm
N Ed
250
1
1
2340
N cr
The cross-section must therefore resist the following section forces
M Ed , NEd 28 kNm,250 kN ,
when more accurate coefficients are used.
7.3.2 Simplified method II

A more rough simplification than given in DS/EN 1992-1-1 can be
found by assuming a deflection based on (4.81), setting the strains to
their limit values, meaning that the concrete strain is set to the ultimate
strain and the reinforcements strain is set to the design yield strain i.e.:
1 cu yd 2
umax
l
(7.53)
10
d
This equation can be used for simply supported columns and for fixed
columns, when using the effective column length as l.
7. Columns
167
The design strain in the reinforcement must be determined without

using safety coefficients for the modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement:
f
f
yd yd yk
(7.54)
Es s Es
The design moment found from this calculation is
M Ed M 0 Ed NEd umax
(7.55)
Notice that the section forces found from the chosen strains in (7.53)
(MEd and NEd ) does not correspond with the equilibrium states as used
when preparing M-N interaction diagrams, see section 4.3.2.3.
Example 7.10:
Eccentrically loaded column 1 method II
Given:
Same column as in example 7.8.
Desired:
Design section forces that the column must resist, if method II is used.
Solution:
cu 3,5 103
yd
f yd
Es
417
2,09 103
200 103
d = 360 mm
l = 6000 mm
umax
3
1 cu yd 2 1 3,5 2,0910
l
60002 55,9mm
10
d
10
360
The total design moment can be found as
M Ed M 0 Ed NEd umax 25 250 0,0559 39,0kNm

The cross-section must resist the section forces:
M Ed , NEd 39,0kNm,250kN ,
Calculated as bending with axial load.
7.4 Biaxial bending with 2nd order effects

Biaxial bending with 2nd order effects may be treated by treating the
bending about each axis separately and then combine the effect by
means of a simplified combination formula.
168
7. Columns
Though, combination is not necessary if the slenderness ratio satisfies the following two conditions
y
2
z
(7.56a)
z
2
y
(7.56b)
and if the relative eccentricities ev/heq and ez/beq (see fig. 7.4) satisfies
one of the following conditions:
ey heq
0,2
ez beq
(7.57a)
ez beq
0,2
ey heq
(7.57b)
where:
b, h
y, z
Iy, iz
ez
ey
MEdy
MEdz
NEd
is the cross-sectional width and height

is the slenderness ratio l0/i respectively for the y-and z-axis
are radiuses of gyration respectively for y-and z-axis
= MEdy / NEd; eccentricity along the z-axis
= MEdz / NEd; eccentricity along the y axis
is the design moment about the y-axis, incl. 2nd order moment
is the design moment about the z-axis, incl. 2nd order moment
is the design value of the axial load at the load combination
under investigation.
For non-rectangular cross sections equivalent dimensions are used,

corresponding to an equivalent rectangular cross-section determined
by:
beq i y 12
(7.58a)
heq iz 12
(7.58b)
Figure 7.4:
Defining
eccentricities ey and ez
If the condition in equation (7.56) and (7.57) are not met, biaxial bending is taken into account incl. 2nd order effects in either direction (un-
7. Columns
169
less they can be disregarded under (7.1) or the rule of 2nd order effects
must be greater than 10% of 1st-order effects to be taken into account).
The concern for the biaxial bending can be performed by using the
combination formula:
a
M Edz M Edy
1,0

M Rdz M Rdy
a
(7.59)
where
MEdy and MEdy is the design moment around the axis, incl. a 2nd order
moment
MRdy and MRdy is the design moment resistance in that direction
a is an exponent that for circular and elliptical cross section is set to 2
and the rectangular cross section can be found in table 7.3 with linear interpolation for intermediate values.
Table 7.3:
Values of a in
tectangular cross
section
NEd / NRd
0,1
0,7
1,0
1,0
1,5
2,0
In the table
NEd is the design value of the axial load
NRd = Acfcd + Asfyd a design load capacity, where Ac is the concrete
cross section gross area and As is the area of longitudinal reonforcement
7.5 Taking into account the eccentricities

Unfavorable effects of possible deviations in the structures geometry
and location of the loads, is to be taken into account when they affect
the load-bearing capacities.
For statically determined structures or structural members it is usually done by determining eccentricities and include them in the calculations - if they have a size that causes significant impact. For statically
determined structures or structural members, it is usually done by applying the constructions horizontal forces.
Minimal horizontal forces are taken into account since DS / EN
1990 has introduced the mass load as a minimum horizontal load that
has to be applied to a design.
Determination of eccentricities can be difficult in practice, but some
instructions are given in DS/EN 1992-1-1 while others are based on a
well-established practices.
With regard to geometrical imperfections (inaccuracies) the instructions in DS/EN 1992-1-1 is simplified to the following for walls and
isolated columns:
The eccentricity from the wall or column imperfections, can be set
to l0/400 where l0 is the walls or columns effective column length. The
170
7. Columns
difference is assumed to have the same shape as the wall deflection at
the critical load.
For eccentricities from execution deviations, the following may be
used:
The eccentricity of the axial load as a result of inaccuracy in the
wall or column positions above each other from floor to floor, can be
set to 0.05 h - with a minimum of 10 mm - where h is the thickness of
the wall or column dimension, unless the sum of assembly and manufacturing tolerances are greater.
Figure 7.5:
Example of
eccentricity in
prefabricated building
Beams
(girder)
Wall
Facade
Contact
area
Plan
Especially for prefabricated building joints one can count on the following:
When calculating the eccentricities of the walls and columns of prefabricated buildings, the loads of beams and slaps can be designed to
act in the third point of contact area that causes the largest eccentricity, see fig. 7.6.
Figure 7.6:
Wall width for
capturing of
concentrated load
171
Casting joints
Whether it is concrete that is cast in situ, or whether it is concrete elements that are joined together on installation, joints between new concrete and previously poured/mounted concrete occur, which thus acts
as a gap or transition in the casting process, and these gaps are termed
construction joints or casting joints. Usually, forces are transmitted in
these casting joints and they can be divided into normal forces perpendicular to the construction joint and shear forces parallel to the construction joint. For compression forces, the construction joint constitutes no impairment compared to monolithic concrete, while the resistance to shear is decreased.
8.1 Theoretical resistance

A construction joint acted by a shear force V and a compressive normal force N, as shown in fig. 8.1, is considered. The casting joint is
perpendicular to the paper plane in a panel with a thickness of t and a
height of
Figure 8.1:
Casting joint with
shear and normal
force
By division with the area of the interface, the stresses in the casting
joint are found as:
V
(8.1)
th
N
th
(8.2)
The failure in the casting joint is assumed to follow the same failure
condition as for homogeneous concrete, but with other material constants. This means that Coulombs Modified Failure Hypothesis is used
as the failure condition, i.e.,(1.7) is used:
(8.3)
c
where the material constants, c, is the cohesion and is the friction coefficient. The normal stress, , is calculated as positive pressure.
The normal stress, which is included in (8.3), can also result from
reinforcement across the casting joint. If it is assumed that the reinforcement is brought to yielding by failure, a reinforcement perpendicular to the casting joint will give a normal tension of:
172
8. Casting joints
As f yk
th
(8.4)
where
As is the area of the reinforcement perpendicular to the casting joint
f yk is the characteristic yield stress of the reinforcement
When the reinforcement contributes to the normal force, this is because
a rupture along the casting joint is accompanied by a transverse expansion that causes the reinforcement to yield. (If the normality condition
of the theory of plasticity is used together with the failure hypothesis
in Fig. 1.1 (Coulombs modified failure hypothesis) this can be seen directly; but reference is also made to the bibliography, for example,
[5]).
The failure condition (8.3) can now be written as:
c n s c n f yk
(8.5)
where
n is the normal stress from an external load N corresponding to (8.2)
s is a normal stress from the reinforcement given by (8.4)
A
is the reinforcement ratio s .
th
If we consider a monolithic concrete in in-plane stress condition with
the axial compressive strength fc and the axial tensile strength ft, the
failure condition will look like the dotted line in figure 8.2, since the
axial stress must be considered as N + s. However, the compressive
stress from the external load N must not exceed the concretes axial
compressive strength.
Figure 8.2:
Failure condition for
monolithic concrete
for in-plane stress
conditions and for
casting joints
Fig. 8.2 similarly shows a solid line representing the resistance of the
casting joint given by (8.5), and one sees that the casting joints shear
resistance is limited upward by the strength of the monolithic concrete.
Since we are dealing with plastic calculations, this means that we are
dealing with the plastic strength of the monolithic concrete, i.e., the
upper limit of a casting joints resistance is given by:
1
2
fc
(8.6)
8. Casting joints
173
At the bottom, the resistance of the casting joint is limited by the cohesion, c. In order to utilize the resistance c for a normal stress of = 0, a
tensile strength perpendicular to the casting joint is required. If there is
no tensile strength perpendicular to the casting joint, the lower part of
the curve of resistance for the casting joint in Fig. 8.2 will be replaced
by a circle-section going through (,) = (0,0) and being tangent to the
inclined line for the resistance of the casting joint. There is more about
the theoretical features of casting joints in [2].
If reinforcement is not perpendicular to the casting joint, the reinforcing is divided into components perpendicular to and parallel with
the casting joint. Components perpendicular to the casting joint give
contributions to the normal force, and components parallel to the casting joint give deduction of the shear force. This can, however, only be
done for the angle of between reinforcement and shear force directions lying in the range 45 90. Experiments show that > 90
give stability problems in the reinforcement, and <45 means that the
reinforcement cannot be fully utilized. We can hereafter write (8.5) as:
Rk c ( f yk sin n ) f yk cos
(8.7)
8.2 Execution of casting joints

Casting joints can be subdivided into four types depending on their execution method. The four types of surfaces are indented, rough, smooth
and very smooth
8.2.1 Indented casting joints
A pouring of a concrete section can be limited by a side in the shuttering in the form of an indentation. The best known example is probably
the indentations used in prefab concrete elements
In order to calculate a casting joint as indented, the geometry of the
indentation must meet the following requirements, see fig. 8.3:
d 5 mm
30
Figur 8.3:
Indentation of casting
joint
When a construction joint is calculated, only the indented surface, i.e.
the area of concrete where the fracture occurs in the indentation, is calculated. The indented area is defined as the cross-sectional area of
dents of the same material in section parallel to the casting joint. The
section is placed at the bottom of the dents to be examined.
The indented area of the dents for the structure under the casting
joint in figure 8.3 is, therefore, the cross-sectional area of section I-I,
while the indented area for the part over the casting joint is the crosssectional area of Section II-II. The sections lengths are called h1 and
174
8. Casting joints
h2, respectively, and they must not be greater than or equal to 10d,
where d is the depth of the dents.
The limits stated for indented casting joints are an expression of the
shapes of the indentations that have been available for analysis, and
they cover the traditional indentations in Danish element construction.
If the conditions for calculating an indentation as an indented casting
joint are not met, the casting joint must normally be considered to be
smooth, see below. Utilizing the ultimate resistance of smooth casting
joints requires considerable deformations.
8.2.2 Rough, smooth and very smooth casting joints.
These casting joints are all characterized by the entire surface of the
casting joint being included in the fractured surface in cases of failure
in these.
They can be subdivided into the following types, depending on the
treatment that the surface of the first poured concrete gets before new
concrete is cast against it:
rough casting joint, when roughness occurs over the entire surface,
and the depth of roughness is greater than 3 mm
smooth casting joints, when the surface is obtained after casting in
slip formwork, by extrusion, or a surface that is smooth after vibration without finishing
very smooth casting joint, when the surface is obtained by pouring
concrete against steel or smooth wooden formwork.
For casting joints to be rough, there must normally be a working of the
surface before the concrete has cured for example, brushing the surface with a stiff broom or a light levelling of the surface.
Before casting with new concrete against a previously poured concrete, the surface should be cleaned - preferably a power hosed - and
be moistened with water so that it is water saturated, but without free
water on the surface.
8.3 Casting joint calculations in practice

DS/EN 1992-1-1 has chosen to formulate the contribution from cohesion as a factor c multiplied by the design tensile strength, i.e., as cfctd .
One should, therefore, be careful not to confuse the c, which is stated
in DS/EN 1992-1-1 with the cohesion. Therefore, with the terms from
DS/EN 1992-1-1, (8.7) can be rewritten for the design resistance as:
Rd cfctd ( f yd sin n ) f yd cos
(8.8)
or, in cases with reinforcement perpendicular to the casting joint, you

get instead of (8.5), the design resistance:
Rd cfctd ( f yd n )
(8.9)
8. Casting joints
175
The maximum design resistance is found by using (8.6), while using

the same efficiency factor as for shear. You find:
1
Rd ,max v fcd
(8.10)
2
The values that must be used for c in cohesion and the friction coefficient are found by analysis of experiments, and DS/EN 1992-1-1
has chosen to apply the values shown in table 8.1:
Table 8.1:
Values to be used in
calculation of casting
joints
Type of surface
Indented
Rough
Smooth
Very smooth
0,50
0,40
0,20
0,025
0,9
0,7
0,6
0,5
It is noted that the use of (8.5) implies the assumption that there is a
tensile strength present perpendicular to the casting joint, as the
straight line can be used all the way down to values where
n s 0 . However, if there are tensile stresses perpendicular to
the casting joint, i.e., if n is negative, cfctd must be set to 0.
It seems to be on the uncertain side especially for smooth casting
joints, and great caution is generally advised in applying the specified
values for cohesion c for small values of the normal compression
stress. Small values for normal stress can be set equivalent to a to a design normal tension of 0.02 fcd.
In cases where casting joints show substantial cracking, c should
(except for indented casting joints) be set to 0 in accordance with
DS/EN 1992-1-1. On the other hand, this is a lot on the safe side if
there is a normal compression stress present. In the Danish annex, demands for a minimum reinforcement therefore have been introduced.
When using minimum reinforcement one can disregard the demand to
set c equal to 0
The minimum reinforcement ratio is given from
0,02 fcd nd
(8.11)
f yd
where the index d has been inserted to highlight that design values are
used everywhere.
Therefore, it is clear that the formula for resistance of casting joints
is in principle theoretically correct, but that one should use it with caution at the lower limit.
If one has a variable shear stress over a casting joint, one can use an
incremental (stepped) distribution of the necessary transverse reinforcement, as indicated in Fig. 8.4. DS/EN 1992-1-1 does not set limits
on the length of these increments (steps), but the use of incremental
distribution can occur only if there is sufficient stiffness in the members on either side of the casting joint in order that evening out of the
shear force might take place. See the following comments on concrete
elements.
176
8. Casting joints
Figure 8.4:
Stepwise distribution
of shear
reinforcement. The
shear reinforcement is
shown shaded.
Top concrete is a concrete that is cast on top of an existing concrete

layer. In cases where one wants the two concrete layers to work together so that, for example, there may be compression in the top concrete layer as well as in a portion of the first-cast concrete layer, this
requires the transmission of longitudinal shear forces between the two
castings, i.e., through the casting joint.
Fig. 8.5 shows such a case where there is compression in the gray
area and there is a casting joint between the two grey areas.
The shear stress to be dimensioned for in the casting joint is:
Edi Ed
VEd
zbi
(8.12)
where
VEd is the shear force
z is the internal lever arm for the compound cross-section
bi is the width of the casting joint
is the ratio between the longitudinal force of the new concrete area in
relation to the force in the total compressive area.
Figure 8.5:
Example of casting
joint for top concrete
Example 8.1:
Rough casting
joints
Ac1
Ac1 Ac 2
Given:
A rough casting joints in concrete 30, cast on site, are considered. It is
reinforced by rebar fyk = 500 MPa and the reinforcement is perpendicular to the construction joint. Normal control class.
Desired:
The construction joints bearing capacity in terms of the shear stress Rd
are to be determined as a function of reinforcement ratio p, since there
is no external axial stresses on the construction joint.
8. Casting joints
177
Solution:
c 1,45 ;
f cd
f ctk 2,0 MPa ;
s 1,20 ;
f yd
f ck
30
20,7 MPa ; v 0,55
1,45
f
2,0
c 1,70 ;
1,18 MPa
f ctd ctk
c 1,70
f yk
500
417 MPa
1,20
For rough casting joints used: c 0,40 and 0,7

For the unreinforced case p = 0 the bearing capacity is
Rd c fctd (n f yd ) 0,40 1,18 0,7 0 0,47 MPa

The upper limit of the bearing capacity will be found at
1
2
1
2
Rd v f cd 0,55 20,7 5,69 MPa

The reinforcement that just gives the maximum load bearing capacity
is found at
Rd c f ctd (n f yd ) 5,69 0,40 1,18 0,7 417

0,0179 1,79 %
min
0,02 f cd nd 0,02 20,7 0
0,001 0,1 %
f yd
417
The bearing capacity can be recorded as shown
178
8. Casting joints
Example 8.2:
Underside of concrete wall
Given:
A concrete wall will be applied over a concrete deck. The concrete
deck surface is finished off with a surface vibration. Below the concrete deck is also a concrete wall as well, see fig.
NSd
The concrete wall in general

Wall
VSd
Length 1200 mm, width 150 mm
Concrete deck
Concrete strength C25
Wall
Design loads in the wall underside NEd = 400 kN and VEd = 250 kN
Desired:
Evidence that the horizontal load can be transferred without the use of
reinforcement.
Solution:
c 1,45 ;
f ctk 1,8 MPa ;
f cd
f ck
v 0,58
25 17,2 MPa ;
c 1,70 ;
f ctd
f ctk
1,8
1,06 MPa
1,70
Construction joint classified as evenly casting joints where the following values from table 8.1 is used: c = 0.20 and = 0.6
The design forces are converted into design tensions in the construction joint
N
400 103
N Ed
2,22 MPa
l b 1200 150
V
250 103
N Ed
1,39 MPa
l b 1200 150
Bearing capacity of the construction joint during the design normal
tension is found by
Rd c f ctd (n f yd ) 0,20 1,06 0,6 2,22

1,54 MPa Ed 1,39 MPa
I.e. the bearing capacity is sufficient.
8.4 Particular characteristics of element

joints
In connection with element buildings is concrete elements often designed with toothing in the sides that is cast together. The casting is
made with a filling grout, and hence the establishment of two closely
spaced casting joints.
The elements are usually designed so that the rules of toothed casting joints are fulfilled. On the other hand, one knows rarely at design
8. Casting joints
179
time the detailed design, which allows calculation of the toothing level
k, i.e. tooth area relative to the entire cross-sectional area. The set of
for traditional toothings it is often set with sufficient accuracy to k =
0.25.
The elements are usually also performed such a way, that a fracture
in the joint will happen in the grout, since a break in the elements will
result in a break greater than the teeth alone.
The reinforcing across two elements is burdensome and therefore
expensive to handle on a building site. In fig. 8.6 is shown an example
of how it can be done in wall joints. Elements are delivered with protruding brackets, the so-called hairpin hangers, and after installation of
the elements, a vertical locking iron is placed, and joint is cast with a
liquid mortar.
Figure 8.6:
Toothed wall joints
with reinforcement
If the elements are placed one after the other, and there is a sufficient rigidity at the construction joint against "joint opening", the required reinforcement is placed in the joints at the end of the elements
by half at each end. With wall elements, one half of the required reinforcement is placed in the horizontal joint of the elements and the other
half in the joint below these. For the floor slabs one half of the required
transverse reinforcement is placed in the storey junctions at each end
of the slabs. If large amounts of reinforcement it may be necessary,
with reinforcement between the elements, such as shown for wall elements of fig. 8.6, simply because of lack of space in the joints at the
ends of the elements.
In joints between two corner elements, there is not the same coherence between these two elements as there are between two prolonging
elements (one after the other) as illustrated for wall elements in fig.
8.7.
180
8. Casting joints
If such a joint should be counted force transmitting, must be used reinforcement which also in this case, is evenly distributed over the joint.
Figure 8.7:
Wall assembly in the
corner without and
with hairpin hangers
Example 8.3:
Toothed wall joint
Given:
In a vertical toothed construction joint between two wall elements must
migrate a design shear force of 120 kN.
There is no normal force at the construction joint.
The toothing geometry is shown in the figure.
For the wall element is used C30

To joint grout is used C25
Used reinforcement with fyk = 500 MPa
Element height: 2,60 m
Thickness of element: 150 mm
Normal control class by joint casting
Desired:
Can the joint be considered toothed?
How much reinforcement is needed?
8. Casting joints
181
Solution:
Can joint considered toothed?
From the figure is found
d 10 mm 5 mm
4
21,8 30
10
For joint mortar is found h1 = 67 + 4 + 4 = 75 mm < 10d = 100 mm
For the concrete element is h2 = 75 + 4 + 4 = 83 mm <10c = 100 mm
I.e. the joint can be counted toothed.
It is a break in the grout mortar which determines the joint's
strength, since there is the least concrete (tooth area) that must be broken and it is the grout that haves the least strength.
arctan
How much reinforcement is needed?

The toothing rate is set to 25%, i.e., 25% of the wall cross-section area
is considered to be the concrete area in the formulas.
Bearing capacity: Rdi c f ctd n f yd ( sin cos ) 0,5 fcd
Toothed joint: c 0,50 and 0,9
Casting boundary area: Ai 0,25 2600 150 97,5 103 mm2
In situ cast concrete, compressive strength:
c 1,7,
f ctd
1,8
1,06 MPa
1,7
In situ cast concrete, tensile strength:
c 1,45, f cd
25
17,2 MPa
1,45
In situ cast concrete, tensile strength:
c 1,45, f cd
25
17,2 MPa
1,45
Reinforcement:
s 1,2, i.e. f yd
500
417 MPa
1,2
Upperlimit: VRdi ,max 0,5 f cd Ai 0,5 0,58 17,5 97,3 485 kN

VEdi VRdi VEdi cf ctd Ai f yd As
120 103 0,50 1,06 97,5 103 0,9 417 As As 182 mm2
As,min min Ai
0,02 f cd n
0,02 17,2
Ac
97500 80 mm2 As
f yd
417
Can be 2 12 mm -As = 226 mm2 placed with one in the joint above
and one in the joint below the wall elements.
182
8. Casting joints
183
Concentrated loads
Concentrations of forces occur in many places in concrete structures
that locally give very hard impacts. In this section we will look at the
resistance of two of the most frequently occurring examples, namely
punching of slabs and various forms of "pressure at bearings". It
should be emphasized that only the ultimate resistance will be considered. When concentrated loads are applied to a structure there is always the danger of untoward crack formation, which must be prevented by the placing of appropriate reinforcement; see fig. 9.1.
Figure 9.1:
Cracking caused by
notch-effect
9.1 Punching
There are seldom shear problems in reinforced concrete slabs because
shear stresses are often so small that they can be resisted without shear
reinforcement - i.e., they can be calculated in accordance with the
method described in Section 5.2.
However, for concentrated loads on slabs there is a risk that punching can happen, i.e., the danger of a trumpet-shaped cone being pressed
through the slab, see fig. 9.2.
Figure 9.2:
Punching of a slab
Calculating punching is particularly timely to implement in connection

with slabs supported by pillars and columns.
There are many empirical formulas for calculating the necessary resistance for concentrated loads on slabs.
Experiments have also been done with the use of the Theory of Plasticity. A complete solution has not been found, but by working with
failure mechanisms , as suggested in Fig. 9.2, the Theory of Plasticity
has provided great help in assessing the parameters that affect the bearing capacity. Work continues with the use of the Theory of Plasticity
on punching calculations.
184
9. Concentrated loads
The method in DS/EN 1992-1-1 is an empirical calculation method,
but one which incorporates lessons from the Theory of Plasticity and,
of course, from the analysis of experimental results. The method is relatively old fashioned and complicated, so not all aspects of the calculation method are reviewed here. In Denmark, work is being done on,
among other things, finding better and simpler methods to calculate
punching.
Looking at the failure mechanism in fig. 9.2, it seems obvious that
the slab thickness, the area that the load is distributed on, and the concretes strength are among the crucial factors for determining the resistance the punching resistance.
On the basis of the design load, VEd, a formal shear tension, vEd, is
determined as:
vEd
VEd
ui d
(9.1)
where d is the slabs effective thickness and ui is the length of a control

perimeter depending on the loaded area. Usually there is reinforcement
in two directions in a slab, and in such cases d is the mean value of effective height of reinforcement in both directions.
The principle for calculating punching is based on a control at the
loads edge and a primary control perimeter. In some cases, for example, for shear reinforcement against punching, there will be a further
control, namely for the outer control perimeter; see later.
9.1.1 The basic control perimeter

The basic control perimeter is located at distance of 2d from the edge
of the loaded area and is determined in such a way that the length will
be as short as possible, see fig. 9.3.
Figure 9.3:
Examples of
determining basic
control perimeters
For the two most commonly occurring cases, the basic control perimeter is found in accordance with Fig. 9.3 as follows:
Round columns with a diameter D:
u1 D 4d
(9.2)
Rectangular column with side lengths b og h:
u1 2 b h 2 d
(9.3)
Depending on the conditions that affect it, a variety of rules also apply
for the determination of the control perimeter.
The overall load resistance is based on a combination of considerations
of the failure mechanism for circular and rectangular loads, and the
185
analysis of many tests. The additional rules regarding the primary control perimeter mentioned in the following are based on a few or no
tests/experiments. They are mainly based on speculative considerations
about the failure mechanism and precautionary principles.
Slabs with holes
A vertical hole near the load might affect the failure mechanism. If it is
contained within the failure mechanism, the failure mechanism will cut
through the hole, i.e., a substantial part of the fracture area will be
missing and will not be able to provide resistance.
Figure 9.4:
Hole in slab through
the failure mechanism
If the hole is outside the normal failure mechanism it can induce another pattern of the fracture by allowing the failure mechanism to run
through the hole, and this produces less strength than the unprovoked
failure mechanism.
The effect is taken into account for holes that are located at a shorter
distance than 6d from the perimeter of the loaded area, and this is done
by ignoring the portion of the control perimeter, which lies between the
two tangents from the center of gravity of the loaded area to the holes
contours; see Fig. 9.5.
Figure 9.5:
Controlperimeter
near a hole
Loads near free edges.

If the load is placed near the free edges, the failure pattern can be
changed because of a lesser strength of the failure mechanism that runs
over to the free edges.
This effect is taken into account by applying the control perimeter,
which is obtained by letting it run over to the free edges if it becomes
less than the usual control perimeter. Examples of control perimeters
running to free edges are shown in fig. 9.6.
Figure 9.6:
Basic control
perimeters for loaded
areas near free edges.
186
Variable Slab Thicknesses

When considering variable slab thicknesses, one can envisage the examination of several combinations of slab thicknesses and control perimeters. Fig. 9.7 shows an example of a column with a capital (upper
part of column) where it is to be investigated which of the values u1 d1
or u2 d2 that affords the least resistance.
Figure 9.7:
Control perimeters
for columns with
capitals
9.1.2 Resistance without shear reinforcement

The resistance to punching for a load on a slab is examined along the
edge if the load, where the formal shear stress must not exceed vRd, max.
given by (9.4)
vRd max 0,5v fcd
(9.4)
where v is the usual efficiency factor for shear, given by (6.16). At the
same time it is noted that (9.4) gives the maximum carrying capacity
that can be achieved, whether or not reinforcement is established
against punching.
The design resistance to punching, vRd,c [MPa] , for the basic control section can be calculated as follows:
vRd ,c
0,18
k 100l fck
1/3
0,1 cp
(fck i MPa)
(9.5)
however as minimum
vRd ,c 0,035k 3/ 2 fck1/ 2 0,1 cp
(fck i MPa)
(9.6)
where
k 1
200
2,0 ( d i mm)
d
l ly lz 0,02
(9.7)
(9.8)
ly and lz are calculated as averages of the anchored tensile reinforcement in, respective, the y and z directions. The calculations include a slab width equals to the load width plus 3d on each side.
cp
cy cz
(9.9)
2
where cy and cz are the concretes normal stresses in the critical
cross section in the y and z directions (MPa, positive for compression):
187
cy
N Edy
Acy
(9.10)
cz
N Edz
Acz
(9.11)
NEdy and NEdz are axial forces over the control cross section of the load
and Ac is the concrete area as defined by NEd. Axial forces may be due
an external load or a load from prestressing..
Note, the calculation method is similar to the method of calculating
non-shear reinforced beams and slabs; see Section 5.2.
Example 9.1:
Punching by
column
Given:
A reinforced concrete slab is cast on the site, and lies on a column with
a diameter of 200 mm.
The concrete slab is 150 mm thick and reinforced at the top in both directions with 12 per 200 mm.
Concrete coverage: 25 mm
Concrete class: C20
Desired:
The resistance against punching for the column.
Solution:
c 1,45 ,
fcd
fck
20
13,8 , = 0,6
1,45
Effective heights:
d1 h c 150 25 6 119 mm ,
d2 h c 1 150 25 1,5 12 107mm
d d1 d2 119 107 113 mm
Reinforcement ratios:
A
113
1 s
0,0047
d1a 119 200
A
113
2 s
0,0052
d2 a 107 200
Along the edge of the load (the face of the column):
Perimeter: u D 200 628mm
188
The resistance is found by combining (9.1) with (9.4) into:
VRd ,max 0,5 fcd ud 0,5 0,6 13,8 628 113 103 294kN
Along the basic control perimeter:
200
200
From (9.7): k 1
1
2,33 2 , i.e., k = 2 is used
d
113
From (9.8): l ly lz 0,0047 0,0052 0,0049
From (9.5):
vRd ,c
0,18
k 100l fck
1/ 3
0,1 cp
0,18
1/ 3
2 100 0,0049 20 0 0,531MPa
1,45
From (9.6):
vRd ,c 0,035k 3/ 2 fck1/ 2 0,1 cp 0,035 23/ 2 20 0

0,442MPa 0,531MPa
i.e., the value for (9.5) is used.
From (9.2): u1 D 4d 200 4 113 2050mm
The resistance against punching:
VRd vRd ,cu1d 0,531 2050 113 103 123kN

Section 9.1.3 and 9.1.4 are intentionally not translated
189
9.2 Bearing stress

9.2.1 General
Stress at bearings is often characterized by concentrated loads on a
small part of a larger concrete surface, see Fig. 9.11.
Figure 9.11:
Concentrated load
from the bearing
surface
The stress that can be resisted by such a bearing surface will be greater
than the concretes uniaxial compressive strength. The increasing factor is called c, i.e.,
N
f Rd Rd cfcd
(9.15)
Ac 0
where NRd is the design resistance when the load is placed on the bearing surface Ac0.
Determination of c has been attempted using both elastic and plastic
calculation methods, but theoretically exact solutions can only be
found in a few very special cases, and they prove to be too complicated
for practical use.
As with punching, the study of the theory of plasticity and failure
mechanism (shape of the failure) gives much useful information about
the various parameters influences. These studies have been used in the
analysis of tests that have led to empirical expressions of c in (9.15).
For concentrated loads, as shown in Fig. 9.11, where the load is
transferred through a rigid slab or similar, and the load is perpendicular
to the load bearing surface, and the block is solid and rigidly supported, two types of failure modes are seen. These modes are splitting (due
to transverse tensile forces) and local crushing; see fig. 9.12 and fig.
9.13
Figure 9.12:
Example of failure
mechanisms by
splitting
190
Figure 9.13:
Examples of local
crushing
9.2.2 Calculation in accordance with DS/EN 1992-1-1

DS/EN 1992-1-1 states that consideration should be taken to both local
crushing and transverse tensile forces. Taking consideration to transverse tensile forces corresponds to taking consideration to splitting
A formula that can be used for the local crushing is given, and for
the transverse tension, reference is made to the strut and tie models.
9.2.2.1 Local crushing
In cases of evenly distributed loads on an area, Ac0, the concentrated
design resistance force FRdu can be determined by:
FRdu Ac 0 fcd
Ac1
3,0 fcd Aco
Ac 0
(9.16)
where
Ac0 is the loaded area
Ac1 is the maximum design distribution area with the same shape as
Ac0.
This corresponds to the coefficient c in (9.15) equaling:
Ac1
, however maximum c = 3,0
Ac 0
(9.17)
The formula is an old empirical formula, which is often called the

kvadre formula ( stone block). The development of empirical formulas was started by Bauschinger, who in 1876 published a calculation
formula that was based on experiments with blocks of sandstone An
overview of empirical formulas of the same type as (9.17) is given in
[7].
Determination of the distribution area, Ac1, is achieved through the
use of distribution lines with inclination 2:1 from the edge of the concentrated load to the intersection with the loaded elements sides or
191
bottom. However, the area cannot be bigger than leading to the maximum value of c=3 in accordance with (9.17); see fig. 9.14.
Figure 9.14:
Design distribution
for concentrated load.
9.2.2.2 Transverse tensile forces

You can get a reasonable estimate of the transverse reinforcement by
making a simple estimate, because of work done by E. Mrch. Fig.
9.15.a shows the horizontal stress distribution along a vertical section
in the middle under the load. Mrch has equated the stress distribution
with a horizontal compressive force directly under the load and a horizontal tensile force at a distance of b from the compressive force;
see fig. 9.15.b.
Figure 9.15:
Horizontal forces
under the load
The load NEd strikes b1 from the loads center line. At a depth of
b2 = 3b1, the load is evenly distributed over a distance of b2, i.e., the
centre of gravity is b2 from loads center line.
The moment equation thus gives an estimate of the tensile force,
FEd, for which reinforcement should be established. It becomes:
b
FEd 1 0,25 N Ed 1 1
(9.18)
b2
192
The reinforcement is used to distribute the load along the length b1 on
b2, and it is placed at the center of gravity at a distance b2 from the
top, or evenly distributed from slightly under the load for a distance b2
from the top.
Similarly, reinforcement is established for load distribution in the
direction perpendicular to FEd1, where we get:
d
FEd 2 0,25 N Ed 1 1
d2
(9.19)
9.2.3 Calculation in accordance with newer method

The specified calculation method in DS/EN 1992-1-1 is very old and
many efforts have been expended to improve the method, especially
for unreinforced concrete.
The concentrated loads have also been studied in Denmark, for
among other reasons, because pre-stressed concrete anchor cable situations are calculated according to these rules. Danish works are contained in particular in [7], [8] and [9]. The method from [8] will be reviewed here, which was in the Danish concrete code, which was substituted by DS/EN 1992-1-1, and which covers both failure modes that
may occur under the influence of concentrated loads when reinforcement is not used.
The method reviewed in Section 9.2.2.2 still provides a useful reinforcement, but it does not really increase the resistance. On the other
hand, it changes the failure mode to a more plastic failure which is not
unimportant.
9.2.3.1 Splitting
The resistance at failure is, like in fig. 9.12, partly determined by the
resistance against sliding in the inclined failure surfaces (i.e., the compressive strength), and partly by the resistance to separation of the vertical failure surfaces (i.e., tensile strength). The size of the failure surface is, therefore, included in the resistance
The analysis of test results has led to the following formula for the
strength increase factor, ch, in (9.15) to:
h
( db 0,25b1 ) A
1
ch
h
( dl 0,25l1 ) A
1
minimum ch 0,7 0,5
(9.20)
d
l1
(9.21)
where d is the lesser of the values db and dl. The importance of included values is expressed in fig. 9.16.
193
Figure 9.16:
Determination of the
values in (9.20) and
(9.21)
The load acts on the area A1 b1 l1 and is distributed in Area A, which

is determined as shown in Fig. 9.16.
From (9.20) it is seen that the strength decreases with h, but both
theory and tests show that the loadbearing capacity/resistance goes towards a minimum value, hence the loadbearing capacity formula (9.20)
is supplemented with (9.21).
9.2.3.2 Local crushing

In accordance with (9.20), the strength increases with the height. There
will be an upper limit where a failure will occur, which will not involve the splitting of the entire block; see Fig. 9.13.
The resistance of local crushing is also determined by (9.15), where
the strength increasing factor, cl, is set at:
cl 0,5
A
A1
(9.22)
minimum cl 1
A is determined as shown in Fig. 9.16, since db and dl must be selected
so that they fulfill the condition:
db dl 4b1
(9.23)
With the introduction of (9.23), an upper limit is introduced for the

strength increasing factor. The largest strength increase is found for a
square load (b1 l1), where the bearing surface is large enough, i.e.,
db dl 2 b1. In this case c1 = 3.54 is found, which is thus the largest
increase according to the rules described here.
Example 9.3:
Bearing pressure
at bridge bearing
Given:
More bridge bearings are placed on a concrete plinth.
The outer bearing is 100 200 mm and it is positioned as shown.
Plan
Elevation
194
Concrete C30 in normal safety class is used.
Reinforcement is B550
Wanted:
The maximum design load NRd that can be loaded on the bearing plate.
The load is determined by:
1) method from DS/EN 1992-1-1 including necessary transverse reinforcement
2) the method described in Section 9.2.3
Suggested solution:
Reinforced concrete
c 1,45;
f cd
f ck
30
20,7 MPa
1,45
f ck
30
18,8 MPa
1,60
Unreinforced concrete
c 1,60;
s 1,2;
f cd
f yd
550
458 MPa
1,2
The method of DS/EN 1992-1-1 including necessary transverse reinforcement

Load area: Ac 0 100 200 20 103 mm2
The distribution line 1:2 from the front edge of the load area, intersects
the plinth at a depth of 200 mm, but at a distance of 100 mm from the
load. The distribution area of the same shape as Ac0 thus becomes 100
mm larger on each side, ie:
Distribution area: Ac1 b2 d 2 300 400 120 103 mm2
Local pressure breakage:
Strength enhancement factor found by using (9.17) to
Ac1
120 103
2,45
Ac 0
20 103
The design resistance is thus
N Rd cf cd AC 0 2,45 20,7 20 1014 kN

Lateral pull:
Shear force perpendicular to the plinth
b
100
TEd 0,25N Rd 1 1 0,25 1014 1

169 kN
300
b2
195
To this the reinforcement is As1
TEd 1 169 103
369 mm2
f yd
458
e.i. 5 pcs 10, As = 393 mm2

Shear force parallel to the plinth:
d
200
TEd 2 0,25N Rd 1 1 0,25 1014 1

127 kN
400
d2
To this the reinforcement is As1
T 2 127 103
277 mm2
f yd
458
e.i. 4 pcs 10, As = 314 mm2

The method described in section 9.2.3
The distribution area is in this case
A 200 100 200100 200 100 200000 mm2

Local pressure breakage:
c 0,5
A
200000
0,5
2,24
A1
20000
Splitting:
ch
db 0,25b1
A1
100 0,25 200
dl
A1
200 0,25 100
0,25l1
500
1,94
20000
500
2,34
20000
Minimum strength enhancement factor is c = 1.94

NB: There can now be talk about unreinforced concrete, depending on
the performance of concrete plinth.
The design resistance is thus
N Rd cf cd Ac 0 1,94 18,8 20 729 kN
196
197
10
Continuous beams and

slabs
10.1 Continuous beams
The loadbearing capacity of statically indeterminate beams has not
reached its limit even though the internal moment in one section of the
beam has attained a size corresponding to the ultimate moment resistance of the section. This is illustrated by the continuous beam with
two spans, as shown in fig. 10.1:
Figure 10.1:
Continuous beam with
two spans
The beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load, which starts

with a value of zero and grows. With increasing load, the moment (and
the shear forces) will increase in the beam. The beam is considered
with same reinforcement in top and bottom, so that its positive and
negative ultimate moment of resistance (= yield moments) are equal.
In the beginning, the moment distribution follows the theory of elasticity, i.e., the moment assumes its largest numerical value over the intermediate support. When the moment at point B is equal to the ultimate moment of resistance Mu the load bearing resistance of the beam
is not exhausted. With increased load, a plastic deformation will occur
at Point B - i.e., a yield hinge is formed, and the moment will remain
equal to the negative ultimate moment of resistance.
Within the spans, the positive moments grow until the load reaches
such a size that the maximum positive moment becomes equal to the
positive moment of resistance Mu+ in the span with the greatest length.
Yielding will also occur now in the span with Mu+ and the beams
loadbearing capacity will now be exhausted. A failure mechanism is
formed in which the system becomes movable, and additional loads
cannot be applied to the beam. See more about plastic calculation of
beams and slabs in, e.g., [5].
This increase in loadbearing capacity can be exploited by a plastic
calculation of the moment distribution (the calculation method was
198
10. Continuous beams and slabs

previously called: partial restraint , since the restraining moments
are chosen, after which the moment distribution is determined by the
load. The reinforcement is then designed in accordance with this plastic moment distribution.
Furthermore, it is possible to restrict the examination to each span
separately for continuous beams, using the maximum load and the
minimum load - in both cases using the full value of the selected restraining moments
Fig. 10.2 shows a span for a continuous beam, which has restraining
moments M1 and M2 over the supports.
The highest value of the positive moments that the span must be designed for is obtained with the maximal load.
The minimal load gives to the lowest value of the positive moments,
i.e., the greatest extent of negative moments.
Figure 10.2:
Span with maximum
and minimum load
The calculation method assumes that the structure can behave sufficiently plastic. In principle, therefore, it is necessary to investigate
whether the yield hinges formed have sufficient yield capacity for the
plastic failure mechanism to be developed. One speaks of there being
sufficient rotational capacity in the yield hinges
When internal forces in beams and slabs are determined by using the
theory of plasticity, DS/EN also requires the use of reinforcement of
Class B or C, since Class A reinforcement has too poor yielding capacity.
Furthermore, one can expect that there is sufficient yielding capacity
present if:
the restraining moment is chosen between the Elasticity Theorys
value and one third hereof.
he cross sections are normally reinforced, i.e., that for the ratio of
reinforcement for beams, the following must apply:
min < < bal.
For continuous beams with approximately equal spans and a load that
is primarily a uniformly distributed load, the first point can be simplified. Instead of looking at the elastic moments, it is sufficient that the
restraining moments are selected for at least 1/3, and the maximum the
double, of the determining moments in the neighboring spans
199
The calculation of the moment distributions, once the restraining

moments have been selected, follows the general equations of equilibrium, but for practical use it is usually accepted that the maximum
moment in span BC is found for uniformly distributed load from:
1
M BC M 0BC M B M C
(10.1)
2
where M0BC is the moment if span BC was a simple-supported single
span beam (the free moment), and MB and MC is the positive value of
the restraning moments in B and C, respectively (or zero at an end
support
Figure 10.3
Span with internal
force distribution
The corresponding shear forces must be calculated to perform the calculation of shear reinforcement. In the case of the evenly distributed
load and chosen restraining moments MB and MC (see fig. 10.3), the
following is valid:
M MC
1
(10.2)
VBH pl B
2
l
M MB
1
VCV pl C
(10.3)
2
l
where
VBH is the shear force in B immediately to the right of the reaction,
VCV is the shear force in C immediately to the left of the reaction,
MB og MC are the positive value of the restraining moments at B and C,
respectively.
Given:
A continuous beam, as shown, is cast in situ.
Concrete class C25

Reinforcement with f yk 500MPa
200

Passive environmental class
Deviation 5 mm
Maximum stone size: 32 mm
Width of beam 300 mm
Design loads: Maximum pd ,max 80kN/ m
Minimum pd ,min 50 kN/m
Desired:
The longitudinal reinforcement and the reactions of the beam.
Solution:
s 1,2 ;
yd
f yd
550
458MPa ;
1,2
f yd
458
0,00229
Es
2 105
c 1,45 ;
min 0,26
bal 0,8
fcd
25
17,2MPa ;
1,45
fctm 2,6MPa
fctm f yd
2,6 458
0,26
0,033
f yk fcd
550 17,2
cu
3,5
0,8
0,483
cu yd
3,5 2,29
Spans:
lAB = 5,0 + 0,3 = 5,3 m

lBC 5,2 0,3 5,5 m
Load:
2
M 0AB,max 18 80 5,3 281 kNm
2
M 0BC,max 18 80 5,5 303 kNm
2
M 0AB,min 18 50 5,3 176 kNm
2
M 0BC,min = 18 50 5,5 = 189 kNm
Choosing the restraining moments MB og MC:

MB MC 130 kNm
M AB,max 281 12 130 216 kNm

M BC,max 303 12 (130 130) 173 kNm
201
Control of chosen restraining moment:

1
3
216 < 130 < 2 173 ok
Reactions:
RA VAH
1
1
80 5,3 (0 130)
187 kN
2
5,3
1
1
VBV = 80 5,3 + (130 0)
= 237 kN
2
5,3
1
1
80 5,5 (130 130)
220 kN
2
5,5
VBH
RB 220 237 457 kN

VCV 220 kN
VCH 220 kN (span
CD
BC)
RC 220 2 440 kN
The above shear forces are used in the calculation of shear reinforcement (not included in the example)
Estimates of beam height and reinforcement:
Choosing 0,2 (see (4.107))
216 106
458 mm
0,2 300 17,2
h is set to 550 mm
z 0,8 h 440 mm
AsAB
As 1210 mm2
6 16;
AsBC
5 16;
AsB
4 16;
M AB,max 216
1179 mm 2
z f yd
400 458
173 106
944mm2
400 458
As 1010 mm2
130 106
709mm2
400 458
As 804 mm2
202

Moment resistance:
Stirrups are estimated 6
1,5 16 5 29 mm
c s1
10 5 6 8 29 mm
c s 2 d g 5 32 5 16 53 mm
4 29 2 82
47 mm; d 500 47 453 mm
6
4 29 80
5 16 : c s
47 mm; d 500 40 460 mm
5
4 16 : cs 29 mm; d 500 29 471 mm
6 16 : c s
1210 458
0,237 bal 0,483
300 460 17,2
M RAB 0,237 1 12 0,237 300 4532 17,2 106

221 kNm M AB,max 216 kNm
1010 458
0,195
300 460 17,2
M RBC 0,195 1 12 0,195 300 17,2 106

192 kNm M BC,max 173 kNm
804 458
0,152 min 0,033
300 471 17,2
M RB 0,152 1 12 0,152 300 4712 17,2 106 161 kNm

If no curtailment of the longitudinal reinforcement is used, the calculation for bending i completed here. If you want the reinforcement to be
curtailed, the method described in section 5.1.4 is followed.
M AB,min 176 12 130 111 kNm
M BC,min 189
1
2
130 130 59 kNm
The anchorage must be established for full utilization of the reinforcement and Table 3.1 gives
lb
48
203
Topside: As we here have poor bond conditions the anchorage

length has to be divided by 0,7, and you get
lb ,rqd 48 16
1
1097 mm
0,7
Bottom: Here we have good bond conditions, i.e.:
lb,rqd 48 16 768mm
Both in top and bottom reduction can be made because of increased
coverage, but the reduction is quite modest.
In the figure, the moment curves are drawn-up using solid lines.
For shear calculations, one assumes the use of cot = 2.5 and
the moment curve must be displaced z ' z cot
For span AB:
1
1
z 1 AB d 1 0,237 453 399 mm z ' 499 mm
2
2
For span BC:
1
1
z 1 BC d 1 0,195 460 415 mm z ' 519 mm
2
2
The displaced moment curve is drawn-up as a dotted line
The moment resistance MRd is drawn-up with a dot-and-dash line.
The resistance of 2 16 is set to of MB, i.e., 82 kNm
204
10.2 Indirect supported beams

An example of an indirectly supported beam is shown in fig. 10.2.
Beam part DC is supported in C and indirectly supported in part D.
Beam part DC is considered simply supported in D and C. DC's reaction RD in D is to be delivered in the underside of D. This reaction
acts as a load on beam AB, but it attacks the underside of the beam. To
transfer the load up to the upper surface is required a vertical reinforcement - usually in the form of stirrups - a so-called suspension reinforcement. The suspension reinforcement design must at least be
equal to the design reaction RD.
And thus found suspension reinforcement is an additional reinforcement to be made besides the stirrups reinforcement designed by
the subsequent shear calculation of beam AB.
A similar suspension reinforcement must also be used in cases
where the beams are subject to loads acting in the underside.
Figure 10.4:
Indirect supported
beam
10.3 Beams and slabs that are casted

together
Slabs can be supported by beams and these beams can again be supported by columns and walls. When such constructions are cast in-situ
(on site) one can save some construction height by casting slabs and
beams together. Both slabs and beams can be continuous, i.e., in several spans with restraint moments over their supports.
In such constructions the slab can simultaneously function as a
compression zone in the beam, so that a T-shaped beam is formed.
DS/EN 1992-1-1 specifies a method to determine the part of the slab
that can be counted as part of the compression zone in the T-beam.
This method is equivalent to an elastic calculation model, i.e., if the internal forces in the continuous beam are determined in accordance
with the elasticity theory, the method in DS/EN 1992-1-1 should be
used to determine the flange width.
205
If a plastic calculation method is used, the flange width can in principle be freely determined as long as it ensured that stresses could
spread out into the flanges. The width at each side of the body should,
however, not be chosen larger than 8hf, where hf is the flange thickness; see fig. 10.5.
Figure 10.5:
Determination of
flange width when
using plastic
calculation
The effective flange width for the T-beam is
beff beff 1 beff 2 bw
(10.4)
The flanges on each side of the body should be selected equal in order
to avoid skewed bending.
The method described in DS/EN 1992-1-1 is based on the effective
flange width at a distance between between the zero moment points,
which can be read on Fig. 10.6.
Figure 10.6:
Definition of l0 for
the calculation of the
effective flange width
For a given beam, the distance between the centers to neighboring

beams is b; see fig. 10.7.
The flange width to the one side of the web can be set to
0,2l0
beff 1 0,2b1 0,1l0
b1
Figure 10.7:
Parameters for
calculating the
effective flange width
for the elastic
calculation method
(10.5)
206

The flange width at the other side can be determined similarly, and the
total effective flange width can be found by using (10.4). Also in this
case, the flanges on each side of the body should be chosen equal to
avoid skewed bending.
Note that for beams with several spans, there might be a case of different effective flange widths. For normally reinforced beams, the
compression zones width does not have that much significance as the
reinforcements design tension force is the dominant factor, so one can
assume constant width across the whole beams length equivalent to
the smallest effective flange width.
10.4 Slabs spanning in one direction (oneway)

One-way slabs can be considered as beams with large widths compared to their heights. The slabs are calculated as beams, both for
bending and shear.
One-way slabs are also characterized by the fact that there may be
substantial stress redistribution across the main bearing direction. That
means loads on the slabs that are applied on a limited area are redistributed onto a larger width of the slab.
In order that this redistribution can take place, there is a requirement
that redistribution reinforcement, perpendicular to the main bearing direction, is present. Distribution reinforcement is also known as transverse reinforcement, and this must constitute at least 20% of the main
reinforcement.
Precisely because of this ability to cross-distribute, shear reinforcement can often be omitted. This means that the minimum reinforcement for shear can be omitted if the formal shear tension can be absorbed in accordance with the rules for non-shear affected beams; see
Section 5.2.
For continuous, one-way slabs, the moment distribution can be determined as for continuous beams; see Section 10.1.
Above the intermediate supports and at simple end supports, the
slabs must be reinforced at the top.
According to DS/EN 1992-1-1, one top reinforcement comprising
25% of the maximum required reinforcement in the bottom must be
placed at a simple end support. At intermediate supports, one reinforcement must be placed in the upper side corresponding to the selected restraint moment. A reasonable upper side reinforcement will
often be 50% of the maximum required reinforcement in the underside.
The extent of the upper side reinforcement shall, for simple end supports, be at least 1/5 of the span measured from the supports edge, and
the same extent could be used at the intermediate supports. For the
simple tensioned slabs, transverse reinforcement is not necessary in the
upper side, although it is often placed there in order to enable the plac-
207
ing of the necessary lengthwise reinforcement. Fig. 10.8 shows the

proposed reinforcement layout.
Figure 10.8:
Proposed
reinforcement layout
in one-way
continuous slab
In a continuous beam (and slab), the upper side reinforcement and extent is determined by the selected restraint moment M- combined with
the minimum load; see fig. 10.2.
With the proposed reinforcement amount of 50% of the maximum
necessary underside reinforcement and the extent of the upper side reinforcement at 1/5 l at the intermediate supports, certain demands are
made on the restraint moment.
We now define a restraint ratio, i, as the relationship between the restraint moment M- and the maximum span moment M+
With 50% reinforcement in the upper side, this means that the restraint moment can maximum be 50% of the maximum positive moment, as the reinforcement quantities are assumed to be so small that it
is reasonable to expect the moment loadbearing capacity to be proportional to reinforcement amount.
The second requirement for the restraint moment is that it must not
be selected so large that a negative moment occurs at a distance of 1/5 l
from the bearings at the minimum load.
The restraint ratio is chosen based on the maximum load pmax as
M
M
M M 0,max M
(10.6)
where M0,max is the simple moment from pmax, see fig. 10.9.
Figure 10.9:
Moment distribution
Now, we load with the minimal load pmin, and M- is maintained at the
value selected in (10.6).
The moment distribution in fig. 10.9 can be written as
M x 4M 0,min
x l x
M
l2
(10.7)
where x is calculated from the left intermediate support and M0, min is
the simple moment from the minimum load pmin.
208

At a distance x = 1/5 l from the bearing, there is no more overside reinforcement. For larger xs, the moment will therefore be positive, and
therefore we set Mx = 0 for x = 1/5 l in (10.7), which gives
M 0,64M 0,min
(10.8)
By inserting (10.8) into (6.10) we find
0,64M 0,min
M 0,max 0,64 M0,min
(10.9)
The moments are directly proportional to the loads and therefore one
will find
0,64 pmin
pmax 0,64 pmin
(10.9)
This means that a span with reinforcement according to the rules

shown in fig. 10.8 must alone be examined for the maximum load, if
the restraint ratio defined by (10.5) at the fixed supports are chosen so
that
0,5
i 0,64 p
min
0,64
pmin
max
Example 10.2:
Continuous slab
spanning in one
direction
(10.10)
Given:
A continuous slab spanning in one direction is casted on site with a geometry as shown.
Concrete C16
Reinforcement f yk 410MPa
Loads:
Design minimum load pmin,d 4,6kN/ m2
Design maximum load pmax,d 10,0kN/ m2
Quasi permanent load p 5,0kN/m2
209
Desired:
Design the slab.
Deflection and crack widths must be determined for quasipermanent
load.
Solution:
s 1,2 ;
f yd
c 1,45;
fcd
min 0,26
bal 0,8
f yd
410
342
342 MPa; yd
0,00171
1,2
Es
2 105
16
11,0MPa ;
1,45
fctm 1,9MPa
fctm f yd
1,9 342
0,26
0,037
f yk fcd
410 11,0
cu
3,5
0,8
0,537
cu yd
3,5 1,71
Span: l 3,85 0,3 4,15m

Height is chosen:
1
h l choosing h 0,15m
30
Dimensioning:
0,5
i 0,64 p
0,64 4,6
min
0,42
pmax 0,64 pmin 10,0 0,64 4,6

so. i = 0,42
1
m0AB m0BC 10,0 4,152 21,5 kNm/m
8
mB i mAB 0,42mAB
1
1
mAB m0AB mB 21,5 0,42mAB mAB 17,8 kNm/m
2
2
mB 0,42mAB 7,5 kNm/m
210

Assumption:
Longitudinal reinforcement = 12 mm
d 150 10 10 6 124 mm
z 0,9 d 0,9 124 112 mm
As
mAB 17,8 106
464 mm2 / m
z fyd
112 342
We choose 12/200 with As 565mm2 /m

Checking the resistance:
Af
565 342
s yd
0,142 bal 0,537
bd fcd 1000 124 11,0
1
1
mRAB 1 bd 2 fcd 0,142 1 0,142 1000 1242 11,0 106
2
2
22,3 kNm/m mAB 17,8 kNm/m
Transverse reinforcement:
As 0,2 565 113 mm2 /m
Choosing 8/400 with As 126 mm2 /m
Checking spacing:
2h 300mm
Main reinforcement: s 200mm
OK
250mm
3h 450mm
Transverse reinforcement: s 400mm
OK
400mm
Reinforcement over intermediate support: As
1
565 283mm2 /m
2
Chosing 8/175 with
As 287mm2 /m ,
1
2
0,142 0,071 min 0,037
1
565 141 mm2 /m
4
Choosing 8/350 mm with As 144 mm2 /m
Reinforcement at end support: As
Deflection:
m mAB
p
5
17,8 8,9 kNm/m
10
pd
565
0,187
1000 124
41
211
From table in Teknisk Stbi we get:

b = 0,190; = 1,236;
= 0,447
m
8,9 106
3,05 MPa
bbd 2 0,190 1000 1242
x d 0,447 124 55 mm
u
1 c 2
1 41 3,05
l
41502 20 mm
10 Es x
10 2 105 55
Deflection limit to ensure appearance and usability is

l / 250 4150/ 250 17mm (see sec. 4.2.5.2).
Because calculation of deflections are inaccurate and the moment
has been assumed a.s.o we find that the deflection is acceptable.
10.5 Slabs spanning in two directions

Slabs spanning in two directions are slabs in which there is bending
about several axes. They are not equipped with distribution reinforcement, but with the main reinforcement in two directions, generally perpendicular to each other.
Calculation of such slabs can be done, for example, in accordance
with the Yield Line Theory, which is based on the Plasticity Theorys
upper bound method, or in accordance with the Strip Method, which is
based on the Plasticity Theorys lower bound method.
Neither of the two methods are reviewed here, but see, e.g.,[5].
However, a method based on the lower value approach is reviewed
here, but unlike the Strip Method, the torsional moments are not disregarded in the method.
10.5.1 A lower bound method

A slabs equilibrium equation can be written as
2 mxy 2 my
2 mx
2
p
xy
x2
y 2
(10.11)
where mx and my are the bending moments about the x-and y-axis, and
mxy is the torsional moment. The load p is the uniformly distributed load
perpendicular to the slab, counted positive upwards.
212

The reactions are found from
rx
my
mxy
2
y
x
(10.12)
ry
mxy
mx
2
x
y
(10.13)
Corner forces where two slab edges are perpendicular to each other are
found by.
F 2mxy
(10.14)
Corner forces act opposite to the reactions along the slab edges. The supports at the corners must, therefore, be designed to prevent the plate corners lifting.
The establishment of these basic equations can, for example, be found
in [5].
We now consider a rectangular slab supported and fixed along the 4
sides; see fig. 10.10. The slab is loaded with a uniformly distributed load
p. If we can find a moment distribution that meets the equilibrium equation, i.e., (10.11) and reinforce for it, we have found a lower value solution.
Figure 10.10:
Section forces in a
rectangular slab
A moment distribution which fulfills the equilibrium equation is as follows:

2
x m m3 m1 m3
mx mx 0 1 4 1
2
lx
lx
(10.15)
y m2 m4 m2 m4
my my 0 1 4
y
2
ly
l y
(10.16)
mxy mx 0 my 0
213
lxly
(10.17)
x y
If the above is differentiated and inserted into (10.11), the following

equilibrium equation is given:
ly
lx
1
1 4 l mx 0 1 4 l my 0 2 plxl y
x
y
(10.18)
If the slab is designed with reinforcement, so that the loadbearing capacity in the two directions corresponds to mx and my in the underside,
and so that the top reinforcement corresponds to the restraint moments
m1, m2, m3 and m4, it can be shown that there is a safe stress distribution. This will apply everywhere in the slab except for some small areas in the slabs corners. These areas are so small, however, that this effect can be ignored.
The reaction ry is found from (10.13), since (15.10) and (10.17) are
differentiated and inserted into
m m3
x
x
(10.19)
ry 8 2 mx 0 1
2 mx 0 my 0
lx
lx l y
lx
To find r1, x = lx is inserted into (10.19), and one finds
r1 4
mx 0 m1 m3 mx 0 myo
lx
lx
ly
ly
(10.20)
From (10.18) one finds p lx, which is inserted into (10.20), after
which one finds
r1
l
m m3
1
pl 4my 0 x2 1
2 x
lx
ly
(10.21)
Similarly, one finds r3 by inserting x = - lx, and for r2 and r4 we use

the same approach with (12.10). Thus, we find the slabs reactions to
be
r1 1
lx m1 m3
plx 4my 0 2
lx
ly
r3 2
(10.22)
r2 1
l y m2 m4
pl y 4mx 0 2
ly
lx
r4 2
(10.23)
The corner forces are found by using (10.14) and (10.17), with x = +/ lx and y = +/- ly, and one gets
1
m my 0
2 x0
(10.24)
214

The maximum moment to be reinforced for can, with sufficient accuracy, be considered to occur at x = 0 and y = 0, so (10.15) and (10.16)
becomes
mx mx 0
1
m m3
2 1
(10.25)
my m y 0
1
m m4
2 2
(10.26)
As for the one-way slabs, one can satisfactorily examine only the individual slab fields for the maximum load, if restraint ratios are chosen
so that (10.10) is satisfied. At the same time, the slab fields are reinforced in the upper side of the intermediate supporting structures, corresponding to half of the reinforcement being in the underside and, for
simple end supports, corresponding to 25% of the reinforcement in the
underside. The extent of the upper side reinforcement must, at the supports, be at least 1/5 of the span. The extent is counted in both cases
from supports edge.
The slab is loadbearing in two directions, i.e., the relationship between Mx and My can be chosen freely. However, the moment corresponding to the short span should be selected as the greatest. Since the
deflection is proportional to the square of the span, a good proposal for
the relationship between the moments is that
mx my
ly2
(10.27)
lx 2
10.5.2 Practical approach

The formulas derived in 10.5.1 seem a little confusing, so it is described here how a calculation of a rectangular slab can be performed.
1. The uniformly distributed, design maximum load pmax,d and the
uniformly distributed, design minimum load pmin,d are determined.
2. The upper limit for the restraint ratio i is calculated by using
(10.10) and selected. (i = 0 at the simple supports)..
3. The restraint moments are set as m1 = i1mx, m2 = i2my, m3 = i3mx
and m4 = i4my.
4. The simple moments in the x and y directions are calculated by using (10.25) and (10:26), i.e.
1
mx 0 mx i1mx i3mx
(10.28)
2
1
my 0 my i2 my i4 my
(10.29)
2
5. Find correlation between mx and my by inserting (28.10) and
(10.29) into (10.18).
6. The relationship between mx and my is chosen by looking at
(10.27). The relationship is inserted in the above context, and mx
and my are found.
215
7. Determine the required reinforcement so the moments of resistance

Mxd and Myd are greater than or equal to mx and my.
8. The moments of resistance are not identical with mx and my, therefore, the loadbearing capacity PRd is larger than the load pmax,d. The
loadbearing capacity is found by using the formulas mentioned in
Section 5, by inserting Mxd and Myd instead of mx and my.
9. The simple moments mx0d and my0d, corresponding to the loadbearing capacity, are found by using (28.10) and (10.29) by inserting
Mxd and Myd for mx and my.
10. The reactions and corner forces corresponding to the loadbearing
capacity PRd is found by using (10.22) - (10.24) by using pRd for
the load p and mx0d and my0d instead of mx0 and my0 , and the restraint moments are based on the moments mxd and myd, i.e., m1 =
i1mxd ,etc.
11. The reactions and corner forces are now found corresponding to
the design loadbearing capacity of pRd. The design load is, however, only pmax,d, so the ascertained reactions and corner forces are
reduced with the ratio pmax,d/PRd.
12. There can now be performed one control because the slabs total
load is pmax,dlxly ,and the sum of reactions (r1 + r3)ly +(r2 +r4)lx - 4F
and the total load should equal the sum of the reactions.
Example 10.3:
Recangular slab
spanning in two
directions
Given:
A concrete slab as shown, simply supported along all four sides and
has intermediate supports in both directions, see figure.
Concrete C20
Reinforcement f yk 500MPa
Height 100 mm
Design maximum load: pmax,d 8,30kN/ m2
Design minimum load: pmin,d 6,05kN/ m2
Desired:
Design and determination of reactions.
216

Solution:
s 1,2 ;
yd
f yd
f yd
Es
c 1,45 ;
min 0,26
bal 0,8
500
417 MPa ;
1,2
417
0,00209
2 105
fcd
20
13,8MPa ;
1,45
fctm 2,2MPa
f ctm f yd
2,2 417
0,26
0,035
f yk f cd
500 13,8
cu
3,5
0,8
0,501
cu yd
3,5 2,09
0,5
0,64
i
0,87
0,36 2,25
6,05
dvs. i 0,5
m1 0
m2 i m y 0,5 m y
m3 i m x 0,5 m x
m4 0
m x 0 m x 12 (0 0,5 m x) 1,25 m x
m y 0 m y 12 (0 0,5 m y ) 1,25 m y
6,1
4,0
1
1 4 4,0 1,25 m x 1 4 6,1 1,25 m y 2 8,30 4,0 6,1
8,88 m x 4,52 m y 101
217
Choosing relation between mx and my :

2
6,1
2,32 m y
assumption: m x m y
4,0
chosing: m x 2,0 m y
8,88 m x 4,52 0,5 m x 101 m x 9,07 kNm/m

m y 4,53 kNm/m
Reinforcement:
Cover 10 10 20 mm
d 100 20 10 70 mm
9,07 6
x m2 x 3 2 10 0,134
b d f cd 10 70 13,8
x = 1 1 2 0,134 = 0,144
Asx
0,144 70 103 13,8

334 mm 2/m
417
2
Asy 12 Asx 168 mm /m
Choosing reinforcement:
Asx 10 pr. 200 mm 393 mm /m

2
2
Asy 10 pr. 400 mm 196 mm /m
Checking spacings
2h 200mm
s
250mm
OK for Asx
New choice for

2
Asy 8 pr. 200 mm 251 mm /m
218

Resistance:
d x 100 20 5 75 mm
449
0,158
x
75 13,8
3
6
m Rx 0,158 (1 12 0,158) 10 13,8 10
11,3 kNm /m m x 9,07 kNm /m

d y 100 20 10 4 66 mm
251 417
0,115
103 66 13,8
mRy 0,115 (1 12 0,115) 103 13,8 106

6,52 kNm /m m y 4,53 kNm /m
Restraint moment
m2 12 m y
2 12 0,115 0,058 min 0,035

Capacity pRd
6,1
4,0
1
1 4 4,0 1,25 11,3 1 4 6,1 1,25 6,52 2 p Rd 6,1 4,0
pRd 10,6 kN/ m pd 8,30 kN/ m

2
Reactions corresponding to the capacity pRd
r 1 1
4,0 0 0,5 11,3 16,3 kN/m
=
10,6 4,0 4 1,25 6,52
4,0
6,12
19,1 kN/m
r 3 2
r 2 1
6,1 0,5 6,52 0 11,3 kN/m
10,6 6,1 4 1,25 11,3

6,1
4,02
10,3 kN/m
r 4 2
F 12 (1,25 11,3 1,25 6,52) 11,1 kN

Reactions corresponding to the design load pd
p d 8,30
0,78
p Rd 10,6
r1 16,3 0,78 12,7 kN/ m
r 2 11,3 0,78 8,81 kN/ m
r 3 19,1 0,78 14,3 kN/ m

r 4 10,3 0,78 8,03 kN/ m
F 11,1 0,78 8,66 kN
Control:
Load: 4,0 6,1 8,30 203 kN
Reactions: 6,1 (12,7 14,3) 4,0 (8,81 8,03) 4 8,66 198 kN
The remaining part of section 10 is intentionally not translated
219
220
221
11
The strut and tie model

11.1 Method description
The strut and tie model can be used for in-plane stress conditions
where compressive and tensile stresses are resisted by fictitious compressive and tensile struts and ties, which are put into the structure.
The compressive and tensile struts and ties thus constitute an imaginary grid system inside the reinforced concrete structure - hence the
name strut and tie method
Nodes occur where the struts and ties intersect each other. The
nodes normally transfer tension between the compressive and tensile
struts/ties. These nodes are, therefore, examined separately.
The method has been used for many years, often without making it
sufficiently clear that this is an example of the use of the lower bound
(static) method from the theory of plasticity. Once this is clear, one can
optimize the solutions, i.e., seek the grid system that provides the
greatest resistance. However, it is often the case that "sensible" strut
and tie systems are readily available, as will be seen from the examples
in this chapter. One must be aware that the use of the strut and tie
model presupposes plastic materials. As we have seen, concretes plastic deformation abilities are limited, so that here, as was the case with
shear forces, one must use the plastic strength of concrete; see Section
6.1.
Occasionally, the lower bound values can appear to be coincident
with the upper bound values from the strut and tie model, as will be
seen in the following Section 11.2 about corbels. When one has coincidently upper and lower bound values, one can analyze test results to
find the efficiency factor , which is applicable in the case in question.
In the case of the corbels, this has led to = 0.8; see [14]. It is not generally possible to specify the efficiency factor. Therefore, the use of
conservative values of , such as those listed in section 6.1, is recommended.
11.2 Corbels
Corbels can be considered to be short, cantilevered beams, see figure
11.2. Often you distinguish between corbels and cantilevered beams,
when the length of the corbel is shorter than the double of the height of
the corbel.
Some exact limit does not exist. You will be able to find different
definitions in different textbooks. It would be most fair to differ between corbels and cantilevered beams depending on the method of calculation and the arrangement of the reinforcement. The calculation of
beams is based on the condition that plane cross-sections remain plane.
Theoretically you speak about a corbel when the cantilevering be-
222
11. Strut and tie model

comes so small that this condition is not satisfactory any longer. In
corbels you normally do not use shear reinforcement, whereas you do
in cantilevered beams.
Figure 11.1:
Corbel
Reinforced concrete corbel can be calculated in accordance with the

theory of plasticity, and it is possible to find exact solutions. This
means, that lower bound (static) solutions can be found that coincide
with upper bound (kinematic) solutions.
For the frequently occurring case with vertical load and horizontal
reinforcement, figure 11.2 shows two different stress distributions .
Figure 11.2:
Stress distributions
The concrete strength is set equal to the plastic strength fck.

The reinforcement is assumed to transfer it tensile force to the concrete as a compression on the distance EF on figure 11.2a, or as shear
between reinforcement and concrete along DE on figure 11.2b. The effect shown in figure 11.2a can be established by fixing the reinforcement to anchorage plates, i.e., steel plates welded or bolted onto the
reinforcement.
In the triangles ABC there is an in-plane hydrostatic compression
fck, i.e. the compression on all three sides in the triangle is fck. The
force in the reinforcement is set to be the yield-force. Hereafter, by
means of the geometry and the equations of equilibrium, one can find
the unknown.
The remaining part of section 11.2 is intentionally not translated
223
11.3 General about strut and tie models

11.3.1 Nodes
In principle, nodes can be divided into two types. There is in-plane hydrostatic pressure in one type - hereinafter only referred to as hydrostatic pressure. In the other type a strut is turned (changes direction) by
crossing a reinforcement bar with shear between concrete and reinforcement.
11.3.1.1 Node with hydrostatic pressure
The node is acted upon by compressive stresses, all of the same size,
k, and there is a hydrostatic pressure of k in the node. The resultants
of the compressive stresses in the individual struts are respectively C1,
C2 and C3. In order for there to be equilibrium in the node, the forces
must go through the same point and there must be horizontal and vertical equilibrium. The node can be formed by making the boundary between the compressive struts and the node perpendicular to the compressive stresses in the struts; see Fig. 11.6
Figure 11.6:
Node with hydrostatic
pressure and
compresssive forces
( = 1,0)
The forces coming together in such a node can be compressive forces

as suggested in Fig. 11.6. One or more of the forces may be tensile
forces in the reinforcement crossing the node and delivering its force
as a compressive force, as indicated in Fig. 11.7.
Figure 11.7:
Nodes with
hydrostatic pressure
and tensile and
compressive forces
( = 0.8).
The efficiency factor for concrete strength in a node, as shown in Fig.

11.7, is v = 0.8, while for nodes where no reinforcement is crossing, as
in Fig. 11.6, the factor is v = 1.0; see Section 6.1.
224

The force can be transferred from the reinforcement to the node in different ways. Usually, it is a question of:
A design anchorage length behind the node; see fig. 11.8a
An anchor-plate on the reinforcement bar behind the node; see Fig.
11.8b
The use of U-stirrups behind the node; see fig. 11.8c,
or a combination of the aforementioned options.
The design anchorage length is understood as being the anchorage
length necessary to anchor for the force in the reinforcement bar; see
the rules described in Section 3
The anchorage plate can be placed immediately behind the node and
must, in this case, have at least the same size as the nodes side length
there where the reinforcement force enters the node. The anchorage
plate can also be placed further back from the node and can then be
made smaller than the side length of the node, since one can count on
the tension from the anchorage plate being distributed at a gradient of
1:2; see fig. 11.8b.
Figure 11.8:
Different ways of
transferring
reinforcement forces
to nodes.
U-stirrups must be placed so far behind the node that the load can be
distributed onto the surface. The stirrups work by transferring internal
pressure to the concrete, whose projection perpendicular to the stirrups
is equal to the force in the stirrups; see Fig. 11.9. The pressure acts on
the area:
A1 D
(11.16)
Thus, the interior concrete tension between the stirrups is
2T
2T
c
A1
D
Figure 11.9:
U-Stirrups with forces
and stresses.
(11.17)
225
The importance of the parameters in (11.16) and (11.17) are shown in

fig. 11.9. The compressive stress in (11.17) must meet the condition
for pressure at bearings in Section 9.2, since one considers the loaded
area as .D.
Example 11.2:
Drawing up the
node
Given:
Three struts intersect at the same point, as shown in the figure below.
The design compression forces in the node are C1, C2 and C3.
The forces are in a diaphragm with the thickness t = 200 mm.
C1 = 242 kN, C2 = 605 kN
C1 is vertical and C2 is horizontal
Concrete class C25, cast in situ. Normal consequences class.
Desired:
The node is desired drawn-up, and there must be equilibrium
Solution:
The three forces meet in a node that is formed only by compression
forces, therefore 1,0
25
fcd
17,2MPa
c 1,45 ;
1,45
From vertical equilibrium, it can be found that:
C3 C12 C22 2422 6052 652kN

The compressive strength that can be used in the node is
c fcd 1,0 17,2 17,2MPa

The width b1 of the compressive strut with the force C1 is found from
cb1t C1 b1
242 103
70mm
200 17,2
Similarly one can find
b2
605 103
652 103
176mm and b3
190mm
200 17,2
200 17,2
The struts can then be drawn

symmetrically around each of the
forces, as can be seen from the
adjacent figure, and the hydrostatic
compression triangle appears where
the compression struts meet.
226
11.3.1.2 Node with shear along the reinforcement

This node type transfers forces between the reinforcement and the concrete by shear along reinforcement bars. By this transfer of stresses the
concrete strut changes direction, as shown in figure 11.10.
Figure 11.10:
Node with shear
between
reinforcement and
concrete
Only in special cases the compressive stresses in concrete will be equal

on both side of the reinforcement. The use of this type of node will
normally require more space for the concrete pressure than the use of
nodes with hydrostatic pressure; see the two stress distributions in fig.
11.2. On the other hand, this node type can be used for reinforcement
which is positioned closer to edge of the concrete structure; see also
fig.11.2.
The shear stress between concrete and reinforcement must not exceed the ultimate bond strength, i.e., the boundary between the two
concrete compressions/struts should be at least equal to the design anchorage length lbd. However, local conditions around the reinforcement
can cause the concrete compression to grow wider and grow narrower
and it will usually be sufficient if the design anchorage length is present from the front edge of the node, as shown in fig. 11.10.
Finally, it must be noted that the two node types can be combined as
shown in the example in fig. 11.11. The combination means that the
stress in the strut under the reinforcement bar is no longer identical
along the whole cross section, which makes the nodes cumbersome to
use in general practical calculations, except when done in connection
with supports.
Figure 11.11:
Node with combined
transfer of forces
227
11.3.2 Ties
The ties consist of reinforcement that is able to resist a force corresponding to the stress in the reinforcement being equal to the design
yield tension fyd.
11.3.3 Struts
The compressive stresses in struts must not exceed the effective plastic
concrete strength, but since this can only be found for special cases,
where a plastic theoretically exact value can be compared with experiments, one cannot be sure of the size of the efficiency factor . This
does not apply to corbels, where you can use = 0.8, as described in
Section 11.2
DS/EN 1992-1-1 stipulates that one can use = v given by (6.16) in
struts that form part of the model that takes shear forces in the structure, see section 6.1. The application is, however, subject to the use of
minimum reinforcement as described in Section 3.2. If minimum reinforcement is not used, the efficiency factor is found by using:
2
fck
(11.18)
where fck is inserted in MPa.

The value that one can use for can thus be found in table 11.1:
fck MPa
Minimum
reinforcement
12
16
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
90
0,64 0,62 0,60 0,58 0,55 0,53 0,50 0,47 0,45 0,45 0,45 0,45 0,45 0,45
Without
0,58 0,50 0,45 0,40 0,37 0,34 0,32 0,30 0,28 0,27 0,26 0,24 0,22 0,21
minimum
reinforcement
Tabel 11.1: Efficiency factors for use in struts.
It is possible to let compression reinforcement be part of a strut but in
such a way that the reinforcements area be a maximum of:
As ,max 0,04 Ac
(11.19)
where Ac is the cross-sectional area of concrete in the strut.

This rule is really a general rule for the compression in columns; see
Section 3.2.2.5.
The remaining part of this section is intentionally not translated.
228
229
12
8
Stringer calculation
12.1 Description of method
The Stringer Method is a lower bound (static) method that can be used
for in-plane stress conditions, i.e., the load bearing resistance that is
found using the method is less than or equal to the ultimate load bearing resistance.
The Stringer method, as described here, can be used for all materials
where the theory of plasticity is a useful material description. It has
been used for many years for concrete structures in Denmark. Unfortunately, it was not possible to include the method in the common European edition of DS/EN 1992-1-1, but it is so recognized and used in
Denmark that it is introduced in the Danish annex of DS/EN 1992-1-1
as a matter of course.
With an outset in Airys Stress Function, it can be shown that we are
dealing with a lower bound value, since the equations of equilibrium
are satisfied. This theoretical explanation will not be given here, but
can be read in, for example, [4]. The current description will concentrate on the methodology and examples of its use in reinforced concrete structures.
Initially, we will consider a diaphragm in a coordinate system as
shown in fig.12.1. The diaphragm is divided into bars parallel to the
coordinate axes, and the nodes in the intersections of the bars are numbered. Between the bars there are fields, which are denoted by capital
letters.
Figure 12.1
Diaphragm divided
into stringers and
shear fields
The basic idea is that normal stresses are taken by the bars, the socalled stringers, which can be compression or tensile stringers. The
fields between the stringers take only shear stresses and are therefore
called shear fields. The shear stresses in a field are constant, which
means that the forces in the surrounding stringers vary linearly between the nodes. A stringer goes from node to node, while the entire
line going from rim to rim is called a stringer line. A stringer line thus
consists of one or more stringers
230
12. Stringer calculations

Loads and reactions are considered to act as concentrated forces on
the nodes, or as shear stresses along the stringers, as they are constant
for each stringer.
Having thus transformed a diaphragm into a stringer system and
added forces and reactions, the shear stresses and stringer forces can be
determined from equations of equilibrium. The system will normally
be statically indeterminate, which means that there are a number of
redundancies that can be chosen in establishing a statically admissible
solution.
The degree of statically indeterminacy (= number of redundancies)
can be found from the formula:
(12.1)
N K F (2S1 S2 ) ( R 3)
where
K is the number of nodes
F
is the number of hole-fields, which are surrounded by stringers
that are connected.
S1 is the number of stringer lines going from rim to rim, and the
holes edges also count as rims.
S2 is the number of stringer lines that throughout their course follow
a rim, i.e., stringer lines that along their entire length form a delimitation of the stringer system. Normally, S2 will be 4.
R
is the number of reactions.
Note that the last term of (12.1), i.e., (R - 3), is omitted if the system is
externally statically determinate, i.e., if reactions can be found only by
the equations of equilibrium or if they are chosen so that the system is
in equilibrium.
Figure 12.2: Examples of determination of static indeterminacy.
231
Fig.12.2 shows examples of determining the number of statically indeterminate in stringer systems. Note especially the difference in whether
there are stringer lines in hole-fields or not.
The use of the stringer method is illustrated in the following simple
example in 12.1.
Example 12.1:
Simple diaphragm
Given:
A diaphragm, as shown in the
adjacent figure, has twoexternal
forces of magnitude P, and three
reactions R1, R2 and R3.
The dimensions of the diaphragm
are marked on thediagram and
the thickness is set to 0.2m.
Desired:
A stringer model for the diaphragm and the systems stringer forces
and shear stresses to be found.
Solution:
The diaphragm is divided into a stringer system with three vertical and
two horizontal stringer lines. The stringer lines must be perpendicular
to each other and they must be positioned so that forces, including reactions, act on a stringer line. The stringer system is drawn-in on the
following figure.
The figure also shows a coordinate system with axes parallel to the
stringer lines, and a square to the right in the figure shows how the
shear stresses are calculated as positive.
Firstly, the numbers of statically indeterminate quantities are estimated

using (12.1.). The quantities in the expression are: K = 6, F = 0, S1 = 5,
S2 = 4 and R = 3.
When inserted, the following is found:
N 6 0 2 5 4 3 3 0
This means that all (i.e., both in this simple case) shear stresses can be
found by the equations of equilibrium.
First, the reactions are found in the usual manner, and they are:
R1 = 0,833 P, R2 = 0,167 P, R3 = P
232

Subsequently, the shear stresses in field A are found by looking at a
vertical section immediately to the right of the stringer between node 1
and 2( stringers 1-2.). Along the surface of the section, the shear stress
A is plotted positive as shown in the square in the figure showing the
stringer system. Vertical equilibrium is used to find A.
A 0,2 2 R1 0,833P A 2,08 P
After this, B can be found, e.g., by using a horizontal section just below the stringer line 2-4-6. Again, the shear stresses are plotted in the
section positive as shown in the square in the figure of the stringer system. Horizontal equilibrium is used to find B.
B 0, 2 3 a 0, 2 3 P
B 0, 41P
Control of shear stresses in Field B can be done by considering

a section directly to the left of stringer 5-6. Note again the sign of the
plotted shear stresses in accordance with the square in the figure of the
stringer system.
1
B 0, 2 2 R2 P B 0, 42 P OK
6
Thus, the stresses in the shear-fields are found, and the stringer forces
can be found next. The easiest way to do this is to look at each stringer,
and this is done by plotting their force on each end - positive as tension
and with the shear stresses plotted in. The stringer forces in the nodes
have index x if they go in the x-axis direction, and y if they go in the
y-axisdirection. The three vertical stringers are plotted below using
this procedure. Again, note the sign for the plotted shear stresses.
233
Stringer 1-2:
On the face of it, we have Sy1 = R1 = 0,833 P and Sy2 = 0
Stringer 3-4:
Here we have Sy3 = 0 and Sy4 = P
Stringer 5-6:
Here we have Sy5 = R2 = 0,167 P and Sy6 = 0
This example is very simple. Therefore, the identified shear stresses
have not been used to find the above stringer forces. They can be found
simply by putting stringer forces at each end of the stringers to equal
the external forces including the reactions.
The horizontal stringers are drawn up below after the same principles as the vertical stringers.
Stringer 2-4:
Sx2 = 0
Sx 4 A 0,2 3 Sx 2 2,08 P 0,2 3 0 1,25 P
Stringer 4-6:
On the face of it, we have Sx4 = 1,25 P and Sx6 = P
Stringer 1-3:
Sx1 = R3 = P
Sx1 A 0,2 3 Sx3 Sx3 P 2,08 P 0,2 3 0,25 P
Stringer 3-5:
On the face of it,we have Sx3 = 0,25 P and Sx5 = 0
The subsequent figure gives an overview of the results of the calculations.
234
Overview of stringer forces and shear stresses.

As was illustrated in example 12.1, the easiest way to do calculations is
to first determine the stresses in the shear fields and then to determine
the stringer forces, including any reactions.
When determining the shear stresses, the redundancies are selected,
but there are limitations on such choices as the equations of equilibrium must be respected. Consider fig. 12.1 as an example. If a vertical
section is cut through the figures H and G fields, and if the right part
of the section is considered, the shear stress can be chosen freely in the
one field, but vertical equilibrium then determines shear stress in the
second field.
The bare possibility that the shear stresses may be chosen freely
gives opportunities for unfavorable distributions of the tension. On the
other hand, it also gives opportunities for optimizing processes; see
Section 12.5. If the selected shear stress causes adverse outcomes, it
can be easily recalculated.
The Stringer Method has proven to be a good method for calculating, among other things, corners in frames, and for diaphragms with
holes in both concrete and steel structures. Fig. 12.3 is a somewhat
simplistic view of a transverse wall in a two-storey building, where the
wall contributes in transferring the wind load, but does not have a stabilizing axial(normal) force. Moreover, the walls self-weight has been
disregarded. The contribution of self-weight can be added to the vertical reactions, which are found by stringer calculations, to ensure that
stability is satisfactory
235
Figure 12.3:
Transverse shear wall
designed as a stringer
system
Example 12.2:
Beamend with hole
Given:
A stringer system, as shown in the diagram, is considered. The stringer
systems notation and measurements are plotted in the diagram. The
system corresponds to a beam-end where there is a hole near the end.
To the right of the displayed figure, the beam has been calculated according to the usual beam theory. Internal forces in the beam at the
beam-ends right restriction consist of a moment and a shear force. The
forces are allocated to the beam-end as a vertical force and a horizontal
force-pair, corresponding to normal compression and tension in the
beams top and underside. Any other load on the beam-end is disregarded. The vertical reaction is also indicated in the figure, and it is
noted that the forces are in static equilibrium.
The beam width is 300 mm.
Desired:
It is desired that the systems stringer forces and shear stresses be determined.
Stringer system at the beam-end.

Solution:
First, the number of statically indeterminate quantities is determined
using (12.1), noting that the last part is deleted as the system is in external static equilibrium. One finds K = 16, F = 1, S1 = 8, S2 = 4 and
thus:
N 16 1 (2 8 4) 3
So, the shear stresses in three fields can be selected.
236

First, a vertical section is laid down through fields A, B and C, and
the shear stresses are plotted with signs in accordance with the selection of the figure in the above.
Two of the shear stresses are selected, after which equilibrium determines the third. The shear stresses are selected so that they mainly
become equal in size in the three fields.
A 0,7 MPa
B 0,6 MPa
chosen
chosen
Vertical equilibrium gives:
200 103 0,7 350 300 0,6 300 300 C 350 300
C 0,69 MPa
Subsequently, the vertical section crossing the hole is observed
200103 E 350 300 D 350 300

Now select E D (last selection)
From the equation above, it is found that:
E D 0,95 MPa
A horizontal section just above the lower stringer line is considered.

The shear stress is unknown only in the shear field F.
280 103 A 500 300 D 400 300 F 500 300

If the previously calculated values for A and D are inserted is found
F 0,41 MPa
237
Next, a horizontal section is laid through the hole and we look at the
part below the section
The horizontal projection gives
280 103 B 500 300 G 500 300

Previously B was found, and i it is inserted we find
G 1,26 MPa
Finally, a horizontal section is cut below the top stringer line and we
look at the part that is above the section.
Horizontal projection
280103 C 500 300 E 400 300 H 500 300

The known values for C and E are inserted and one finds
H 0,42 MPa
Thus, all the shear stresses are found. A control can be implemented by
putting a vertical section to the left of stringer lines 13, 14, 15, 16 and
looking at the part which lies to the right of the section. If one sums up
all the shear stresses, the result must be equal to the external force of
200 kN. The shear stresses that are included are F, G and H and one
finds:
0,41 350 300 1,26 300 300 0,42 350 300 200 103
ok.
Next, we will look at the vertical stringers, whilst viewing the stringer
lines from left to right.
238
Equilibrium of the individual stringers in each stringer is established.

First stringer lines 1, 2, 3, 4 from top to bottom
S y 4 C 350 300 S y 3
The known quantities are inserted, i.e.: S y 4 0 ,
C 0,69MPa
S y 3 0,69 350 300 103 72,5kN

S y 3 B 300 300 S y 2
S y 2 72,5 0,6 300 300 103 126,5kN

S y 2 A 350 300 S y1
S y1 126,5 0,7 350 300 103 200kN
ok
On the last line, control that the stringer bottom force corresponds to a
reaction of 200 kN.
Next, consider stringer line 5, 6, 7, 8:
S y 8 C 350 300 E 350 300 S y 7
Since Sy8 = 0 we find
S y 7 0,69 350 300 103 0,95 350 300 103 27,3kN

S y 7 B 300 300 S y 6
S y 6 27,3 0,6 300 300 103 26,7kN
239
S y 6 A 350 300 S y 5 D 350 300
S y 5 26,7 0,7 350 300 103 0,95 350 300 103

0,5kN 0
ok
Stringer line 9, 10, 11, 12:

S y12 E 350 300 H 350 300 S y11
Since Sy12 = 0 we find
S y11 0,95 350 300 103 0,42 350 300 103 55,7kN
S y11 G 300 300 S y10
S y10 55,7 1,26 300 300 103 57,7kN

S y10 D 350 300 F 350 300 S y 9
S y 9 57,7 0,95 350 300 103 0,41 350 300 103

1 kN 0
ok
Stringer line 13, 14, 15, 16:

S y16 H 350 300 S y15
Since S y16 250 kN we find
S y15 200 0,42 350 300 103 155,9 kN

S y15 G 300 300 S y14
S y14 155,9 1,26 300 300 103 42,5kN

S y14 F 350 300 S y13
S y13 42,5 0,41 350 300 103 0,6kN 0
ok
Then the horizontal stringer lines are considered after the same principle.
240

Stringer line 4, 8, 12, 16
Sx 4 C 500 300 Sx8
Since S x 4 0 one finds
Sx8 0,69 500 300 103 103,5kN

Sx8 E 400 300 Sx12
Sx12 103,5 0,95 400 300 103 217,5kN
Sx12 H 500 300 Sx16

Sx16 217,5 0,42 500 300 103 280,5kN 280kN ok
Sx3 C 500 300 B 500 300 Sx 7
Sx 7 0,69 500 300 103 0,6 500 300 103 13,5kN

Sx 7 E 400 300 Sx11
Sx11 13,5 0,95 400 300 103 127,5kN

Sx11 H 500 300 G 500 300 Sx15
S x15 127,5 0,42 500 300 103 1,26 500 300 103
1,5kN 0
ok

Sx 2 B 500 300 A 500 300 Sx 6
Sx 6 0,6 500 300 103 0,7 500 300 103 15kN
Sx 6 D 400 300 Sx10

Sx10 15 0,95 400 300 103 129kN
Sx10 G 500 300 F 500 400 Sx14
S x14 129 1,26 500 300 103 0,41 500 300 103
1,5kN 0
ok
241
Sx1 A 500 300 Sx 5
Since S x1 0 one finds
Sx 5 0,7 500 300 103 105kN

Sx 5 D 400 300 Sx 9
Sx 9 105 0,95 400 300 103 219kN

Sx9 F 500 300 Sx13
Sx13 219 0,41 500 300 103 280,5kN 280kN
ok
The following figures show the results of the above calculations in

summary.
Overview of stringer forces in kN and shear stresses in MPa.
242
12.2 Tensile stringers

The forces in the tensile stringers are taken by reinforcement. The bars
are concentrated so that their center of gravity corresponds to the tensile stringers theoretical position. Moreover, the reinforcement is
placed in accordance with the usual rules for concrete cover and minimum distances, etc.
The design of the reinforcement is carried out in the usual manner
by ensuring that the stringer forces design load is less than the reinforcements design yield force.
The stringer forces vary linearly from node to node. This variation
must be transferrable to the reinforcement from the adjacent shear
fields. The maximum variation can be assumed to be tantamount to the
force in the reinforcement, over a distance equal to the anchorage
length lb, being able to grow from zero to the design yield force, as this
is an upper limit for the transfer of shear between concrete and reinforcement. The anchorage length, lb/, is found in Table 3.1. If some of
the factors described in section 3.1.1 that help to increase the anchoring ability are present, the anchorage length can be reduced as described in section 3.1.1 (except, of course, for (3.8)). In the following,
the notation anchorage length and the term lb are used, irrespective of
whether it is a length found in table 3.1., or the reduced length.
If we imagine a reinforcing bar placed in a concrete diaphragm of
width b, the design shear stress in concrete max in the concrete diaphragm, which is transferred to the reinforcement bar and which allows the force to grow from zero to the design yield force over the anchorage length lb, is:
max
As f yd
(12.2)
lb b
If there are n reinforcement bars, the total reinforcement force and

hence also max become n times as large.
The shear stress to be transferred to a stringer is the difference between the tensions in the shear fields on each side of the stringer. If the
two fields are called A and B, with shear tensions A and B, the following must therefore be valid:
A B
n As fyd
lb b
where
is the shear stress in shear field A
is shear stress in shear field B
n
is the number of reinforcement bars
As is the area of a reinforcing bar
fyd is reinforcements design yield stress.
lb
is the anchorage length of a reinforcing bar
b
is the diaphragm width
A
B
(12.3)

Example 12.3:
Tensile stringers in
beam end with a
hole
243
Given:
Let us study the stringer system in Example 12.2. Concrete C25 and reinforcement with fyk= 550MPa is used for the diaphragm. We are
working with the normal control level.
With regard to the tensile stringer in the underside and around the hole,
the distance from the free concrete surface to the centre of the reinforcement bars is set at 40 mm
Desired:
The reinforcement in the tensile stringers
Solution:
fcd
25
17,2 MPa
1,45
f yd
550
458 MPa
1,2
First we look at stringer 9-13. The maximum tension is 280 kN, which
means that the required reinforcement area, As, is:
As ,rqd
280000
611 mm2
458
4 16 with As = 804 mm2 is chosen.

The anchorage length in concrete 25 is found from Table 3.1 to:
lb
48 and hence lb 48 16 768 mm
Straight bars are used and no additional transverse reinforcement is

placed, so there is only reduction in anchorage length because of the
extra concrete cover.
The clearance distance between reinforcing bars at the bottom of the
beam is:
1
a 300 2 40 8 2 16 57mm
3
Factor cd is found in accordance with fig. 3.5a as
a / 2 57 / 2 28mm
cd min
40 8 32mm
The reduction factor is found via (3.10) to be
c
28 16
2 1 0,15 d
1 0,15
0,888
16
The reduced anchorage length is lb = 0.888 768 = 682mm
To ensure that the shear stresses to be transferred to the reinforcement
are not excessive, use (12.3), where As in the formula is the area of a
reinforcing bar and nAs is the total reinforcement area, i.e., 804 mm2.
244

As there are only shear stresses on one side of the tensile stringer, one
finds:
804 458
F 0,41 MPa
1,80 MPa ok
682 300
Typically, one will use the selected reinforcement throughout the
stringer line 1, 5, 9, 13 and thus the shear transfer in the fields A and D
must also be checked, but it is seen that both are less than 1.81MPa. In
reality, the reinforcement will probably be the beams bottom reinforcement, which is determined by its maximum moment, unless curtailed reinforcement is used.
Then we look at stringer 11-15. The procedure is as before. With
maximum tension of 128 kN, one finds:
As ,ndv
128000
303 mm2
423
Choose 3 12 with As = 339 mm2.

The relationship between anchorage length and diameter is as before
lb 48 12 576mm
Since the reinforcement is located inside the beam, only the distance a
in fig. 3.5 has significance for the reduction factor. The free distance
between the three bars is found to be
1
a 300 2 40 6 12 98mm and thus cd 49mm.
2
The reduction factor is found to be
c
49 12
2 1 0,15 d
1 0,15
0,53 0,7 ,
12
i.e. 0,7 is used and the reduced anchorage length will be:
lb 0,7 576 403mm
From (12.3) this time one finds:
H G 0,42 1,26 0,84MPa
339 458
1,28MPa OK
403 300
A complete calculation of the tensile stringers from Example 12.2 requires also that the vertical tensile stringers are calculated throughout,
but these calculations are not carried out here.
245
12.3 Compression stringers

The compression stringers forces are taken by concrete, possibly supplemented with compression reinforcement.
Calculations implemented in accordance with the stringer method
are based on the theory of plasticity. Therefore, the compressive
strength of concrete must not be greater than the concretes plastic
compressive strength mfc, where m is found as in section 6.1 while
assuming normally reinforced cross sections, i.e., when using (6.15).
The force of any compression reinforcement must not exceed the
design force in the concrete, and if it is greater than half of this, one
must not use laps.
The compression stringer's location is considered to be in the compression areas center of gravity. Theoretical limits cannot be set for
the width of the stringers, but it is normally not set to greater than 20%
of the width of the adjacent shear field that has the smallest extent perpendicular to the stringer.
Example 12.4:
Compression
stringer in beamend
with hole
Given:
We study the stringer system in Example 12.2 again, and as in Example 12.3, concrete C25 and reinforcement with fyk = 550MPa and normal control level, is used
Desired:
The compression stringers of the system are desired controlled.
Solution:
fcd
25
17, 2MPa
1, 45
f yd
550
458MPa
1, 2
m 0,98
fck
25
0,98
0,93
500
500
All the compression stringers should be examined, but we will just

look at the stringer 12-16, where the maximum pressure is 280 kN.
The required concrete area Ac,rqd in the stringer is found using the plastic compressive strength of concrete, thus:
280000
Ac ,rqd
17500 mm2
0,93 17,2
With a diaphragm width of 300 mm, the stringer width is found to be
58 mm. The recommended upper limit of the stringer width is 20% of
the shear field H's extension, i.e., 20% of 350 mm or 70 mm. The ascertained necessary width, therefore, meets the requirement for maximum width.
246
12.4 The shear fields

There is pure shear in the shear fields. The reinforcement in the field is
placed orthogonally and parallel to the coordinate axes, i.e., parallel to
the stringers. Since there is pure shear, the formulas for in-plane stresses from Section 6.1 (formulas (6.9) and (6.10) and (6.11)) can be used
with normal stresses x and y set to 0.
If the concrete compression forms an angle with the x-axis, and
yielding in the reinforcement is assumed, the formulas can be written
as (12.4) - (12-6), where the pressure stress in the concrete is c and the
necessary cross section per unit length of reinforcement in the x-and yaxes direction is Asx and Asy:
c = cot
cot
Asx =
Asy =
(12.4)
cot
(12.5)
b
f yd cot
(12.6)
f yd
If the force required in the reinforcement is recalculated to evenly

distributed tensile stresses in a section perpendicular to the x and y axes, ftx and fty are found by (12.5) and (12.6):
ftx =
fty =
Asx f yd
b
Asy f yd
b
= cot
=
cot
(12.7)
(12.8)
The requirement for the concrete compression in (12.4) is that it is less

than the plastic concrete strength, i.e.:
c fcd
(12.9)
where the efficiency coefficient, , is found as in shear, i.e., one uses

= v, which is calculated from (5.22), or is found in Table 5.1.
It is noted that the concrete compression is smallest if one chooses
cot = 1. Note that the calculation expressions are basically the same
as in Annex F of DS/EN 1992-1-1, since we have pure shear.
Each shear field is reinforced in the x and y axis directions with the
reinforcement found by (12.5) and (12.6). The reinforcement is evenly
distributed over the shear field.
For closely spaced stringer lines, i.e., for small shear fields, all reinforcement in one direction in a shear field may be placed in the parallel-lying stringers that surround the field, with half in each stringer; see
Fig. 12.4. If the shear fields distance between the parallel-lying stringers in the x-axis is zy, and between the y-axis is zx, the total force in the
field is parallel to the axes:
N x cot b z y
Ny
cot
bz x
247
(12.10)
(12.11)
Figure 12.4
Shear reinforcement
a. evenly distributed
b. placed in stringers
If the stringer is a tension stringer, this means that the shear gives an
additional contribution to the stringer reinforcement. If the stringer is a
compression stringer, this means that the resultant force to be taken by
the compression stringer is:
1
F C N
(12.12)
2
where C is the compressive force in the stringer from the stringer force
calculation and last term is the contribution from shear. If F is positive
it means a reduction of the compression force, and if F is negative, this
means that the compression stringer has changed to tension and reinforcement must be established for F.
Note also that the approach is the same as for shear in beams, where
shear reinforcement in the y-axis direction corresponds to the stirrup
reinforcement, while the reinforcement in the x-axis direction is
equivalent to the addendum for the moments tension in the tension
stringer, and deductions to the moment compression in the compression stringer (compare with (5.12) and (5.13), since cot = 1).
For large distances between stringer lines, the same approach is
used, except for the shear reinforcement, which is perpendicular to a
free edge including edges of holes. This reinforcement should still be
evenly spaced, and the edges should have the shape of closed Ustirrups, which can take the inclined concrete compression that occurs
in the shear field, see fig. 12.5.
Figure 12.5
Reinforcement at
free edge.
248
Example 12.5:
Shear fields in
beam end with hole
Given:
Again, we will consider the stringer system in Example 12.2, and as in
examples 12.3 and 12.4, concrete C25 and reinforcement with fyk =
550MPa, is used, and we are again working in normal control level.
Desired:
The shear fields are desired reinforced
Solution:
25
17, 2MPa
1, 45
550
f ycd
458MPa
1, 2
fcd
f yd
All shear fields should be examined, but in practice one will often select the fields that have the most extreme conditions, and then apply
the calculated maximum reinforcement in all fields. You can split up
the fields so that you use two or three types of reinforcement in the
fields. Here, we will just look at fields G and H.
Shear field G is considered. A inclination of compression cot = 1 is
chosen and the compressive stress is found, by using (12.4), to be:
1
c 1, 26 1 2,52MPa
1
The upper limit for the concrete stress is given by (12.9), and we find:
c 2,52MPa 0,5817,2 9,98MPa ok

If we choose cot = 1 everywhere, we have controlled the concrete
pressure everywhere, since field G has the greatest shear stress.
Next, we look at the reinforcement in the y-direction. Using (6.12),
one finds the reinforcement per unit length in the x-axis direction:
1, 26 300 3
10 825 mm2 /m
4581
The reinforcement can be traditional vertical stirrups across the beam
height, since they also will cover the reinforcement in the fields F and
H, where the shear stress is smaller. If stirrups with diameter of 8 mm
are used, this corresponds to a reinforcement amount equivalent to 10
stirrups per meter, i.e., stirrup spacing 100 mm corresponds to As =
1000 mm2/m.
The reinforcement in the x-direction is found by using (12.5). With
cot = 1, the same reinforcement amount is found as in the y-direction.
Instead of evenly distributed reinforcement, we want reinforcement
concentrated in stringers. It is not a question of large distances between
stringer lines, so the procedure can be used. The force to be distributed
is found by using (12.10). With zy = 300 mm, one finds:
Asy
N x 1,261 300 300103 113kN
249
The force is distributed with half (57 kN) to each of the stringers 10-14
and 11-15.
Shear field H is considered. Again, cot = 1 is chosen. Thus, the concrete compression, as mentioned above, is guaranteed. The reinforcement in the y direction is covered with stirrups found for field G.
Reinforcement in the x-direction is desired distributed to the stringers. As was the case for field G, (12.10) is used, but with zy = 350 mm
N x 0,421 300 350 103 44,1kN

The force is distributed with half (22 kN) to each of the stringers 11-15
and 12-16.
For stringer 11-15, the maximum tension force at node 11 is, therefore:
Sx11 128 57 22 207kN

In example 12.3, we found the stringer reinforcement to be 3 12, but
this is not enough to resist the total force of 207 kN. It must be increased to, e.g., 4 12 with As = 452 mm2, which can resist:
T As f yd 452 458103 207kN

For stringer 12-16, the compression force is reduced by 22 kN, i.e.:
Sx16 280 22 258kN

This means that the necessary width that we found in example 12.4 for
the compression stringer can be reduced - which is, however, irrelevant
in this case.
12.5 Serviceability limit state

The stringer method, as described here, is linked to the Plasticity Theory, which applies to the ultimate limit state. The serviceability limit
state cannot be calculated in accordance with the same theory, but experience shows that reasonable solutions for the serviceability limit
state can be found by choosing stresses and stringer forces in such a
way that the total calculated reinforcement consumption is minimized.
The stringer calculations usually contain many parameters that can
be chosen freely. This means that, if one wants to minimize reinforcement consumption using calculations, one must usually use computers.
However, one can come far with calculations done by hand by using
common sense, for example, by estimating whether stringer forces in
the final result agrees with one's perception of how the diaphragm
should work. There is specially reason to be worried if one gets results
where the stringer forces have signs that one would not expect, or if
there are many sign shifts along a stringer line.
If the total reinforcement consumption is minimized, this means that
stresses in the serviceability limit state can be found by down-
250

proportioning the design yield stresses or ultimate failure stresses with
the ratio between the serviceability limit state's load and load for the
ultimate limit state. If no real minimization has taken place, but one
has a "reasonable" result, a similar proportioning down is often sufficient.
In most cases, tensions in the serviceability limit state are uninteresting for diaphragm structures (/wall structures) Deflections are not interesting the for diaphragms, but can be for beams with holes, but deflections there are often found with sufficient accuracy by considering
the beam as a normal beam without holes, since the holes are often located at places on the beam where the contribution to the deflection is
minimal.
Reinforcement stresses in the serviceability limit state may be of interest in cases where there are requirements for crack widths.
The calculation method is based, as mentioned above, on the theory
of plasticity. This means that there must be sufficient plasticity (sufficient deformation capasity) present. Although design of individual
members (stringers and shear fields) are carried out based on the Plasticity Theory, the total solution should not deviate significantly from
the optimal solution in order to ensure sufficient deformation capacity.
12.6 Exercises
Exercise 12.1
A wall structure having a thickness of 200 mm is loaded by the forces

with design values Nd1 = 200 kN and Nd2 = 80 kN, as shown on the
figure
a) Draw up the stringer system

b) Determine the degree of statically indeterminacy
c) Determine the shear stresses and stringer forces

Exercise 12.2
251
A rigid joint in a frame, with a section having the width 250mm, is

acted upon by the moments shown. The design values of
M1 = 140 kNm and M2 = 100 kNm.
Further conditions for the frame are:

Concrete class C35
Reinforcement with f yk 550MPa
Environmental class : Passive
Allowance for deviation 5 mm.
a) Design and find dimensions for the maximum moment.
Use the position of the reinforcement and the center of the compression in the concrete as position of the stringer lines and draw up a
stringer system.
b) Find shear stresses and stringer forces
c) Design for shear in the rigid joint using horizontal and vertical stirrups.
Exercise 12.3
A floor partition (diaphragm) has the shape shown on the figure.

The floor consists of prefabricated hollow slabs, supported in the
lines AA, BB, CC and DD. In the lines AA and DD there are vertical
walls and only here the horizontal forces parallel to the walls can be
taken.
252

The floor is acted upon by a line-load (for example corresponding to a
wind load) as pressure on the one side and as tension on the other side
of the building, see figure.
The design value of the compression is 1,0 kN/m an the tension is
0,45 kN/m.
The slab elements along the facades transfer these loads to the supports in the lines AA, BB, CC and DD and here the loads are considered as horizontal point forces acting on the floor. After this the forces
are transferred with the help of at stringer model to the stabilizing
walls in lines AA and DD.
a) Determine the point forces from the line load in all the intersections
between the vertical and horizontal line on the figure (the nodes).
b) Draw up a stinger system and determine the stringer forces. The
thickness of the floor is 200 mm.
253
13
Literature
13.1 General literature
[1] M.P. Nielsen: Beton 1, del 1, 1974; del 2, 1974; del 3, 1975.
Udgivet af Den private Ingenirfond ved DTU.
[2] B.C. Jensen: Nogle plasticitetsteoretiske beregninger af beton og
jernbeton. Instituttet for Husbygning, DTH, Rapport nr. 111,
1976.
[3] M.P. Nielsen, M.W. Brstrup, B.C. Jensen & F. Bach: Concrete
Plasticity; Beam Shear - Shear in Joints - Punching Shear.
Specialpublikation udgivet af Dansk Selskab for Bygningsstatik,
1978.
[4] M.P. Nielsen: Limit Analysis and Concrete Plasticity,
Printice-Hall Inc., 1984. 2nd edition, CRC, 1998.
[5] B. C. Jensen & B. Bonnerup: Plasticitetsteori, tvrsnit, bjlker,
rammer og plader, Nyt Teknisk Forlag, 2006
[6] A. Lapko & B. C. Jensen: Podstawy projektowania i algorytmy
obliczen konstrukcji zelbetowych (Basis of Design and algorithms
of reinforced concrete structures calculations) Akady, Warszawa,
2005, 432 sider.
13.2 Literature about specific subjects

[7] B. C. Jensen: Koncentrerede belastninger p uarmerede betonprismer. Bygningsstatiske Meddelelser, Vol. 44, No 4, 1973,
side 89-111.
[8] K. Madsen: Ny beregningsmetoder for koncentreret last p
uarmeret beton. Dansk Beton, No. 3, 1990.
[9] M. P. Nielsen: Beton 2, del 7
[10] B. Feddersen: Betonbjlkers forskydningsbreevne under
hensyntagen til buevirkning. Bygningsstatiske Meddelelser,
Nr. 1, 1989.
254
13. Litterature
[11] M.P. Nielsen & F. Bach: Beregning af forskydningsarmering
efter diagonaltrykmetoden. Bygningsstatiske Meddelelser,
Nr. 3-4, 1980.
[12] B. Feddersen: Jernbetonbjlkers breevne - rene og kombinerede pvirkninger. ABK, DTH, serie R, Nr. 251, 1990.
[13] B.C. Jensen: Om forskydning i stbeskel. Bygningsstatiske
Meddelelser, Nr. 4, 1979.
[14] B.C. Jensen: Armerede betonkonsollers breevne. Bygningsstatiske Meddelelser, Nr. 1, 1984.
[15] M.P. Nielsen & F. Bach: Class of Lower Bound Solutions for
Rectangular Slabs. Bygningsstatiske Meddelelser, Nr. 3, 1979.
[16] B. Feddersen: Stringermetoden. Internt notat. Rambll, 1995.
[17] B. C. Jensen & J. D. Srensen: Breevne af Betonvgselementer,
Institut for Industri og Byggeri, Syddansk Universitet, Skriftserie,
rapport nr. 1, 2007, ISBN 978-87-92185-00-6.
[18] Bo Westerberg: Second order effects in slender concrete structures, Background to the rules in EC2. TRITA-BKN. Rapport 77,
Betonbyggnad, KTH Byggvetenskap, Stockholm 2004. ISSN
1103-4289
[19] B.C. Jensen: Armeringsstl. Klasse A eller klasse B. Notat, der
kan findes p SDUs hjemmeside, se efterflgende. Notatet er
udarbejdet til Betonelementforeningen, 2007,
www.sdu.dk/Om_SDU/Institutter_centre/Iib_industri_og_byggeri
/Forskning/Publikationer.aspx
[20] S. M. Madsen & B. Laustsen: Parametriske sammenligninger
af DS 411s og EC2s beregningsmetoder for bjlker, plader og
sjler. Afgangsprojekt 2007, Det Tekniske Fakultet, SDU.

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Special edition for courses within Concrete Structures.

Faculty of Building Technology and Construction

Bjarne Chr. Jensen

Translated extracts from

Preface to the translated

Anchorage, laps and detailing of members 35

Torsion reinforcement in beams 55

Beams with bending and axial force 59

Beams and shear 99

Casting joints 171

Concentrated loads 183

Continuous beams and slabs 197

Slabs spanning in two directions 211

The strut and tie model 221

Stringer Calculations 229

1.1.4 Breach condition by multiaxial tension conditions

As mentioned above, it turns out that remains almost constant 370.

1 = the largest main tension

1.1.5 Stress-strain relations for compression and modulus

The principal shape of the stress-strain curve is shown in figure 1.3.

; fcm and Ecm in MPa

permanent deformation is found, and that is why the elasticity limit

cd ,0 1,32 220 110ds1 exp ds 2

ts is the concrete age at the beginning of desiccation shrinkage, ie.

ca 2,5 fck 10106

Where t is time in days

cd ,0 1,32 220 110ds1 exp ds 2

1,32 220 110 4 exp 0,12 cm 1

218mm, and from table 1.1 is

kn 0,85 0,85 0,75

Final strain: ud kh cd ,0 0,83 0,32 103 0,27 103

Strain after 60 days

cd 60 ds t, ts kh cd ,0 0,26 0,83 0,32 103 0,07 103

ca 2,5 fck 10106 2,5 40 10106 0,075 103

as 60 1 exp 0,2 t 1 exp 0,2 60 0,79

ca t as t ca 0,79 0,075 103 0,06 103

cs 60 d 60 ca 60 0,07 103 0,06 103 0,13 103

cs cd ca 0,27 103 0,075 103 0,35 103

The growth cc is the creep strain that can be attributed

The effective modulus of elasticity Ec,eff defined in terms of total strain

is the final creep coefficient, or the theoretical creep coefficient,

where RH is the relative humidity in the surrounding environment in

The second factor takes into account the concrete strength by

The above standing is valid for cement class N. In DS/EN 1992-1-1

h0 = 218 mm, see example 1.2

Influence from concrete strength

RH 50 %: RH fcm t0 1,56 2,42 0,49 1,85

1.1.8 Thermal expansion coefficient

1,6 1,9 2,2

2,6 2,9 3,2

1,1 1,3 1,5

1,8 2,0 2,2

2,0 2,5 2,9

3,3 3,8 4,2

9,6 9,8 10,2 10,6 10,9

6,8 7,2 7,5

7,9 8,2 8,5

Tabel 1.2: Concretes strength parameters.

forcement can be used in conjunction with DS / EN 1992-1-1 is indicated in DS / EN 1992-1-1.