Retaining Walls A

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1
TA76
DETAINING WALLS
fc[0
EETAINING WALLS
THEOEY AND PEACTICE
IN
A TEXT-BOOK FOB STUDENTS
BY
T.
E.
COLEMAN
AUTHOR OF "SANITARY HOUSE DRAINAGE,'* "STABLE SANITATION AND

CONSTRUCTION," "APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES," ETC.
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS
ILontton
E.
&
F.
SPON,
N.
Limited,
mew
SPON
Ha.
57
HAYMAEKET
13or&:
CHAMBERLAIN,
123
1909
LIBERTY STREET
s
<
S(0
K-^1 %o<
/z
l*ff
PBEFACE
p33C3^-
This small volume
is
intended to serve as a practical
guide for students and others interested in the general

design and construction of ordinary retaining walls.
The
essential principles
which govern a sound know-
ledge of this branch of engineering are explained in

detail,
whilst at the
same time the use
of complicated
formulas and advanced mathematics have been avoided

as
much
Some
as possible.
portions
of
the
subject
matter
of
articles
in
originally
appeared
in
Journal.
These have been recast, and collected into
series
book form, the whole being arranged
the
Builders'
so as to provide a
convenient book of reference.

T. E.
58
Hough Geeen, Chesteb

1909.
COLEMAK
The
original of this
book
is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright
restrictions in
the United States on the use of the
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004084780
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION.
I.
THE THEORY OF STABILITY.
General principles of design Different forms

behind
of retaining walls Arrangement of earth
embankment walls Limiting slope of battered face
Walls with buttresses and counterforts Vaulted retaining
walls Buttressed horizontal arched walls Land
Vaulted revetment walls Surcharged retaining walls
Natural slope of earths Simple formulae and rules for
Introduction
PAGE
filling
ties
.....
computing the thickness

water
The Theory of
of walls for retaining earth or

.
Nature of the forces producing

Stability
equilibrium Causes of failure in retaining walls Messrs.
Atcherley and Pearson's theory Constructional requirements to ensure stability.
:
....
CHAPTER
.19
II.
BY OVERTURNING AND CRUSHING.

DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE ON
FAILURE BY SLIDING.
BED-JOINTS.
FAILURE
THE
Failure by Overturning and Crushing
Definition of
"line of pressures" Curve of pressures Maximum and
minimum conditions of statical stability The line of pressures to fall within the centre third of a wall's thickness
23

RETAINING WALLS.
Vlll
PAGE
Cemented and
Distribution of Pressures on Bed-Joints
uncemented bed-joints Method of ascertaining maximum
and minimum pressures on cemented and uncemented bedjoints when the centre of pressure falls within the middle
third of a wall's thickness Pressures on cemented bedjoints when the centre of pressure falls outside the middle
:
Pressure on uncemented bed-joints when the centre

middle third of a wall's thickness Limit of deviation for different structures
Failure by Sliding Method of ascertaining the amount of
sliding force Force of friction Equation for stability
against sliding Coefficient of friction Table of frictional
values for different materials Limiting value to ensure
third
of pressure falls outside the
31
....
stability of friction in retaining walls
CHAPTER
III.
THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE. CENTRE

PRESSURE FOR RETAINED EARTH.
Theory op Earth Pressure
stability for
earth
51
OF
The general conditions of

Wedge theory of earth
particles
Maximum thrust for a bank of earth behind a

Plane of rupture for retained earth
Determination of earth pressure on a retaining wall
Centre of Pressure for Betained Earth Graphic
representation of earth pressure upon a retaining wall
Centre of earth pressure for vertical retaining walls Walls
with offsets at back and surcharged earth Battering
pressure
retaining wall
60
retaining walls
.......
CHAPTER
IV.
MAGNITUDE OF PRESSURE OF RETAINED EARTH.

DIRECTION OF THRUST OF RETAINED EARTH.
Equation
tion for water pressures Rankine's formulae Calculating
Magnitude of Pressure of Eetained Earth

for calculating the total pressure of
earth Similar equa-
64

CONTENTS.
IX
PAGE
Graphic method
69
Direction of Thrust of Retained Earth Poncelet and
Moseley's theory Rankine's theory Schemer's theory
Comparative results
.82
....
earth pressure with definite surcharge
for ascertaining the total earth pressure
...
CHAPTEE
Y.
THEOEY OF WATER PRESSURE.
THEORY OF
WIND PRESSURE.
Incompressibility water
Properties of water Equation stabilityDirection
of water pressure on inclined surfaces Memoranda
Theory of Wind Pressure : Velocity and pressure
wind
Description of windsTable of varying velocities at
different levels Diagram of wind pressure General
formula Wind pressure on inclined surfaces Ratio of
Theory of Water Pressure
of
for
87
of
pressure on different forms of
chimney
CHAPTER
shafts
91
VI.
ARCHED RETAINING WALLS.
Arched Retaining Walls

Vaulted
Method of determining their stability
:
retaining walls
retaining
walls-
Horizontal arched
formula Horizontal arched
Rankine's
...
retaining walls with battered face
CHAPTEE
99
VII.
THE BEARING POWER OF SOILS. STRENGTH AND

WEIGHT OF BUILDING MATERIALS, ETC.
Nature of ground necessary

Buildings erected on made
foundations Safe loads for different
The Bearing Power of

to provide a
ground
Soils
good foundation
Artificial
earth Supporting power of London clay

bearing loads allowed by the New York building
descriptions of
Safe
laws
...
...
104
RETAINING WALLS.
PAGE
crushing
strength of building materials Strength of brickwork,
masonry, and concrete Crushing strength of mortars
Safe bearing loads for walls Tensile strength of mortars
Strength of Building Materials,
etc.
: Table
of
..-
..
Adhesive strength of mortars

Weight of Materials Average weight of earths Cements
Brickwork
stones
Building
Limes
Bricks
Masonry Concrete
:
10*
H^
CHAPTER VII
DESIGNING RETAINING WALLS.
Designing Betaining Walls

Example
ing walls Masonry retaining walls
:
of concrete retain.
118
APPENDIX.
ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS AND MEMORANDA.
GRAPHIC CONSTRUCTION, THE FORCE
AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
Engineering Calculations and Memoranda
betical conventions
Trigonometrical
of trigonometrical values
Stability of position
Greek alphaTable
expressions
......
The
principle
of the
lever
Graphic Construction :Representation of numbers or forces

by lines The parallelogram of forces The composition of
forces The resolution of forces Parallel forces Normal
and oblique forces
Force of gravity
The Force and Centre op Gravity
139
ordinary figures Common centre
145
...
Centre of gravity of
gravity
INDEX
of
.151
157
ILLUSTEATIONS
PIG.
Vertical retaining wall of uniform thickness
... ...
....
.
PAGE
2
Battering retaining wall
Retaining wall with curved battering face
Vertical wall with offsets at back
Battering wall with offsets at back
Retaining wall with battered face, and vertical at back
Wall with curved battering face and
....
offsets at
back
2
3
3
4
8-9
Plan and section
of retaining wall
with buttresses
10-11
Plan and section
of retaining wall
with counterforts
12-13
Plan and section
of
14-15
Plan and section
vaulted retaining wall.
retaining wall
10
16
Retaining wall with land
17
Retaining wall with definite surcharge
18-19
8-9
a buttressed horizontal arched
of
11
ties
Sections of walls used on railway works
...
.
20
Vertical retaining walls (Hurst's formula)
21
Vertical retaining walls with surcharge (Hurst's formula)
22-25
Sections of walls for water tanks
12
13
14
16
17-18
26
Diagram
27
"
Typical section showing " line of pressures
28
Graphic diagram
29
Graphic diagram for zero pressure at inner edge of joint
28
30
Graphic diagram
29
31-34
of pressures
for
for
on bed-joint
maximum
of wall
uniform pressure
38
24
25
27
stability
Diagrams showing distribution of pressure on

mented and uncemented joints when centre
pressure falls within the "middle third "
.
35-37
ceof
.
35-38
Diagrams showing distribution of pressure when the

centre of pressure on cemented joints falls within
the wall's thickness but outsidethe " middle third " 40-42
Diagram showing distribution of pressure when centre

of pressure on cemented joints falls outside the
bed- joint
...
43
RETAINING WALLS.
Xll
FAGB
PIG.
when
centre
joints falls within the
wall's thickness but outside the " middle third "
39
Diagram showing distribution

of pressure on uncemented
40
Graphic comparison
of pressure
of pressures for a
uncemented bed-joint
respectively.
45
cemented and
...
...
46
41-46
Sections showing limit of deviation permissible on

50-51
uncemented bed-joints
47-50
Sections illustrating failure by sliding
51-53
Diagrams
54-55
Vertical retaining walls with surcharged earth
66
Battering retaining walls with surcharged earth
67
pressure
56
57-59
60
Diagrams
wedge theory
the
illustrating
62-65
illustrating the magnitude of earth pressure
Battering retaining wall with definite surcharge
....
61-64
Graphic construction for determining the magnitude
65-67
Sections illustrating Bankine's theory of earth pres-
68-70
Comparative diagrams for Bankine's and Schenier's
71-72
Sections showing distribution of water pressure.
of earth pressure
........
Section showing distribution of wind pressure
74
Diagram
75
Betaining wall with counter arches
of
wind pressures
95
100
101
Plan and section
Explanatory sketches for designing retaining walls

illustrating the
90
Parallelogram of forces
91
Besolution of forces
94
arched retaining wall
....
......
....
moment
of forces
97
120-138
of trigonometrical ratios
Diagrams
88-90
76-77
of horizontal
85-86
78-86
92-93
.....
73
Diagram
76
83-84
theories
87
70-74
78-81
sure
68-89
52-58
earth
of
141
144-145
146
147
148-149
Parallel forces
Diagram showing normal and oblique
forces
150
95-103 Graphic determination of the centre of gravity of

different bodies
.
152-155
.
104
Explanatory diagram
for
centre of gravity for
two
determining the
or
more
bodies.
common
.
155
RETAINING WALLS.
CHAPTEE
INTRODUCTION.
I.
THE THEORY OF STABILITY.
General principles of designDifferent forms of

Arrangement earth
behind embankment walls Limiting slope of battered face "Walls with buttresses and counterforts Vaulted retaining walls Buttressed
"Vaulted revetment walls
horizontal arched walls Land
Surcharged retaining walls Natural slope of earths Simple
Introduction
retaining walls
of
rilling
ties
formulae and rules for computing the thickness of walls for

retaining earth or water.
Tee Theoby of Stability
Nature of the forces producing

Messrs.
equilibrium -Causes of failure in retaining walls
Atcherley and Pearson's theory Constructional requirements
to ensure stability.
:
Introduction.
The
successful designing of a retaining wall requires
that the
first
essential
stability
with true economy in construction.
shall
be
This result can only
be attained by a careful consideration of the

tion, materials available,
combined
site,
founda-
and an intimate knowledge
of
the nature and extent of the forces which the wall must
withstand.
Originally, a retaining wall referred only
to a wall of brick, stone, or other suitable materials, for
the retention of an earthen embankment.
The term,
B
RETAINING WALLS.
however,
now
frequently includes walls for the retention
of water, etc. so that the enclosure walls of reservoirs,

docks, gasholder tanks, sea walls, and other similar
structures are also referred
to
by the same general
expression.
Walls which are built
for the
purpose of facing or
breasting a slope or cutting, to prevent the disintegration

of the exposed face of the
excavationrather than
the actual retention of the materials behind
known
for
are usually
They are intended
as " face " or " breast " walls.
only to provide a surface or skin protection against the

weather, and are not designed to counteract any thrusting
action of the materials to
///,
which they form a covering.
f{<
(<:
t'f/i
Knv.
//
Fig.
Fig.
1.
The simplest form
of retaining wall consists of a
vertical wall of uniform thickness as
but a similar wall possesses

overturning
when
built
2.
much
shown
in Fig.
1,
greater resistance to
on the slope or" '^Mftter.''
Fig. 2
GENERAL DESIGN.
shows a "battering retaining wall" of uniform thickness,
its
and by comparison with
general stability
built vertically.
is
much
Fig. 1 it is obvious that
greater than a similar wall
Fig. 3 is another arrangement, with
"curved battering
face/' the wall
being of uniform
thickness.
K''//
A
Fig.
3.
1-
>/'!
/// J"/// -s///.
Fig.
4.
In the sections referred to above, the thickness of

the wall
is
the same throughout, but, bulk for bulk, a
relatively stronger retaining wall can be obtained
by
decreasing the thickness towards the top, and increasing

it
towards the bottom, so that the thickness at any part
may
it.
be directly proportional to the forces acting upon

Fig.
4 shows the section of a vertical retaining wall
arranged with " offsets " or " steps " at the back.
is
a similar section, but with battered face
Fig. 6
is
finished with battered face
and vertical
Fig. 5
;
whilst
at. back.
retaining wall with "curved battering face"
B 2
and
RETAINING WALLS.
4
arranged with
offsets at
This latter form

walls, etc.
is
back
is
indicated in Pig.
7.
largely adopted for dock-walls, sea-
The construction shown in
Pig. 6 is well
adapted for concrete walls, whilst the remainder are

equally suited for brickwork, masonry, or concrete.
Eetaining walls for earthen embankments should be

filled in
immediately behind the back of the wall, for a
thickness of at least 12 inches, with rubble or brick

rubbish, so as to form a " French drain."
Weepholes,
formed with drain pipes of 3 inches diameter, should be

carried through the wall from back to front, in order to
permit the escape of any water which
Fig.
to the
Fig.
5.
back of the wall.
may
find its
way
6.
provision of three weep-
holes to every 40 or 50 superficial feet of wall area

will generally suffice.
It
is
desirable that the " face slope/' or " battered
GENERAL DESIGN.
face " of retaining walls built in
should not exceed 1 in
5,
brickwork or masonry
so as to prevent rain, frost,
or vegetable
growth entering the joints and injuring the
As a
further precaution, all face joints should be
wall.
pointed
carefully
mortar,
for
cement
in
better
K-.
protection
The bed
against the weather.
joints of battered retaining walls
should be laid at right angles to

the face slope.
retaining wall
may
be
constructed with a series of projections or
abutments on the face
or back.
When
are
the projections
arranged in
wall,
they
but
tresses/'
known
front
of
the
termed "but-
are
when they
are placed at the back they are
as " counterforts/'
Figs. 8
and
and section of a retaining wall with

Figs. 10
9 are the plan
buttresses, whilst
and 11 show a similar wall having counterforts.
form of retaining wall known as a "vaulted
retaining wall "
is
sometimes adopted where a very high
bank of earth must be
retained.
It consists of a wall
having counterforts connected with a series of relieving

arches (called " counter-arches ") in one or more
Figs. 12
tiers.
and 13 show the section and plan of a vaulted
retaining wall with
two
tiers of counter-arches.
The
general type of construction here indicated effects a

considerable
economy
in materials, for a wall of this

RETAINING WALLS.
less
than would be necessary
for a solid retaining wall of the
same strength and height.
description requires
A
sists
much
" buttressed horizontal arched retaining wall " con-
of a series of buttresses with horizontal arches
[W^
^V/aV//^
VuvJ
Fig. 8. Plan.
Fig.
9.
Section.
turned between them, as indicated by the plan and section given in Figs. 14 and 15.
to resist great pressures,
is
well adapted
and has been largely used in
railway engineering works.

also arranged
This form
The
section in Fig. 15
is
with relieving arches connecting the piers
near the top of the wall.

GENERAL DESIGN.
If necessary, the stability of retaining walls
by means of
increased
"
may be
land ties" as shown in Fig. 16.
They consist of stout iron rods
or bars connecting the face
of the wall with an anchor plate
embedded
in the solid
III"
tin
ITlTil
nin
JjJtlr
Cllu
|T||J1
ft
Jii.Ui
Fig.
10.Plan.
Fig. 11.
Section.
earth at some distance from the back of the wall.

ties
may
Land
often be usefully adopted in cases of local
weakness in existing
walls.
In military engineering the retaining walls for earth
embankments, ramparts,
walls.
etc. are
A revetment wall
known
as "revetment"
must not only be capable
of

RETAINING WALLS.
resisting earth pressure
from behind, but must
also
be
arranged to withstand the destructive effects of artillery

fire.
"Vaulted revetment
Decharge
" consist of
tvalls" or
"Kevetements en
an ordinary revetment wall with
a series of counter arches behind, similar to the arrange-
ment
indicated in Figs. 12 and 13.
Fig. 12.
"
Section.
surcharged retaining wall " consists of a wall
supporting a bank of earth which slopes back from the

top of the wall and rises above
it.
This slope
may
of
course form any angle between the] horizontal and the
maximum incline at which the earth will permanently

When the surcharge rises only to a certain
stand.
GENERAL DESIGN.
height,
and
known as
is
then finished with a horizontal top,
a " definite surcharge."
ments the earth
is
sloped to a
afterwards finished as
it is
For ordinary embankcertain
a level plateau.
distance between the top of the wall
height,
The
and
vertical
and the embank
sAvA^-l
Fig. 13.Plan.
ment
is
called the "height of the surcharge.'*
shows a retaining wall with definite

distance between
Fig.
surcharge,
17
the
and B being the height of the
surcharge.
When
earth
is
heaped into embankments
it
forms a
t
RETAINING WALLS.
10
certain natural slope,
which varies according
to
the
nature of the material or factional resistance of the
Fig. 14.Plan.
&7^
7/
>/,/-
y*
/,
Xv/,
7/-^
<*
l/
^)/,/
My
/<;
'/
-___
Fig.
earth particles
V,
15.
upon each
Section.
other.
The angle formed
between the horizontal and the natural slope taken by
any particular material
is
known
as
the "limiting

GENERAL DESIGN.
angle of resistance/'
material.
or
" angle
The following
table
II
of repose " for that
shows the average
Fig. 16.
natural slope, or angle of repose, for different materials,

viz.
Natural Slope of Earths,
etc.
RETAINING WALLS.
12
When
[a
retaining
building purposes,
by one
its
wall
thickness
many well-known
of the
required for ordinary
is
may
be determined
labour-saving formula
''&
Fig. 17.
in general use.
more
The necessity
to enter into a series of
or less elaborate calculations is thus avoided.
the case of important structures
it
is,
In
however, neces-
sary to enter into detailed and careful calculations to

ascertain the proper thickness of wall required, so as to
combine the
maximum economy
in construction with
the necessary safety.
As
the result of a large and varied experience, Sir
Benjamin Baker found that
for average earth
backing
and foundations, the thickness of a retaining wall need

not exceed one-third the height of the wall, measured
GENERAL DESIGN.
from the top of the footings.
13
The same
authority-
states that " a wall one-quarter of its height in thick-
ness,
and batter 1 inch or 2 inches per foot on the
possesses
sufficient
stability,
when
"
under no
is it
necessary
foundation are both favourable/' and that

conditions of surcharge or heavy backing
to
make
face,
the backing and
a retaining wall on a solid foundation more
than double, or one-half of the height in thickness/'
The Building Laws

building owners
must
of
New York
require that all
making an excavation on any
site
erect a retaining wall to the full height of the
earth to be supported, and the thickness of the retain-
ing wall at
fourth
its
its
base must in no case be less than one-
height.
'
RETAINING WALLS.
14
I.
For vertical walls
ness of wall
II.
uniform thickness, the thick-
of
= -4"
Tor vertical walls with two
the lower part of wall
and the upper portion

Figs.
3o
'>
the
offsets
at
centre portion
back,
~
;
18 and 19 are typical sections as found by the
foregoing rules.
Where
greater accuracy
may sometimes
is
required, Hurst's formula
be conveniently adopted, as
it
provides
a separate coefficient for different descriptions of earth/ 1'
',,
.>
/,
tr
^ re-*
/'
Fig. 20.
work,
For retaining walls with vertical
sides,
backing horizontal at top (Fig. 20), the formula

follows, viz.
h=
'
7 A tan
ID
|-
sjw
and
is as

GENERAL DESIGN.
where
= mean thickness of wall in feet.

h = height of wall in feet.
w = weight in lb. of a cubic foot of
tx
earth at
back of wall.
W = weight in
e
of a cubic foot of wall.
lb.
= angle which
the natural slope of the earth
makes with the
vertical, as follows
Vegetable earth or clay in

state, consolidated
Loamy
its
natural
and dry
ditto, ditto
Gravel and sand, moist
....
...
Shingle or gravel without sand

Excavated earth, wet
Fine dry sand
.
London
clay in its natural state, but
saturated with water
......
Ditto, recently excavated,
Water
and
ditto
For sloping walls, the following modifications for the

value of
tx
t-i
=
=
in the foregoing formula are given

1
'
00 for wall with vertical
sides.
'86 for sloping wall with external batter of

1 in 12.
80 for sloping wall with external batter of
74
lin
1
8.
for sloping wall
in
with external batter of
6.
72 for sloping wall with external batter of
lin
5.
RETAINING WALLS.
l6
tx
85 for wall with internal

face,
offsets
and
vertical
but with \ less material than the
vertical wall.
In the case of surcharged retaining walls, the following alteration
is
made
in the formula so as to adapt
to the altered conditions, viz.
formula the vertical height
found by setting
" Substitute for
measured to the point F,
off the distance
^/" >A
*>"
it
h in the
D=
k along the
slope
'
Fig. 21.
of the bank " (see Fig. 21).
It
should be noted that
the results thus obtained, although not strictly accurate,

are sufficiently near for practical purposes.
GENERAL DESIGN.
When
water
constructing
ordinary
retaining
as for tanks, reservoirs, etc.
depth, a good
having
and sound general guide
'("
17
is to
walls
for
no great
provide a
RETAINING WALLS.
means
of determining the
approximate section
is
to
adopt the well-known rule of making the wall a thickness at the base of 7 the height ("7A), and at the top
Ta
f*o
the height.
Pigs.
^--i
22
to
25 are four typical sections
as found by this latter rule, showing
how
the general

THEORY OF
may be
arrangement
STABILITY.
varied to suit any specific condi-
In Fig. 22 the back of the wall
tions.
19
is vertical,
the
front face being battered so as to reduce the dimensions
of the wall to the required thickness at the top.
23
shown with a batter of
is
3 in 10 at the front, whilst Fig. 24
an equal batter at front and back.

of 1 in 10
is
the back.
is
Fig.
back and
1 in 10 at the
a section having
In Fig. 25 a batter
provided at the front face, with 3 in 10 at
The same cubic quantity
of materials is
required for each of the four types shown, but the sections indicated in Figs.
22 and 23 provide the greatest
ratio of stability.
The Theory of
The general
stability of
Stability.
any structure can only be
maintained so long as the forces acting upon

equilibrium.
usually are
1.
it
are in
In the case of retaining walls these forces
The weight
of the wall (or force of gravity) acting
downwards.
2.
The thrust
of the earth or water acting in a
sloping or horizontal direction.

3.
The upward
or supporting pressure of the founda-
tion.
It is essential that these three forces shall
mutually
balance or counteract each other, and any failure to do

so arises either
from excess of thrust of the earth or
water, or from weakness in the supporting power of the
foundation
itself.
RETAINING WALLS.
20
When
designing retaining walls
tant to consider
how
it
becomes impor-
far the nature of the materials
employed may influence the actual conditions necessary

for
Under ordinary circumstances
simple stability.
retaining walls are built with concrete in situ, or of
brickwork, masonry, or concrete blocks put together with

mortar, so that the ultimate strength of the structure to
resist
overturning at any bed-joint
is
dependent on the
weight of the wall, and the adhesive power of the mortar
used in bedding or cementing the blocks or aggregate.
The tenacity
wide limits
materials,
of mortar, however, varies within such
much
(so
and
being dependent on the quality of
employed
skill
jointing the blocks, etc.) that
making the mortar and
in
it is
in every
way desirable
not to take into consideration any adhesive strength the
mortar
may
possess.
For enclosure walls and other similar
structures, the
cementing power of the mortar can be taken into consideration, but for all engineering
retaining walls
for
works necessitating
reservoirs, earthworks,
etc.
it
is
usual to disregard the adhesive power of mortar rather
than incur any risk of

results
on
stability of
life
failure,
and property
its
possible disastrous
For these reasons, the
an ordinary retaining wall
as opposed to
upon
is
calculated as
uncemented blocks, which
that of a structure of
entirely dependent
against
with
its
any external
is
weight and general design,
forces
which may be brought
it.
Assuming
that a good foundation
is
available,
we

THEORY OF
STABILITY.
may
find that gravity retaining walls
the following ways, viz.

1.
By
21
fail in either of
instability of position, or overturning at the
edge of a bed joint or horizontal section.

2.
By
crushing of the material at the face of the
By
instability of friction, or sliding along a bed,
wall.
3.
joint or horizontal section.
All well-designed retaining walls must therefore be

so arranged
and constructed that they shall successfully
withstand these adverse conditions at each bed-joint.
Within recent years
it
has been suggested that a
masonry dam or retaining wall may
fail
by shearing
along a vertical section, in addition to failure by overturning, crushing, or sliding along a horizontal plane.
This theory formed the subject of a paper published by

Messrs. Atcherley and Pearson,
points in the Stability of
'
On some
disregarded
Masonry Dams/ wherein
considered that the vertical sections of a dam,
it
is
when
under water pressure, are subjected to greater stresses

than the horizontal sections.
that a
failure
As a result,
it is
contended
masonry dam which has been designed
to resist
from overturning, crushing, or sliding on a hori-
zontal section,
may
a vertical section.
yet
fail
Whilst
by cracking
this
theory
under certain assumed conditions,
it
or shearing
may
on
be true
has not yet been
proved that such conditions would be found in any

well- designed
and constructed masonry dam complying
with existing accepted principles and details of practice.
RETAINING WALLS.
22
In the construction of important masonry dams,

is
masonry
shall be carried
to a solid rock foundation.
shall
any continuous
down and
directly connected
Also under no circumstances
vertical joints be permitted within
the thickness or length of the masonry walls.

as
an additional security against
recognised practice
is
failure, it
Further,
is
also a
that continuous horizontal joints
shall not be allowed.
description
it
upon by experienced engineers that the
insisted
Where systematic bonding
of this
provided, the entire wall approximates to
a monolith which has been designed with such a large

provision for security, that the factor of safety ordinarily
employed
stresses
is
considerably in excess of any incidental
such as the possible shearing in a vertical plane,
and which might
arise
from conditions which at present
are indeterminate for structures of this character.
23
CHAPTEE
II.
BY OVERTURNING AND CRUSHING. THE

OF PRESSURE ON BED-JOINTS.
FAILURE BY SLIDING.
FAILURE
DISTRIBUTION
Definition of " line

Maximum and minimum
Failure by Overturning and Crushing

of pressures "
Curve
of pressures
conditions of statical stability The line of pressures to

within the centre third of a wall's thickness.
fall
of Pressures on Bed- Joints

Cemented and
uncemented bed-joints Method of ascertaining maximum and
minimum pressures on cemented and uncemented bed-joints
Distribution
when
the centre of pressure
wall's thickness
falls
within the middle third of a
Pressures
centre of pressure falls
on cemented bed-joints when the

outside the middle third Pressure on
uncemented bed-joints when the centre of pressure falls outside

the middle third of a wall's thickness Limit of deviation for
different structures.
Method of ascertaining the amount of

Force of frictionEquation for stability against
sliding Co-efficient of friction Table of frictional values for
different materials Limiting value to ensure stability of friction
Failure by Sliding
sliding force
in retaining walls.
Failure by Overturning and Crushing.

Failure by overturning
defect
met with
probably the most
is
common
in an ordinary retaining wall,
and
is
usually due to the wall having insufficient thickness or
mass
Fig.
to counteract the external force acting
upon
it.
26 represents the section of a vertical retaining
wall of uniform thickness
AB
being one of the bed-
RETAINING WALLS.
24
joints,
and
The weight
the external force.
portion of wall above the bed-joint

acting vertically
downwards
is
through
of the
also indicated,
the
centre
of
Fig. 26.
Assuming that the adhesive
gravity G- of the wall.
power of the mortar
is
not taken into consideration,
then, if the resultant force or pressure

forces
and
falls
wall will overturn.

pressure
wall
is
falls
is stable,
concerned.
of the two
outside the bed-joint as at

If,
M, the
on the other hand, the resultant
within the bed-joint, as at E, then the
so far as
any danger
of simple overturning
The point at which the resultant pressure
OVERTURNING AND CRUSHING.

any bed-joint
intersects
pressure
"
is
known
as the
" centre
of
or " centre of resistance " for that bed-joint.
"When the centres of pressure
for a series of bed-joints
in a retaining wall are joined together, as at

(Fig. 27) the line
thus obtained
is
known
of pressures' or "line of resistance."

cally
25
assumed that the bed-joints are
ABCDE
as the " line
If it be theoretiinfinitely close to
each other, then the line of pressures becomes a curve,
known
as
the
"curve of resistance" or "curve of
pressures."
Eeferring again
to Fig. 26, in
which
AB
is
con-
RETAINING WALLS.
26
sidered as an unceinented bed-joint,
the nearer the resultant pressure
A B,then
edge of the bed-joint
it
will be seen that
E approaches the
so
much
outer
the greater will
be the intensity of pressure upon the outer portion of
When
the bed-joint.
the resultant pressure
passes
through the outer edge of the bed-joint, then the mini-
mum
condition of statical stability has been reached, for
the block
it
ABCD
is
in a state of unstable equilibrium,
being on the point of overturning with the slightest
Under these circumstances,
additional pressure.
it is
also obvious that with a retaining wall of great weight,
and a
of
sufficient force
which the wall
is
acting against
built
edge of the bed-joint
it,
the materials
would be crushed
when
at the outer
the resultant pressure at
that point exceeds the crushing strength of the materials
and
failure
by crushing would ensue.
It is therefore "essential for absolute safety that the
materials of which a retaining wall
is
built shall not
be
subject to any excessive or concentrated crushing force,
and under no circumstances should any bed-joint be

subject to a tensile stress.
To obtain
this result, the
walls must be so designed that the resultant pressure
the central portion of each jbed-joint
shall intersect
within certain limits, so as to prevent any excessive

inequality of pressure being borne by any part of the
wall.
The most favourable condition
is
obtained
when
the resultant pressure intersects the exact centre of the

bed-joint as at
is
shown acting
in Fig. 28.
directly
The weight
of the wall
downwards through
its
centre

of gravity,
pressure
The resultant
being the external force.
E intersects
27
the bed-joint at C, this point being
the centre of pressure and also the centre of the bedjoint, so
pressure
that an equal distribution of the total normal

1ST
on the bed-joint
diagrammatically at
is
ABD E.
obtained, as indicated
Let the width of the
Fig. 28.
wall
AB =
sure
when spread uniformly over
wall
t is
t,
then the mean intensity of normal pres-
as follows
the thickness of the
Mean normal
pressure
=
t
We
have seen that the
maximum and minimum
RETAINING WALLS.
2S
conditions of statical stability for a retaining wall at
any bed-joint
is
are obtained
when
at the centre and outer edge of the bed-joint respec-
tively.
There
is
consequently some point between the
centre of the bed-joint and the outer edge at which the

resultant force produces a zero pressure at the inner
edge, together with
a uniformly gradual increase of
pressure from the inner to the outer edge of the bedjoint, as in Fig. 29.

the total
normal pressure
on the bed-joint
being equally distributed over the
as
indicated
normal
by the pressure diagram
K
pressure being.
29
The
shown
is
entire bed,
ABEH;
as-
mean
the
vertical pressure at
any
Fig. 30.
point on the bed-joint
AB
line
E H.
As the
total
is
represented by the length
drawn from that point
of the ordinate or vector
normal pressure
to the
of all the
equal component vertical forces acting on the bed-joint
A B may
be represented by a single vertical force pass-
ing through the centre
must
of the rectangle
ABEH,
it
also pass through the centre of the bed-joint C,
so that
is
the centre of pressure, and also the centre
of the bed-joint.
If a similar section be
(Fig. 29) for the
now drawn
to the
same
scale
purpose of indicating graphically the
RETAINING WALLS.
30
same
normal pressure
total
on the bed-joint as in
Fig. 30, but so distributed that a zero pressure shall be
produced at
and uniformly increasing
pressure at A, this result
Then the
in Fig. 30.
ABD
and
maximum
in Fig. 29
ABEH
(Figs.
and in each case represents the same
normal pressure
of
AH
area of the pressure diagram
area of pressure diagram
30),
amount
may
ABDso that A D
ing the triangle
to a
be obtained by construct-
29
total
on the bed-joint, whilst
the length of the ordinate or vector at any point represents in magnitude the intensity of pressure on the
bed-joint at that point.
observed that in both cases the mean
It will be
normal pressure
occurs at the centre of each bed-joint,
for the intensity of pressure at the centre

is
precisely the
of pressure at
same
as at
in Fig. 29
would be obtained
if
29
is
twice the intensity
which
the pressure were uniformly dis-
tributed over the bed, whilst at
As
K in Fig.
in Fig. 30, but the intensity
B no pressure is obtained.
the total normal pressure represented by the
AB D
force diagram
is also
equivalent to a single force
N, passing vertically through the centre of gravity of the

triangle
ABD
at a distance of
AB
from the point A,
therefore the resultant force intersects the bed-joint at

C,
which
is
the " centre of pressure/'
Hence, no por-
when
the total normal
tion of a bed-joint
pressure
is
is
is
in tension
"
so distributed that the " centre of pressure
not nearer to the outer edges of the bed than
-J
the

DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE.
words, the "line of pressures " for
must
fall
within the
" centre
In
other
any retaining wall
third " of the wall's thick-
ness so as to ensure that no tensile stress
any
width or thickness of the bed-joint.
total
is
brought upon
bed-joint.
Distribution of Pressure on Bed-Joints.

It is necessary that
a clear conception should be
obtained of the nature and intensity of the stress to
which the bed-joints of a structure

so as to
determine
bed-joints
A.
B
As a measure
power of resistance
be subjected,
to overturning
For purposes of general investigation
and crushing.
all
its
may
may
be divided into two
Uncemented
Cemented
classes, viz.
bed-joints.
bed-joints.
of ordinary prudence from
an engineering
stand-point, the bed-joints of retaining walls,
dams,
etc. are
its
masonry
regarded as possessing no tensile strength,
so that the structure
reason of
may
provide adequate stability
inherent weight and form.
walls of this description are therefore sometimes
The
by
Retaining
bed-joints are then
known
assumed
as
"gravity" walls.
to
be "uncemented " the mortar or cementing material
being merely considered as a convenient means of providing a proper bedding or seating for the blocks, and
for filling
any small
interstices.
To
fulfil
such condi-
tions, it is essential for absolute safety that
any bed-joint
no part of
shall be subject to a tensile stress.
RETAINING WALLS.
32
Walls
of
an unimportant character, such as boundary-
walls, etc. are generally so constructed that the stability
of the structure
is
some extent dependent upon the
to
tensile strength of the
mortar joining the bricks or
masonry, so that the whole
may
Such walls
force.
" cemented ded-joints,'
are
J
be capable of success-
wind
fully resisting the pressure of
then
or other external
considered
portions of
having
as
which may be sub-
ject to tension within certain limits.

It has already
been shown that when the centre of
pressure occurs at the centre of the bed-joint, then the

total
normal pressure
is
equally distributed over the
whole bed, the intensity being
(Fig. 30).
To ensure
that there shall be no tension in any part of the bed-
necessary that the centre of pressure shall

within the " centre third " of the bed, the extreme
joint, it is
fall
limiting position from the centre being ^
there
is
at
which point
a uniformly varying stress on the bed-joint,
varying from zero to
2 "S
(Fig. 29).
When the centre of pressure falls within the

third " of a bed-joint, the
(i
middle
maximum and minimum
pres-
sures borne at the outer edges of the- bed (both for
may
uncemented and cemented joints)

ascertained by
(I.)
means
Maximum
be conveniently
of the following equations, viz.
pressure
(2
v ,,.
(11.)
Minimum
pressure
2
-
33
N/3^ 1A
j.
where
= total normal pressure on bed-joint.

= thickness or width of bed-joint.
= minimum distance of centre of pressure
N"
t
from
outer edge of bed-joint.
The application
when
of the foregoing formulae
shows that
the resultant normal pressure on the bed-joint
passes through the centre of the joint, the total normal
pressure
t>
is
equally distributed throughout the joint, for
then
Maximum
pressure
= r~
12
2JST
(>-D
N
Minimum
1ST
But
"
pressure
mean normal pressure " when evenly
dis-
tributed over the bed-joint (as indicated graphically in
RETAINING WALLS.
34
Fig. 30), so that the pressure
is
the same at both edges
of the bed-joint.
Similarly, if
^,
then substituting this value in
the equations,
,T
we have
Maximum
2 N/ n
pressure
3 d\
-^(2-1)
""
t
N/3d
= 2 t
titMinimum
pressure
.\
II
= 2N (1-1)
t
=
The maximum pressure
at the edge of the bed-joint
nearest the centre of pressure
equal to twice the
minimum
is nil, as
zero.
is,
therefore,
mean normal
found to be
pressure, whilst the
pressure at the opposite edge of the bed-joint
in Fig. 29.
When
the centre of pressure occurs at any inter-
mediate point between ^ and
maximum and minimum
-5
from the outer edge, the
pressures are ascertained in
the same manner.
For example,
let
))
Then
Maximum
pressure
2N
"^ [2
35
-D
7N
4:t
,,.
Minimum
pressure
2 N/3d
N/3 d
I
v
1
j
(1-1)
4f
Fig. 31.
These pressures are indicated in Pig. 31, where
AD =
If and
BE=
the
mean
pressure at K.
d 2
RETAINING WALLS.
36
Similar results
method
may
also be obtained
of construction.
by the graphic
diagrammatic verification
of the pressures which have been ascertained arithmetically in the foregoing examples will be found in Figs.
32 to 34.
~t~
LV
Let
total
AB
and
Fig. 32, represent the bed-joint,
N" the
normal pressure acting at a distance of ^ from the
outer edge of the bed-joint.
Divide
AB
into three equal parts
Q B. With
and
the semicircles
AHQ
as centres,
and
Join the centre of pressure

the semicircles at H.
angles to
and radius
H B,
-^
Q, and
describe
intersecting at H.
C and the intersection of
Through
C H, meeting
A 0,
draw
DHEat right
the vertical lines drawn from
and
at
D and E.
The diagram
the distribution of pressures.

therefore
AD
ABED indicates
D E is parallel to A B,
As
BE= CH=
37
1ST
and the normal pres,
sure is evenly distributed over the
whole bed-joint as
in Eig. 30.
When
is at
from the outer edge of the bed-joint,

of pressure,
and
K the
a distance of
being the centre
centre of the bed-joint, then
by
Fig. 33.
the same process of graphic construction (Fig. 33),
it
will be found that zero pressure occurs at B, whilst
KH
= ?UndAD =
6
2KH=~ (compare
6
Fig. 29).
RETAINING WALLS.
38
Similarly,
when
3
is
the outer edge of the bed-joint (as in Tig. 34),
be found that
KH = N
-,
and by
scale
from
-=r
AD =
it
If
will
KH
^5
whilst
BE=iKH =
|^ (compare
Fig. 31).
Fig. 34.
Having
pressures
for cases
investigated
for
" cemented "
the
general
and
"
where the centre of pressure
"middle third"
distribution
uncemented "
falls
of
joints
within the
of the bed-joint, there remains to con-
sider the variations
which take place when
it
falls
outside those limits.
With "cemented
bed-joints"
having the centre of
pressure between the outer edge and the width of the
39
found that the total normal pressure
bed-joint, it is
a portion
will be distributed over
of the
bed-joint,
whilst the remaining portion will be subject to a tensile

stress.
When
the resultant pressure falls outside the
bed-joint, the structure
may
on
intensity of pressure
its
remain
still
outer edge
stable,
is
but the
considerably
increased, whilst the tensile stress at the opposite edge

is
In such cases the
also greater.
mum
pressures
may
foregoing equations
I.
maximum and
mini-
be found arithmetically by the
and
II.,
by the graphic method
or
already described.
Let d
= t
(Fig. 35),
then
N
= 2
Maximum pressure
~~
,,.
Minimum
pressure
/o
12
3 d\
4/
N/3d
\
2* (3
\4
1)
/
N
2Y
It
will be observed that
when
the centre of pres-
sure falls within the thickness of the wall, but outside

RETAINING WALLS.
40
the " middle third " of the bed-joint, then the

pressure
at
whilst the equation for determining the

sure shows a negative quantity, that
stress is
maximum
continues to increase proportionately,
produced at B.
minimum
is to
pres-
say, a tensile
These results are indicated by
the pressure diagram in Fig. 35, the portion of the bedjoint
AE
portion
being in compression, whilst the remaining
E B,
is
subject to a tensile stress,
graphic solution of the same example
shown in
is
also
Fig. 36.
Fig. 35.
Fig. 36.
Taking the case when the centre of pressure

the extreme edge of the bed-joint,
When
0, then
i.e.
falls at

Maximum
pressure
=
=
41
^(2-0)
t
Minimum
pressure
=
I
N (-
1}
The
maximum
compression at the outer edge of the
bed-joint under these conditions
the normal pressure, whilst the

the opposite edge
is
equal to 4 times
maximum
tension at
The
twice the normal pressure.
same results are given by the graphic method, as

indicated in Fig. 37.
When
the centre of pressure falls outside the bed-
joint, it will
be observed that
has a negative value, so
minus sign in equations
that the
plus, the formulae
/TTT
cl
(III.)
/TTn
(IV.)
TLT
now becoming
Maximum
compression
, r
Maximum
tension
I.
and
II.
changes to
modified as follows
= N/3
2 N/
= -12-1
3 d\
f-
,\
).
RETAINING WALLS.
42
For example,
let
the outer edge, then
Maximum
compression
-\
N
(2
Fig. 37.
i)
from
Maximum
^ ("
(Zd
tension
The graphic construction

is
shown
in Fig. 38.
C\^&
Fig. 38.
for the
43
+1 )
(t+1)
same conditions
RETAINING WALLS.
44
As compared with
it
the previous example (Fig. 37),
maximum
will be seen that the
compressive and
tensile stresses are both greatly intensified, so that the

stability of the wall
must depend
joint,
and the
resisting
upon the
entirely
back
tensile strength of the mortar at the
of the bed-
power of the material
to crush-
ing at the front edge of the bed-joint.
For walls which are assumed to be constructed with

" uncemented " bed-joints, and having the centre of pressure between the outer edge
bed-joint, the total
and
one-third the width of the
normal pressure on the bed becomes
distributed over the outer portion of the bed-joint only,
whilst the remainder of the joint merely tends to open,
and
subject to no stress of
is
any kind.
Let the centre of pressure
C on an uncemented
joint be nearer to the edge of the bed than \t as

r
From
Fig. 39.
ditions
it
is
the bed-joint
bed-
AC
a theoretical consideration of these con-
found that the total normal pressure on

is
distributed over that portion of the bed
A E, in which A E = 3 A C,
so that the total length of
bed-joint under pressure amounts to three times the
distance of the centre of pressure from the outer face of

intensity of pressure at
twice the intensity which would be produced
if
the wall.
The maximum
evenly distributed over
A E.
The
becomes uniformly diminished from

sure
is
joint,
until zero pres-
reached at E, the remaining portion of the bed-
E B, being
under no pressure or
stress,
a tendency to open at this part of the joint.
but having
When,
45
therefore, the centre of pressure falls within
the outer third of the wall's thickness, the
maximum
intensity of pressure occurs at the outer edge of the

bed-joint
that
(Fig. 39),
and
would be produced
is
if
equal to twice the intensity
evenly distributed over
A E.
FiG. r 39.
The maximum intensity at
A = 2N where A C repre'
sents the distance of the centre of pressure from the
outer face of the wall.
the bed-joint
= 3AC
The point
from
its
of zero pressure in
outer edge.
Should the centre of pressure occur

edge of the bed-joint, the wall
is
at the outer
in a condition of un-
RETAINING WALLS.
46
stable
equilibrium,
pressure
is
intensity
of
If the resultant pressure falls outside the
bed-joint.
bed-joint
maximum
and the
produced at the edge of an uncemented
it is
obvious that a wall of this description
must overturn.
Fig. 40
Pig.
40
illustrates the difference
distribution of pressures
upon a
cemented " joint respectively,
<l
when
which occurs in the
cemented " and " unthe centre of pres-
sure falls within the outer third of the wall.
In each

case the centre of pressure
maximum
bed-joint has a
The
"
uncemented
compression at
4 times the mean normal pressure,
47
A = 3AC
evenly
if
"
distri-
buted over the whole bed-joint, or twice the intensity

of pressure if evenly distributed over
A E.
The pressure
diminishes uniformly to the point E, where

the remaining portion of the joint
stress.
With a
pression at
"
A=
EB
cemented " joint, the

3 times the
is
pression, whilst the remaining portion
a tensile stress.
mean normal
is at
pressure.
is
is
subject to
B=
at
the
axis of the joint
neither compressive
stress.
When the maximum

are
The neutral
pressure.
subject to com-
The maximum tension
the point S, where there
nor tensile
being under no
maximum com-
mean normal
AS
The portion of the bed-joint
A E = 3 A C,
known, the position
ascertained
by means
compressive and tensile stresses

of the neutral point
may
of the following equation
be
m
where
x
distance of neutral point from edge of bedjoint.
= thickness or width of bed-joint.

M = maximum compression on the bed-joint,
m = maximum tension on the bed-joint.
i

RETAINING WALLS.
48
Summarising the ordinary conditions relating
to
the distribution of pressures on the bed-joints of struc-
found that
tures, it is
When
1.
of pressure
the same both for cemented and
is
other
uncemented bed-joints, and
the intensity of pressure

both
at
things being equal
any point
is
the same in
cases.
2.
When
the centre of pressure falls outside the
third,
but within the outer third of the bed-joint,
middle
the
within the
of the bed-joint, the general distribu-
"middle third"
tion
falls
distribution
cemented
of pressure
uncemented
cemented and
joints,
normal pressure
having
is
considerably for
varies
joints respectively.
tensile
stress,
the
distributed over a larger portion of
As
the bed-joint than in tcncemented bed-joints.

result, the intensity of pressure
under compression
than in a cemented
3.
When
is
greater in an
ceeded.
uncemented
joint
joint
falls
with cemented joints
outside the
may
possess
of stability, provided the compressive
resistance of the materials of
and the
on the portion of
joint.
bed-joint, then a wall
some measure
For
total
tensile
which the wall
is built
strength of the mortar are not ex-
With uncemented
joints, the
wall must over-
turn.
All retaining walls should therefore be so designed
that the centre of pressure on any bed-joint shall not
be nearer the outer edge than one-third the thickness
of the joint (^
t)
as
it
is]
49
at this point that the ex-
treme limit of deviation from the centre of the bedhas
joint
portion
been reached
in
of the bed-joint
order to ensure that no
shall be subject to tension.
In other words, the line of pressure, or line of

ance,
must
fall
resist-
within the middle third of the wall's
thickness.
mind
It is necessary to bear in
that the foregoing
remarks respecting the extreme limit of deviation, refer

only to structures forming a solid square or rectangle
on plan, such as ordinary retaining walls, buttresses,
etc.
The limiting position of the centre of pressure
any
section, so that there shall
a bed-joint,
for
be no tension on any part of
maybe determined from
Kankine's formula,
viz.:
Ay
where
S
limit of deviation of centre of resistance
from
the centre of gravity of the figure under

consideration.
= moment of inertia of the figure.

A = area of the bed-joint of the figure.
y = distance from the centre of gravity
I
of the
figure of the bed-joint to the edge furthest
from the centre of
The limit
having
"
resistance.
of deviation for ordinary structural forms
uncemented
joints "
is
as follows
RETAINING WALLS.
5o
Safe Limits of Centre of Pressure.
Minimum
Distance from
Outer Edge.
Solid square on plan (Fig. 41)
Limit of
Deviation at centre
of
Middle third
4*
rectangle on plan (Fig. 42)
,,
circle
ellipse
on plan
Middle third
Middle quarter
(Fig. 44).
Middle quarter
(Fig. 43)
on plan
Bed -Joint.
Hollow square on plan, as for)

factory chimneys (Fig. 45)
J
(approx.)
Circular ring on plan, as for)

factory chimneys (Fig. 46)
J
(approx.) I
Middle
two-
thirds
Middle half
-J
f%
Fig. 41.
r--/-H
Fig. 43.
With regard
//'
Fig. 42.
f--t
Fig. 44.
to the limiting position of the centre of
pressure in any bed-joint for the last two-mentioned
FAILURE BY SLIDING.
forms,
it
should be observed that
51
exact position
its
depends upon the thickness of the sides as compared
-t
Fig. 45.
Fig. 46.
with the total dimensions of the
figure,
purposes the approximate value
may be
but for ordinary

taken as given
above.
Failure by Sliding.
"When a block of stone or other

another, as in Fig. 47,
and
solid rests
upon
subject to an external force
is
F, acting in a horizontal or oblique direction, a sliding

stress is
EH
produced between the two bodies at
represent the force
in direction
then by the parallelogram of
may
A B.
Let
and magnitude,
forces, this single force
be resolved into two component forces
KE
and
E, which are respectively parallel and normal to the

surface of contact
A B,
so that
KE
amount of the force F producing a sliding

the two bodies, and
is
represents the
stress
between
the amount of the force
F which
pressing the two bodies together.
Any
tendency to
E 2
RETAINING WALLS.
52
sliding
is,
however, resisted by the force of friction acting
between the two

that
if
solids at their surfaces of contact, so
the Motional force
is sufficiently great,
no sliding
motion will occur.
J)

FAILURE BY SLIDING.
53
between the two blocks at the bed-joint
force
AB
proportional to the total normal pressure acting
them.
This consists of the weight
ABCD
is
upon
of the block
acting vertically downwards, and normal to
the horizontal bed-joint, together with the force
E,
which represents the component normal pressure exerted
by the external
force
F upon
the bed-joint.
Further, the force of friction varies according to the
nature of the materials, and the condition of the surfaces

in contact,
and
is
quite independent of the area of the
surfaces themselves.
between two
is less
than
solids
if
It
is
evident that the friction
having polished surfaces of contact
the surfaces are rough.
between two surfaces
friction
is
normal pressure, and varies according

the surfaces themselves, the
As
the force of
proportional to the
amount
to the nature of
of friction
may
conveniently calculated by the following equation
be
where
Fn =
fi
force of friction.
nature of surfaces in contact
coefficient
of friction.
N=
total
normal pressure.
A series of values for
//.
(called coefficients of friction)
for surfaces of different materials
under various conditions,
has been determined from the results of actual experi-
ments.
The coefficient of friction is invariably expressed

maximum angle which the contact
in terms of the
RETAINING WALLS.
54
surfaces
make with
sliding taking place
horizontal,
the
between them.
without
This angle is
actual
known
as the " angle of repose " or " limiting angle of resist-
Fig. 48.
ance
"
between the specific materials under consideration.
In Fig. 48 the surface

contact, is
AB
between the two bodies in
shown as being inclined
at
such an angle that
FAILURE BY SLIDING.
the block
ABCD
surface.
The angle
repose
(<),
pressure
and
just about to slide
BAE
GH
represent the resultant weight or
A B C D,
of the block
Draw
direction.
HK
complete the parallelogram

sents the
normal pressure
A B, whilst J H
plane
both in magnitude
the force of friction
component
take place.
= BAE =
KHGJ.
1ST
K H repre-
Then
acting upon the inclined
It is obvious that
F must be exactly equal and opposite

TC
force
J H, when
sliding
about to
is
Fn =
HJ=KH tan
En
<f>
= N=N
fi
the coefficient of friction
fore
KHG
shown that the angle
so that the force of friction
~F
fju
tan
can be
readily expressed in terms of the angle of repose
As
and
gives the corresponding value for
It can be
<j),
A B,
perpendicular to
the force tending to produce sliding.
to the
down the sloping
therefore the angle of
is
or limiting angle of resistance for the bodies in
Let
contact.
is
55
(<f>),
= N
tan
<f>.
words, the value of the coefficient of friction
<j>,
for
tan
<f>.
there-
In other
is
ex-
pressed in terms of the ratio existing between the height
and base of the angle of repose.
The following table (page 56) gives the angle of

repose, the coefficient of friction
the reciprocal to tan
<j>
the results of experiments
When
sliding
of a structure,
resultant
it
is
(//,
= tan <), together with
Y and
is
based chiefly on
made by General Morin.
about to take place at any bed-joint
can be shown that the angle which the
of all the forces acting
upon the bed-joint
56
RETAINING WALLS.
Table of Angle of Repose
foe,
Materials.
FAILURE BY SLIDING.
57
makes with the normal
to the joint is equal to the angle
may
be illustrated, as in Fig. 49,
of repose.
where
This
EHJK represents a diagram of the forces F and
W acting upon the block ABCD, and E J the resultant

D
RETAINING WALLS.
53
fore necessary that the resultant pressure at each bed-
joint shall not
make with
the normal (or the perpen-
dicular to the bed-joint) a greater angle than the angle

of repose for the material.
As, however, no bed-joint
Fig. 50.
in
any retaining wall should be subject
limit, it is necessary to provide
For ordinary purposes, it

so that the angle
is
to this
some margin
extreme
for safety.
usual to design the structure
between the resultant pressure and
FAILURE BY SLIDING.
59
the normal at each bed-joint shall not exceed ^ the
angle of repose,
exceed '8 tan
or,
in other words, the angle shall not
brickwork or masonry with damp mortar at
maximum
the
-8 tan 36
angle for stability of friction
for
new
36,
then
Taking the angle of repose
</>.
'8
'726
*580
tan 30
In the case of a retaining wall which

be so designed that stability of friction
is
is
8 tan
<f>
30.
found
to
not obtained
at the bed-joints, but which fulfils all the other conditions of stability as regards resistance to overturning
and crushing, the necessary
stability of friction
may
be obtained by designing the wall with sloping bedjoints.
same
The
that
Fig. 50
shows the block
ABCD drawn
to the
scale as in Fig. 49, but with a sloping bed-joint.
result obtained
the angle
by
MSE
this
is
form of construction shows

considerably less
corresponding angle indicated in Fig. 49.
than the
RETAINING WALLS.
6o
CHAPTER
III.
THEOEY OF EARTH PRESSURE.
CENTRE OF PRESSURE
FOR. RETAINED EARTH.
Theory of Earth Pressure

The general conditions of stability
for earth particles Wedge theory of earth pressure Maximum
:
thrust for a bank of earth behind a retaining wall Plane of

rupture for retained earth Determination of earth pressure on
a retaining wall.
Centre of Pressure for Retained Earth

tion of earth pressure upon a retaining
Graphic representa Centre of earth
wall
Walls with offsets at back

Battering retaining walls.
pressure for vertical retaining walls
and surcharged earth
Theory of Earth Pressure.

In
all investigations
of earth on walls,
concerning the pressure or thrust
etc. it is
usual to consider the stability
of the earth particles as being entirely dependent on the

frictional force existing
amount
between them, although a certain
of adhesive force is also present.
The
intensity
of adhesion occurring between the different particles of
a mass of earth usually varies so considerably from time

to time (according to the
amount
of moisture present,
and other constantly changing influences) that no
reli-
able or practical data can be obtained in connection
with such an extremely variable

it
is
desirable that
factor.
any adhesive
force
For
this reason
which may be
THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE.
6l
present between the particles of earth should not be
taken into consideration, but looked upon as providing
some
margin of safety as regards the
slight additional
general stability of the mass.

It has already
been shown that the force of
between any two bodies
is
normal pressure, and varies according
total
friction
directly proportional to the

to the nature
of the materials, so that
Force of friction
= /iN = N tan
<f>
= P
sin
<.
Where
fjb
coefficient of friction
= tangent of angle of
repose.
N=
total
P =
The
total pressure of the earth
therefore dependent to
slope of the
What
pressure
who
between the
is
surfaces.
angle of repose for the materials.
<j>
is
normal pressure.
total pressure
upon a retaining wall
some extent on the natural
soil.
is
known
as the
"wedge theory"
of earth
based chiefly on the researches of M. Prony,
ascertained that the
maximum
earth behind a retaining wall
is
bank
thrust of a
reached
when
the plane
of fracture of the sustained earth bisects the angle
the natural slope of the earth
makes with the
Fig. 51 is the section of a retaining wall,
angle
DBC
of
which
vertical.
where the
represents the angle of repose, or natural
slope of the earth
embankment, and the
line
BE
bisects
RETAINING WALLS.
62
the angle
CB
A formed
between the natural slope and
the vertical.
At one time
it
was considered that the plane of rup-
ture for earth supported
assumed
earth,
by a retaining wall might be
as coinciding with the natural slope of the
but
it
has
now been
established
by numerous
Fig. 51.
experiments that on the failure of a retaining wall by

overturning, a wedge-shaped mass of earth
is at
the same
time detached, and moves forward along a line of

ruption about
midway between
natural slope and the vertical.
dis-
the angle formed by the
The actual
line of rup-
ture usually forms a slight curve, as roughly indicated
by the dotted
line in Fig. 52, but its
form and position
THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE.

is
63
some extent modified by the adhesive power

The
particles and other local causes.
also to
of the earth
nearest approximation which can be given for general

application to retaining walls supporting a
bank of earth
by considering the plane of

bisecting the angle between the vertical and
with level top, is obtained

rupture as
D
Fig. 52.
the angle of repose for the earth.
BE
In
Fig.
51 the line
indicates the plane of rupture.
The immediate disruptive

earth, caused
effect
upon a bank of
by the overturning of the retaining wall
does not therefore extend beyond the plane of rupture,
and
this
detached mass of earth represents the amount
of earth pressure directly borne
by the
wall.
Portions

RETAINING WALLS.
64
of the standing earth are, however, detached from time
weather and other external
to time, the action of the
influences gradually overcoming the adhesive force of
the earth particles, so that the ultimate slope of the soil
conforms to the angle of repose for that material.
finally
To ascertain the
upon a retaining
produced by a bank of earth
effect
wall, it
following particulars,
viz.
1.
The centre
2.
The magnitude
is
necessary to determine the
of pressure of the retained earth.

of the total pressure produced
by
the bank of earth.

3.
The
direction of the pressure or thrust of the
retained earth.
When
these three important factors are known, the
total value of the overturning force of a
mass of retained
earth exerted upon any given bed-joint of the retaining
wall can then be readily computed.
Centre of Pressure for Ketained Earth.
vertical wall supporting a
horizontal top
is
bank
of earth with
indicated in Fig. 53, the angle
being the angle of repose
((/>).
It
DBH
has been found that
for all practical purposes the plane of rupture bisects
the angle
made by the
vertical plane
AB
and the angle
of repose, so that the mass of earth pressing upon the
back of the wall

portion
AE
B.
homogeneous
is
represented by the wedge-shaped
It is generally assumed, for ordinary
earths, that the earth pressure
uniformly
CENTRE OF EARTH PRESSURE.

increases with its depth, in a similar
water pressure.
wall
is
A F B,
65
manner
to that of
The pressure upon the back
therefore represented graphically
of the
by the diagram
the intensity of horizontal pressure at any point
being indicated by the length of the ordinate at that

point, whilst the area of the pressure
equivalent to the total pressure
diagram
AFB
on the wall.
resultant horizontal pressure of earth
may
is
The
consequently
be represented by a single horizontal force P, acting at

a height of
AB
the vertical plane
above the base
A B at the
B M, and
point C, which
of pressure for the retained earth.
Fig.
54
intersecting
is
is
the centre
the section
F
RETAINING WALLS.
66
of a vertical retaining wall with surcharged earth, and,

as in the preceding instance, the centre of pressure for
the horizontal thrust of the retained earth at the back

of the wall occurs at a distance of
vertical plane
A B,
above the base
For a wall having
offsets
^ the height of the
B K.
at back,
and retaining
surcharged earth, as in Fig. 55, the portion of earth
Fig. 55.
Fig. 54.
AB D
in front of the vertical plane
exert no thrust upon the
AB
is
assumed
wall, its weight being
pounded with the weight of the wall
D B K F,
to
com-
so as to
obtain the resultant weight or pressure of the wall and

earth, which, resting
the
common
on the base
B K, and
acting through
centre of gravity, tends to resist the over-
turning action of the retained earth behind the vertical
CENTRE OF EARTH PRESSURE.

plane
is
A B.
The centre
of pressure of the retained earth
at the point C, at a height of J

Fig.
67
A B.
56 shows a battering retaining wall of uniform
thickness, having a portion of the wall
beyond the vertical plane
C = ÂB.
masonry
If the
AD B
A B.
A B D projecting
The centre
wedge of brickwork,
had been
earth, it
of pressure
concrete, or
would have been
supported by the earth immediately below
it.
The
Fig. 56.
excess of weight of the portion of the wall A

a similar bulk of earth
is
with the weight of the wall
wall
over
consequently compounded
ABKF,
the total weight resting on the base
weight acts through the
DB
common
so as to obtain
K.
This total
centre of gravity of the
ABKF, and the excess weight of the wedge-shaped
portion of wall
A B D.
The excess weight
of the por-
f 2
RETAINING WALLS.
6$
tion
as
A B D consists
of the extra weight of the
compared with the same bulk
of earth.
weight of the wall acting upon the base

position of
its
determined.
masonry
The
B K,
total
and the
centre of gravity, can therefore be readily
69
CHAPTER
IV.
MAGNITUDE OF PRESSURE OF RETAINED EARTH. DIRECTION

OF THRUST OF RETAINED EARTH.
Equation
Similar equation
Magnitude of Pressure op Retained Earth

calculating the total pressure of earth
for
for
water pressures Rankine's formulae Calculating earth pressure with definite surcharge Graphic method for ascertaining
the total earth pressure.
Direction of
Earth Poncelet and

Rankine's theory Scheffler's theoryCom-
Thrust of Retained
Moseley's theory
parative results.
Magnitude of Pressure of Eetained Earth.
As
already mentioned, the total earth pressure at the
back of a retaining wall consists of the weight of earth

contained between the plane of rupture and the vertical
plane at the back of the wall.
Tig.
57
is
a section
through a retaining wall supporting a bank of earth

without surcharge, the angle
of repose.
The angle
AB H
DBH
is
(<)
being the angle
bisected in
B E,
which
By
the wedge theory of earth
pressure, the portion of earth
A B E is directly supported
the plane of rupture.
is
by the wall, the resultant pressure acting

of
^-
A B, the point
K represent
C being
at a height
the centre of pressure.
the weight of the wedge of earth
Let
ABE
RETAINING WALLS.
;o
for a unit foot in length, acting through its centre of
gravity and intersecting the plane of rupture at K.
Draw
KN
MKN
perpendicular to
HBD
(/>.
B E,
and make the angle
Then the horizontal
line
JS
/'l
Fig. 57.
represents the total normal pressure against the vertical
plane
A B,
to slide
of the earth
down
wedge
ABE,
the plane of rupture
which
B E,
is
tending
and acting
at
the centre of pressure C.

It
JKS.
can
be shown that
the angle
ABE=
angle
MAGNITUDE OF EARTH PRESSURE.
Let
angle A B E = angle J KS.

w = weight of earth per foot cube.
h = AB.
Then the
K =
But J
total
weight of the prism
unit foot in length
= %wh
tan
pressure J
S,
JS = JK tan x.
of earth A B E for a
earth pressure
=w
\w~kxli tan x
Therefore the total horizontal earth
x.
acting at the centre of pressure C,
upon
the vertical plane at the back of the retaining wall

as follows
is
Total horizontal earth pressure
=
=
2
2
\ %v h tan x
i^
tan 2 i(90
<j>).
It is interesting to note that the foregoing
expresses exactly the
the
maximum
earth,
same equation
formula
as that for finding
pressure or thrust of water, instead of
under the same conditions.
Let
D=
The
weight of water in
depth of water in
total pressure of
lb.
per foot cube.
feet.
water acting on the vertical
face of a retaining wall per foot in length is represented
by the contents
of a right angle triangle, having a height
and base
same length
of the
and one foot thick, so that
as the depth of the water
RETAINING WALLS.
72
Total hydrostatic pressure
= D x
= wD
On
x w
comparing the two equations,
it
will be seen
that in the case of water the element of friction

absent, so that
<f>
0,
is
and the first-mentioned equation
then becomes
total pressure
= \w
but tan 45
tan 2 J 90
1
therefore
total pressure
= ^w h
=
^D
It should also be observed that the
amount
of pres-
sure or thrust upon a wall supporting dry earth without
surcharge varies according to the angle of repose of the

retained earth, and the weight per cubic unit of the
earth.
When
a wall
then additional pressure
supports
is
surcharged
bank,
brought upon the wall in
consequence of the extra weight of
the surcharged
earth.
According to the wedge theory, the
total value of
the horizontal pressure of retained earth upon a vertical
plane (as in Fig. 58) under ordinary conditions
may

also be ascertained
ment
from the following general
state-
=
This
2 {
B C - a/BOTB O'ÂH)
formula expresses the relationship between
the horizontal thrust upon the vertical plane and the
perpendiculars to the angle of repose, the latter being
drawn respectively from the extremities of the
vertical
plane to the plane of the surface slope.
The general construction
is
shown in
Fig. 58,
BC
RETAINING WALLS.
74
The foregoing expression is applicable not only

banks of retained earth with horizontal top, as
to
in
Fig. 58, but also to all ordinary conditions of indefinite
surcharge, as indicated in Fig. 59,
and will be found
of
very great assistance when computing the value of earth

pressures by
means
of the graphic method.
Fig. 59
The
total horizontal pressure of earth
plane at the back of a retaining wall
without surcharge
may
The equation
a vertical
or
also be convenientlyascertained
from the equations formulated by the

Eankine.
upon
either with
for earth
late Professor
without surcharge
is
expressed in terms of the angle of repose, whilst for earth
with surcharge the equation

of repose
is
given in terms of the angle
and of the angle made by the surface
slope.

75
Let
P =
total horizontal earth pressure in lb.
w =
weight of earth per foot cube in
H =
height of vertical plane at back of wall in
lb.
feet.
=
=
<f>
angle of repose of earth.

angle of slope of surcharge with the horizontal plane.
The following expression
given by Eankine for
is
ascertaining the total horizontal pressure of earth for a
wall without surcharge, the top of the earth being level
with the top of the wall.
p _
This equation
is
wW
merely another form of expressing
the same result as already obtained,
P =
sin<ft
tan 2 4 (90
viz.
</>)
For calculating the stability of walls, either form of

equation
may
be adopted, as
may
be found most conve-
nient for the purpose.
When
a retaining wall sustains a bank of earth,
having an indefinite surcharge,
the
pressure
of the
surcharged earth must be taken into consideration, and

the equation then becomes
/r( ,
(B)
w H2
B.= -g-cos*a
-d
cos
x/cos 2 6
cQsg
j^
2
cos "^
_- og2 -.
RETAINING WALLS.
76
When
the surcharge slopes at the same angle as the
angle of repose for earth, then
named equation may be expressed

simplified form
<f>.
in
and the
the following
r =
cos
(/>.
In the case of a retaining wall having a "

surcharge
i.e.
last-
supporting
horizontal top, as in Fig. 60
surcharged
the
definite
"
bank with
total earth pressure
-y
nr
Fig. 60.
to be sustained is intermediate in
caused by a bank with

bank with "indefinite"
level top,
amount between that

and that given by a
surcharge.
The thickness of
wall required to support a bank having a definite height

of surcharge
may
77
be approximately determined by ascer-
taining the respective thicknesses necessary for a wall
without surcharge, and also with indefinite surcharge,
means
afterwards interpolating between the two by
Kankine's formula
of
hi!
+ s t"
+ 2s
where
thickness
of wall
feet,
necessary to
support a bank of earth
with definite
in
surcharge.
thickness
of wall
in
feet,
necessary to
support a bank of earth without surcharge.
thickness
of wall
in
feet,
necessary to
support a bank of earth with indefinite

surcharge.
h
s
It has
=
=
height of wall in
feet.
height of definite surcharge in
feet.
been previously mentioned that the
common
formula for ascertaining the total horizontal pressure of

earth P, acting on a vertical plane at the
retaining wall (Fig. 58),
P
By
=| JBC
is
as follows
back of a
- x/ BC(BC - AH)}'.
the application of this general geometrical con-
struction, the
amount
retaining wall
may
of earth pressure acting
on any
be readily found by the graphic
method, as indicated in the following typical examples.
RETAINING WALLS.
73
ABES
Let
(Fig. 61) represent to
any desired
scale
the section of a retaining wall without surcharge, of
which
Let
AB
KBE
is
the vertical plane at the back of the wall.
represent the angle of repose
(</>)
for earth.
V
p\
Fig. 61.
At A draw A H perpendicular to B E, and at B draw

B C perpendicular to B E. meeting the plane of the surThe angle A B C = angle K B E =
face slope at C.
<f>.
Make C D = C A, and draw

Then
it
AJ
perpendicular to
can be shown that
For
CJ =
CD =
=
=
cd =
2
BC
CA
AH
BC x CJ
B C (B C - A H)
Vb c~(b c
-^Th)
w
= ^-BD
B C.
79
BD =BC- CD
BD
= B C - VBC(BC-AH)
= (BC- VBC(BC - AH)}
P =
to
2JBC-VBC(BC-AH)
{
*B
2
.
Fig. 62.
When
the wall sustains a bank of earth with indefi-
nite surcharge, but sloping at an angle 8
than the angle of repose
(</>)
which
is
less
of the sustained earth, the
total horizontal pressure is ascertained graphically as
shown in
Fig. 62, the construction being a modification
of the preceding method.
The surface slope is continued
RETAINING WALLS.
So
to
so as to intersect the line
B E.
angles to
With B C
at right
as diameter, construct the
BMC, and from A

Make C D = C M.
semicircle
B E.
B C drawn
draw
AM
parallel to
Then, as in the preceding case,
B C - n/B C
= - BD
(B C
- A H)
2
.
a<
-k
Fig. 63.
If the slope of the surcharged earth is the
same
as
the angle of repose for earth, as indicated in Fig. 63,
then 8
<f>,
and the points C and
of the preceding

figures coincide with each other,
remains as follows
and the equation
=|{bC
BD
= 10
2
.
C
/
\
^
I
i
i
VBC(BC -AH)}
81
still
RETAINING WALLS.
82
It will be observed that the last three
examples of
graphic construction indicate the total horizontal earth

pressure on a vertical plane with " indefinite " surcharge.
The thickness of wall required

" definite " surcharge
may be
for supporting earth
with
ascertained by determining
the necessary thickness for a wall without surcharge,
and with
" indefinite "
surcharge respectively, and after-
wards interpolating between the results thus obtained,

according to the height of the surcharge under consideration; or the approximate thickness
means
of Eankine's formula
-=
may
It -j-
explained.
be found by
Zi
as already
(See p. 77.)
Direction of Thrust of Retained Earth.
With
regard to the direction in which the thrust or
pressure of the earth
is
considered to act, several theories
have been formulated from time
to
time, the
more
important of which were suggested by Poncelet, Moseley,
Rankine, and
Scheffler.
The
principal points under-
lying the theories as enunciated by these well
known
scientists are here briefly indicated.

7
Poncelet' s
During
-the-
and Moseley s Theory.
investigations
which were made by
Poncelet and Moseley, the direction of the earth thrust

against a vertical wall or plane was assumed to be
always horizontal, the frictional resistance of the earth
DIRECTION OF EARTH THRUST.

particles
being omitted
33
from consideration.
Whilst
assumption would be true under such circumstances
this
for substances
yet
having no friction
for earths
such as
liquids, etc.
and other similar materials,
in practice that the direction of the thrust
it is
is
found
consider-
ably modified by the friction of the earth particles.
Rankings Theory.
According
may
its
to
Kankine, the pressure of retained earth
be considered as acting in a direction parallel
surface slope.
On
this hypothesis, for a
earth with horizontal top, the direction of the thrust

at the
to
bank of
back of a retaining wall would be horizontal, as
indicated in Fig. 65, whilst in all other cases of sloping
RETAINING WALLS.
84
away from the wall, the back of the wall is subjected to

an upward thrust, but it is obvious that such a result
F
Fig. 67.
Fig. 66.
does not represent the conditions which actually exist
under these circumstances.
Scheffler's
The researches
Theory.
of Dr. Schefner tend to
show
that
the direction of the thrust of a bank of retained earth

is
parallel
to its
angle of repose in all cases, and although
this theory is not yet conclusively proved, yet it is
generally accepted.
The value
the back of a retaining wall
of the earth thrust
is
now
T at
therefore obtained
multiplying the total horizontal earth pressure

secant of the angle of repose, so that
T = P
by
P by the
sec
<.
It
has been found from numerous experiments that the

results obtained
by the adoption of
this theory in the
DIRECTION OF EARTH THRUST.
85
calculation of the stability of retaining walls
may
be
depended upon as providing the necessary element of

safety in actual practice.
Comparative Results.
A comparison
of the direction of earth pressures as
given by Eankine and SchefHer respectively

2>
is
given in
86
RETAINING WALLS.
Figs. 68, 69,
and
70,
where T 1
given by Eankine, and
observed that
when
direction of thrust as
that of Scheffler.
It will be
the slope of the surcharge
is
the
Fig. 70.
same
as the angle of repose for the earth
(<),
Fig. 70, then the direction of 'the thrust is the
both cases.
as in
same in
87
CHAPTER
V.
THEORY OF WATER PRESSURE.
THEORY OF WIND
PRESSURE.
Incompressibility of waterProEquation for stabilityDirection of water

pressure on inclined surfaces Memoranda.
Theory of Wind Pressure Velocity and pressure of wind
Description of winds Table of varying velocities at different
levels Diagram of wind pressure General formula Wind
pressure on inclined surfaces Ratio of pressure on different
Theory of Water Pressure
perties of water
forms
of
chimney
shafts.
Theory of Water Pressure.
Water,
like other liquids, is almost incompressible, so
that the
volume
cally constant
of a given
under
mass of water remains
all variations of pressure.
therefore, for all ordinary purposes, be
body
of water, whatever its depth,
is
1.
its
The pressure
of water
is
may,
assumed that a
of the
same density
throughout, whilst the pressure exerted by

to the following general conditions
practi-
It
it is
subject
directly proportional to
depth.
2.
The pressure
3.
The pressure of water is normal (or perpendicular),
is
to the surface against
exactly the same in all directions.
which
it
presses.
RETAINING WALLS.
88
Let
ABEF
(Kg. 71) represent the section of a
vertical retaining wall for a water tank.
It is
usual to
take a portion of the wall, 1 foot in length, as a convenient unit for purposes of calculations as to stability,
pressure, etc.
Let
w=
D
As
weight of water in pounds per foot cube.

depth of water in
feet.
the hydrostatic pressure
to its depth
is
directly proportional
from the surface of the water, therefore the
wall = w D.
The
for 1 foot in length of the
total pressure of water acting
on
this
Fig. 71.
unit length of wall
is
represented by the contents of
the right angle triangle
K J B,
having a height and
base of the same length as the depth of the water, and

1 foot thick, or

THEORY OF WATER PRESSURE.
KB
Total hydrostatic pressure on
89
per foot in length
w D2
The resultant
of the total water pressure (P)
may be
represented as in Fig. 71 by a single force acting at right

angles (or normally) to
centre of gravity
(G-)
K B,
and passing through the
of the pressure diagram
K J B.
In other words, the resultant water pressure (P)
is
equivalent to a single force acting horizontally at a

distance of one-third the depth of the water from the
bottom of the tank, and the point C

pressure.
is
the centre of
The moment of pressure for the
force of water
tending to overturn the retaining wall at

therefore as follows
Moment
of water pressure
When
it is
sure
base
is
same construction
-=
'
the face of the retaining wall
in Fig. 72, the
its
is
battered, as
still applies,
provided
borne in mind that the direction of the water presis
normal
to the surface against
and the intensity
is
which
it
presses,
directly proportional to its depth.
Let
6
angle of inclination of the wetted face of

the wall.
RETAINING WALLS.
go
In such
cases
modified, thus
the
become
equations
foregoing
Intensity of pressure at
Total pressure on
B = wD
K B s=~K B
-^
X w
= D
cosec
w D2
D
~~
v:<
cosec
Fig. 72.
Moment
of pressure at base of wall

w'n D' cosec
w D"2 cosec
f;
w D3
cosec 2
0KB
X
7Z
D cosec
WATER MEMORANDA.
The resultant pressure P
Fig. 72, acting in a direction
wall
A B, at
a distance of
is
91
shown graphically
normal
in
to the face of the
|KB from the bottom of the
tank.
Water Memoranda,
1 gallon of
cubic
water
foot
of
10
of
'16
cubic
feet
gallons
(approximately)
water
1 cubic yard
lb.
277-j cubic inches.
62i lb. = 1000 oz.

'557 cwt. = '028 ton.
168i gallons
75 ton.
water
1682^
lb.
1 lb. of water
cubic inches =-016

cubic feet = 1 or T^ gallon.
27-73
1 ton of water
column
224 gallons = 35 9 cubic

= 1*33 cubic yard.
*
of water 2 '307 feet high
feet
pressure of
1 lb. per square inch at base.
Pressure of water in
by 2 "31
Head
lb.
head of water in
per square inch multiplied

feet.
of water in feet multiplied
by 433
pressure
of water in lb. per square inch.
Theory of Wind Pressure.

The
force of the
ing wall
is
wind acting upon an ordinary retain-
usually so small in comparison with the

RETAINING WALLS.
92
other external pressures which the wall
is
designed to
withstand, and the general mass of the structure

that
tion
it is
but for boundary walls, chimney stacks,
itself,
not necessary to take this factor into considera-
pressure of the wind
is
etc.,
the
the most important force to which
they will be subject.

It has
been ascertained that the pressure of the wind
varies according to its velocity,

slight extent
given time.
upon the weight
and
also depends to a
of the atmosphere at
For practical purposes, the
between the velocity and pressure of winds
by the equation
any
ratio existing
is
expressed
V =
2
200
or
200
where
P =
pressure of wind in pounds per square foot
V =
velocity of
against a surface normal to the wind.
The
results given
wind
in miles per hour.
by the foregoing formula
are suffi-
ciently accurate for ordinary use, although the value of
varies according to the meteorological conditions, or
weight of the atmosphere at the time the force of the
wind
is
being exerted.
table shows the average velocity
The following
pressure of winds
and
THEORY OF "WIND PRESSURE.

Velocity and Force of Winds.
Description of Wind.
93

RETAINING WALLS.
94
meteorological conditions.
wind
is
greatly reduced
by
Also the velocity of the

friction against the earth's
surface, so that for a height of 10 or 15 feet the force
of the
wind
is
relatively small, as
compared with that
experienced at greater heights at the same time.
Some
empirical formulae have been constructed for the purpose

of ascertaining the velocity of the
wind
at
any
height,
from the known velocity at a given height, thus making

.allowance for the retardation due to ground friction, but
such rules only provide more or less approximate values.
The following
table indicates approximately the differ-
ences which occur in the velocity of a wind blowing

freely in
an open space at varying heights above the
earth's surface, viz.
Approximate Velocity of the Wind in Miles per Hour at

Varying Heights above the Ground.
ft. above
ground.
THEORY OF WIND PRESSURE.

direction,
and with an equal
95
force at all heights above
the ground.
Fig.
ABDE
73 shows the section of a wall, the portion
The uniform
being above the ground level.
pressure of the
wind against the
side of the wall is
represented graphically by the pressure diagram
AFHB
/?
~~~\
-i
-H
B=_~\H
Fig. 73.
and the intensity of pressure at any height
by the ordinate drawn

pressure
is
at that level.
indicated
the wind
considered to be uniform and horizontal
throughout, the resultant pressure

tally
is
As
will pass horizon-
through the centre of gravity of the pressure
diagram
AFHB,
acting on the wall at the point C, at

RETAINING WALLS.
96
a height of one half
A B.
The point C
the centre of
wind acting on the wall
pressure for the force of the

surface
is
A B.
The equation for simple stability

subject to wind pressure is as follows
for vertical walls
where
P =
total
wind pressure
(or height of wall 1 foot
by pressure
in length multiplied
of
wind
in lb. per foot super.).
W=
total
weight of wall (or weight of wall per
foot
cube multiplied by
its
height and
thickness).
h
t
=
=
height of wall.
thickness of wall.
The action of the wind on inclined

sloping roofs, walls with battered faces,
surfaces such as
etc.
has not yet
been accurately determined, but according to Hutton's

experiments, the horizontal, normal, and vertical wind
pressures (see Fig. 74)
by
may be approximately ascertained
the following formulae
Vh = P(sini)
84008
Vn = P(sini) 1,84008 *'- 1

Tv
= P
cot
(sini) 1
84008

THEORY OF WIND PRESSURE.
97
where
P =
intensity of horizontal
wind pressure in
lb.
per square foot against a surface perpendicular to its direction.

i\
Vh =
angle of inclined surface.

intensity of
wind pressure horizontal
to the
inclined surface.
Tn =
intensity of
normal
Vv
wind pressure perpendicular
or
to the inclined surface.
intensity of
wind pressure
vertical to the
inclined surface.
Fig. 74.
P at 1 lb. per square foot,

Vn and Fv are as follows for
Taking the unit value of

the relative values of P/t,
the angles mentioned
98
Inclination of Surface.
RETAINING WALLS.
99
CHAPTEE
VI.

Arched Betaining Walls
Vaulted retaining walls Method of

determining their stability Horizontal arched retaining walls
Bankine's formula Horizontal arched retaining walls with
battered face.
Aeched Eetaining Walls.

Large masses
of earth are sometimes retained
of a light face wall having a series of piers
arches at the back, as indicated in Fig. 75.
may
by means
and counter
The arches
be arranged in one or more tiers to suit the partic-
ular circumstances
their respective heights
and lengths
being dependent upon the angle of repose for the retained

earth.
The principal point
to
be observed in the general
arrangement of vaulted retaining walls
is
to ensure that
the length of the arches from the face wall shall be

sufficient to prevent the pressure of earth
any thrust upon the

earth
is
face wall,
when
from exercising
the surface of the
finished at its natural slope.
Eetaining walls of this description were at one time

largely used in military engineering, in connection with
heavy
fortification
and defence works, but they are now
h 2
RETAINING WALLS.
100
seldom met with.
The
stability of a vaulted retaining
wall, Fig. 75, at its base
may
C,
total weight of
the rectangle
A BCD acting
centre of gravity
as
be determined by
masonry and earth within
computing the
through the
common
compared with the thrust of the
earth at the back of the vertical plane
A B,
and pro-
//s
Fig. 75.
ceeding generally as in the case of any ordinary solid

retaining wall, so as to find the position and value of
the resultant pressure on the base
C.
Another form of arched retaining wall consists of a

series
of buttresses with horizontal arches turned be-
tween them,
as
elevation of the
shown on plan
same wall
is
in Fig. 76.
shown in
A sectional
Fig. 77.

v'//:.
U
t
\ ;r
'//,'
Pig. 77.
Section.
101
RETAINING WALLS.
102
Horizontal arched retaining walls with buttresses

are well adapted to resist great pressures, and this type
of wall has been largely used in railway engineering
To
works.
ascertain the thickness of buttress required
upon each bay
to sustain the pressure of earth bearing
or division of the retaining wall, the following formula

is
given by Rankine,
viz.
where
D =
depth (on plan) of buttress required.
b =
L=
length of earth bank which one
breadth (on plan) of buttress required.
bay or
buttress has to sustain.

t
the computed thickness of vertical retain-
ing wall (this thickness being considered

as
uniform
throughout,
as
which would be required

similar
bank
in
to sustain
1)
of earth.
"When the depth (on plan)
of the buttress
or fixed, the breadth of the buttress
is
is
known
found from the
following adaptation of the foregoing formula,
viz.
Lt 2
Fig.
In some cases the horizontal arches are built with

a battered face, so as to obtain a more effective disposition of the wall materials.
A very good
example
of a
buttressed horizontal arch with battered face has been
103
constructed in connection with the approaches to the
Midland railway station
When
inverted
at Leicester.
soft or treacherous clay soils are
arches
are
frequently
footings of the buttresses, so as
turned
to
met
with,
between
the
produce a more
uniform distribution of pressure over the whole area.

RETAINING WALLS.
104
CHAPTER
THE BEARING POWER OF
SOILS.
VII.
STRENGTH AND WEIGHT
OF BUILDING MATERIALS, ETC.
The Bearing Powee of
Soils
Nature of ground necessary to
Buildings erected on made ground
Artificial foundations
Safe loads for different descriptions
of earth
Supporting power of London clay Safe bearing loads
allowed by the New York building laws.
Table of crushing
Strength op Building Materials, etc.
strength of building materials Strength of brickwork, masonry,
and concrete Crushing strength of mortars Safe bearing
Adhesive
loads for walls
Tensile strength of mortars
:
provide a good foundation
strength of mortars.
Average weight of earths Cements

Bricks Building stones Brickwork Masonry
Weight oe Materials
Limes
Concrete.
The Bearing Power of
The weight-bearing
capacity
Soils.
of different soils varies
considerably, according to the nature of the ground.
Hard rock
naturally provides the best possible founda-
tion for supporting heavy concentrated loads, but for
ordinary structures coarse gravel or compact sand
good firm foundation

ing a
stiff
for building purposes.
dense nature, and which
is
is
Clay possess-
not subject to any
variation or excess of moisture, also gives satisfactory

results
but
soft
carrying medium.
wet clay
is
unreliable as a weight-

BEARING POWER OF
When
SOILS.
buildings are erected on
105
made ground, they

down to the solid
should have their foundations carried
ground below.
practically
no
Alluvial
soils,
quicksands,
safe weight-sustaining
etc.
have
powers, and in
such cases the foundations require special treatment,

piles being usually driven for the
purpose of providing
the additional support required.
The following table shows the average
safe loads
which can be carried by various descriptions of ground

Average Safe Loads for Earths,
etc.

RETAINING WALLS.
106
ascertained from actual experiment that 6J tons per

foot super,
ported by
super,
was the maximum load which could be sup-
London
was assumed
carried
and a load of 4 tons per
clay,
to be the
by the foundations
maximum
of
?>
foot
safe load to be
The foundation
of the piers.
Tower
load of the famous Eiffel
maximum
was limited
at Paris
to
tons per foot super.
In the United States considerable attention has been

given to the supporting capacity of different
to the
owing
heavy concentrated loads which are carried by
The Manhattan Insurance building
tall city buildings.
of
soils,
New York
is
20
street level to roof,
360 feet from
stories in height, or
and
it is
estimated that the actual
load on the brick foundations of this building exceeds
12 tons per foot super.
The building laws
New York
of
stipulate that the safe bearing capacity of different soils
may
be taken as follows
New Yoek
Building Laws.
Soft clay
.......
Average Safe Bearing Load Allowed.
Ordinary clay and sand together, in layers

Loam, clay, or fine sand, firm and dry
Very firm, coarse sand, stiff gravel, or hard clay.
When
Per ft. super.

Tons.
3
4
a doubt arises as to the safe sustaining power
of the earth
upon which a structure
the Department of Buildings
may
filed for reference in the
to be erected,
order borings to be
made, and the sustaining power of the

expense of the owner.
is
soil tested at
the
made
are
All records of tests
Department
of Buildings.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS.
Strength of Building Materials,
107
etc.
Numerous experiments have been made from time

to time to ascertain the actual
compressive strength of
The average
ordinary building materials.
results ob-
tained by crushing bricks, small cubes of stone, concrete,

etc. are
here given.
It will
mate crushing strength
be observed that the
ulti-
of bricks, building stones, etc.
varies considerably according to their quality or description.
For convenience of reference and comparison,
the average crushing strengths are given in tons per

foot super,
and
also in lb. per square inch.
Average Crushing Strength of Bricks, Building

Stones. Concrete, etc.
Bricks
Per
London
stocks (yellow)
Peterborough
common
(red)
White gault, wire cut

Ruabon, pressed (red)
Staffordshire blue,
common
best
Glazed bricks
Terra-cotta
Limestones
...
Ancaster
Bath
Bolsover
Chilmark
Ham-hill
Ketton
Portland
....
.
ft.
super.
RETAINING WALLS.
I08
Average Crushing Strength op Materials
Sandstones
Per
Craigleith
Darley-Dale
Mansfield
.
York
Granites
..
.
..
.
ft.
super.
Cornish
Devonshire
Guernsey
Irish
...
sq. in.
Lb.
500
450
350
500
7,700
7 000
5,400
7,700
G50
.
Per
Tons.
Aberdeen
contd.
The following table
IO9
shows the average crushing
strength of brickwork, masonry, or concrete in walls, etc.
ft.
super.
RETAINING WALLS.
110
description of mortar used, and also
upon the
skill
em-
ployed in putting the materials together.
The average crushing strength

mined from
indicated
tests
of mortars as deter-
made by Eondelet and Grant
are here
Average Crushing Strength of Mortars.

Lime Mortar
(after 18
months)
...
....
Stone lime mortar

Lias lime mortar
Cement Mortar
(after
ft.
super.
Per sq.
Tons.
Lb.
30
50
460
770
150
200
2300
3100
5400
in.
9 months)
Portland cement mortar
(1
to 3)
(1
Neat Portland cement
When
Per
determining the
2)
.350
maximum
be supported by any structure,
it
is
load which
may
essential that an
adequate margin of safety shall be provided, so that

failure
by the actual crushing of the materials them-
As
selves cannot occur under ordinary circumstances.
general rule,
it
is
found that materials subject
to
heavy pressures usually crack with a load amounting

to
about half their ultimate crushing strength.
To
ensure a proper degree of safety under ordinary conditions
it
is
considered that all walls, etc. should be so
designed that the
maximum
load to be supported by
any portion shall not exceed from one-seventh to oneeighth the actual pressure which would be necessary to
crush the materials of which the wall
The average
is built.
safe bearing load, or resistance to
com-
pression,
Ill
which may be borne by ordinary walls of
brickwork, masonry, or concrete,
follows
is as
Average Safe Resistance to Compression, or Safe

Bearing Load for Walls, etc.
Brickwork in Walls,
etc.
Per
....
....
etc.
...
Stone lime concrete (1 to 6)

Lias lime concrete (1 to 6)
Portland cement concrete (1 to
Mortars
8)
(1
6)
(1
4)
Stone lime mortar

Lias lime mortar
Portland cement mortar (1 to 2)
Neat Portland cement (after 9 months)
.
etc.
.10
.12
Rubble masonry in lime mortar

cement mortar
,,
,,
Ashlar masonry (limestone) in cement
mortar
Ashlar masonry (sandstone) in cement
mortar
Ashlar masonry (granite) in cement
mortar
Concrete in Walls,
super.
Tons.
Ordinary brickwork in lime mortar

Hard brickwork in lime mortar
cement mortar
,,
,,
Blue Staffordshire brickwork in lime
mortar
Blue Staffordshire brickwork in cement
mortar
Masonry in Walls,
ft.
Per sq. hi.

Lb.
60
80
120
160
180

RETAINING WALLS.
112
The building regulations
of
New York
require that
the safe bearing load on brickwork, masonry, and concrete, shall
not exceed the following limits
New Yobk
Building Laws.
Average Tensile Strength of Mortars.
(After 12 months.)
113
RETAINING WALLS.
114
From
the foregoing table, it will be seen that the
ultimate tensile resistance of brickwork or masonry laid

in ordinary mortar
its
compared with
relatively small as
The
safe tensile resistance
and
safe
adhesive strength of
mortar,
of
is
resistance to crushing.
also
the
ordinary mortar joints in brickwork or masonry are
As already
therefore comparatively slight.
are
so
largely
as the
method
dependent
on
local
stated, they
conditions,
of mixing, workmanship,
etc.
such
that as a
matter of ordinary prudence no important engineeringstructure should be dependent for
its
stability
on the
adhesive strength of the cementing material used in
bedding the bricks or blocks of stone.

ture
is,
When any struc-
however, subject to a stress of this description,
the ultimate
adhesive
strength
of the brickwork or
masonry should be determined from a
careful considera-
tion of the nature of the mortar joints, as under such
conditions these are generally the weakest part of the
work.
Weight of
Mateiiials, etc.
In the construction of ordinary gravity retaining

walls, the weight of the materials to be retained, as
compared with the weight of the
wall, exerts a consider-
able influence on the general design, so that in ail cases

it
is
necessary to definitely ascertain their respective
weights and characteristics.
The average weights of
earths, materials,
etc. as

WEIGHT OF MATERIALS.
ordinarily
met with
are as follows
in building
and engineering works
Average Weight of Earths, Cements,
Earths,
etc.
115
etc.
n6
RETAINING WALLS.
Average Weight of Bricks, Building Stones,
Weieht
weigut.
Bricks
etc.
Approx. Weight
per 1000.

WEIGHT OF MATERIALS.
117
Average Weight of Brickwork, Masonry, and Concrete.

Weight per
Brickwork
ft.
cube.
Lime.
Lb.
Brickwork in lime mortar (clamp bricks)
,,
Masonry
(kiln bricks)
,,
cement mortar (clamp
(kiln bricks)
,,
Ashlar masonry (limestone)

,,
,,
,,
(sandstone)
(granite)
....
....
.
Rubble masonry in mortar (common)

Concrete
bricks)
140
145
165
130
(1 to 6)
Concrete with coke breeze aggregate
82
115
125
brick
gravel
shingle
,,
stone
,,
125
125
granite
,,
145
The foregoing
list
84
120
130
130
130
150
shows the average weight of
materials as ordinarily found in this country, but for large
and important works
it
is
desirable to ascertain the
actual weight of any local earths or materials

are to be dealt with.
which

RETAINING WALLS.
Il8
CHAPTER
VIII.
Example
Designing Retaining Walls
walls Masonry retaining walls.
:
of
concrete retaining
Designing Retaining Walls.
The
general principles governing the stability of walls
for supporting
some
masses of earth having been indicated,
typical examples are
now
given showing the appli-
cation of these essential factors, so as to secure a satis-
factory result in actual practice.
example
shown
is
Example No.
The working
of each
in detail.
1.
Design a retaining wall
a bank of well-drained light

the bank being horizontal.
soil
to
support
12 feet high, the top of
The wall
to
be
built
of'
Portland cement concrete with broken stone aggregate.
When
designing a retaining wall, the most con-
venient procedure
which
and
is
it
is
to
assume a thickness
considered
will
for the base,
meet the requirements,
to construct thereon a trial section of the proposed
wall.
section
The
is
suitability, or otherwise, of this
then determined in the usual
experimental
way
as regards

stability of position, resistance to crushing,
and
119
stability
If the provisional design does not
of friction or sliding.
satisfy the desired conditions, the thickness of the base
and the general form of the section must be modified

until a satisfactory result is obtained.
For walls which are required

light character, it is usual to
to retain earths of a
assume a thickness
at the
base of ^ the height, this proportion being found to provide a satisfactory structure under ordinary conditions.
An
economical disposition of material
by arranging the wall with a battered

case
it is
may be
face,
obtained
and in
this
proposed to give the wall a face batter of 1 in
6,
or 2 inches per foot in height, the back of the wall being

vertical.
The average weight
of the earth is taken at 90 lb.
per foot cube, and concrete at 130
now drawn
lb.
per foot cube.
is
thickness of 4
a top thickness of 2 feet,
feet,
(Fig. 78),
of 2 inches per foot, so that the
wall
is
feet.
comparison
formula
may
and a batter
thickness of the
For preliminary purposes, a further
made by
be
for vertical walls (see
Mean
mean
having a base
provisional section
thickness
a reference to Hurst's
page
'7
"7
X 12
'7
3-2
h tan
14).
\/
feet
where
qj-
x '46
9
A
\/
v 130
12 x -46 x -83
feet.
ficale
5 00
EH
SCO
/OOP
PTR2
-j-
ôs.
200Q
pcalc
of
Pig/
+00
6
feet
78.
J
.
'
$000 lis
tojt.
121
This result substantially agrees with the proposed

trial section.
In determining the angle of repose

earth, it
must be borne
in
mind
may
of frictional resistance
for the retained
that the limiting angle
vary from time to time,
according to the condition of the material, whether wet,

dry,
or
subject
intermittent
to
pressure,
The
etc.
greatest care should be taken that the value of the angle

of repose
may
is
the least possible value which the material
be reasonably expected to attain under the local
In this instance, the
circumstances.
light character, well drained,
soil
being of a
and retained under favour-
able conditions, the limit of variation in the angle of
repose would probably not exceed 30

The extreme limit of the natural slope is
at 30, so as to provide the
maximum margin
The graphic determination

the suitability
section
as
of
of safety.
of
proposed
the
regards
to 45 degrees.
therefore taken
stability
of
position, or resistance to compression, at its
base
is
shown in
The centre of gravity

found by setting
is
off the
Fig. 78.
readily
width of
the base at each side of the top,
and adding the width

to
of the top
each side of the base, as indi-
cated in Fig. 79.

tion of diagonals
The
Fig. 79.
intersec-
drawn from the extreme points
centre of gravity for the wall section.
is
the
RETAINING WALLS.
122
Taking one
foot in length as the unit of calculation,
the total weight of the wall

lb.
4680
and
lb.,
12 feet
this resultant
sidered as acting vertically
3 feet
X 130
may
be con-
weight
downwards through G;its
centre of gravity.
By
the graphic method, the total horizontal earth
P on
pressure
-
B D2
acting at a height of
length of
thatP
the vertical back of the wall
B D by scale =
4r x
(6
'
9)
~ from
The
the base.
6 feet 11 inches
2142 lb
AB =
6 9 feet, so
"
The point
repre-
sents the centre of earth pressure at the back of the wall.
According
page
to
the investigations of Dr. Schemer (see
84), the direction of the earth thrust does not act
horizontally to the vertical plane, but
in all cases
is
modified by the frictional resistance of the earth mass.
In other words
considered that the direction of the
it is
thrust varies according to the angle of repose of the

material.
The
direction of the earth thrust
is
con-
sequently always inclined to the horizontal at an angle

exactly equal to th e angle
T = P
sec
<$>
= P
sec 30
of
repose
((/>),
2142 x 1*15
so
that
2463
lb.
acting at 0, the centre of the earth pressure.
The pressure diagram is now completed by continuing

the direction of the earth thrust T, so that
it
intersects
the vertical line passing through the centre of gravity
at <l
scale
the
From
value
l L>,
along the line of thrust, lay
of the
earth
off to
pressure with friction
2463
lb
and
on the same
similarly,
123
scale, set off
along the perpendicular a length equal to the weight of

the wall
it
4680
Complete the parallelogram, when
lb.
will be seen that the resultant just falls within the
middle third of the bed-joint, the centre of pressure
The resultant
being at C.
6300
scale is
1 foot
lb.,
4 inches from
The
pressure,
its
total horizontal earth pressure P,
its
of
outer edge.
found by the graphic method,

puting
when measured by
and intersects the base at a distance
may
as already
be checked by com-
value arithmetically from the formula

2
p _ 'H x
2
= ";H
90
From this result,

friction T = P sec
<j>
all practical
~<f>
sin 30
sin 30
xl2
2160
</>
_l-x
1+i
sin
1 +~sin
lb.
the value of the earth thrust with
2160 x
1 '15
2484
purposes, the calculated values of
therefore, agree with those
For
T,
obtained by graphic con-
struction, the slight variation being
of measuring
lb.
P and
due to the
difficulty
minute fractional parts by an ordinary
scale.
The
capability of the wall to resist crushing at
assumed horizontal plane,
bed-joint,
or
upon the
intensity of the resultant
is
any
dependent
pressure and
its
RETAINING WALLS.
124
general distribution at that joint, as compared with the
compressive strength of the materials of which the wall

Concrete walls should be allowed at least one
is built.
or two
months
subjecting
for the materials to properly set, before
them
to
any considerable earth
or water pres-
sure, for the ultimate strength of concrete is not reached
until from six to twelve
months after its formation.
The
ultimate crushing strength of well-made and thoroughly
cement concrete may be taken
set Portland
at 60 to
80
tons per foot super., and allowing one-eighth as a factor

of safety, the concrete
may
be considered as capable of
safely resisting a crushing pressure of at least 100
lb.
per square inch.
The
normal pressure acting
at the centre of
of the base, is ascertained
by resolving the
total
pressure
resultant pressure of 6300
lb. (Fig. 78),
into
two com-
ponent forces which are respectively normal and parallel
shown in
to the bed-joint, as
to the
same
pressure
the wall.
is
JST
scale as Fig. 78),
by
scale
5920
The distribution
80 (which
where the
lb.
of the total
normal pressure
per foot super.
edge
20
lb.
per square inch
total
drawn
normal
normal pressure
= N =
-
2960
lb.
FBD,
where
Hon
= 1480
5920
The maximum pressure
F=FD=2KE=
is
per foot in length of
indicated graphically by the diagram
KL = mean
Fig.
11,
lb.
at the outer
per foot super.
whilst at the inner edge
is no pressure.
The values thus found graphically may be checked
there

arithmetically
by means of the formulae already given
(page 32), where

'
Maximum
125
pressure
I
= 2N/
3^\
=
=
X 5920
V"
4
(-42*)
4
2960
20
lb.
lb.
v
Fig. 80.
per foot super.
per
sq. inch.
/?
RETAINING WALLS.
126
Similarly
,,.
Minimum
pressure
As
lb.
base
is
,\
1
x 5920 /3_x_2i _
=
=
100
X /3 d
i\
2960 x
zero.
the concrete will safely sustain a pressure of
per square inch, the
maximum
found to be well within
To ensure
between the materials
stability of friction
composing the
wall,
it is
pressure on the
this limit.
desirable that the angle which
the resultant pressure makes with the normal to the

bed-joint shall not exceed
8 tan
<f>)
for
-i
of the angle of repose (or
such materials (see page
masonry or brickwork, the mortar joints

slightly moist or
For new
58).
which are
still
damp, the average angle of repose is
36,
of
so that f of this angle = -8 tan 36= -8 x "726 = '580

= tan 30 nearly = 30. Concrete for walls is usually
arranged in horizontal layers, and

depositing a
new
layer
of
it is desirable,
concrete,
that
when
the upper
surface of the concrete previously set in position should
be slightly roughened, thoroughly washed, cleaned, and

well wetted, so that the
new
combine with that already
may
concrete
laid.
The angle
between layers of new and old concrete

sidered as being similar to that of
the
base of the wall
FB
(Fig.
properly
of repose
may
be con-
new masonry, and

80)
as
one of the

The angle made
horizontal bed-joints.
C between
pressure
normal
27
at the centre of
the resultant pressure
and the
measure
20, thus
found
to the bed-joint is
to
providing a greater margin of safety than the limit

already mentioned,
The
viz.
30
section, as designed, is
found
to
comply with
the necessary conditions as regards stability of position,

resistance
and
to crushing,
stability of friction at its
base.
The magnitude and direction

at the base
of the resultant pressure
of the wall, as ascertained according to
Bankine's hypothesis, affords an interesting comparison

with the foregoing values, which are based
Scheffler's theory as
now
generally adopted.
on Dr.
The
first
mentioned writer considered the direction of the earth

thrust
to be
always parallel to the surface slope, so
that in this case, the top of the
bank being
horizontal,
the earth thrust acts also in a horizontal direction, as
shown
in Fig. 31,
where
=--
P = 2142
With
lb.
this
modification, the pressure diagram in Fig. 81, is con-
structed in a similar
for Fig. 78.
now
manner
to that already described
It will be observed that the resultant force
falls outside
the centre third of the base, so that
some portion of the wall would be subject
The resultant pressure
stress.
is
5150
to a tensile
lb.,
the centre
of pressure at the base being 8 inches from its outer
edge.
sary
Under
to
these circumstances,
considerably
increase
the
it
would be necesthickness
of the
section in order that the line of resultant pressure

fall
within the middle third of the wall.
may
128
RETAINING WALLS.
fi
29
however, been satisfactorily proved from
has,
It
experiments, that the results given by the
careful
Scheffler theory provide the necessary stability of posi-
and may be safely adopted in actual
tion,
normal pressure
mum
practice.
on Eankine's theory (see page
If based
(Fig.
82) at C =
4680
lb.,
83), the total
and the maxi-
uncemented
(for
joints
having the centre of pressure outside the middle third)

2 1ST
07-
Ct
2
= q x
_ Qni
= 4680
4680
lb.
per loot super.
0o
32
lb. per
fo
square inch, as compared with 20
per square inch
lb.
obtained by the Scheffler theory.
The intensity
of pressure on the bed-joint
graphically in Fig. 82, where the portion

joint
under compression
is
ordinate
KE = mean
lb.
C.
and
2x
indicated
the bed-
The pressure
FQ
normal pressure on
The maximum
FD = 2KE=2T
super.,
represented by the triangle
diagram
2340
=FQ =
is
of*
D, and the
FQ =
2340
4680
lb.
per foot
this result confirms the value as ascertained
by computation.
If,
on the other hand, the bed-joints be considered
as cemented joints, having the centre of pressure outside
the middle
diagram
is
third,
then
represents by scale the

bed-joint
the
seen in Fig. 83.
corresponding
mean normal
F B = = - =
pressure
Here the ordinate
1170
lb.
KE
pressure on the
per foot super.
RETAINING WALLS.
130
The maximum
3
KE =
x 1170
= 3510 lb.
F = FD =
super. = 25 lb.
at
per foot
/
/
/'
Fig. 82.
per square inch.
KE=
1170
lb.
Fig. 83.
The maximum tension

per foot super., or 8
lb.
at
D = BJ =
per square inch..

The accuracy
131
by the preceding
arithmetically by the
of the results found
may
graphic diagram
be tested
formula
Maximum
.
Minimum
pressure
pressure
3510
1ST
x 4680
the formula for
d\
3xA
^680 (i
1170
minimum
per foot super.
lb.
N/3 d
^
= As
/
- (2
l)
lb.
pressure results in a
maximum
negative quantity, this value represents the
tension at the inner edge of the bed-joint D, as already
found by the graphic method.
The average adhesive strength
when thoroughly
inch, or
5700
lb.
set
may
of
good cement mortar
be taken at 40
lb.
per square
per foot super., so that a wall of this
description might be considered
as capable of with-
standing the ordinary compressive and tensile stresses
caused
by the earth
already mentioned.
as an
pressure under
It has, however,
the conditions
been laid down
engineering axiom that no important retaining
wall should be subject to a tensile
stress,
and
it
would
accordingly be necessary to increase the thickness of

RETAINING WALLS.
I3 2
the wall in order to provide the requisite margin of

safety, if the wall is to
satisfactorily
withstand the
earth thrust as given by Bankine's theory.
The angle made at C

and resultant pressures
(Figs.
24,
82 and 83) by the normal
and
falls
well within the
limit of 30 previously mentioned as necessary to ensure

stability of friction for the structure.
Example No.
2.
It is required to build
feet high, with coursed rubble masonry, having
face and
which
a wall 10
a
vertical
a heavy clay ground
offsets at back, for retaining
finished level with the top of the wall.
is
Clay
soils
are
most treacherous materials
to deal
with in engineering works, owing to their loose sliding

nature, and the sudden and unequal pressures which
frequently result from varying local conditions, such as

excessive rains, inadequate drainage
The average weight

130
lb.
facilities, etc.
of coursed rubble
is
per foot cube, whilst heavy clays usually weigh
about 120
lb.
per foot cube.
Considering the uncertain
nature of the material to be retained,

to
masonry
assume a mean thickness of 4
it
seems desirable
feet, so as
to obtain
adequate stability under the most unfavourable circumstances.
Fig.
84 shows the
trial
having a thickness of 3 feet at the
section
top,
and
proposed,
5 feet at the
base, thus allowing two offsets of 12 inches each in the
height of the wall.
According to Hurst's rule (see page 14), the approxi-
133

RETAINING WALLS,
134
mate mean thickness

ness
is
for vertical walls of
readily ascertained as follows
Mean
thickness
uniform thick-

is resisting
the thrust of the earth at the back of the
wall, consists of the weight of the wall
.wedge of clay
plane
A B,
135
A B J,
and
which
is
JBF
S,
and the
in front of the vertical
this total pressure acts vertically
wards through their
common
The common centre
centre of gravity
down-
G-.
of gravity for the materials in
front of the vertical plane
may
be ascertained as shown
Fig. 85.
in Fig. 85, where the centres of gravity for the wall
J B F S, and the earth wedge A B J, are G x and

To find the common centre of gravity,
join the two component centres of gravity G-! and G 2
and to any convenient scale draw the perpendicular G 2 E
section
G2 respectively.

RETAINING WALLS.
136
=
=
JBF S =
weight of the wall section
5200
wedge
of clay
E K, and
common
its
Similarly from
lb.
of the line joining
G G
l
(but on the opposite side
draw
2)
G K=
weight of the
ABJ = ^x2xl20 =
intersection at
4 x 10 x 130
1200
with the line
lb.
Join
G G
the
2 is
centre of gravity required.
The resultant weight

front of the vertical
vertically
of the
plane
masonry and clay
AB =
6400
lb.,
and
acts
downwards through the common centre
gravity G, as indicated in Fig. 84.
The
in
of
total horizontal
earth pressure P, on the vertical plane at the back of
the wall as found
by the graphic method
BD
120
^- X 7 2
2940
and the centre
lb.;
of pressure
occurs at a height of \
B.
The value of the earth
thrust = P sec 20 = 2940 x 1-0641 = 3128 lb., and
acts through the centre of pressure at an inclination of
20 with the horizontal.
completed as shown, when
The pressure diagram

it is
is
pressure upon the base amoTints to 8100
lb.
and
sects the bed-joint at a distance of 1 foot 8 inches
the outer edge, so that
it is
now
found that the resultant

inter-
from
just within the centre third
of the wall's thickness, and no part of the base joint
is
subject to a tensile stress.
For purposes of comparison, the

pressure
is
now computed
lowing formula
total
horizontal
arithmetically from the fol-
wH
..
sin
20
137
RETAINING WALLS.
138
inch, or say
8000
lb.
foot super, for rubble
mum
per foot super., and 17,000
masonry in cement.
pressure will not exceed 3032
lb.
As
per
the maxi-
per foot super.,
the wall
^5
lb.
is
safe against
quite
any
APPENDIX
ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS AND MEMOKANDA.
CONSTRUCTION.
THE
AND
FORCE
GRAPHIC
CENTRE
OF
GRAVITY.
Engineering Calculations and Memoranda
Greek alphaconventions Trigonometrical expressions 'Table of

trigonometrical values Trie principle of the lever Stability
betical
of position.
Graphic Construction ^Representation of numbers or forces by
lines The parallelogram of forces The composition of forces.
The resolution of forces Parallel forces Normal and oblique
forces.
The Force and Centre of Gravity: Force of gravity Centre
of gravity of ordinary figures Common centre of gravity.
:
Engineering Calculations and Memoranda.
Some acquaintance with the various symbols,
etc.,
which
have been adopted in connection with mathematical
and trigonometrical investigations
is
essential for the
solution of engineering problems.
few explanatory
remarks respecting the terms ordinarily met with are

therefore inserted in the form of
an Appendix
for the
information of young students not yet possessing an
advanced knowledge of engineering mathematics and

theoretical mechanics.
RETAINING WALLS.
140
Amongst
other conventions, different letters of the
Greek alphabet have been assigned certain

For instance, the Greek
meanings.
definite
letter tt (pi) is
invariably understood to denote the ratio of the circumference of a circle to
its
The numerical value
diameter.
of this ratio has never yet been exactly determined,
although
it
has been carried to eight hundred places of
decimals, but approximately the ratio
is
as 355 is to 113,
or 3-1416.
The Greek
letters
(alpha),
/3
(beta),
and
(epsilon),
designate any ordinary angles
are generally used to
which occur in engineering problems.
The angle
be-
tween the slope of a roof and the direction of the wind

is
generally indicated by the Greek letter 6 (theta).
The same letter is also used to represent the angle made

by the slope of surcharged earth and the horizontal
plane
<f>
(phi) denotes the angle
slope of earths
the natural
and the horizontal (usually termed the
angle of repose)
of friction.
made by
whilst
//,
The symbol
(mu)
signifies the coefficient
S (delta)
is
used to denote the
limiting deviation of the centre of resistance of a figure
from
its
centre of gravity.
The trigonometrical expressions
or functions,
known
as the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant,
versed sine, and coversed sine (abbreviated into

tan, cot, sec, cosec, versin,
indicate the ratios
which
right angle triangle.
By
sin, cos,
and coversin respectively)
exist
between the sides of a
the use of these ratios, the
measure of any angle can be represented.
For example,
ENGINEERING MEMORANDA.
let
(Fig. 87)
P and
lines
sin
denote the angle
BA
0' P' perpendicular to
the sine of the angle a
perpendicular
hypotenuse
141
Draw any two
C.
A B.
Then
sine of angle
_ OP
__ 0' P'
"AO~AO'"
Similarly
cos
a=
base
hypotenuse
tan a
_ perpendicular
base
cot
a=
base
perpendicular
sec a
cosec
AO'
P _
__
AP
AP
OP
=5
= hypotenuse
=A
^\
AP
base
AP
AP
AO
0' P'
AP'
_ AP'
O'P'
AO'
AP'
hypotenuse
A
A -^- = = ^-^ =
a=
T
^r
perpendicular
OP FOF
,
BAC
142
RETAINING WALLS.
Table of Numerical Values foe the Sines, Cosines,

Tangents, Cotangents, Secants, and Cosecants op
Angles fob Earthworks, etc.
Number of
Degrees in
Angle.
ENGINEERING MEMORANDA.
143
Complete tables are published giving the numerical

values of the ratios for
angles which are expressed
all
in degrees
and minutes, but
reference
will be sufficient to give here the values of
it
those angles which are
work
for purposes of ordinary
commonly met with
in earth-
These values are given in terms of
calculations.
the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant

of the angle,
which embrace
the ratios which are
all
usually required.
In
walls
all
it
problems relating to the stability of retaining
will be found that
what
is
known
as the " principle of the lever " occupies
place,
and by the application of
effect of the forces acting
The
is
"
moment of a
this general law, the
on the wall
force " acting
in mechanics
an important
may
be estimated.
upon any given point
found by multiplying the force (in
lb.)
by the
effec-
tive leverage or perpendicular distance (in feet) of its
direction from that point, the product being then ex-
Sometimes inches and tons
pressed in "feet pounds/'
are adopted as the unit of calculation, the result being
then given in
ec
inch tons."
The moment
the measure of
that point.
the
sum
of a force about
its
When
of the
moments
therefore
to
a body
maintained in equilibrium,
moments
is
produce rotation about
of all the forces tending to

is
equal to the
sum
of all the forces tending to turn the
in the opposite direction.

(Fig. 88)
is
tendency
turn the body in one direction

the
any point
amounting
to
400
Let the forces

lb.
and 100
lb.
of
body
and
F2
respectively
"
RETAINING WALLS.
144
be in equilibrium about the point C, then the

of
Ex
is
so that
moment of E2
C = E 2 x C E, and
equal to the
Ex x D
Ft
DC =
100 x CE
400
CE =
400 X D C
100
moment
about that point,
CE
4
= 4DC.
Fu ^/oo
= 4-oo
Fig. 88.
The general application

Eig. 89,
where
P =
the direction shown, whilst

acting vertically
If the
moment
of this principle
is
seen in
pressure acting against the wall in
W = weight
of the wall
downwards through its centre of gravity.
of
W about the same
about the point
C =
the
moment
of
point, then the wall is in a condition
of simple stability.
A
when
wall
is
said to possess " stability of position
the structure
bed-joints.
moment
is
In theory
secure against overturning at

this result is attained
when
its
the
of the force tending to overturn the wall at
the outer edge of a bed-joint does not exceed the
moment
of the weight of the wall acting vertically
GRAPHIC CONSTRUCTION.
through
its
centre of gravity about the same point, as
indicated in Fig. 89.
In
practice, however, it is
that such a condition of simple stability

for
145
is
found
insufficient
permanent safety in important engineering works,
so that
it
becomes essential
to provide, in addition, a
reasonable margin to allow for any unforeseen settlements

or stresses that
may
occur.
The necessary precautions
Fig. 89.
required to be taken so as to secure this margin of safety

are fully considered in Chapter II. in connection with
both cemented and uncemented joints of walls.
Graphic Constkuction.
All the ordinary arithmetical processes, such as addition, subtraction, division
roots, etc.
may
multiplication, extraction of
be carried out by the graphic method,
the various numbers being represented by lines drawn

"
to
any convenient
scale,
the result being then given in

L
RETAINING WALLS.
14^
terms of lines drawn to the same

various forces or pressures acting
scale.
Similarly, the
upon any structure
are
capable of being represented by means of lines drawn to

a suitable scale, and this system of graphic construction
frequently possesses
considerable advantage
when
determining the general stability of a structure, for the
resulting diagram at once readily demonstrates whether

it is
capable of maintaining a state of equilibrium under
given conditions.
Starting from
the fundamental principle of
"parallelogram of forces"
lines
we know that
drawn from a point represent
direction
any two
forces acting
in
the
"if two straight
magnitude and
on that point, and
if
parallelogram on these lines be completed, then the
147
resultant of the two forces will be represented in direction and magnitude by that diagonal of the parallelogram
which passes through the point where the

Thus the
point
forces
A may
AB
and
forces
act.''
(Fig. 90) acting at the
be resolved into a single force
A D,
which
represents the total effect of the two component forces,
Fig. 91.
both in direction and magnitude.

called the " resultant " force,
and
if
This single force

a force
AE
is
equal in
magnitude to the resultant A D, and opposite in direction,

be applied at the point A, then a state of equilibrium
obtained.
AB
and
The
A C,
opposite to the
is
known
force
AD
AE
forces A B
whilst
is
is
the resultant of the forces
represents a force equal and
and
A C.
This construction
as the " composition of forces/' a resultant
L 2
RETAINING WALLS.
148
force being
substituted for two
or
more component
forces.
''
Another useful principle in structural design is the

resolution of forces," so that when necessary any single
force
may be resolved
into two or
more component
equivalent in effect to the single force.
This
forces
is
the
converse of what has already been stated > as the following
T-.
-
C*
and magnitude, two component
equal to the single force
When
two
or
more
which are parallel

"parallel" forces.
same
direction,
sum, whilst
ant
is
if
forces
149
which are together
A B.
forces act
on a body in directions
each other, they are
to
known
If the parallel forces act
then the resultant force
is
as
in the
equal to their
they act in opposite directions, the result-
equal to their difference, and acts in the direction
^3
fj=200
soo
Fig. 93.
The relative position of the
of the greater force.
result-
ant parallel force
may
be readily found by means of the
graphic method.
Let
F x and F2
parallel forces of
300
lb.
and 200
(Fig. 92) represent

lb.
respectively.
two
Draw
A B perpendicular to the lines of action of F and F

At A and B (on any convenient scale) erect the ordinates
A D and B E, equal to 200 and 300 respectively. Join
x
2.
RETAINING WALLS.
ISO
AE
and
DB.
At C
force
F =
CR
Then the resultant
along the line C E.
the point of intersection, draw
component
parallel to the
500
lb.,
and
forces.
acts
Similarly let Fj and
F3
but opposite forces of 300
(Fig. 93) represent parallel
and 200
lb.
lb.
respectively.
Draw A B perpendicular to the given forces. At A and

B make the ordinates A D and B E = 200 and 300
Join
respectively.
it
intersects
E, and continuing the line until
A B produced, at
force
F =
When
100
lb.,
F2
a force or pressure is acting
to that surface.
direction
is
parallel to
Then the
resultant
acting along the parallel line
of a body, its direction
its
Draw C R
C.
the component forces Fi and
may
pressure
upon the
R.
surface
be either normal or oblique

is
said to be
normal when
at right angles to the surface or plane
FORCE AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY.

where
N" represents a pressure acting
A B,
surface or plane
whilst
same
pressures acting upon the
151
normally to the
and
are oblique
plane.
The Force and Centre of Gravity.

The
force of gravity
an important factor in
is
structural design, for the whole of the materials of
a building or work
external power.
represents the
is
What
amount
which
constructed are subject to this
is
is
known
as the weight of a
of the force with
body
which the body
towards the centre of the earth.
attracted
all
attraction of the earth, or force of gravity,
is
This
distributed
throughout the entire mass of a body, and for practical

purposes
may
it
be considered as acting in parallel
directions at each point in the body.
The whole of
these parallel distributed forces are capable of being
resolved into a single resultant, so that there
is
one
point in a body through which the resultant of the weight

of the
body must
pass,
and
this point is
centre of gravity of the body.
known
as the
The centre of gravity of
i.e.
the centre of parallel forces for the weight
of a body
and does
a body
therefore always remains the same,
not change with any change of position of the body itself.
The geometrical centre

and homogeneous
of
figure or
any perfectly symmetrical

body, such as a square,
cube, rectangle, parallelogram, parallelopiped, equilateral

triangle, regular polygon, circle, sphere, ring, cylinder,
etc., is
also its centre of gravity.

RETAINING WALLS.
152
The centre of gravity G- of any ordinary figure or

body may be found as follows
Area of a Triangle. G = The intersection of the
straight lines drawn from any two of the angles to the
:
Fig. 96.
Fig. 95.
middle points of the opposite
any one of these
sides, as in Fig. 95, or
straight lines, at ^ its length
on
from the
opposite side, as in Fig. 96.
Fig. 97.
Sides of a
Triangle,
G = the
centre of a
circle
joining the middle points of the sides, as in Fig. 97.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
Area of a Square,
Rectangle, or Parallelogram.
the intersection of diagonals, as
and 100,
153
shown
G-
in Figs. 98, 99,
respectively.
Area of a Trapezium.
(A trapezium is a quadriby four straight lines,
lateral or plane figure contained
whose opposite
sides are not parallel to each other.)
Fig. 98.
Fig. 99.
Fig. 100.
G=
the intersection of the lines joining the centres
of gravity of the pairs of triangles
B D A, BDC,
its
diagonals
into
AC
which the trapezium
and
B D.
Area of a Trapezoid.
figure having
two
Construction.
CD
A C B, A C D,
(A
is
and
divided by
See Fig. 101.

trapezoid
is
a quadrilateral
of its opposite sides parallel.)
Extend the
of the trapezoid, as
shown
parallel
sides
in Fig. 102,
AB
and
toWXYZ,
RETAINING WALLS.
154
D W and C X equal
Similarly, make A Z and B Y
making
C D.
Then
G =
Or the centre
to the opposite side
A B.
equal to the opposite side
intersection of the lines
of gravity of a trapezoid
W Y and X
may
Z.
be found in
Fig. 102.
the
same way
as described for a
trapezium and illustrated
in Pig. 101.
The
area of any Polygon.
the
centre
of
inscribed or circumscribed circle, as in Fig. 103.
The
sides of
any Polygon.
G = centre of
or circumscribed circle, as in Pig. 103.
inscribed
CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
The area of a
Circle.
155
G = the centre of the
circle,
or middle point of its diameter.
The circumference of a
circle,
Circle.
G = the centre of the
or middle point of its diameter.
To
"
the
find
centre of gravity
common
" of
two or
more bodies whose respective centres of gravity are
known,
it
necessary to
is
determine the centre of the

parallel
forces
weights
and
several
the
of
For
bodies.
the
for
example,
(Fig.
let
Fig. 103.
104) repre-
sent two bodies weighing 600
lb,
and 300
lb. each,
acting through their respective centres of gravity
and
G2
Let D =
and
gravity
G 2 whilst
G from G
distance apart of the centres of gravity
and
distance of the
common
centre of
Then
= D X
600
300
300
D
3
The
bodies
method.
"
common
may
centre of gravity " of
Let Gi and
of gravity of the
tively 600 lb.
(Fig. 104) represent the centres
two bodies
and 300
lb.
two or more
by the graphic
also be readily obtained
each.
and
Join
weighing respec-
and
and
to
RETAINING WALLS.
156
any convenient
600
line joining
Join
300
lb.
the line
and B,
G D=A
draw the perpendicular
scale
Similarly (but on the opposite side of the
lb.
G 2 draw the perpendicular G E = B

E D, then its point of intersection with
and
G G2
x
is
),
the
common
centre of gravity for
so that the equivalent resultant weight acting at
5 = 30o
\
\
\
#*GOO
would be 900
lb.
of gravity" of three
bodies,
gravity of two of the bodies
is
adopted.
the
is first
found, as indicated
compounded with that of the third.

number of bodies, the same procedure
above, and this result
For any larger
" common centre

common centre of
To ascertain the
INDEX
Adhesive strength
of
Anchorage plates for

Angle of repose, 54
mortars, 113
walls, 7
third, definition
31
of,
Chimneys, wind pressure on," 98

Clay, supporting power of, 105
for earths, etc., 56
Angles and coefficients
Centre of resistance, 25
of friction,
Coefficient of friction, 55
Cohesive strength of mortars, 113
56
Arched retaining walls, 99

Atcherley and Pearson's theory, 21
Common
Baker's rules
safe load 111

wall, design 118
weight 117
for
thickness
of
walls, 12
centre of gravity, 155
Composition of forces, 147

Concrete, crushing strength, 109
for,
for,
Batter for face of walls, 5
of,
Battering retaining walls, 3
Bearing power of soils, 104

Bed-joints, cemented, 31
distribution pressure on, 31

uncemented, 31
of
Conventional symbols, 140

Counterforts for retaining walls, 5
Crushing, failure by, 23
strength of brickwork, 109

of
Breast walls, 2
Bricks, weight
of, 116
Brickwork, crushing strength, 109
safe load for, 111
weight of, 117
Building materials, weight of, 107
stones, weight
cement, 110
of concrete, 109
of,
of
masonry, 109
of stone, 108
Curve
of pressures, 26
of resistance,
26
Curved battered face to walls/
116
Buttressed and arched walls, 6
Dams, general construction, 22

Definite surcharge of earth, 9
Cement, crushing strength, 110
tensile strength, 113

weight 115
Centre
concrete wall, 118
132
Direction of earth thrust, 82
of water pressure, 87
bed-joints, 31
of earth pressure,
for
for masonry wall,
of,
Cemented
Design
64
of gravity of plane figures, 151

of pressure, 25
Distribution of pressure on bed

joints, 31
Drainage behind retaining walls, 4
RETAINING WALLS.
158
Earth, angle
of repose for, 56
pressure, general theory
of,
Foundations
60
Poncelet's theory, 82
Eankine's theory, 83
Schemer's theory, 84
wedge theory, 61
of,
with definite surcharge,
76
Earths, safe loads
weight
of,
105
for,
115
Engineering calculations, 139

Equation for determining neutral
for walls, 104
Friction, coefficients of, 56
Frost in joints of walls, 5
General
construction of dams, 22
Graphic construction, 145
145
Gravity, centre
force 151
walls, 31
statics,
of,
152
of,
Greek
alphabetical
conventions,
140
point, 47
for earth pressure, 71

for force of friction, 53
for mean normal pressure, 27
for water pressure, 72

for wind pressure, 96
Example of concrete wall, 118
of masonry wall, 132
Horizontal arched
walls, 101
Hurst's rule for retaining walls, 14
Hydrostatic memoranda, 91
pressure, 88
Incompressibility of water, 87
Inverted arches to retaining walls,
103
Iron ties to retaining walls, 7
Face
slope for walls, 4
walls for earth, 2
Joints in battered retaining walls,
Factor of safety to resist crushing,

110
sliding, 58
Failure by crushing, 23
sures, 49
for,
53
of gravity, 151
of,
147
parallelogram 146
resolution 148
of,
of,
Formula
Limiting angle of resistance, 54
slope of battered face, 5

Line
of winds, 93
Forces, composition
ties for walls, 7
Limes, weight of, 115

Limit of deviation for line of pres-
of friction, 52
equation
Land
Lever, principle of the, 143
by overturning, 23
by sliding, 51
Force
for thicknesses of walls,
Baker's, 12
Hurst's, 14
Molesworth's, 14
of pressures, 25
limit of deviation, 49
of resistance, 25
Loads, safe, on brickwork, 111

on concrete, 111
on earths, 105
on masonry, 111
on mortars, 111
INDEX.
Magnitude
of earth pressure, 69
Masonry, crushing strength, 109
safe load 111

wall, design 132
weight 117
107
Materials, strength
weight 115
159
wedge theory
Prony's
earth
of
pressure, 61
Properties of water, 87
for,
for,
Rankine's formula
for
arched
re-
of,
taining walls, 101
of,
for earth pressure, 75
of,
Mean normal
limiting position for centre
pressure, 27
of pressure,
Memoranda, water, 91
Middle third, definition
Moment
of,
32
Repose, table of angles
a force, 143
of
of water pressure, 89
Reservoir walls, rule
Mortars, adhesive strength
cohesive strength
of,
49
theory of earth pressure, 83
of,
113
113
Moseley's theory of earth pressure,
Resistance, centre
curve
of,
of,
for,
56
17
25
of,
26
Resolution of forces, 149
Retaining walls, arched, 99
82
conditions of stability, 19
Natural
sines, etc., of angles,
designing, 119
142
slope of earths, 11
for water, 17
Neutral point, equation
New
for,
47
York, foundation loads

lowed, 106
al-
forces,
safe load for,
105
Roofs, wind pressure on, 96
loads on walls, 112
Normal and oblique
Revetment walls, 7
Rock foundations,
150
Rules
thickness
for
of
Baker's, 12
Oblique
forces,
150
Molesworth's, 14
Safe load
forces, 149
Parallelogram of forces, 146
Pearson and Atcherley's theory, 21

Plane of rupture for retained earth,
62
Poncelet's theory of earth pressure,
82
for different soils,
Pressure, centre
of,
25
for walls, 111

Schemer's theory of earth pressure,
83
Shearing
stresses
in
retaining
Sliding, failure by, 51
Slope of earths, 11
of,
of,
60
for,
Soils,
49
Principle of the lever, 143
105
for mortars, 111
walls, 21
curve 26
earth, theory
limit deviation
of water, 87
of wind, 93
'
Hurst's, 14
Overturning, failure by, 23
Parallel
walls,
bearing power
of,
104
Stability, conditions of, 19
theory
of friction,
of,
57
19
Stone, weight
of,
116
i6o
RETAINING WALLS.
Strengths of bricks, crushing, 107

of brickwork, crushing, 109
tensile,
113
of building-stones, crushing, 107
cement, crushing, 110

tensile, 113
of
Uncemented
Values
bed-joints, 31
of trigonometrical
func-
tions, 142
Vaulted retaining walls, 5
revetment walls, 8
of concrete, crushing, 108
Velocity of pressure of wind, 93
of granites, crushing, 108

of
masonry, crushing, 109

tensile,
Walls,
113
of mortars, crushing,
tensile,
Summary
battering, 3
conditions of stability, 19
110
113
for distribution of pres-
sure, 48
Supporting power of earths, 104

Surcharged retaining walls, 8
face or breast, 2
horizontal arched, 101
revetment, 7
vaulted revetment, 8
with abutments, 5
buttresses, etc., 5
Table
of
of angles
and
coefficients of
offsets at back, 3
crushing strength of mate-
Water memoranda, 91
friction, 56
rials,
surcharge, 8
107
of limiting pressures, 50
trigonometrical values, 142
of weight materials, 115
of wind pressures, 93
pressure, equation
moment
of
of
earth pressure,' 61
of bricks, 116
of stability,
of
pressure, equation
of earth pressure, generally,
60
Poncelet's, 82
Rankine's, 83
Scheffler's, 84
19
of water-pressure, 87
wind pressure, 91
Tie rods for retaining walls, 7
Trigonometrical expressions, 141
of
of
of
Wind, direction
theory
of,
Winds, pressure
of,
93
for,
91
of,
93
LONDOM: PRINTED BY WILLI AM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED

W., AND DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET,
GBEAT WINDMILL BTBEKT,
72
87
of,
Wedge theory of
Weight
for,
89
of brickwork, 117
of cement, 115
concrete, 117
of earths, 115
lime, 115
masonry, 117
of stone, 116
Tensile strength of mortars, 113
Theory ,Atcherley and Pearson's, 21
theory
of,
96

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BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME

Hetirg HB. Sag*

3 1924 004 084 780

books are subject

A TEXT-BOOK FOB STUDENTS

AUTHOR OF "SANITARY HOUSE DRAINAGE,'* "STABLE SANITATION AND

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS

This small volume

intended to serve as a practical

guide for students and others interested in the general

which govern a sound know-

ledge of this branch of engineering are explained in

same time the use

formulas and advanced mathematics have been avoided

These have been recast, and collected into

book form, the whole being arranged

convenient book of reference.

Hough Geeen, Chesteb

the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

THE THEORY OF STABILITY.

General principles of design Different forms

computing the thickness

of walls for retaining earth or

Nature of the forces producing

BY OVERTURNING AND CRUSHING.

Failure by Overturning and Crushing

Pressure on uncemented bed-joints when the centre

of pressure falls outside the

stability of friction in retaining walls

THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE. CENTRE

The general conditions of

Maximum thrust for a bank of earth behind a

MAGNITUDE OF PRESSURE OF RETAINED EARTH.

Magnitude of Pressure of Eetained Earth

earth Similar equa-

earth pressure with definite surcharge

for ascertaining the total earth pressure

THEOEY OF WATER PRESSURE.

pressure on different forms of

ARCHED RETAINING WALLS.

Arched Retaining Walls

retaining walls with battered face

THE BEARING POWER OF SOILS. STRENGTH AND

Nature of ground necessary

The Bearing Power of

earth Supporting power of London clay

Strength of Building Materials,

Adhesive strength of mortars

Designing Betaining Walls

Graphic Construction :Representation of numbers or forces

ordinary figures Common centre

Vertical retaining wall of uniform thickness

Battering retaining wall

Retaining wall with curved battering face

Vertical wall with offsets at back

Battering wall with offsets at back

Retaining wall with battered face, and vertical at back

Wall with curved battering face and