Experiment No.

The Synchronous Machine

Synchronous ac machines find application as motors in constant speed

applications and, when interfaced to the power source with a variable-frequency
converter system, in variable-speed applications. High-performance variable-speed motor
drives are often constructed using a permanent-magnet synchronous motor. Another
common application is the alternator that generates the power for the automobile
electrical system. In addition, practically all electrical energy produced commercially is
generated in rotating synchronous machines that are connected to the utility or other
power systems. Most power systems are supplied by a number of such machines
operating in parallel, and the systems themselves are interconnected to form power grids
of tremendous energy capacity. In comparing the capability of any single generator to the
overall capacity of the system to which it is connected, it can be seen that the individual
machine is relatively insignificant, even though its own power rating may be in the
neighborhood of one million kilowatts. In other words, it can be thought of as being
connected to a voltage bus of infinite capacity, so that regardless of how much energy it
delivers to (or receives from) the system, the voltage and frequency remain constant.
The objectives of this experiment are (1) to develop a basic model for the
synchronous machine, (2) to apply the model to understand the characteristics of the
machine when connected to an infinite bus, and (3) to synchronize an ac generator to a
large power system.

1. An equivalent circuit model for the synchronous machine

A basic synchronous machine is sketched in Fig. 1. The stator contains a three-phase
armature winding. When a source of three-phase ac is connected to this winding, a
magnetic field of constant amplitude is produced within the machine; in a two-pole
machine, this field rotates at frequency equal to the frequency of the applied ac. The rotor
contains a field winding that is excited by dc; this winding behaves as an electromagnet,
producing a field of strength proportional to the applied field current that is aligned with
the axis of the field winding. Alternatively, the field winding may be replaced by a
permanent magnet. Torque is produced by the two magnetic fields attempting to align,
according to the formula
T = FsFr sin δ
(1)

ECEN 4517 1
where F s and F r are
the magnitudes of the
stator and rotor fields,
respectively. The
angle δ is the angle
between the stator
and rotor fields,
commonly called the
torque angle.
The
equivalent circuit of Fig. 1 A synchronous machine. Three-phase stator (armature) windings
are not explicitly shown. Torque is produced when the magnetic
the synchronous field of the dc rotor winding (aligned with the rotor axis)
machine closely attempts to align with the rotating magnetic field of the three-
phase ac stator winding.
resembles the dc
machine model used
in Experiment 1. The key
difference is the absence of
commutator brushes, such that
the armature voltage and current
are ac. Also, the field winding is
normally placed on the rotor
with the armature winding on the
stator.
The magnitude of the
magnetic field produced by the
rotor field winding, Fr , is
proportional to the applied field
current If:
NfIf
Fr =
ℜ (2)
where N f is the number of turns
in the field winding, and ℜ is the
total reluctance in the magnetic
path of the rotor flux.
When the shaft turns, the
Fig. 2 Equivalent circuit model of the synchronous
rotor field induces a voltage in machine.

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the armature (stator) winding. This induced voltage is similar to the back EMF of the dc
machine, except that it is an ac voltage having a magnitude E and phase δ with respect to
the applied stator voltage. The magnitude E is proportional to the rotor field strength Fr
and the shaft speed ω:
E = K Fr ω (3)
where K is a constant of proportionality that depends on the machine and winding
geometry. ω is the angular shaft frequency. The stator winding model therefore includes a
voltage source E∠δ (phasor notation) as in Fig. 2. In addition, a Thevenin-equivalent
model of this winding contains a series impedance consisting of a series inductance,
known as the s y n c h r o n o u s
inductance Ls , and a series
resistance R s that models the
resistance of the wire.

2. Solution of the equivalent

circuit, connected to an
infinite bus
The circuit of Fig. 2 models one
(line-to-neutral) phase of the
three-phase machine. The applied
voltage at the terminals of the
stator winding is taken to be V∠0.
In a balanced three-phase system,
all three phases have symmetrical
waveforms. The mechanical
output power Tω is then equal to
three times the average per-phase
electrical power flowing into the
voltage source E:
Tω = P = 3Re EI s *
(4)
In Eq. (4), E is the phasor E∠δ, Is
Fig. 3 A typical generator application. Field winding is
is the phasor representing the excited by dc current source If. Armature is
stator current, Is* is the complex connected to three-phase ac infinite bus, modeled
by voltage source (one phase shown). Shaft is
conjugate of the stator current, connected to a source of mechanical power, called
the “prime mover.”

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and Re(EIs*) is the average power flowing into the voltage source E.
Figure 3 consists of the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2, connected to an infinite bus
having voltage V = V∠0. For simplicity, the stator winding resistance Rs has been
neglected. When the synchronous machine is connected to infinite bus V, the rotor must
turn at angular frequency ω equal to the angular frequency of the infinite bus. However,
the rotor can be shifted in phase (by angle δ). Let us determine the stator winding current
Is and the average power 3Re(EIs*). Solution of the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3 to find Is
leads to
Is = E – V
jωL s (5)
Substitution of V = V∠0 and E = E∠δ leads to
E cos (δ) + jE sin (δ) – V
Is =
jωL s (6)
The average power is then
P = 3Re EI *s

E cos (δ) – jE sin (δ) – V

= 3Re E cos (δ) + jE sin (δ)
– jωL s

VE sin (δ)
=3
ωL s
(7)
The generator loads the mechanical shaft with torque
P = 3 VE sin (δ)
T= ω
ω 2L s
(8)
This equation is plotted
in Fig. 4. For given
values of V and E, there
is a maximum torque
Tmax that the machine
can produce, which
occurs at δ = 90˚. As
the power and torque of
the generator are
increased, the torque
angle increases and the Fig. 4 Torque vs. torque angle characteristic of the cylindrical rotor
synchronous machine, from Eq. (8).

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rotor leads the stator rotating field. It should be noted that the above equations and Fig. 4
are valid for a cylindrical rotor machine, in which the length of the air gap is uniform. In
a salient pole machine (such as Fig. 1), the rotor is not cylindrical and the air gap length
depends on the angle with respect to the rotor axis. The expression for torque and power
is more complex in a salient pole machine, and the maximum torque typically occurs at a
smaller value of δ.
If a transient causes the instantaneous torque angle to exceed 90˚, then the
machine will “slip a pole” and the torque angle will continue to increase. If the prime
mover torque is increased beyond Tmax, then the shaft will accelerate, synchronism is lost,
and the speed may increase beyond a safe value. In either event, large transient torques
can occur that may damage the shaft and machine.

3. Discussion
When the synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus, the shaft speed is
determined by the frequency of the infinite bus and is independent of other quantities
such as field currents, load torque, etc. To the extent that the synchronous machine is
ideal, its mechanical input power must be equal to its electrical output power. To change
the electrical output power, the energy source supplying mechanical input power to the
machine must be changed. For example, if the energy source is a gasoline engine, then to
increase the electrical output power of the generator the engine throttle must be opened,
burning more gasoline. In our laboratory experiment, the mechanical energy source will
be a dc motor. To increase the power, the dc motor field current will be reduced; this
causes the dc motor to
generate more
mechanical torque and
transmit more
mechanical power
down the shaft. Note
that changing the field
current of the ac
generator has no effect
on the power flow.
Then what is the
effect of changing the
field current? Figure 5
Fig. 5 Effect of changing the field current If. Prime mover power is
illustrates what happens kept constant and equal to P1.

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 a)
when If is reduced while the average power is
maintained constant at value P = P1. Initially,
the machine operates with large field current;
the torque angle δa is found by solution of Eq.
(7). When the field current is reduced, the
magnitude of the induced voltage E is reduced
proportionally, according to Eqs. (2) and (3).
To maintain power P 1, the torque angle must
increase to δb. Note that decreasing I f also
b)
causes Pmax and Tmax to decrease, decreasing the
stability margin.
Figure 6 illustrates the effect of
reducing If on the armature current Is and power
factor. The phasor diagram of V, E, and I s is
constructed using Eq. (5). Figure 6(a)
represents the original case with large If and
with δ = δa. The voltage E induced in the stator Fig. 6 Phasor diagram of armature voltages
winding by the rotor field has relatively large and current, Eq. (5): (a) overexcited
case, generator supplies real and
magnitude, and leads the infinite bus voltage V reactive power, Iss lags V.
by angle δa. The voltage across the synchronous (b) underexcited case, same real
power as case (a) but If has been
inductance Ls is equal to (E – V) = jωLsIs. We reduced. Generator supplies real
can find Is by dividing this voltage by jωLs; I s power but consumes reactive power,
Is leads V.
lags (E – V) by 90˚. For the example sketched
in Fig. 6(a), I s lags V and hence the generator supplies both real power and reactive
power to the infinite bus. The angle θ is the phase of Is with respect to V, and hence the
power factor is cos θ. When Is lags V, the generator is said to be overexcited.
The underexcited case is illustrated in Fig. 6(b). The field current If has been
reduced, with constant power P = P1, and hence the torque angle is now δ = δ b. The
magnitude E is also reduced, as described above. This changes the voltage (E – V) as
shown, and hence Is now leads V. The generator now consumes reactive power.
The effect of field current If on the magnitude of the armature current || I s || is
summarized by Fig. 7. For a given average power P, the minimum armature current || Is ||
is observed at the value of If that leads to unity power factor. Increasing If above the unity
power factor setting causes generation of reactive power with the same real power; hence
|| Is || is increased. Decreasing If below the unity power factor setting causes consumption
of reactive power with the same real power; hence || Is || is again increased.

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 Fig. 7 Generator “V-curves”: armature current magnitude vs. field current for
given values of average power P.

A number of other systems can be modeled using the armature equivalent circuit
of Fig. 3. For example, the voltage source inverter circuit is the most commonly-used
power electronics approach to interfacing a dc power source to the ac line; this circuit can
be modeled as an effective voltage source behind an inductor. Another example is the
transmission of power through a transmission line, from one voltage bus to another. In
each case, Eqs. (5) through (8) apply, with a result similar to Figs. 5 and 6.

4. Synchronizing to an infinite bus

Let’s consider next how to connect a generator to an infinite bus. When preparing to
operate a generator (either ac or dc) in parallel with other generators or a power system, it
is always necessary to make certain that no potential difference exists across the
terminals of the paralleling switch when it is closed. It must be remembered that both the
machine and the ac system represent very low impedance circuits, and even a small
potential difference can result in very large circulating currents that may cause unwanted
circuit breaker openings and/or damaging shaft torques.
When paralleling three-phase ac generators, three voltmeters could be used: on
across the switch in each phase. When all three voltmeters read zero, the switches are

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closed to connect the generators. Instead of voltmeters, light bulbs are often used; when
all three light bulbs are dark, the voltages across the switches are close to zero.
The procedure to synchronize a generator to a power system is therefore as
follows:
(a) Drive the generator at the speed that causes its stator winding
frequency to be approximately equal to the power system
frequency

(b) Make sure that the phase sequences of the generator and power
system are the same

(c) Set the generator voltage to be equal to the power system voltage,
by adjusting the generator field current

(d) Wait until all three voltages across the switches are simultaneously
zero (or until all three light bulbs are dark), then close the switches.
When the switches are closed, a transient will pull the rotor into exact synchronism with
the power system. If the paralleling procedure is performed correctly, then this transient
will be small in magnitude. In large installations, synchronization is performed using a
synchroscope that displays the phase difference between the generator and power
systems. New designs often contain controllers that synchronize automatically.

PROBLEMS

1. A hydroelectric generator
A certain three-phase synchronous generator, designed to operate at a hydroelectric generating
station (such as Hoover Dam), has the following ratings:
shaft speed 120rpm
electrical frequency 60Hz
power 60MW, 90MVA
voltage 26kV
You are the engineer responsible for going to the dam and operating the generator for the first
time.
Synchronizing to the western power grid: The water gates are opened a little bit, and the
machine is brought up to speed. The dc field current is adjusted to 50A, which produces a
line-line voltage of 26kV, matching the power system voltage magnitude. The phase
sequence and phase are matched, and then the big switch is thrown to connect to the
power grid. The generator then produces zero watts and zero VARs.
(a) What is the torque angle under these conditions?

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 Next, the central dispatch office tells you to increase the generated power to 30MW at unity power
factor. So you open up the water gates to obtain a 30MW output power, simultaneously
increasing the field current to 60A, such that unity power factor is obtained.
(b) Determine
(i) the per-phase synchronous inductance Ls, and
(ii) under these conditions, the torque angle δ.
Next, the central dispatch office tells you to supply 10MVARs (lagging), while maintaining the
same real power of 30MW.
(c) (i) How should you change the field current?
(ii) What is the new torque angle?

2. A three-phase 60 Hz synchronous generator is operating at unity power factor, with the following
conditions:
line-line voltage 13kV
stator current 1000A
field current 80A
torque angle 20˚
(a) Determine:
(i) the magnitude of the induced voltage E, and
(ii) the value of the synchronous inductance Ls.

(b) It is now desired to supply 8MVARs (lagging) while maintaining the same real power as
above. Sketch the phasor diagram showing E, V, and I for this case, and determine
numerical values for (i) the new field current, and (ii) the new torque angle δ.

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 Experiment 5
Pre-lab assignment
ECEN 4517 / 5017

Synchronous machine

1. Read all sections of the text.

2. Do problem 1

3. Read the laboratory procedure

This assignment is due from each student at the beginning of the lab session.

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