Transport and Road Research Laboratory Overseas Unit

Department of Transport
Overseas Development Administration

Overseas Road Note 6

A guide to
geometric design

Overseas Unit
Transport and Road Research Laboratory
Crowthorne Berkshire United Kingdom
1988
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This note has been produced for the Overseas Unit of the
Transport Research Laboratory by Roughton and
Partners, Consulting Engineers. The Project Manager for
TRL was Dr R Robinson of the Overseas Unit

First Published 1988; Reprinted 1998

TRL is committed to optimising energy efficiency,

reducing waste and promoting re-cycling and re-use. In
support of these environmental goals, this note has been
printed on recycled paper, comprising 1OO% post-
consumer waste, manufactured using a TCF (totally
chlorine free) process.

OVERSEAS ROAD NOTES

Overseas Road Notes are prepared principally for road

and road transport authorities in countries receiving
technical assistance from the British Government. A
1imited number of copies is available to other
organisations and to individuals with an interest in roads
overseas, and may be obtained from

Transport Research Laboratory

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United Kingdom

© Crown Copyright 1988

Limited extracts from the text may be produced
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ISSN 0951-8797
CONTENTS

page
1. INTRODUCTION 1
Purpose of this Note 1
Approach to design 1
Selection of design standard 1
Cross sectional considerations 1
Design speed 1
Safety 1
Economic design 1
Road function 2
Traffic flow 3
Design flow 3
Composition 4
Capacity 4
Terrain 4
Curvature standards 4
The design process 5
Basic parameters 5
Select Design Class 5
Determine trial alignment 5
Design Class standards 5
Approach speed estimation 6
Economic consequences 6
Relaxation of standards 6
Economic return 6

2. CROSS-SECTION 7
Basic considerations for determining widths 7
Carriageways and shoulders 7
Passing places 8
Curve widening 8
Lateral and vertical clearances 9
Crossfall 9
Carriageway markings 10
Provision for non-motorised travellers 10
Rights-of-way 10

3. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 11
Circular curves 11
Adverse crossfall 11
Superelevation 12
Transition curves 12
Other considerations 13

4. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 14
Components of the vertical alignment 14
Crest curves 14
Sag curves 17
Gradient 19
Climbing Lanes 20

5. ECONOMICS AND SAFETY 21

Economic Assessment 21
Safety 21
Non-motorised traffic 21
Driver safety 21
 page
REFERENCES 23
APPENDIX A : GLOSSARY OF TERMS 23

APPENDIX B ESTIMATION OF VEHICLE SPEED 25

APPENDIX C : PHASING OF THE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 28

Defects in the alignment due to misphasing 28
Types of misphasing and corresponding corrective action 28
Insufficient separation between curves 28
The vertical curve overlaps one end of the horizontal curve 28
Both ends of the vertical curve lie on the horizontal curve 28
The vertical curve overlaps both ends of the horizontal curve 28
The economic penalty due to phasing 29
INTRODUCTION
types of flow, as well as geometric elements. Additional
PURPOSE OF THIS NOTE design consideration or special signing will only be necessary
where the information available to the driver may lead to
1.1 This Note gives guidance on geometric design and incorrect interpretation and consequent danger.
the setting of geometric design standards for single
carriageway rural (inter-urban) roads in developing Cross-sectional considerations
countries. It is aimed at government officials who are
responsible for formulating policy on geometric design 1.7 Cross-section parameters are related to traffic flows of
and at engineers who are responsible for preparing road all types, and will vary with the requirements of vehicular
designs. It will also be of interest to personnel in aid traffic and with the needs of pedestrians and non-motorised
agencies and consultancies who are responsible for the vehicles. In many developing country situations, it will be
preparation and design of road projects. Many countries necessary to consider cost effective ways of segregating non-
will have existing standards different from those motorised traffic at the earliest stage in the design process.
described in this guide. This should not preclude the use
of the standards in this guide, although where good local Design speed
cost and benefit information is available, some aspects
may need to be reviewed. 1.8 Design speed is used as an index which links road
function, traffic flow and terrain to the design parameters of
1.2 Geometric design is the process whereby the sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is
layout of the road in the terrain is designed to meet the presented with a reasonably consistent speed environment. In
needs of the road users. The principal geometric features practice, most roads will only be constrained to minimum
are the road cross-section and horizontal and vertical parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric
alignment. The use of geometric design standards fulfills elements.
three inter-related objectives. Firstly, standards are
intended to provide minimum levels of safety and Safety
comfort for drivers by the provision of adequate sight
distances, coefficients of friction and road space for 1.9 There is very little information from developing
vehicle manoeuvres; secondly, they provide the countries on the effects of changes in standards on accident
framework for economic design; and, thirdly, they ensure rates. Indeed. equivalent information from developed
a consistency of alignment. The design standards adopted countries is also limited. Highway engineering safety is
must take into account the environmental road usually assumed to be optimised by linking geometric
conditions, traffic characteristics, and driver behaviour. elements to a design or operating speed, so that the resulting
geometry has a consistency which reduces the likelihood of a
1.3 The derivation of the standards recommended in driver being presented with an unexpected situation. This
this Note, and summarised in Tables 1.1 and 1.2, is concept of driver expectation forms the basis of this set of
described in TRRL Contractor Report 94 (Boyce et al design standards.
1988).
Economic design
1.4 A glossary of terms in this guide is given as
Appendix A. 1.10 Designs should be justified economically, and the
optimum choice will vary with both construction and road
APPROACH TO DESIGN user costs. Construction costs will be related to terrain type
and choice of pavement construction, whereas road user costs
Selection of design standards will be related to level and composition of traffic, journey
time, vehicle operation and road accident costs. Methods of
1.5 The section of design standards is related to road determining these costs are given in Overseas Road Note 5
function, volume of traffic and terrain, with additional (TRRL Overseas Unit 1988).
procedures for the recognition and appropriate treatment
of potential hazards (Tables 1.1 and 1.2). Opportunities 1.11 The most economic designs will often not involve the
for the relaxation of standards have also been identified. use of minimum standards, as levels of traffic may be such
that the additional vehicle operating cost, accident, and travel
1.6 A basic assumption in the approach is that drivers time saving benefits from wider, straighter and shorter roads
receive clues about the standard of the road from local may more than offset the extra construction costs needed.
surrounding features such as the terrain, levels and

1
1.12 As flows increase, vehicle-to-vehicle interactions 1.14 Arterial roads are the main routes connecting national
become more important and congestion may result in and international centres. Traffic on them is derived from that
increases in journey times and accident risk if additional generated at the urban centres and from the inter-urban areas
lanes are not added. The scope of this Note has been through the Collector and Access road systems. Trip lengths
limited to single carriageway roads, and consideration of are likely to be relatively long and levels of traffic flow and
the possible introduction of dual carriageways should be speeds relatively high. Geometric standards need to be
made when flows approach 15,000 vehicles per day. adequate to enable efficient traffic operation under these
conditions, in which vehicle-to-vehicle interactions may be
ROAD FUNCTION high.

1.13 Each inter-urban road may be classified as being 1.15 Collector roads have the function of linking traffic to
arterial, collector or access in nature as shown in Figure and front rural areas, either direct to adjacent urban centres, or
1.1. to the Arterial road network. Traffic flows and trip lengths
will be of an intermediate level and the need for high
geometric standards is therefore less important.

1.16 Access roads are the lowest level in the network

hierarchy. Vehicular flows will be very light and will be
aggregated in the Collector road network. Geometric
standards may be low and need only be sufficient to provide
appropriate access to the rural agricultural, commercial and
population centres served. Substantial proportions of the total
movements are likely to be by non-motorised traffic.

1.17 Whilst this hierarchy is shown simplistically in Figure

1.1, in practice there will be many overlaps of function and
clear distinctions will not always be apparent on functional
terms alone. This hierarchy should not be confused with the
division of administrative responsibilities which may be based
on historic conditions.
Fig.1.1 Road hierarchy and function

TABLE 1.1: ROAD STANDARDS

* The two way traffic flow is recommended to be not more than one Design Class step in excess of first year ADT.
+ For unpaved roads where the carriageway is gravelled, the shoulders would not normally be gravelled; however,
for Design Class D roads, consideration should be given to gravelling the shoulders if shoulder damage occurs.

2
TABLE 1.2 : SPEED RELATED DESIGN PARAMETER

1.20 Design Classes A to F have associated bands of traffic

1.18 For the lowest Design Class of road, it is flow as shown in Table 1.1. The range of flows extends from
inappropriate to design on the basis of geometric less than 20 to 15,000 motorised vehicles per day, excluding
standards, and the sole criterion of acceptability will be motorcycles, and covers the design conditions for all single
the achievement of an appropriate level of access. carriageway roads.
Design, in these situations, should be based on minimum
values of radii, width and gradient for the passage of a 1.21 Although the levels of flow at which design standards
suitable design vehicle. change are based on the best evidence available, the
somewhat subjective boundaries should be treated as
TRAFFIC FLOW approximate in the light of the uncertainties inherent in traffic
estimation and economic variability. Therefore, design flows
Design flow should normally be constrained to be no more than one
Design Class step higher than the annual average daily traffic
1.19 The functional hierarchy is such that traffic is (ADT) in the first year of trafficking. Thus, a road with a first
aggregated as it moves from Access to Collector to year traffic flow of 390 vehicles per day rising to 1,100
Arterial road, and levels of flow will normally be vehicles per day should be constructed to Design Class C
correlated to road type. However, flow levels will vary rather than Design Class B geometry (see Table 1.1). The
between countries and regions and it is important that the design flow band in this case is therefore 400-1000 vehicles
designation of a road by functional type should not give per day. Design to the higher Design Class would result in an
rise to overdesign for the levels of traffic actually overdesigned facility during
encountered. Uneconomic designs reduce the likelihood
of roads being built and result in wastage of often scarce
national resources.

3
almost the whole of the life of the road and may provide 1.27 Level (0-10 five metre ground contours per
a solution that was less than the economic optimum. If kilometre). Level or gently rolling terrain with largely
the initial flow were 410 vehicles per day, design would unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment. Minimum
still be to Design Class C. It is particularly important that values of alignment will rarely be necessary. Roads will,
roads are not overdesigned on the basis of high traffic for the most part, follow the ground contours and
growth rates which normally incorporate considerable amounts of cut and fill will be very small.
uncertainty.
1.28 Rolling (11-25 five metre ground contours per
Composition kilometre). Rolling terrain with low hills introducing
moderate levels of rise and fall with some restrictions on
1.22 Although, in some situations, heavy vehicles vertical alignment. Whilst low standard roads will be
have a greater effect on congestion than light vehicles, no able to follow the ground contours with small amounts of
attempt has been made to use passenger car unit (pcu) cut and fill, the higher standards will require more
equivalent values. The relative effects of heavier vehicles substantial amounts.
vary with level of flow, geometry, and vehicle
performance and consistent values that are well 1.29 Mountainous (Greater than 25 five metre
researched are not available for the range of flows ground contours per kilometre). Rugged, hilly and
covered in this design guide. All flows are therefore mountainous with substantial restrictions in both
presented as ADT values. However, where there are very horizontal and vertical alignment. Higher standard roads
high percentages of heavy vehicles in a traffic stream, will generally require large amounts of cut and fill.
consideration may be given to the enhancement of
standards, and particularly of carriageway width. 1.30 In general, construction costs will be greater as
the terrain becomes more difficult and higher standards
Capacity will become less justifiable or achievable in such
situations than for roads in either flat or rolling terrain.
Drivers should also expect lower standards in such
1.23 Congestion increases with increased traffic
conditions and therefore adjust their driving accordingly,
flow when there is a lack of overtaking opportunity. The
so minimising accident risk. Design speed will therefore
result is high journey times and vehicle operating costs,
vary with terrain.
often accompanied by more accidents as frustrated
drivers take risks.
CURVATURE STANDARDS
1.24 Practical capacity is usually estimated to have
been reached when the level of congestion becomes 1.31 Minimum horizontal and vertical curvatures
"unacceptable". Capacity reduces with increased are governed by maximum acceptable levels of lateral
proportions of heavy vehicles, greater unevenness in and vertical acceleration and minimum sight distances
directional flows, reduced overtaking opportunities, required for safe stopping and passing manoeuvres.
animal drawn vehicles and pedestrian activity. Normally These design parameters are, in turn, related to the
acceptable practical capacity will be about 1500 to 2000 vehicle speeds assumed in the design. Curvature
vehicles per hour, but may be increased substantially by standards are thus either explicitly or implicitly
the provision of short sections of climbing and dependent on an assumed design speed.
overtaking lanes.
1.32 Within this guide, the adopted design speeds
1.25 Capacity is only likely to be approached for are explicitly stated and, as shown in Tables 1.1 and 1.2,
road Design Class A, or at the higher flow levels, road have been taken to vary with both terrain and level of
Design Class B, particularly in the more rugged terrain if traffic flow. However, it must be emphasised that these
adequate overtaking opportunities are unavailable. speeds are intended to provide an appropriate consistency
between geometric elements rather than as indicators of
TERRAIN actual vehicle speeds at any particular location on the
road section.
1.26 A simple classification of "level", "rolling" and
"mountainous" has been adopted and is defined by both 1.33 The use of lower design speeds in the more
subjective description and by the average ground slope. difficult terrain is intended to incorporate an element of
The average ground slope is measured as the number of 5 reduced driver expectation and performance as well as
metre contour lines crossed per kilometre on a straight the need to keep construction costs to acceptable levels.
line linking the two ends of the road section. (The slope As flows increase, the level of benefits from reduced
may be interpolated using other contour intervals on a road length also increase and generally support higher
proportional basis). standards with more direct and shorter routes.

4
THE DESIGN PROCESS
1.34 The design process is shown in Figure 1.2 with
the main features detailed below. The emphasis scale of the map or photograph. Consideration will be
throughout is on the need to obtain best value for money. given to gradient by reference to the contours of a map,
or by relief when using stereo photographs. Several
Basic parameters alternative alignments should be tried. The design
1.35 Initially, the basic parameters of road function. process should be carried out in conjunction with on-site
traffic flow and terrain type are defined. inspections and surveys. One or two of the alignments
should be chosen for additional studies in more detail and
Select Design Class be subject to further design and assessment prior to
1.36 On the basis of the above estimates, a Design possible construction.
Class is selected from Table 1.1. Values of Design
Class boundaries are for guidance only, and the lower 1.39 On two lane roads, the horizontal alignments
Design Class should be chosen in borderline cases. should be designed to maximise overtaking opportunities
by avoiding long, continuous curves. Instead, relatively
short curves at, or approaching, the minimum radius for
Determine trial alignment the design speed should be used in conjunction with
1.37 A road consists of a series of discrete straights or gentle, very large radius curves. Conversely,
geometric elements of horizontal and vertical curvature. an alignment of flowing curves may reduce real
Contiguous groups of these elements combine to form overtaking opportunities, thus encouraging injudicious
sections. In this guide, the minimum length of a road driver behaviour. On two lane single carriageway roads
section is considered to be about one kilometre. in developing countries, the provision of adequate
overtaking opportunities may be particularly important
FIG. 1.2 : The design process because of the large proportions of slow moving
vehicles.
1.40 Often a new road will be built to replace an
existing facility. The structural features of the existing
road, including bridges, embankments and cuttings may
have substantial residual value and influence alignment
choice.

1.41 The geometric standard of individual elements

of the road will vary with the terrain. It is necessary that
elements of lower geometric standard are identified to
ensure that they will not result in unacceptable hazards to
approaching vehicles. These elements will be readily
identifiable from the preliminary horizontal and vertical
curvature profiles. The tests for the necessary
consistency are simple, as described below, and should
be carried out if there is any doubt as to the acceptability
of an element.

Design Class standards

1.42 It is recommended that, where the standard of a
geometric element falls substantially below that on the
approach section, its adequacy should be checked by
estimating approach speed from the relationships given
in Appendix B. Geometric elements should not normally
be designed to a Design Class more than a one Design
Class step lower than the approach speed to that element.
However, two Design Class steps may be achieved by
successive reductions from a design speed of, for
example, 85 km/h in rolling terrain to 70 km/h and then
60 km/h (see paras 1.48-51). If this is not possible,
1.38 The initial stage in selecting an alignment for a consideration must be given to redesign of the element or
new road is to sketch a route on a contoured map or alterations to the geometry of the approach section to
aerial photograph. A similar process can be carried out obtain this speed reduction.
when investigating the upgrading of an existing road. By
reference to the standards, the designer will have some
knowledge of appropriate minimum radii for the

5
Approach speed estimation
Relaxation of standards
1.43 The speeds of freely moving vehicles on an inter-
urban road usually conform to a normal distribution 1.48 The standards summarised in Tables 1.1 and 1.2
within which percentile values of speed are are intended to provide guidance for designers rather
approximately related as follows: than to be considered as rigid minima. The justification
for construction of a particular road will almost always
• 1.2 x 15th percentile speed = 50th percentile speed be based on a detailed economic appraisal, and
• 1.2 x 50th percentile speed = 85th percentile speed relaxations of standards may be essential in order to
• 1.2 x 85th percentile speed = 99th percentile speed. achieve an acceptable level of return on investment. In
other circumstances, an already acceptable rate of return
1.44 The 85th percentile value of speed has been may be increased substantially by the inclusion of a short
used as the basis of design in this guide. Thus, 15 per section of substandard road where achievement of the
cent of the vehicles could be considered to be exceeding design standard would be expensive, although the safety
the design speed on any section of road. It also follows implications of this would need serious consideration.
from the above that, for example, with a design speed of
100 km/h: I per cent would be exceeding 120 km/h; 50 1.49 Relaxation of one Design Class step implies design
per cent would be exceeding 85 km/h; and 85 per cent to the 50th percentile rather than the 85th percentile
would be exceeding 70 km/h. Each such speed change speed. Relaxation of two Design Class steps reduces the
has been taken to represent a consistent design step in design to the 15th percentile speed. Experience in the UK
Table 1.1. in which rounded values have been used. has shown that reduction of design parameters by one
step, equivalent to a 17 per cent reduction, is likely to
1.45 A driver's ability to negotiate a geometric have little effect on safety. Normally, a relaxation of two
element safely will depend on his approach speed steps, equivalent to a 30 per cent speed reduction, should
relative to a safe speed on the element. As it is not not significantly increase risk where appropriate signing
possible to predict speed profiles accurately, it is or other warning measures, such as bend marker posts,
recommended that estimates of approach speed are made are provided. On low flow roads where most of the
using the relationships described in Appendix B. These drivers will be regular users, the increased risk will be
relationships produce estimates of 85th percentile speed. less significant and the resultant number of accidents
Speeds are modified by geometric characteristics and should be negligible. Greater care and consideration
estimates of approach speed will be based on the should be given to relaxations on high flow/high speed
geometry of about one kilometre on both approaches to alignments.
the geometric element under consideration. These
approach sections should include complete design 1.50 In special circumstances, where standards have
elements ie complete horizontal or vertical curves and been reduced on successive design elements, further
gradient lengths. There are considerable uncertainties in relaxations may be made based on those reduced
the accuracy of speed estimation relationships and the approach speeds. Sight distances, and the potential
results should therefore be treated as approximate. accident risk as a result of driver error, would need to be
considered on a site-specific basis.
Economic consequences
1.51 Reductions in standards should only apply to
1.46 If a geometric element fails to achieve the stopping distances and curvature, and suitable values
standard chosen for design, the economic consequences have been included in Table 1.2. Widths should not be
of upgrading to the standard must be considered. The reduced as they are particularly flow related, and
economic consequences should generally be measured as additional widening may be required on curves with the
additional cost of construction either in absolute terms or tighter radii.
as a proportion of the overall cost. If this cost is small,
the road alignment should normally be redesigned. If the Economic return
cost is large, consideration should be given to further
relaxation of standard as described in paras 1.48-51. 1.52 All road design projects should be subject to an
economic appraisal as recommended in Overseas Road
1.47 In general, the higher the class of road, and hence Note 5 (TRRL Overseas Unit 1988). It is essential that
volume of traffic, the more likely will benefits from those responsible for design should investigate whether
vehicle operating and time cost savings lead to the amendments to an alignment will produce significant
justification of a shorter, straighter route. increases in economic rates of return.

6
 2.3 On roads with medium volumes of traffic (100-
1000 ADT), the numbers of passing manoeuvres will
increase and pavement widening will become worthwhile
operationally and economically. However, in view of the
generally high cost of capital for construction in
2. CROSS-SECTION developing countries and the relatively low cost of travel
time, reductions in speed when approaching vehicles
pass will remain acceptable for such flow levels and
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR running surface widths of 5.0 and 5.5 metres are
DETERMINING WIDTHS recommended. For Arterial roads with higher flows (>
1000 ADT), a running surface 6.5 metres wide will allow
2.1 Road width should be minimised so as to vehicles in opposing directions of travel to pass safely
reduce the costs of construction and maintenance whilst without the need to move laterally in their lanes or to
being sufficient to carry the traffic loading efficiently and slow down.
safely. Recommended values are given in Table 1.1.
2.4 Typical cross-sections are shown in Figure 2.1.
2.2 For Access roads with low volumes of traffic
(<100 ADT), single lane operation is adequate as there CARRIAGEWAYS AND SHOULDERS
will be only a small probability of vehicles meeting, and
the few passing manoeuvres can be undertaken at very 2.5 Shoulders are recommended for all but the lowest
reduced speeds using either passing places or shoulders. Design Class and will normally be paved when the
Provided sight distances are adequate for safe stopping, carriageway is paved (Figure 2.1.). They are intended to
these manoeuvres can be performed without hazard, and perform three main traffic functions:
the overall loss in efficiency brought about by the
reduced speeds will be small as only a few such • To provide additional manoeuvring space on roads of
manoeuvres will be involved. It is not cost-effective to lower classification and traffic flows
widen the running surface in such circumstances and a • To provide parking space at least partly off the
basic width of 3.0 metres will normally suffice. In some carriageway for vehicles which are broken down
situations, 2.5 metres will allow effective passage. • To enable non-motorised traffic to travel with
minimum encroachment on the carriageway.

2.6 Additionally, it may be desirable to provide

sufficient width for two way movement during
roadworks.

2.7 Clearly, these functions are not wholly compatible

and detailed design recommendations have been based
on the following logic.

2.8 Design Class F This class of road provides basic

access only and the motorised traffic flows are so low
that shoulders are not required. All road users will share
the 3.0 (2.5) metre carriageway and passing places will
be provided as appropriate. The width should be just
sufficient to allow the occasional vehicles to traverse the
road and design to specific geometric standards will be
inappropriate.

2.9 Design Class E 1.5 metre shoulders have been

recommended for this class of Access road as they will
allow a total road width of 6.0 metres, sufficient for two
trucks to pass with 1.0 metre clearance. Shoulders may
also be used by non-motorised traffic and pedestrians,
and potential conflicts will be acceptably low with the
few motorised vehicles on the road. In difficult terrain,
and elsewhere where construction costs are high, 1.0
metre shoulders may be acceptable, particularly when
the carriageway and shoulders are paved or where the
flow of non-motorised traffic is small.

Fig.2.1 TypicaI cross-section

(Dimension in mm)
7
2.10 Design Class D On paved roads, 1.0 metre paved associated speeds on this class of road, it is
shoulders are recommended to provide a total paved recommended that non-motorised traffic be discouraged
width of 7.0 metres. this will allow approaching vehicles and alternative segregated facilities provided where
some lateral movement where necessary, albeit at a possible.
reduced speed. If the shoulders are unsurfaced, a high
level of maintenance will be necessary to avoid damage 2.14 Dual carriageway construction should be
and the resulting break up of the edge of the pavement. A considered where design flows approach about 15,000
minimum of 1.0 metre of surfaced shoulder will also vehicles per day. Design of dual carriageways is outside
encourage pedestrians and non-motorised users to use the the scope of this guide and reference should be made to
shoulders, rather than the carriageway. Shoulder the Australian (NAASRA 1980) and British (Department
delineation is particularly important. It is most unlikely of Transport 1981) standards. The flow value of 15,000
that non-motorised traffic will justify the construction of is arbitrary and, in industrialised countries, wider single
additional width with the levels of motorised vehicles on carriageway roads have been found to carry up to 20,000
this class of road. However, the justification for surfaced to 30,000 vehicles per day, albeit with some reduction in
shoulders or special provision will become greater as speeds.
flows of traffic of all kinds rise (paras 2.37-42).
Conversely, full shoulders may not be necessary in PASSING PLACES
mountainous areas when construction costs are high and
non-motorised vehicle flows are low. Where this is the
2.15 The lowest Design Class with a width of 3.0 (2.5)
case, the minimum paved width should be 5.5 metres,
metres will not allow passing and overtaking to occur
and side drains may need special consideration for safety
and passing places must he provided. The increased
reasons (para 5.11).
width at passing places should be such as to allow two
trucks to pass, ie a minimum of 5.0 metres total width,
2.11 Design Class C Roads in this category will
and vehicles would be expected to stop or slow to a very
normally be paved. Recommendations for 1.0 metre
low speed.
surfaced shoulders are similar to those for Design Class
D, but the extra 0.5 metre carriageway width to give a
2.16 Normally, passing places should be located every
total paved width of 7.5 metres will allow easier passing.
300 to 500 metres depending on the terrain and
Full shoulders may be omitted in mountainous or
geometric conditions. Account should be taken of sight
difficult terrain where the costs of achieving desired
distances, the likelihood of vehicles meeting between
cross-sections are very high.
passing places and the potential difficulty of reversing. In
general, passing places should be constructed at the most
2.12 Design Class B The carriageway of 6.5 metres will
economic locations as determined by terrain and ground
allow vehicles to pass with sufficient clearance for there
condition, such as at transitions from cut to fill, rather
to be little speed reduction or lateral movement. The
than at precise intervals.
minimum 1.0 metre shoulder will allow easier overtaking
of stopped vehicles as well as the movement of some
2.17 The length of individual passing places will vary
non-motorised traffic. Shoulders should be paved to
with local conditions and the sizes of vehicles in
provide a total paved width of 8.5 metres. At high levels
common use but, generally, a length of 20 metres
of flow, where there are substantial traffic movements of
including tapers will cater for most commercial vehicles
wide non-motorised vehicles, such as bullock carts, it
on roads of this type.
may be advisable to increase shoulder width in some
circumstances up to a maximum of 2.5 metres, or provide
2.18 A clear distinction should be drawn between,
special segregated facilities.
passing places and lay-bys. Lay-bys may be provided for
specific purposes, such as parking or bus stops, and allow
2.13 Design Class A Levels of traffic flow will be such
vehicles to stop safety without impeding through traffic.
that stopped vehicles blocking any part of the
carriageway will be likely to cause a significant hazard.
Hence, normal practice will be to provide a 2.5 metre CURVE WIDENING
shoulder, at least one metre of which should be paved.
However, shoulder width may be reduced to 1.0 metre in 2.19 Widening of the carriageway on low radius curves
difficult terrain where construction costs are high. The will be essential to allow for the swept paths of larger
shoulder would also be available for non-motorised vehicles, and the necessary tolerances in lateral location
traffic and should be paved. However, in view of the as vehicles follow a curved path.
potentially high levels of service and
2.20 Widths should be increased on horizontal curves to
allow for the swept paths of trucks and to allow drivers

8
to manoeuvre when approaching other vehicles. The 2.27 On lower Design Class roads, E and F, which have
required amount of widening is dependent on the substantial curvature requiring local widening, it may be
characteristics of the vehicles using the road, the radius practical to increase width over a complete section to
and length of the curve, and lateral clearances. offer a more consistent aspect to the driver. This
Carriageway widening is also necessary to present a enhancement of the standards should be undertaken
consistent level of driving task to the road users, to where other advantages such as easier construction or
enable them to remain centred in lane and reduce the maintenance can be identified and where the additional
likelihood of either colliding with an oncoming vehicle costs are acceptably small. This argument may also be
or driving onto the shoulder. appropriate for sections of lower curvature on roads of
Design Classes C and D.
2.21 The following levels of widening are
recommended. LATERAL AND VERTICAL CLEARANCES
2.22 Single lane roads (3.0m basic width) 2.28 Typical maximum truck heights are 4.2 metres
and, to allow adequate vertical clearance and the
Curve radius (m) 20 30 40 60 transport of abnormal loads, a 5.0 metres vertical
clearance should generally be allowed for in the design.
Increase in width (m) 1.50 1.00 0.75 0.50
2.29 Lateral clearances between roadside objects and
the edge of the shoulder should normally be 1.5 metres.
This may be reduced to 1.0 metre where the cost of
These values for widening on tight low speed bends have providing the full 1.5 metres is high.
been based on a typical two-axle truck with an overall
width of 2.5 metres, wheel base of 6.5 metres and overall 2.30 Much smaller clearances will sometimes be
length of 11.0 metres. This type of truck is typical of the necessary at specific locations such as on bridges,
two-axle vehicles to be found in most developing although a minimum of 1.0 metre will remain desirable.
countries. Articulated vehicles have not been considered Minimum overall widths in such circumstances should be
explicitly as they are not common on Access roads. sufficient to allow the passage of traffic without an
unacceptable reduction in speed, which will depend on
2.23 Two lane roads the length of the reduced width section and levels of
motorised and non-motorised traffic flow. Separate
Curve radius (m) <50 50-149 150-299
300- facilities should be provided for pedestrians where
400 possible.
Increase in width (m) 1.50 1.00 0.75 0.50
CROSSFALL

2.31 Crossfall should be sufficient to provide adequate

2.24 The above values are guidelines only and there surface drainage whilst not being so great as to be
will be many situations in which widening is neither hazardous by making steering difficult. The ability of a
necessary nor cost-effective. surface to shed water varies with its smoothness and
integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable
2.25 Widening should be applied on the inside of a value of crossfall should be related to the need to carry
curve and be gradually introduced over the length of the surface water away from the pavement structure
transition. effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion
of material starts to become a problem.
2.26 On the narrower two lane roads of Design Class C
and D, particularly if there are high flows of trucks, it 2.32 The normal crossfall should be 3 per cent on paved
may be desirable to widen the roads on crest vertical roads and 4 to 6 per cent on unpaved roads. Shoulders
curves. Widening of 0.5 metre should be considered having the same surface as the carriageway should have
where K values are within one Design Class step of the the same cross slope. Unpaved shoulders on a paved road
minimum for safe stopping sight distance. should be 2 per cent steeper than the crossfall of the
carriageway. The precise choice of crossfall on unpaved
roads will vary with construction type and material rather
than any geometric design requirement. In most
circumstances, crossfalls of 5 to 6 per cent should be
used, although the value will change throughout the
maintenance cycle.

9
CARRIAGEWAY MARKINGS 2.41 There may be substantial movements of
pedestrians and non-motorised vehicles which will
generally be attracted by the surface quality and all
2.33 Carriageway marking should be provided on
weather properties of roads. Special provisions should be
all two-way paved roads.
made in situations where such flows are significant with
respect to the level of motorised vehicle movements.
2.34 The edge of the carriageway should be
Some localised shoulder improvements may be
delineated by continuous lines and may be supported by
appropriate as non-motorised traffic generally increases
surfacing road studs. or other features. The lines should
near towns and villages. Two features which are
be situated on the shoulder immediately adjacent to the
recommended where large numbers of non-motorised
running surface and should be at least lOOmm in width.
users travel on the shoulders are:
Alternatively or additionally, delineation can be provided
more permanently by sealing the shoulder with a
• The shoulders should be sealed
different coloured aggregate to the running surface. (If,
• They should be clearly segregated by the use of
contrary to these recommendations, an unsealed shoulder
edge of carriageway surface markings or other
is adopted, the first 150mm should be sealed for marking
purposes). measures.

2.35 Centre line markings are also recommended on Special crossing facilities should be provided where
possible and necessary.
roads of at least 5 metres width designed for two lane
operation in order that a driver may correctly locate his
lateral position. These markings should be 100mm wide 2.42 On high speed roads with substantial flows of
and normally be discontinuous. except where overtaking motorised vehicles, non-motorised traffic should be
is restricted. and may be supported by the use of road given a separate segregated by a physical barrier such as
studs. a kerb. Crossing movements should also be concentrated
at specific locations and special crossing facilities
2.36 Within the requirements for centre line and provided. Traffic approaching these facilities should be
edge markings, local standards and manuals should be given adequate warning and stopping sight distances
used or developed to provide uniformity of marking which are greater than minimum values should be
throughout a national road network. All road markings provided where possible.
should conform to international standards.
RIGHTS-OF-WAY
PROVISION FOR NON-MOTORISED
TRAVELLERS 2.43 It is recommended that the rights-of-way
should extend to a minimum of three metres from the
edge of the road works. This right-of-way should
2.37 Consideration needs to be given to the
normally be marked by a fence for road Design Classes
movement of pedestrians. cyclists and animal drawn
A and B, and as appropriate for the lower Design
vehicles either along or across the road. Measurements or
Classes.
estimates of such movements should be made, where
possible, to give a firmer basis for making decisions on
2.44 The right-of-way must include the acquisition
the design.
of land necessary for the provision of special facilities for
pedestrians and other non-motorised road users.
2.38 At very low flows of motorised traffic, the
Consideration should also be given to the acquisition of
problem of interaction is likely to be small. However,
land for short cuts and paths for pedestrians where they
care must be taken to ensure that adequate sight distances
exist away from the road.
and/or warnings are given to a driver as he approaches
any area of high activity such as a village.
2.45 Rights-of-way may be reserved for future
upgrading of the alignment, although this would not be
2.39 As flows become greater, the conflicts between normal practice.
slow and fast moving traffic will increase and additional
widths of both shoulder and running surface may be
necessary. The increase in width will vary with the
relative amounts of traffic, their characteristics and the
terrain, and should be related to the needs of individual
countries and regions as well as individual sections of
road. In view of the relatively high costs normally
involved in widening, care should be taken to ensure that
only those sections of shoulder are widened which are
justified by local demand.

2.40 Recommendations for shoulder widths in these

situations are given in paras 2.5-2.13.

1
0

10
 3.5 Where only small numbers of specialist
3. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT vehicles are involved and the costs of improving the
alignment are high, not all vehicles can expect to traverse
CIRCULAR CURVES a curve on a single lane road in a single manoeuvre and
reversing may be necessary.
3.1 When vehicles negotiate a curve, a sideways
frictional force is developed between the tyres and road ADVERSE CROSSFALL
surface. This friction must be less than the maximum
available friction if the bend is to be traversed safely. For 3.6 The normal crossfall on a road will result in a
any given curve and speed, superelevation may be vehicles on the outside lane of a horizontal curve needing
introduced to enable a component of the vehicle's weight to develop high levels of frictional force to resist sliding;
to reduce the frictional need. The general relationship for the amount of increase being dependent on speed, curve
this effect is: radius and crossfall. In order to achieve the necessary
cornering stability, it is recommended that adverse
2 crossfall is removed. The identification of speed and
V radius combinations at which this should occur is rather
R= subjective as there is no evidence linking adverse
127 (e+f) crossfall to accident risk. A side friction factor of 0.07
has been taken as giving suitable minimum radii below
where: R = Radius of curve (metres) which adverse crossfall should be removed. With a
V = Speed of vehicles (km/h) normal crossfall of 3 per cent, this value results in a
e = Crossfall of road (metres per metre) minimum radii shown in Table 3.1. Values for unpaved
f = Coefficient of side friction force developed roads are based on a 4 per cent crossfall which is the
between the vehicles tyres and road minimum crossfall that should be allowed before
pavement. maintenance is carried out if effective cross-drainage is
still to be provided.
The value of e may represent the simple removal of
adverse crossfall or include superelevation. TABLE 3.1: MINIMUM RADII OF CURVES
BELOW WHICH ADVERSE CROSSFALL
3.2 The side friction factor may be considered to SHOULD BE REMOVED
be the lateral force developed by the driver on a level
road. The technical evidence indicates that lateral
accelerations, and hence side friction factors, increase
with reduced radii of curvature and increased speed. The
range is considerable and values of "f' found from public
road measurements have varied from just over 0.1 for
high speed roads to over 0.5 on lower speed roads. The
results of empirical studies have indicated 0.22 as a value
of "f' above which passengers experience some
discomfort. The much higher values found on low radius
curves indicate that drivers and passengers have a much
higher tolerance in these situations. The values of "f'
chosen to calculate minimum radii requirements in this
guide range from 0.15 to 0.33. A substantial reserve
exists between these comfort and control related values,
and those at which the vehicle would start to slide
sideways.

3.3 In this guide, it is recommended that curves are * Values in the brackets are the design speeds in
designed such that it is necessary for vehicles travelling km/h with zero lateral accelerations for 3 per cent
at the design speed to steer into a bend. crossfall ie the speeds at which curve can be negotiated
with “hands off” (approximately one speed design step
3.4 The minimum radii values shown in Table 1.2
were derived on the basis of sideways friction factors and lower).
superelevation. In some situations with minimal lateral
clearances, sight distance will be the factor controlling 3.7 The values shown in the table are approximate
minimum radii. Sight distances may be improved by and cut-off levels should be varied to offer consistency to
increasing curve radius or sight distance across the inside the driver. For example, two adjacent horizontal curves
of the curve. on a road link, one of which is marginally above the cut-
off whilst the other is marginally below the minimum
radii given, should be treated in a similar manner in the
design.

11
 F ig.3. 1 Superevelation design curves
3.11 Where transition curves are used (paras 3.14-19),
superelevation should be applied over the length of the
transition curves. Otherwise it should be introduced such
3.8 Removal and restoration of adverse crossfall should that two thirds are applied prior to the start of the circular
take place over similar distances to superelevation as curve.
described in the following Section.
3.12 For curves with radii above the minimum values,
SUPERELEVATION but below the values at which adverse crossfall should be
eliminated, it is advisable to improve passenger comfort
3.9 For small radius curves and at higher speeds, the by introducing superelevation and reducing the sideways
removal of adverse crossfall alone will be insufficient to force. Intermediate values of superelevation are given in
reduce frictional needs to an acceptable level, and Figure 3.1.
crossfall should be increased by the application of
superelevation. A minimum radius is reached when the 3.13 On paved roads with unsealed shoulders, the
maximum acceptable frictional and superelevation shoulders should drain away from the paved area to
derived forces have been developed. These minimum avoid loose material being washed across the road.
radii values are identified in Figure 3.1 for maximum
levels of superelevation of 10 per cent. These relate to TRANSITION CURVES
paved roads only. Although this percentage is rather
arbitrary, it is widely considered to be a value above 3.14 The characteristic of a transition curve is that it
which drivers may find it difficult to remain centred in
has a constantly changing radius. Transition curves may
lane as they negotiate a bend.
be inserted between tangents and circular curves to
reduce the abrupt introduction of the lateral acceleration.
3.10 On unpaved roads, the crossfall is designed to
They may also be used to link straights or two circular
remove rainwater quickly and effectively, and will be
curves.
dependent on local conditions and materials. Values of
superelevation lower than the value of the crossfall will
3.15 In practice, drivers employ their own transition on
fail to drain the surface, whist higher values will be likely
entry to a circular curve and transition curves contribute
to result in erosion. On unpaved roads, the maximum
to the comfort of the driver in only a limited number of
superelevation will therefore be the elimination of
adverse crossfall (see Table 3.1).

12
situations. However, they also provide convenient OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
sections over which superelevation or pavement
widening may be applied, and can improve the 3.20 For small changes of direction, it is often
appearance of the road by avoiding sharp discontinuities desirable to use large radius curves. This improves the
in alignment at the beginning and end of circular curves. appearance of the road by removing rapid changes in
For large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral edge profile. It also reduces the tendency for drivers to
acceleration is small and transition curves are not cut the comers of small radius curves. Providing the
normally required. curve radii are sufficiently large, visibility should not be
restricted enough to prevent safe overtaking.
3.16 Several methods exist for the calculation of
transition curves and any may be used in most situations. 3.21 The use of long curves of tight radii should be
The rate of pavement rotation method has been adopted avoided where possible, as drivers at speeds other than
here. The rate of pavement rotation is defined as the the design speed will find it difficult to remain in lane.
change in crossfall divided by the time taken to travel Curve widening reduces such problems. In such
along the length of transition at the design speed. The situations, it will usually be more important to provide
length of transition curve is derived from the formula: adequate overtaking opportunities with longer straights
and tighter curves, and to overcome terrain constraints,
e.V than to allow for detailed operational problems.
Ls =
3.6n 3.22 Abrupt changes in direction from successive
curves should be avoided where possible by the inclusion
of a tangent section in between. This will allow
where Ls = Length of transition curve (metres) appropriate changes to be made in crossfall and
e = Superelevation of the curve (metres per metre) superelevation.
V= Design speed (km/h)
n = Rate of pavement rotation (metres per metre 3.23 Successive curves in the same direction should
per second) also be separated by an appropriate tangent, as drivers
are unlikely to anticipate what may be an abrupt change
in radial acceleration.
3.17 The same values of rate of change of pavement
rotation should be used to calculate the minimum length
(Lc) over which adverse camber should be removed on
a tangent section prior to the transition:

e .V
n
Lc =
3.6n

Where Lc =Length of section over which adverse

camber is removed
en =Normal crossfall of the pavement (metres
per metre).

3.18 The length of transition curve (Ls) is used to

apply the superelevation, with the adverse camber
removed on the preceding section of tangent (Lc). The
change from normal cross-section to full superelevation
at the start of the circular curve is achieved over the
superelevation run-off distance which is the sum of Ls
and Lc.

3.19 Several relationships are available to calculate

the coordinates of a transition curve. The shift, ie the
offset of the start of the circular curve from the line of
the tangent, should be at least 0.25 metres for appearance
purposes. The transition should be omitted if the shift is
less than this value.

13
 where sight distance is less than the length of the vertical
4. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT curve, and the second is where sight distance extends
beyond the vertical curve. Consideration of the properties
COMPONENTS OF THE VERTICAL ALIGNMENT of the parabola results in the following relationships for
minimum curve length to achieve the required sight
4.1 The two major aspects of vertical alignment are distances:
vertical curvature, which is governed by sight distance
and comfort criteria, and gradient which is related to 2
G.S
vehicle performance and level of service
For S<L: Lm=
2
4.2 Vertical curves are required to provide smooth 200 (√h1 + √h2)
transitions between consecutive gradients and the simple
parabola is recommended for these. The parabola
provides a constant rate of change of curvature, and
hence visibility, along its length and has the form: 2
200 (√h1 + √h2)
2 For S>L: Lm = 2S -
G.L x G
y=
200 L where Lm = minimum length of vertical crest curve
(metres)
S = required sight distance (metres)
where y = vertical distance from the tangent to the
G = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
curve (metres)
x = horizontal distance from the start of the h1 = driver eye height (metres)
vertical curve (metres) h2 = object height (metres)
G = algebraic difference in gradients (%)
L = length of vertical curve (metres)
4.6 For S<L, the most common situation in
CREST CURVES practice, L = K.C where K is a constant for a given
design speed (minimum safe stopping speed), eye and
4.3 The minimum lengths of crest curves have object heights.
been designed to provide sufficient sight distance during
daylight conditions. Longer lengths would be needed to 4.7 Eye height (h1) has been taken as 1.05 metres,
meet the same visibility requirements at night on unlit and object heights have been adopted of 0.2 metres
roads. Even on a level road, low meeting beam headlight above the road surface and to the road surface itself. The
illumination may not even show up small objects at the need to see the road surface is only applicable in
design stopping sight distances. However, it is particular circumstances such as a vertical curve on the
considered that these longer lengths of curve are not approach to a ford or drift where a driver may have to
justified as high objects and vehicle tail lights will be stop because of the presence of surface water.
illuminated at the required stopping sight distances on
crest curves. Vehicles will be identified by the 4.8 Two approaching vehicles on a single lane road
approaching illumination and drivers should be more require twice the distance in order to stop safely and
alert at night and/or be travelling at reduced speed. avoid collision, and in this instance an object height of
1.05 metres has been used. The K-values relating change
4.4 The greater sight distances required to provide in gradient to minimum vertical curve length are given in
safe overtaking opportunities are not easily provided on Table 1.2 for the various object heights.
crest curves. If full overtaking sight distance cannot be
obtained, the design should aim to reduce the length of 4.9 Charts of required lengths of vertical curves for
crest curves to provide the minimum stopping sight safe stopping for an object on the road, safe overtaking
distance, thus increasing overtaking opportunities on the and for meeting vehicles on a single lane, are shown in
gradients on either side of the curve. Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 respectively. Minimum values
have been derived from considerations of appearance.
4.5 Two conditions exist when considering
minimum sight distance criteria on vertical curves. The 4.10 Sight distances have been based on the
first is characteristics of car drivers as, although braking
distances are greater with trucks, they will usually be
travelling more slowly and the eye height of truck drivers
is about 1.0 metre higher. Requirements are related to
rates of deceleration available with an emergency stop.
Skid resistance values are dependent

14
 Algebraic difference in gradient (A)(%)

Fig.4.1 Length of crest vertical curves for safe stopping sight distance

15
 Algebraic difference in gradient A (%)

Fig.4.2 Length of crest vertical curve for overtaking sight distance

16
 Algebraic difference in gradient A (%)

Fig.4.3 Length of crest vertical curve for safe stopping sight distance for meeting vehicles

on tyre, road surface conditions and speed, and vary

2
substantially. The values for available longitudinal For S < L: Lm = G.S
friction in this guide are given in Table 1.2. A reaction
200 (h1 + S.tanθ)
time of 2.0 seconds has been assumed. Drivers will react
more quickly when alert and in a situation where action
is expected and, in practice, reaction times normally vary
from about 0.5 to 1.7 seconds. 200 (h1 + S.tanθ)
For S > L: Lm = 2S -
SAG CURVES G

4.11 It has been assumed that adequate sight where h1 = headlight height (metres)
distance will be available on sag curves in daylight. θ = angle of upward divergence of headlight
However, at night, visibility is limited by the distance beam (degrees)
illuminated by the headlamp beams, and minimum sag
curve length for this condition is given as: Appropriate values for h1 and θ are 0.6 metres and 1.0
degrees respectively.

17
 Algebraic difference in gradient A (%)

Fig.4.4 Length of sag vertical curve for adequate riding comfort

4.13 It is recommended that, for most situations, sag

4.12 The use of these equations can lead to curves are designed using the driver comfort criterion of
requirements for unrealistically long vertical curves as, vertical acceleration. The values used are given in Table
especially at higher speeds, sight distances may be in 4.2 and the resulting curve length values are shown in
excess of the effective range of the headlamp beam, Figure 4.4. with minimum length values for satisfactory
particularly when low meeting beams are used. Thus, the appearance.
only likely situation when the above equations should be
considered for use is on the approaches to fords and TABLE 4.2 : MINIMUM LEVELS OF
drifts and other similar locations where flowing or ACCEPTABLE VERTICAL ACCELERATION
standing water may be present on the road surface. Most
of these structures occur on low speed road where
headlamp illumination is more likely to reach the full
sight distances.

18
GRADIENT 4.15 For very low levels of traffic flow with only a
few four-wheel drive vehicles, the maximum traversable
4.14 Vehicle operations on gradients are complex gradient is in excess of 20 per cent. Small commercial
and depend on a number of factors: severity and length vehicles can usually negotiate an 18 per cent gradient.
of gradient; level and composition of traffic; the number whilst two-wheel drive trucks can successfully tackle
of overtaking opportunities on the gradient and in its gradients of 15-16 per cent except when heavily laden.
vicinity. These performance considerations have formed the basic
limiting criteria for gradient as shown in Table
1.1.

Gradient (%)

Fig.4.5 Estimated speed increases with climbing lanes

Note:

1) The above results are estimations based on simulation. Vehicle performance and driver characteristics will vary
from country to country and the assumptions incorporated here should be considered as coarse approximations.

2) Climbing lanes on gradients of up to 100 metres in length were shown to have little effect.

3) Varying the percentage of heavy vehicles (HGV) from 20 percent to 40 percent has little effect on the mean speed
reduction.

4) The above curves are based on directional flows of 200 vehicles per hour. For lower flows. the benefits of a
climbing lane were small, although for higher flows of 400 to 600 vehicles per hour. the benefits were found to
increase by about 25 percent on a 300 metre gradient, and by about 60 percent on a 600 metre long gradient.

5) The speed increases shown in the above Figure are values averaged over a 1.0 kilometre section of road which
contains the gradient section.

19
 4.19 Benefits from the provision of a climbing lane
4.16 Gradients of 10 per cent or over will usually accrue because faster vehicles are able to overtake more
need to be paved to enable sufficient traction to be easily, resulting in shorter average journey times and
achieved, as well as for pavement maintenance reasons. reduced vehicle operating costs. Benefits will increase
There will often be considerable non-motorised with increases in gradient, length of gradient, traffic
movement on the lower Design Class roads and, whilst flow, the proportion of trucks, and reductions in
pedestrian and animal movements are possible on very overtaking opportunities. The effect of a climbing lane in
steep inclines, some laden animal drawn carts may find breaking up queues of vehicles held up by a slow moving
steep grades difficult to traverse because of a lack of truck will continue for some distance along the road.
grip.
4.20 The effects of a climbing lane on the mean
4.17 As traffic flows increase, the economic operating speed of a traffic stream have been estimated
disbenefits of more severe gradients, measured as with a simulation model and are given as Figure 4.5 for
increased vehicle operating and travel time costs, are guidance. These mean speeds should be used with local
more likely to result in economic justification for values of travel time savings. appropriate vehicle
reducing the severity and/or length of a gradient. On the operating costs savings, and the additional costs of
higher Design Classes of road, the lower maximum construction, to estimate overall economic returns of the
recommended gradients (Table 1.1) reflect the alternatives to enable the most cost-effective solution to
economics, as well as the need to avoid the build up of be determined. With the generally low values of travel
local congestion. However, separate economic time found in developing countries and excluding
assessment of alternatives to long or severe gradients accident considerations, climbing lanes are unlikely to be
should be undertaken where possible or necessary. An justified other than on a small proportion of Arterial
estimation of vehicle operating cost savings may be roads with very high flows. In view of the uncertainties
made from relationships such as those incorporated in the associated with simulation, local data should be used
TRRL road investment model (micro-RTIM2), or the where available.
World Bank's highway design and maintenance standards
model (HDM-III). 4.21 As climbing lanes will be used largely by
trucks and buses, they must be a minimum of 3.0 metres
CLIMBING LANES in width. They must be clearly marked and, where
possible, should end on level or downhill sections where
4.18 A climbing lane may be introduced as a more speed differences between different classes of vehicle are
cost effective alternative to reducing a gradient. lowest to allow safe and efficient merging manoeuvres.

20
5. ECONOMICS AND SAFETY
Non-motorised traffic
ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
5.7 This traffic should normally be segregated onto
5.1 All road schemes must be worthwhile sealed shoulders of appropriate width. Clear
economically. However, a road scheme with higher than delineation is essential and may be achieved by road
necessary geometric standards may achieve a target rate markings, use of different coloured surfacing, surface
of return without giving best value for money. In texture, or kerb features.
developing countries, finance is usually scarce and it is
particularly important that minimum effective designs 5.8 Kerb features may include edge strips or
are used to enable the funds saved to be applied intermittent placement of slightly raised blocks,
elsewhere. The standards recommended in this guide are sufficient to deter drivers from travelling over them at
intended to encourage the identification of such speed, but not so raised as to be likely to cause loss of
minimum effective designs. control or damage to the vehicles. Such features should
not be more than about 20mm high. They must be clearly
5.2 In most developing countries, the economic marked and should only be introduced on roads of
benefits from road schemes are mainly derived from Design Class A and B with running widths of 6.5 metres.
vehicle operating cost savings. Other benefits are savings
in travel time and reduced accident rates. All three types 5.9 Traffic on the approach to crossing facilities, or
of benefit are increased by reducing route length and, for through villages where many crossing pedestrian
higher flow roads, such savings may well outweigh the movements are concentrated, may be slowed down by
additional costs of straightening a tortuous alignment. the use of road humps or other pavement features. Road
Whilst this process is reflected in the design steps shown humps should be designed as shown in Figure 5.1. Short
in Figure 1.2, care must be taken to ensure that a proper sharp humps are not recommended as they can damage
range of alternative alignments is considered to achieve tyres and suspensions, and lead to loss of control. They
the best economic return. must not be placed on high speed roads. Warning signs
must be provided on the approaches to road humps and
5.3 The choice of an appropriate unit value of where crossing movements are concentrated. Proper
travel time is often contentious and, in most situations, maintenance of the profiles of road humps is essential.
the extent and value of potential accident savings is Alternative effective features include "rumble strips",
difficult to define. A recommended approach to costing which are short sections of road with a coarse surface
in both of these areas is given in Overseas Road Note 5 texture.
(TRRL Overseas Unit 1988).

SAFETY
5.4 The operating conditions on roads in
developing countries are normally very different from
those in developed countries. Principal areas of
difference are the substantial variations in vehicle
performance and condition, the often large amounts of
non-motorised traffic, and low levels of training and
control of road users.

5.5 Road accident rates in developing countries are

high and result in substantial economic loss as well as
pain, grief and suffering. However, in view of the Fig.5.1. Road hump cross-section and
uncertainties of accident prediction, it has not been dimensions
possible to evaluate the specific effects of the geometric (Dimensions in mm)
design parameters recommended in this guide. Therefore,
accident rates must be monitored accurately to identify 5.10 Shoulder width must reflect the characteristics
the need for specific remedial treatment, and to form a of the non-motorised traffic using it and additional width
basis for future local amendments to the design may be required where there are substantial flows of
procedure. pedestrians, cycle rickshaws, bullock carts, etc.
Segregation is recommended where such flows coincide
5.6 In general, designers should be aware of the with heavy flows of motorised vehicles, or where it may
need to consider safety, and should make use of be achieved through low cost measures.
opportunities which may arise at design or construction
stages, and which may result in substantial benefits at
little additional cost. The following factors should be Driver safety
considered when designing for safety. 5.11 Occasionally a driver will lose control and
swerve off the road. Design features should be such that
the effects of such a manoeuvre will be minimised:

21
• Steep open side drains should be avoided as these 5.12 The detailed design of junctions and
will increase the likelihood of vehicles overturning; trees accesses is beyond the scope of this guide.
should not be planted immediately adjacent to the road However, they should he situated at locations
• Because of their high costs of installation and where full safe stopping sight distances are
maintenance, guard rails should only be introduced at available.
sites of known accident risk.
5.13 A check list of engineering design
features that affect road safety is given in
Figure 5.2.

Fig.5.2. Example of effect of engineering design on road safety

22
REFERENCES
BOYCE, AM et al, 1988. A review of geometric design
APPENDIX A
and standards for rural roads in developing countries.
Contractor Report 94. Crowthome: Transport and Road GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Research Laboratory. Access Road. The lowest level of road in the network
hierarchy with the function of linking traffic to and from
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT, 1981. Highway rural areas, either direct to adjacent urban centres, or to
link design. Departmental Standard TD9/81. London: the Collector road network; a feeder road or tertiary route
Department of Transport. (see Fig 1.1).
NAASRA, 1980. Interim guide to the geometric design Adverse crossfall. Crossfall on a horizontal curve that
of rural roads. Sydney: National Association of tilts away from the centre of the curve.
Australian State Road Authorities.
Annual average daily traffic (ADT). The total annual
TRRL OVERSEAS UNIT, 1988. A guide to road traffic in both directions on a road link divided by 365.
project appraisal. Overseas Road Note 5. Crowthorne:
Transport and Road Research Laboratory. Arterial road. A main route connecting national or
international centres: a primary route (see Fig 1.1).

Capacity. The maximum practicable traffic flow in

given circumstances.

Carriageway. That part of the road constructed for use

by moving traffic, including auxiliary lanes, climbing
lanes and passing places (see Figure 2.1).

Climbing lane. An auxiliary lane provided on an up

gradient for use by slow moving vehicles and to facilitate
overtaking.

Coefficient of friction. The ratio of the frictional force

on the vehicle, and the component of the weight of the
vehicle perpendicular to the frictional force.

Collector road. A road that has the function of linking

traffic to and from rural areas, either direct to adjacent
urban centres, or to the Arterial road network; a
secondary route (see Fig 1.1).

Crest. A peak formed by the junction of two gradients.

Cross-section. A vertical sect ion of the road at right

angles to the centre line.

Crossfall. The difference in level measured traversely

across the surface of the carriageway.

Design Class. The classification of roads for geometric

design purposes according to traffic and road function
(see Table 1.1).

Design Speed. The 85th percentile speed of vehicles on

any particular section of road.

Dual carriageway. A road having two separate

carriageways for travel in opposite directions.

23
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Edge strip. A flush border of stone, concrete or other Mountainous (terrain). Terrain that is rugged and very
material laid or formed at the edge of the carriageway to hilly with substantial restrictions in both horizontal and
delineate the shoulder. vertical alignment; the road line crosses more than 25
five metre ground contours per kilometre (see para.
Eye height. An assumed height of drivers' eyes above 1.29).
the surface of the carriageway used for the purpose of
determining sight distances. Network (hierarchy). The classification of roads
according to Arterial, Collector and Access (see Fig.
Free speed. The speed at which a vehicle travels on 1.1).
uncongested, flat, straight, smooth and wide sections of
road in the particular environment under consideration. Normal distribution. A symmetrical hell-shaped curve
relating the probability of occurrence of an event to the
(Road) function. The objective of providing a particular range of events possible; for the mathmatical formulation
road link in terms of being "Arterial", "Collector" or of the normal distribution, any standard text on statistics
"Access". should be consulted.

Geometric element. An individual horizontal or vertical Object height. An assumed height of a notional object
curve, transition curve, gradient, or straight section of on the surface of the carriageway used for the purpose of
road. determining sight distance.

Geometric (design) standards. Guidelines for limiting Passenger car unit (pcu). A unit for converting the
values of road alignment and cross-section design. equivalence in terms of effect on capacity of different
vehicle types in terms of one normal passenger car.
Gradient. The rate of rise or fall on any length of road,
with respect to the horizontal. Passing place. A local widening of a narrow carriageway
to enable vehicles to pass or overtake each other.
Guard rail. A continuous barrier erected alongside a
carriageway to minimise the consequences of vehicles Pavement. The part of a road designed to withstand the
running off the road. weight or loading by traffic.

"Hands off" speed. The speed at which, for a particular Percentile. The percentage of the total below which the
combination of horizontal curvature and superelevation, given number of values fall.
a vehicle will follow the curve without any necessity to
steer to the left or the right. Rate of pavement rotation. The ratio of the change in
crossfall to the time taken to travel along the length of a
Horizontal alignment. The direction and course of the transition curve when travelling at the design speed.
centre line in plan.
Residual value. The value of a road which remains at the
Horizontal curve/curvature. A curve/succession of end of the economic evaluation period; normally taken as
curves, normally circular, in plan. the difference in cost between rebuilding the road at the
end of its life using the structure remaining from the
K-value. The ratio of the minimum length of vertical initial project, and the building cost if the first project
crest curve in metres to the algebraic difference in were not to take place.
percentage gradients adjoining the curve.
Right-of-way. The physical extent of the right of access
Kerb. A border, flush or up-standing, of stone, concrete that is granted in association with a road.
or other material laid or formed at the edge of a
carriageway, shoulder or footway. Road hump. A physical obstruction, normally of semi-
circular profile, placed transversely on the surface of the
Lane. A strip of carriageway intended to accommodate a carriageway for the purpose of reducing traffic speed.
single lane of moving vehicles, frequently defined by
carriageway markings. Rolling (terrain). Terrain with low hills introducing
moderate levels of rise and fall with some restrictions on
Level (terrain). Flat or gently rolling terrain with largely vertical alignment; the road line crosses 11-25 five metre
unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment; the road ground contours per kilometre (see para. 1.28).
line crosses 0-10 five metre ground contours per
kilometre (see para. 1.27).
Rumble strip. A strip of coarse textured surfacing
APPENDIX B
material placed on the surface of the carriageway for the
purpose of altering drivers. ESTIMATION OF VEHICLE SPEED
B.1 In order to estimate the 85th percentile approach
Sag (curve). A depression formed by the junction of two speed of a particular class of vehicle on the road under
gradients. investigation, it is necessary to determine the "free
speed" of that class of vehicle. This is defined as the
Shoulder. That part of the road outside the carriageway, speed at which vehicles of different classes are observed
but at substantially the same level (see Figure 2.1). to travel on uncongested, flat, straight, smooth and wide
sections of road in the environment under investigation.
Sight distance. The distance at which' an object becomes These speeds have been found to be affected by the
visible to an observer, the height above the carriageway general layout of the roads in the area and overall
of observer and object being specified. characteristics of driver behaviour which are not, at this
stage, amenable to modelling. For example, vehicles
Speed environment The speed below which 85 percent operated in predominantly hilly regions are found to have
of vehicles are driving on the longer straights and large considerable lower free speeds than those in rolling
radius curves of a section of road where speed is not terrain. Similarly, the free speeds of vehicles operated on
constrained by traffic or geometric elements. roads where straying animals are common, or that tend to
have slow-moving animal-drawn carts, are lower than
Superelevation. The inward tilt or transverse inclination those of vehicles operated on roads which are free of
given to the cross-section of a carriageway throughout such obstacles
the length of a horizontal curve to reduce the frictional
requirements between the vehicles' tyres and the road B.2 The following tables enable estimates of speed to
surface. be made over any section of road. Where possible, free
speeds should he determined by field measurement on a
Superelevation run-off. The length of road over which flat, straight, smooth and wide section of road. Where it
superelevation is reduced from its maximum value to is not possible to determine a local value, the mid value
zero. for the range given in the tables should be used. Starting
with the estimate of 85th percentile free speed,
Taper. The transition length between a passing place, reductions from this are successively made to take
auxiliary lane or climbing lane and the standard account of road rise, fall, horizontal curvature, width, etc,
carriageway. for the road section approaching the geometric element
being designed. In most cases, the design vehicle will be
Transition curve. A curve in which the radius changes a car, and Table B 1 should be used.
continuously along its length, used for the purpose of
connecting a straight with a circular curve, or two B.3 These tables give only crude estimates of the
circular curves of different radii. 85th percentile speed and SHOULD BE USED
WITH CAUTION
Vertical alignment. The direction and course of the
centre line in profile.

Vertical curve/curvature. A curve/succession of curves,

normally parabolic, in profile.

25
TABLE B1:CAR SPEEDS

26
TABLE B2 : TRUCK AND BUS SPEEDS INCREASE IN SPEED DUE TO
POWER TO WEIGHT RATIO

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APPENDIX C
separation between the curves
PHASING OF THE VERTICAL AND
HORIZONTAL ALIGNEMNT The vertical curve overlaps one end of
the horizontal curve
DEFECTS IN THE ALIGNMENT DUE TO
MISPHASING C.7 If a vertical crest curve overlaps either the
beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver's
C.1 Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of perception of the change of direction at the start of the
a road implies their coordination so that the line of the horizontal curve may be delayed because his sight
road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is
creation of hazards and visual defects. It is particularly hazardous. The position of the crest is important because
important in the design of high-speed roads on which a vehicles tend to increase speed on the down gradient
driver must be able to anticipate changes in both following the highest point of the crest curve, and the
horizontal and vertical alignment well within his safe danger due to an unexpected change of direction is
stopping distance. It becomes more important with small consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a
radius curves than with large. horizontal curve, an apparent kink may be produced.
This visual defect is illustrated in Fig C1(c).
C.2 Defects may arise if an alignment is
misphased. Defects may be purely visual and do no more C8 The defect may be corrected in both cases by
than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing completely separating the curves. If this is uneconomic,
impression of the road. Such defects often occur on sag the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at
curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a both ends, if the horizontal curve is of short radius, or
psychological obstacle and cause some drivers to reduce they need be coincident at only one end, if the horizontal
speed unnecessarily. In other cases, the defects may curve is of longer radius.
endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards on
the road ahead. A sharp bend hidden by a crest curve is Both ends of the vertical curve lie on
an example of this kind of defect. the horizontal curve
TYPES OF MISPHASING AND C.9 If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp
CORRESPONDING CORRECTIVE horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may
ACTION appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length
of the crest curve. If the vertical curve is a sag curve, the
radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. An
C.3 When the horizontal and vertical curves are
example of such a visual defect is illustrated in Fig
adequately separated or when they are coincident, no
C1(d). The corrective action is to make both ends of the
phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is
curves coincident, or to separate them.
required. Where defects occur, phasing may be achieved
either by separating the curves or by adjusting their
lengths so that vertical and horizontal curves begin at a The vertical curve overlaps both ends
common chainage and end at a common chainage. In of the horizontal curve
some cases, depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if
only one end of each of the curves is at a common C.10 If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a
chainage. sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be created because
a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction
C.4 Cases of misphasing fall into four types. These during passage of the vertical curve while sight distance
are described below together with the necessary is reduced.
corrective action for each type.
C.11 The corrective action is to make both ends of
Insufficient separation between the curves. the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve is less
sharp, then a hazard may still be created if the crest
C.5 If there is insufficient separation between the occurs off the horizontal curve because the change of
ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a false reverse direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will
curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the then occur on a downgrade (for traffic in one direction)
beginning of the horizontal curve, or on the inside edge- where vehicles may be increasing speed.
line at the end of the horizontal curve. This is a visual
defect. It is illustrated in Figs Cl(a) and Cl(b). C.12 The corrective action is to make the curves
coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on to the
C.6 Corrective action consists of increasing the horizontal curve.
C.13 No action is necessary if a vertical curve that
has no crest is combined with a gentle horizontal curve.

C.14 If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory

crest or dip, depending on the “hand” of the horizontal
curve, will appear in the road alignment.

C.15 The corrective action is to make both ends of

the curves coincident or to separate them.

THE ECONOMIC PENALTY DUE TO

PHASING

C.16 The phasing of vertical curves restricts their

movement and fitting to the ground so that the designer
is prevented from obtaining the lowest cost design.
Therefore, phasing is usually bought at the cost of extra
earthworks and the designer must decide at what point it
becomes uneconomic. He will normally accept curves
that have to be phased for reasons of safety. In cases
when the advantage due to phasing is aesthetic, the
designer will have to balance the costs of trial alignments
against their elegance.

Fig C.1. Examples of some combinations

of horizontal and vertical curves
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A guide to geometric design ORN 6