LECTURE NOTES – HIGHWAY ENGINEERING – lecture 1

Highway Geometric Design

• Geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features
of the highway such as horizontal and vertical alignments, sight distances and
intersections.
• The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide efficiency in traffic operations
with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

Geometric design of highways deals with following elements:

• Cross section elements

• Sight distance consideration
• Horizontal alignment details
• Vertical alignment details
• Intersection elements

1. Cross section elements:

• Pavement surface characteristics
• Width of Pavement or Carriageway
• Cross Slope or Camber
• Median or Traffic Separator
• Kerbs
• Road Margins
• Width of Formation

Figure: Clear zone illustration

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 LECTURE NOTES – HIGHWAY ENGINEERING – lecture 1

Hinge point – point where the slope rate changes

Clear zone – that area along the side of the traveled way including the shoulder that is available
for the recovery of an errant vehicle.

a) Pavement surface characteristics:

The important surface characteristics of the pavement are:

i. Friction
ii. Unevenness
iii. Light reflecting characteristics
iv. Drainage of surface water

b) Width of Pavement or Carriageway:

It is total width of road on which vehicles are allowed to move.
i. The width of pavement depends on width of traffic lane and number of lanes.
ii. Width of lane is decided based on maximum width of heavy commercial vehicle (HCV)
which is legally permitted to use the roadway.

Two lane two-way road

carriageway

Figure: Carriageway illustration

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The width of carriageway for various classes of roads standardized are given below:

Class of Road Width of Carriageway (m)

Single lane road 3.75
Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7
Two lanes, with raised kerbs 7.5
Intermediate Carriageway 5.5
Multi-lane pavements 3.5 per lane

c) Cross Slope or Camber:

It’s mostly found in the highways where the median part of the road surface is elevated
with regards to the edges. This slope from the diagonal direction is known as the Camber.

Figure: Camber road construction

The purpose of the camber is to drain out the rainwater from the road surface around the
edges.
Camber is the slope provided to the road surface at the transverse direction to drain off
the rainwater out of the road surface. It is also known as the cross slope of the road.
Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction
to drain off the rain water from the road surface.
• Drainage and disposal of water from pavement is considered important because
of the following reason:
➢ To maintain stability, surface condition and increase life of pavement.
➢ To prevent stripping of bitumen from aggregates.

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➢ To prevent slipping of vehicles running at high speed.

• The rate of camber or cross slope is usually designated by 1 in n or expressed as a
percentage (%). The rate of camber is normally indicated by 1: n (1 in n) (1 vertical
to n horizontal) or in proportions as n % (for instance, 1 in 50 or 2 %).
• The required camber of a pavement depends on type of pavement surface and
amount of rainfall.
• The recommended values of camber for different types of road surfaces are given
below:
Table: Values of Camber for Different Types of Road Surfaces

Range of camber in areas of

Type of Road Surface Heavy rainfall Low rainfall

1 Cement concrete and thick 1 in 50 or 2 % 1 in 60 or 1.7 %

bituminous surface

2 Thin bituminous 1 in 40 or 2.5% 1 in 50 or 2 %

surface

3 Water bound macadam 1 in 33 or 3% 1 in 40 or 2.5 %

and gravel pavement

4 Earth road 1 in 25 or 4% 1 in 33 or 3 %

Types of Camber
i. Composite camber.
ii. Sloped or Straight camber.
iii. Two straight line camber.
iv. Barrel camber.

• Composite Camber.
Composite camber might be composed of partly parabola and partly straight line or two
straight lines having different slopes.

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➢ To prevent slipping of vehicles running at high speed.

• The rate of camber or cross slope is usually designated by 1 in n or expressed as a
percentage (%). The rate of camber is normally indicated by 1: n (1 in n) (1 vertical
to n horizontal) or in proportions as n % (for instance, 1 in 50 or 2 %).
• The required camber of a pavement depends on type of pavement surface and
amount of rainfall.
• The recommended values of camber for different types of road surfaces are given
below:
Table: Values of Camber for Different Types of Road Surfaces

Range of camber in areas of

Type of Road Surface Heavy rainfall Low rainfall

1 Cement concrete and thick 1 in 50 or 2 % 1 in 60 or 1.7 %

bituminous surface

2 Thin bituminous 1 in 40 or 2.5% 1 in 50 or 2 %

surface

3 Water bound macadam 1 in 33 or 3% 1 in 40 or 2.5 %

and gravel pavement

4 Earth road 1 in 25 or 4% 1 in 33 or 3 %

Types of Camber
i. Composite camber.
ii. Sloped or Straight camber.
iii. Two straight line camber.
iv. Barrel camber.

• Composite Camber.
Composite camber might be composed of partly parabola and partly straight line or two
straight lines having different slopes.

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 LECTURE NOTES – HIGHWAY ENGINEERING – lecture 1

Figure: Kerb

f) Road Margins:
The various elements included in the road margins are:
• Shoulder
• Guard rail
• Foot path
• Drive way
• Cycle track
• Parking lane
• Embankment slope.

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• Barrel Camber.

It consists of a continuous curve, either parabolic or elliptical. This type of camber is preferred
for roads used by fast-moving vehicles.

Figure: Parabolic camber

Method of Providing Camber in Road

• Normally, the camber is provided on the straight roads by raising the center of the
carriageway with respect to these edges, forming a crown or highest point on the center-
line.
• At horizontal curves with superelevation, the surface drainage is effected by raising the
outer edge of the pavement with respect to the inner edge while providing this desired
superelevation.
• The rate of camber or cross slope is generally designed by 1 in n, which means the
transverse slope is at ratio 1 vertical to”n” horizontal. Camber can be expressed in
percentage. If the camber is n%, the cross slope is n in 100.
Disadvantage of Providing Excessive Road Camber Height
i. It reduces the road width as everyone will try to move in the middle of the road.
ii. The road will wear and tear on the edges.
iii. The passengers feel they unbalance and discomfort during the journey.
iv. Chances of accidents will increase.
Importance of Camber in Roads:
i. To protect the road by preventing the entry of surface water to the subgrade soil
through the pavement.
ii. To prevent the entry of water to the bituminous pavement layers.
iii. To remove the rainwater from the pavement surface as quickly as possible and to
allow the pavement to get dry soon after the rain.

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Advantages of Camber in Road

• This prevents rainwater to accumulate at local shrinkages or depressions and forming
water pools around the road surface that are disagreeable to the public as well as to the
road structure.
• Camber provides quick drainage of rainwater and so saves the foundation course of this
road structure from weakening from the percolation of rainwater to it through the road
surface.
d) Median or Traffic Separator:
Median is provided between two sets of traffic lanes intended to divide the traffic moving in
opposite directions.
• The main function of the median is to prevent head-on collision between vehicles moving
in opposite directions on adjacent lanes.
• The traffic separators used may be in form of pavement markings, physical dividers or
area separators

Figure: Kerb and traffic separator

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Figure: Median strip

Figure: Importance of Median strip

e) Kerbs:
Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and median or foot path or shoulder.
Kerbs may be mainly divided into three groups based on their functions:
i. Low kerb
ii. Semi-barrier type kerb
iii. Barrier type kerb

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Figure: Kerb

f) Road Margins:
The various elements included in the road margins are:
• Shoulder
• Guard rail
• Foot path
• Drive way
• Cycle track
• Parking lane
• Embankment slope.

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 LECTURE NOTES – HIGHWAY ENGINEERING – lecture 1

Figure: Road Margin

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 LECTURE NOTES – HIGHWAY ENGINEERING – lecture 1

GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Geometric design for transportation facilities includes the design of geometric cross sections,
horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, intersections, and various design details. These basic
elements are common to all linear facilities, such as roadways, railways, and airport runways and
taxiways.

Geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of
the
highway such as horizontal and vertical alignments, sight distances and intersections.

The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide efficiency in traffic operations

with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

Although the details of design standards vary with the mode and the class of facility, most of
the issues involved in geometric design are similar for all modes.

In all cases, the goals of geometric design are to:

• maximize the comfort,

• safety, and

• economy of facilities while,

• minimizing their environmental impacts.

In a typical design project, on the other hand, there is a definite order of tasks, in which the
establishment of a tentative horizontal centerline usually precedes establishment of vertical
alignment. This is because the elevation of the existing ground along the centerline is an
important consideration in establishing the vertical alignment.

The process of designing the vertical alignment begins with plotting a profile of the existing
terrain, and a tentative horizontal centerline must already be established in order to do this.

Geometric Cross Section:

The primary consideration in the design of geometric cross sections for highways, runways, and
taxiways is drainage. Details vary depending on the type of facility and agency.

Highway cross sections consist of:

• traveled way,

• shoulders (or parking lanes), and

• drainage channels.

Note: Shoulders are intended primarily as a safety feature.

They provide for accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use, and lateral support of the
pavement. Shoulders may be either paved or unpaved.

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Drainage channels may consist of: ditches (usually grassed swales) or paved shoulders with
berms or curbs and gutters.

Figure D-1: Two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.

Figure D-2: Two-lane highway cross section, curbed.

Figure D-3: Divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches.

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Figure D-4: Divided highway cross section, raised median, curbed.

Figures D-1 to D-4 show various types of geometric cross sections.

For so-called normal crown sections (that is, no superelevation or banking of the roadway, as in
a horizontal curve) the traveled way slopes down from the centerline or other profile grade line;
roadway cross-slopes may either be constant or varying. Where cross-slopes vary, the cross
section may consist of either a parabolic section or one in which each lane has a constant cross-
slope, but those of the outer lanes are greater than those of the inner lanes.

For high-type roadways (such as freeways), cross-slopes are normally 1.5 to 2.0 percent.
Shoulders or parking lanes slope away from the centerline at 2 to 6 percent.

• Where ditches are used, fore-slopes should normally be 1:4 or flatter to prevent damage
to vehicles or injury to occupants when traversed.

• Backslopes (cut or fill slopes) are on the order of 1:2 or 1:1.5 except in rock cuts, where
they may sometimes be even vertical.

Use of 1:3 or flatter ditch backslopes facilitates the use of motorized equipment for maintenance,
however; also, composite slopes (that is, two different slopes at different distances from the
roadway) are sometimes used.

Note: Standard lane widths are normally 3.6 m (12 ft), although narrower lanes are common on
older roadways, and may still be provided in cases where the standard lane width is not
economical.

Shoulders or parking lanes for heavily traveled roads are normally 2.4 to 3.6 m (8 to 12 ft) in
width; narrower shoulders are sometimes used on lightly traveled roads.

Runway and taxiway cross sections are similar to those for highways, except that cross-slopes
are limited to 1 percent, with slopes of 1.5 percent on turf-covered areas immediately outside
the runway or taxiway.

Railway cross sections are as shown in Fig. D-5. The distance between the rails, as shown in the
figure, is what is known as standard gage.

Other gages are sometimes used. In the case of railroad track, the shape of the cross section is
not intended to provide drainage, since the ballast, which is permeable material, serves this
purpose.

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Figure D-5: Railroad track geometric cross section.

What is vertical alignment of highways?

• Is the presence of heights and depths in vertical axis with respect to horizontal axis of
alignment. These heights and depths in roads may be in the form of gradients (straight
lines in a vertical plane) or vertical curves.

Figure 1: Vertical curves in highway alignment

D-2. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

• The vertical alignment of a transportation facility consists of tangent grades (straight lines
in the vertical plane) and vertical curves.

• Vertical alignment is documented by the profile. The profile is a graph that has elevation
as its vertical axis and distance, measured in stations along the centerline or other
horizontal reference line of the facility, as its horizontal axis.

D-2-1. Tangent Grades

• Tangent grades are designated according to their slopes or grades.

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• Maximum grades vary depending on the type of facility, and usually do not constitute
an absolute standard.

• The effect of a steep grade is to slow down the heavier vehicles (which typically have the
lowest power/weight ratios) and increase operating costs.

• Furthermore, the extent to which any vehicle (with a given power/weight ratio) is
slowed depends on both the steepness and length of the grade.

The effect of the slowing of the heavier vehicles depends on the situation, and is often more
a matter of traffic analysis than simple geometric design.

As a result, the maximum grade for a given facility is a matter of judgment, with the
tradeoffs usually being cost of construction versus speed. In the case of railroads, on the
other hand, the tradeoff is an economic one, involving travel time, construction cost, and
minimum power/weight ratios for trains on various grades.

Table D-1 gives the maximum grades recommended for various classes of roadway by
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials). It should
be understood that considerably steeper grades can be negotiated by passenger cars. In
some urban areas, grades of minor streets may be as steep as 25%.

• Vertical alignment of highways consists of;

1. Gradients
2. Grade compensation
3. Vertical curves (valley curve, summit curve)

Gradients

- Gradient is the rise or fall corresponding to some horizontal distance.

Raise with respect to horizontal distance is called Upward gradient (+n %); Fall with respect to
Horizontal distance is called Downward Gradient (-n %).

Gradient is represented as below fig:

Figure 2: Gradient

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Types of gradients;

• Ruling gradient

• Limiting gradient

• Exceptional gradient

• Minimum gradient

A. Ruling gradient

This is the maximum gradient which is generally used to design the vertical profile of highway.

It is also referred to as designer gradient.

Ruling gradient depends on:

i. the terrain,
ii. length of the grade,
iii. speed,
iv. pulling power of the vehicle and
v. the presence of the horizontal curve.

It is adopted by considering a particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle with
standard dimensions. In flat terrains it is possible to provide flat gradients and in hilly terrains it
is very costly and sometimes it is difficult to provide ruling gradient in hilly terrains.

B. Limiting gradient

This gradient is provided in shorter stretches in highways.

Whenever ruling gradients makes costs high for the hilly terrains then limiting gradient is
provided which to reduce the cost.

This gradient is adopted frequently in terrains with limited stretches.

C. Exceptional gradient

These are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations and they are adopted for
stretches not exceeding 100m of length.

D. Minimum gradient

To drain of rain water from the road minimum gradient is needed.

Generally, for lateral drainage Camber is provided. But for the longitudinal drainage along the
side drains require some slope for smooth flow of water. For concrete drains minimum gradient
of 1 in 500 and open soil drains gradient of 1 in 200 is suitable.

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Grade Compensation

When a horizontal circular curve lies in vertical curve there will be an increased resistance offered
by the circular curve in the form of curve resistance in addition to the component of gravity.
Specifications for grade compensations are as follows.

• For grades flatter than 4% grade compensation is not required due to negligible loss of
tractive force.

30+𝑅
• Grade compensation is %
𝑅
75
• Maximum value of gradient compensation = %, R= radius of horizontal curve.
𝑅
Vertical Curves:

Vertical curve – is a parabolic curve that is applied to make a smooth and safe transition between
two grades on a roadway or a highway.

VPC – Vertical Point of Curvature

VPI – Vertical Point of Intersection

VPT – Vertical Point of Tangency

VPC – Vertical Point of Curvature

G1, G2 – Tangent grades in percent

A – Algebraic difference in grades

L – Length of vertical curve

Figure 3: Vertical Curve Elements Description

When are vertical curves applied:

• At an intersection of two slopes on a highway or a roadway

• To provide a safe and comfort ride for vehicles on a roadway.

Types of vertical curves:

Depending upon the shape of profile, a vertical curve may be divided into:

1. Summit curve: When two grades meet at the summit and the curve will have convexity
upwards, the curve is simply referred as summit curve.

2. Valley (Sag) curve: When two grades meet at the valley (sag) and the curve will have
convexity downwards, the curve is simply referred as the valley (sag) curve.

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As in the case of horizontal curves, the different types of curves according to geometrical
configuration are:

1. Circular

2. Quadratic parabola

3. Cubic parabola and other forms of transition curves

NOTE:

• A vertical curve gives a progress between two slanted streets, permitting a vehicle to
arrange the height rate change at a continuous rate instead of a sharp cut.
• The plan of the bend is reliant on the proposed structure speed for the street, just as
different variables including drainage, slant, adequate pace of progress, and contact.
• These bends are explanatory and are appointed positioning dependent on a level hub.
• The vertical alignment of highway generally defined as the presence of heights and depths
in vertical axis with respect to horizontal axis of alignment.
• These heights and depths in roads may be in the form of gradients (straight lines in a
vertical plane) or vertical curves.
• Roadway vertical alignments consist of crest and sag curves with straight grades
connecting them.
• The vertical profile is typically displayed as a graph with elevation on the vertical axis,
and horizontal alignment distance on the horizontal axis.
• Geometric design of the proposed profile is governed by safety, vehicle operations,
drainage and construction issues.
• The vertical curves are generally classified into 2 categories namely:
(1) Summit Curve or Crest Curve
(2) Valley Curve or Sag Curve

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