Review of Literature

Composting and the use of compost offer several potential benefits including
improved manure handling, pathogen destruction, enhanced soil tilth and
fertility, and reduced environmental risk. Composting is, a broadest term, the
biological reduction of organic wastes to humus. Whenever a plant or animal
dies, its remains are attacked by microorganisms and larger soil fauna and are
eventually reduced to an earthlike substance that forms a beneficial growing
environment for plant roots. This process repeated continuously in endless
profusion and in every part of the world where plant grow, is part of the over-
recurring natural process that supports all terrestrial life. The word compost
comes from Old French, bit in sixteenth and 17th centuries, various spellings
were used such as compass, compess, compaste, composture and others,
(Deborah and Gershung, 1992 and Wallace and Terry, 1998).
The main part of waste production being introduced to soil has always
been of organic nature, its humification and mineralization contributed largely to
the physical and chemical oil properties favoring growth and nutrition of plants,
(Arafat et al, 1992). The use of organic manures is important not only in the
immediate context of economy in fertilizer use but also in the general interest of
maintaining soil at optimum level of fertility and productivity of crop yields
satisfactory at high levels, (Patil and Kale, 1983).
There are a few ways to let nature make compost for us under or over the
ground, in bins, boxes, pits, bags, and barrels, in strips, in sheets, in trenches,
in 14 months or 14 days, indoors or outdoors. All composting methods aim
simply to meet the needs of the microorganisms that do all the work of turning
raw organic matter into humus. Those basics need are air, moisture, energy
food (carbon) and protein food (nitrogen) in the right proportion, and warmth.
Any method involving a pile also needs to be minimum size or critical mass so
that high enough temperature can be maintained. Beyond that, we will want to

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ensure that there is a culture of the right organisms ready to get started.
Although innumerable refinements are possible as long as keep these basic
requirements in mind, we can improvise a variety of ways to achieve the desired
goal, which is the creation of moist, fragrant fertile humus, (Deborah and
Gershung, 1992 and Wallace and Terry, 1998). Furthermore, obtaining high
food quality and production as well.
A FAO study (1999) reported that the explicit goal of organic agriculture is
to contribute to the enhancement of sustainability. The soil and water protection
and the conservation techniques used to combat erosion; compaction,
salinization and other forms of degradation are evident in organic farming.
Mixed and relay cropping provides a more continuous soil cover and thus a
shorter period when the soil is fully exposed to the erosive power of the rain,
wind and sun. Terracing to conserve moisture, and soil are used in appropriate
situation and particular attention is paid to irrigated areas and to on-farm water
management. Properly managed organic farming reduces or eliminates water
pollution and helps conserve water and soil on the farm (although improper use
of manure can seriously pollute water).
2.1. COMPOSTING
Composting is a viable means of transferring various organic wastes into
products that can be used safely and beneficially as biofertilizers and soil
conditioners. One of the definitions of composting referred to its effect as a
biological decomposition of organic materials by bacteria and other organisms,
(Frank et al, 2000) and can be conducted by either aerobic or anaerobic
methods. However, the aerobic mode is generally preferred, since it proceeds
more rapidly and provides greater pathogen reduction because higher
temperatures are attained. An example of as aerobic composting method is that
developed by USDA scientists. The method is widely referred to as the
Beltsville Aerated Pile Method, and utilizes a static pile with forced aeration to
maintain aerobic, thermophilic conditions, (Willson, 1989).

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Rynk (1992) has defined composting as a biological process in which

microorganisms (Bacteria, Fungi, Actinomycetes, Centipedes, Millipedes, and
Earthworms) convert organic materials such as manure, sludge, leaves, paper,
and food waste into a soil-like material called compost.
2.2. BENEFITS OF COMPOSTING AND COMPOST
1. Assess the value of composting in recycling farmyard manures and urban
organic residues, 2. Identify agricultural uses for finished composts and assure
their use is environmentally sound, 3. Determine advantages and
disadvantages over time of using compost as a fertilizer from a farmer's point of
view, 4. Examine the effects of compost use on soil health and crop quality over
time, 5. Compare economic and energy costs of compost compared to raw
manure and conventional fertilizer and, 6. Address questions about soil health
and its relationship to food quality (nutritional and storage) and human health.
Furthermore, composting converts the nitrogen contained in manure into a more
stable organic form. Although this results in some loss of N, what remains is
less susceptible to leaching and further ammonia losses, that was proved by an
investigation carried out to study the emission of NH3, N2O and CH4 to the
atmosphere during composting of source-separated organic household wastes
in Sweden by Beck-Friis, 2001; highly bedded manure's have a high carbon-to-
nitrogen. When applied to the land directly, the excess carbon in the manure
causes nitrogen in the soil to be temporarily unavailable to the crop.
Composting high-carbon manure/bedding mixtures lowers the carbon/nitrogen
ratio to acceptable levels for land application. Also, the heat generated by
composting process reduces the number of weed seeds contained in the
manure. Angers et al, 1995, assessed the impact of compost and atrazine
applications on soil microbial biomass and activity in a sandy soil used for sweet
corn production in Canada. They found that compost application rapidly
improved soil quality through increases in microbial biomass and activity, and
soil water content. The application of atrazine at recommended rates did not

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affect soil microbial biomass and activity. The temporal variation in microbial
biomass was partly related to soil water content.
Compost can provide valuable nutrients and organic matter to soil, (Abou
Bakr and Omar, 1996), depending upon the feedstocks (raw materials used)
and upon compost management. A chemical analysis of a representative
sample of compost will indicate its total nitrogen, available nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. Most composts contain relatively low
concentrations of one or more nutrients and are not necessarily considered
good "fertilizers"; however, as soil amendments, they are good sources of
organic matter.
Nitrogen and phosphorous in compost are generally found in both plant-
available forms (NO3, NH4, and P2O5) and organic forms. Much of the nutrients
bound in organic forms will be made "plant-available" as the organic matter
decomposes. Therefore, readily available nutrients in compost can be much
lower than in raw waste, but a "timed-release" effect occurs in the later, slow-
release of nutrients "bound" initially in organic forms. During the composting
process, organic wastes are decomposed, plant nutrients are mineralized into
plant-available form, pathogens are destroyed, and malodors are abated, (Parr
and Hornick, 1992).
2.3. COMMON MATERIALS TO BE USED IN COMPOSTING
Materials for composting are all around us. Nearly anything that once lived
(and is thus organic) is a candidate for the compost heap. Utilizable biomass
and other solid wastes that can be used in composting may be classified under
the following principle categories:
2.3.1. CROP RESIDUES
These residues include rice, wheat, barely, sorghum, maize and
sugarcane. These wastes of shrubs, trees, bananas and oilseed plants can also
be used in the compost heap. Generally, the C/N ratio of these residues are
wide and they need to be mixed with others having narrow C/N ratio, (Aly, 1999;
Hassan, 1999 and Laos et al, 2000). Also, Dagar and Thampan (1995) reported
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that organic amendments are important in the reclamation of problem soils for
crop production. The extent of degraded and problem soils in India is outlined.
Problems include water logging, salinization, erosion, chemical impairment, and
desertification. Organic amendments include: livestock wastes, crop residues,
green manures, phospho-compost, sugar factory wastes and sugarcane waste,
oil cakes, and organic residues. Green manure and other organic amendments
have been used in the reclamation of sodic soils.
2.3.2. LIVESTOCK WASTES AND MANURES
Many researchers underlined the enormous benefits of the application of
organic wastes and farmyard manures and reported that manures are a
valuable means for transferring nutrients to the soil, as well as, the plant.
Two field experiments were conducted by Mahimairaja et al, 1995 to
examine the agronomic value of poultry manure composted in the presence of
both phosphate rock (PR) and elemental sulphur (So) (sulphocompost) and PR
alone (phosphocompost). Winter cabbage and summer maize were used as
test crops. For the first season's winter cabbage, the phosphocompost and
sulphocompost were approximately 12 % and 60 % as effective as urea and
both composts were equally effective as urea for the second season's maize
crop. The greater agronomic effectiveness of sulphocompost could be attributed
to the improved nitrogen-use efficiency increased PR dissolution and improved
S nutrition. Distribution of NO3-N in the soil profile of field plots indicated greater
potential for winter leaching of N from urea than poultry manure which could be
the reason for the improved residual value of the manure reflected in summer
maize yields.
Results from field experiments indicated that composting poultry manure
with so and PR not only reduces environmental pollution associated with
manure application, but also increases the agronomic effectiveness of manure
and also stated that manures have high nutrient contents and some other
physical parameters. In Egypt, there is about 50 millions ton/year of these

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wastes, and the nutrient of N, P, and K in such amount are 302, 35, and 7
millions kg/year respectively, (Kaloosh, 1997).
Epstein et al. (1976) reported that cation exchange capacity (CEC) of sand
soil increased as much as three folds as a result of the addition of sludge and
compost. Organic matter when added to soil is attacked by microorganisms and
transform into other organic compounds, (Simpson, 1986). Much of the carbon
is converted to CO2 and makes no longer-term contribution to the organic
matter content in the soil. Other parts of the organic matter are converted to
humus, a black or dark brown, colloidal, very complex organic material, which
remains in soil. Humus is a very valuable soil component, which increases the
ability to hold water available to the plant, and through its very high CEC,
reduces the leaching of nutrients.
Also, El-Shinawy et al. (1995) studied some chemical, physical and
biological characteristics of town refuse compost and chicken manures were
investigated. The results showed that both manures contain the principal
elements needed for plant growth. However, chicken manure contains
characteristics, which render its application to soil more advantageous than
does town refuse compost. Also, he found that chicken manure has a larger
content of nutrients and a greater water-holding capacity and is also easier to
handle.
2.3.3. AGRO-INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Mainly organic residues generated in the food processing industry are of
special interest. Bagasse and rice husks obtained from sugarcane processing
and rice milling plants are of great importance in this regard. Akalona, which
represent the waste product in wheat milling industry, (Zein El-Abdeen, 1987)
and oilcakes as by-products from oilseed milling industry, (Mekail, 1994) are
useful in compost preparation.
Elgharably (2002) reported that filer mud cake, vinasse and bagasse ash,
sugar industry wastes contain high amounts of NPK and micronutrients and

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significantly increased the yield of maize crop due to their direct effect at the
beginning of the season, and wheat crop due to their residual effect.
2.3.4. URBAN WASTES
Urban refuse comprises the solid waste from human dwelling. It contains
food wastes, paper and cardboard, cinders and ash. It also contains glass;
plastic, metals and commercial refuse from offices. On the other hand, the
agricultural wastes contain large amount of vegetable and putrescible wastes.
Vegetable, putrescible and paper fraction only in urban refuse can be used in
composting. All other materials can cause problems to the composting process,
(Murillo et al, 1995). Also, El-Kobbia et al. (1979) concluded that addition of
fresh or composted town refuse increased organic matter in clay soil. Last
statement came in agreement with what previously published by Badran, 1983;
Sakr, 1985; Mahmoud, 1994 and El-Sisi, 1996.
2.4. MATERIALS TO BE AVOIDED IN COMPOSTING
Although nearly any organic material can contribute to good compost,
there are some that should be avoided, and others to be used only in a limited
amounts, (Deborah et al, 1992; Warman and Termeer, 1996; Mahmoud, 1996;
Buyuksonmez et al, 2000 and Storm, 2000).
2.4.1. HUMAN FEES
They should not be used unless they have been properly treated and
permitted to age sufficiently even then, concerns about disease pathogens
make the use of such a material dubious at best for home garden. Urine alone
can be used quit safely, however.
2.4.2. DOGES AND CATS FEES
They should not be used on the compost pile. Although dog manure is as
rich in nutrients as other manure, it is more difficult and less pleasant to handle
than the mixed bedding and manure of cattle and sheep. In addition, it may
carry organisms parasitic to humans. Cat manure is even more hazardous,
especially to pregnant women and small children.

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2.5. MATERIALS THAT WILL NOT READILY DECOMPOSE

Materials such as large pieces of wood, oyster and calm shells, large
quantities of rags, brush cornstalk, heavy cardboard should not be used in large
amounts unless they are shredded first.
2.6. MATERIALS INHIBITING THE BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES
Materials such as large amounts of grease and oil, toxic material and
pesticide treated wastes. Also plant debris from roadsides of the highway, if the
highway is a busy one, plant might be coated with lead emission from passing
traffic.
2.7. MATERIALS TO BE USED IN COMPOSTING ENRICHMENT
There are many materials could be used to increase the compost’s NPK
content. Although it is not necessary to add these materials to the heap, many
gardeners find it worth the expense to ensure a high nutrient level in their
composts. Among the materials and products available are bagged manure,
dried blood, bone meal, limestone, cottonseed meal, seaweed and rock
powders and other natural product that are valuable to the heap because of
their nutrient level. Rock phosphates are excellent materials for enriching the
mineral content of our compost. Microbial action makes their nutrients more
readily available than they would be if added directly to the soil, (Misra and
Sahu, 1992 and Aly, 1999). Other rock powders such as granite, basalt and
tafla, are sources of potassium and micronutrients are similarly made more
available to plants when first consumed by compost organisms. Specific
materials can also be added by using plants that are especially rich in those
elements in our compost. In a field trial, the effects of 4 P sources (single
superphosphate, rock phosphate (RP), bone meal and press mud) and 6
microbial treatments (Glomus mosseae, Gl; Gigaspora calospora, Gg;
Acaulospora sp., Acal; a Gl+Gg+Acal mixture; the P-solubilizing culture
Microphos; and an uninoculated control) on the nodulation, dry matter and yield
of chickpea were investigated. Cultivar Phule G-12 was firstly treated with 2 g
captan per kg seeds, then with the 4 vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM)
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fungal treatments at 25 g/kg seed or with 50 g Microphos per kg seeds. Seeds

were subsequently sown in fields treated with VAM chlamydospores (250
spores/50 ml soil suspension) and infected root segments of guinea grass, and
supplied with nitrogen (urea) and the 4 P sources. Data were collected on
available N and P, nodulation, dry weight of nodules, shoots and roots per plant
at 50% flowering, grain yield and the total dry matter at harvesting. Seeds
treated with Gl + Gg + Acal had the highest available N and P (128 and 26.87
kg/ha, respectively) and the highest values for number of nodules per plant
(29.50), dry weight of nodules (157.42 mg per plant), shoots (6.91 per plant),
roots (500 mg per plant), total dry matter (44.08 q/ha) and grain yield (37.83
q/ha). Among the P treatments, RP recorded the highest values for available N
and P (118 and 25.25 kg/ha), shoot dry weight (6.97 g per plant), total dry
matter (42.50 q/ha) and grain yield (35.21 q/ha), (Meshram et al, 2000).
2.7.1. ACTIVATORS TO BE IN COMPOSTING
Compost activators are any substance stimulates biological decomposition
in a compost pile. There are organic and artificial activators. Organic activators
are materials containing high amounts of nitrogen in various forms, such as
proteins, amino acids, and urea. Some examples of the natural activators are
manure, garbage, dried blood, compost and urine. There are two ways in which
an activator may influence a compost heap: 1. By introducing strains of
microorganisms that are effective in breaking down organic matter and 2. By
increasing the N and micronutrients content of the heap, thereby providing extra
food for microorganisms. It has been stated by Naguib et al, (1997) that FYM
consists of three main groups of components, bedding or litter, solid excreta of
the animal and liquid excreta or urine. Sheep manure is high in protein. Horse
manure is low in protein.
Cow manure is an intermediate in protein, chicken manure is the highest in
N, P, and K as well as the most important elements required for plant growth,
cattle and horse manure's contain the lowest quantities of these essential
elements. Since all the necessary microorganisms are already present in
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manure, soil, and composting materials, there is no benefit to be gained from

introducing strains in the compost from the previous heap or a generous
amount of healthy topsoil, (Deborah and Gershung, 1992; Ramaswami and
Son, 1993; Abdalla, 1994; El-Ghozoli, 1998; Aly, 1999 and Taha, 2000).
2.7.2. FUNCTIONS OF BENEFICIAL MICROORGANISMS (EM)
• Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
• Decomposition of organic wastes and residues
• Suppression of soil-borne pathogens
• Recycling and increased availability of plant nutrients
• Degradation of toxicants including pesticides
• Production of antibiotics and other bioactive compounds
• Production of simple organic molecules for plant uptake
• Complexation of heavy metals to limit plant uptake
• Solubilization of insoluble nutrient sources
• Production of polysaccharides to improve soil aggregation
(Higa and Parr, 1994; Naguib et al, 1997 and Hauka et al, 2001).
The effect of the application of effective microorganisms (EM),
Lactobacillus, Rhodopseudomonas, Streptomyces and Aspergillus on the soil-
root interface water potential of sweet corn was studied. It was shown that
growth and activity of the root system were promoted as soil properties
improved and as a consequence the plants became more resistance to soil
water deficits, (Xu-HuiLian et al, 1999). Also, the effect of EM on onion and
sheep production on a commercial organic farm in New Zealand is reported,
and the problems of broad acre application of EM are discussed. In a trial in
1995, the effect of EM and organic fertilizers on onion production was
investigated. The highest percentage of first grade onions and the second
highest yield were observed in the EM treatment. In 1996, 1.3 ha of onions was
intensively sprayed with EM from 6 weeks post emergence to 4 weeks before
lifting. Such a treatment induced high yields (53 tons/ha).

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Fungal diseases were a major problem in storage causing loss of 50 % of the

crop. The growth rates of sheep and lambs grazing on EM treated pasture and
drinking water was compared in a separate trial. EM lambs had higher live-
weight gains for the first 3 and last weighing and has a higher overall live-weight
gain. There was no significant difference between the ewe live-weights. Internal
parasite faecal egg numbers were lower in EM-treated lambs. EM application
recommendations for Asia-Pacific Natural Agricultural Network (APNAN)
countries are difficult to implement in a New Zealand farming context,
(Chamberlain et al, 1999).
Iwaishi (2000) reported that the effect of an organic fertilizer inoculated
with Effective Microorganisms (EM) on the growth, yield and quality of 13
paddy-rice varieties varying with maturation period was studied. EM inoculation
increased kernel enlargement after the panicle formation stage and also
increased ear number and length and kernel number. The yield of brown rice
from EM inoculation was higher for the standard fertilizer rate and lower for the
higher rate of organic fertilizer. EM inoculation increased the glutinousness and
the total quality index of glutinous rice varieties. Also, Yamada et al, (2000)
studied the chemical, physical and microbiological properties of an organic
fertilizer comprising molasses, rice bran, rice husks, oilseed rape mill cake, and
fish meal that was inoculated and fermented with microbial inoculants (Effective
Microorganisms). The quality estimation methods employed addressed the
mechanistic basis for beneficial effects of soil improvement and crop yield.
Effective microorganisms were utilized as the microbial inoculants, which is a
mixed culture of beneficial microorganisms. Tests showed that the fermented
organic fertilizer contained large populations of propagated Lactobacillus spp.,
Actinomycetes, photosynthetic bacteria and yeasts; high concentrations of
intermediate compounds such as organic acids and amino acids; 0.1 % of
mineral nitrogen mainly in the ammonium form, 1.0% available phosphorus; and
a C: N ratio of 10. The quality of the fermented organic fertilizer depends on the
initial water content; addition of molasses as a carbon and energy source; and
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the microbial inoculants. The medium pH appears to be of reliable fermentation

quality for producing this organic fertilizer. The beneficial effects of the
fermented organic fertilizer on soil fertility and crop growth will probably depend
upon the organic fraction, the direct effects of the introduced microorganisms,
and indirect effects of microbially-synthesized metabolites.
2.8. FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMPOSTING PROCESS
Composting provides as appropriate porosity, density and moisture content
so easily degraded components of the substrates are broken down, while at the
same time pathogens and weed seeds are killed and the organic materials
become stabilized. Composting processes should be under controlled
conditions. Temperature, water content, C : N ratio, pH level, aeration rate and
the physical structure of organic materials are important factors influencing the
rate and efficiency of composting. Homogeneous manure solids can be
composted alone without mixing with bulk materials. Bulking agents are needed
to provide structural support when manure solids, or other organic residues, are
too wet to maintain air spaces within the composting pile, and to reduce water
content and/or to change the C : N ratio.
Dry and fibrous materials, such as sawdust, leaves, finely chopped straw
or peat moss, are good bulking agents for composting wet manure or organic
residues. An important problem is how to estimate the degree of compost
maturity. There are number of factors which affect the composting process and
which must be within an optimum range if aerobic, thermophilic composting is to
proceed rapidly and effectively, (Willson, 1989).
2.8.1. CARBON : NITROGEN RATIO
During composting, microorganisms require carbon for growth and energy,
and nitrogen for protein synthesis. Thus, the rate of decomposition of organic
wastes depends on a proper balance of carbon and nitrogen. Rapid composting
is achieved when wastes or mixture of wastes have a C : N ratio of between 1 :
25 and 1 : 30, (Kayhanian and Rich, 1996). Lower ratios can result in the loss of
ammonia (NH3), while higher ratios can slow the rate of composting. According
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to Chanyasak and Kupota (1981), the C/N ratio of sufficiently well composted
material varies widely from 5 to 20 depending on the type of raw materials.
2.8.2. MOISTURE CONTENT
Moisture content between 40 % and 60 % is a good target range, (Mathur
et al, 1993). Moisture is needed for microbial activity, but excessive moisture
inhibits gas exchange and may result in anaerobic conditions. The compost
mixture should feel moist to the touch, but not be soupy. Very wet feedstocks
may be dried before mixing, or a dry bulking material can be used to absorb
moisture. Consider protecting the compost piles from excessive rainfall or
pounded water. Some moisture will be removed from the mixture during the
composting process. During dry weather, the mixture may need water added to
maintain moisture. The optimum content of organic wastes or mixtures of
wastes for rapid aerobic, thermophilic composting ranges from 40 to 60 % (by
weight). If the moisture content is below 40 %, decomposition will be aerobic but
slow. If it is above 60 %, they may be insufficient air space (because of excess
moisture) to sustain aerobic decomposition and anaerobic conditions may
prevail.
2.8.3. TEMPERATURE
As composting proceeds, and if other factors are favorable, microbial
activity causes temperatures to increase from mesophilic range (20 – 40 C) into
the thermophilic range (> 40 C). Optimum temperatures for rapid aerobic
composting from 55 to 70 C, (Murillo et al, 1995 and Illmer and Schinner, 1997).
Temperature is the most common indicator of how composting is progressing.
Elevated temperature is necessary to destroy pathogens and weed seeds in
manure or other organic materials. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
regulations for composting municipal waste require that the temperature be
maintained at 65 C or above for at least three days to destroy pathogens. A
temperature of 75 C within the compost pile is needed to destroy weed seeds.
Depending on the ambient temperature, a complete composting process may
take two to six months. The water content of mature compost should be less
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than 50 percent and preferably in the range of 30 to 35 percent. The C : N ratio

should be less than 20.
2.8.4. pH
Measuring the concentration of the active hydrogen can be important.
Microorganisms tend to modify their environment, and products of
decomposition may alter pH over time. Near-neutral pH is preferred for most
efficient microbial activity. Specific plant species can flourish when grown within
a specific pH range, and based on typical compost application rates; it is
understood that the addition of compost can affect the pH of soil and growing
media. Therefore, to estimate the effect, which in turn will affect soil
maintenance practices or growing system management, the pH of compost
must be known. The pH of compost products typically ranges from about 5.0 to
8.5. More commonly, the pH of the finished product is in a narrower range of 6.0
to 7.5. During the composting process, biological activity will tend to neutralize
the feedstock pH as the composting process progresses. In the early most
active stage of the composting step, it is not uncommon for a temporary pH
depression to occur. This is the result of aerobic surface degradation of large
particles and anaerobic degradation below the surface, accompanied most
often by a lack of adequate aeration to supply oxygen and displace carbon
dioxide and other gases. This pH depression is followed by an increase, as
particle size reduces and microbial populations shift from dominance by
bacteria to actinomycetes and fungi, and the oxygen content within the
composting mass improves. However, if prolonged anaerobic conditions persist
in the composting and/or compost curing and storage steps, then organic acid
build up will tend to occur, thus depressing pH. In the feedstock preparation
step pH is largely impacted by pH of the feedstock materials. For example, if
materials with a source, which buffers pH, such as wood ash or certain
industrial residuals, are composted, pH of the resulting compost product will
tend to be above neutral. Similarly, if lime or ferrous salts are used to dewater
biosolids in municipal applications, pH of the resultant product will tend to be
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above neutral. If, on the other hand, yard trimmings that are rich in soft wood,
leaves, or pine needles are the primary feedstock materials, the resultant
product will tend to be more acidic. During the composting and compost curing
steps, the biggest pH impact tends to be the lack of aeration and the resultant
formation of organic acids. Product pH can be improved by maintaining pile
porosity and free airspace during composting and compost curing, by use of a
suitable bulking material and by frequent turning to break up clumps and air
channels as an aid to aeration whether by forced aeration or convective
aeration. Another common problem occurs during the compost-curing step
when the lack of aeration and large storage piles tend to increase production of
acids, thereby depressing product pH. Retaining bulking material in the pile until
just prior to distribution will help provide the needed porosity. Positive aeration
can be provided during compost curing and storage using small blowers
providing air to a diffuser system beneath the piles. Turning compost-curing
piles for aeration can improve pile oxygen percent. Decreasing pile heights to
six feet or less to avoid slump and compaction is a method that can be used to
improve the oxygen content of the material, thereby decreasing acid production.
The final product can be adjusted by the addition of amendments, such as
liming agents to increase pH or sulfur products to lower pH if desired for specific
applications. Some food processing wastes and industrial wastes may exhibit
levels of alkalinity or acidity that inhibit nutrient availability or microbial activity.
Chemical analyses of material samples will indicate whether pH or nutrients
need to be adjusted. Research has shown that the optimum pH for rapid
composting of various wastes or mixtures of wastes ranges from 5 to 9.
2.8.5. AERATION / OXYGEN SUPPLY
It is possible to make compost without air, or anaerobically, through the
activities of a different type of organism. However, most composting systems
are aerobic and so require adequate air throughout the pile. Aerobic bacteria
are also thought to more causing either acidic or putrefaction of the heap
producing bad odorous, (Sarapatka et al, 1993). The optimum airflow 0.6 to 1.8
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m3 airs per day per kg volatile solids during thermophilic stage or maintains
oxygen level at 10 to 18 %. A continuous supply of oxygen is required to ensure
rapid aerobic, thermophilic composting. A rile-of-thumb is that the composting
biomass must contain at least 30 % free air space (i.e., total porosity).
2.8.6. PARTICLE SIZE / TEXTURE
The particle size is an important factor, as the microorganisms need a
large surface area for their attack. The particle size below 5 cm is desirable,
(Mathur et al, 1993 and Taha, 2000). So that grinding, shredding and blending
organic wastes can enhance the rate of decomposition during composting by
providing a more favorable surface to volume ratio. However, excessive
grinding can lead to compaction, loss of porosity, and anaerobic conditions.
2.8.7. BULK DENSITY
It should be low enough (less than 40 lb/ft3) to allow for good aeration.
Dense manures and sludge can be "lightened" by adding of bulking agents,
such as wood chips, corncobs, and straw.
2.8.8. INSULATION
Material can be used if cold weather keeps compost temperatures down. It
also can help reduce odor emissions from a pile. Preferred insulation materials
include finished (recycled) compost and/or bulking materials. Almost any
organic material can be composted. The main objectives of C: N ratio, moisture
content, and bulk density can be achieved with a variety of feedstock
combinations. Therefore, gardeners and farmers alike often can easily identify
likely "recipes" from materials on-site. Some suggestions include: I.
Combinations of poultry litter with bedding material and additional carbon-rich
bulking materials, including (1) broiler litter containing wood shavings as
bedding material composted with peanut hulls; and (2) broiler litter containing
wood shavings as bedding material composted with shredded pine bark, (Flynn
et al, 1995). II. Municipal biosolids composted with combinations of sawdust,
yard wastes, bark, vegetable trimmings, animal bedding and manures. III.
Ground (shredded) yard wastes, dairy manure, and food processing wastes. If
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Review of Literature

all of these factors are optimal, composting proceeds as indigenous

microorganisms start to utilize the organic materials for available carbon,
nitrogen, and other nutrients. As the activity continues, the temperature begins
to increase from heat that is generated through microbial oxidations and
respiratory functions.
Composting is completed when the pile no longer generates heat and the
original organic materials are no longer recognizable. The composting process
has then reached an endpoint and is more or less biologically stable. Finished
compost is not a good substrate for growth of pathogens, but if it has been
recontaminated with fresh manure, it may act as a carrier for pathogens,
(LeaMaster et al, 1998).
2.9. COMPOST EFFECT ON SOIL PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
A pot experiment was conducted to assess the effect of different kinds of
composts on the growth and nitrogen (N) composition of Chinese mustard
(Brassica chinensis) in acid red soil. Pea residue compost, cattle manure
compost, two pig manure composts (A and B), a lime-chemical fertilizer
treatment and a control plot of conventional chemical fertilizer were used. The
plants were harvested 37 days after transplanting and the growth and N
composition of these plants were measured. The soil was also sampled, and
selected chemical properties were determined after harvesting the plants. The
results showed that different composts affected the growth and soil chemical
properties significantly. The pH, NO3-N, NH4-N, electrical conductivity, and 1N
ammonium acetate exchangeable K, Ca, Mg, Al, Mn, and Fe were all
significantly affected by the compost treatment. The growth of plants in the
control treatment was significantly lower than that of the compost-treated and
lime-treated plants, suggesting that the acid Oxisol is unfavorable for the growth
of Chinese mustard. Some composts could increase the growth of Chinese
mustard. The lime-treated plants had higher concentrations of chlorophyll a and
chlorophyll b than those of the compost-treated plants. There were no
significant differences between treatments in the concentrations of chlorophyll a
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Review of Literature

and chlorophyll b; however, there was a close correlation between the total
chlorophyll concentrations and the shoot yield of the plants. The NO3-N, soluble
reduced N, and insoluble N concentrations in leaf blades and petioles of
Chinese mustard varied significantly according to the compost applied. The pig
manure compost B could adequately supply nutrients especially N for plant
growth and caused little NO3-N accumulation in plant tissues, (Chung et al,
2000). Fertilizer is an essential part of any vegetable production system.
Compost application to commercial vegetable crops is relatively new. Research
has demonstrated that compost can serve as a soil amendment to improve soil
moisture and nutrient holding capacity, (Obreza and Reeder, 1994 and Stoffella
et al, 1997), particularly in sandy soils; increase soil organic matter; and
ultimately improve plant growth and yields, although, the application of compost
to vegetable has generally but not always, given a significant yield response.
Some experiments on the use of organic, organic compounds and chemical
fertilizers for green onion have been carried out in Taiwan. Fertilizer
applications were adjusted in order to make up the same level of N – P – K (180
– 100 – 160 kg / ha). These experiments are still at an early stage, but so far
they have shown yields from plots with organic compounds fertilizer to be higher
than those with chemical fertilizer, (Juang, 1996). Compost may be utilized as
an alternative weed controller, (Roe et al, 1993), and to increase soil tilth and
fertility in vegetable crop production systems, (Peter et al, 1997). Also, Gurung
and Sherchan (1993) have stated that compost applied as a soil amendment
can improve soil organic matter, the water and nutrient retention in soils
susceptible to leaching, stabilize soil pH, and could be a source of micro and
macronutrients. However, these benefits can be reduced in hot humid climates,
in which the decomposition of organic matter is faster than in temperate
climates. The use of organic materials as mulches can slow the evaporation of
water from the soil surface, moderate soil temperature, serve as a source of
slow release nutrients, reduce the germination of weed seeds and subsequent
weed growth, and protect soil from erosion and structural breakdown by sun,
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Review of Literature

wind, and rainfall. That was in line with what Baskin and Baskin (1987) proved
when they studied the effect of organic mulches on weed, they found that weed
seed germination declines as the depth of the covering layer increases,
probably due to unfavorable conditions such as high or low temperature,
absence of sufficient moisture, O2, light, and high CO2 levels. Anonymous
(1987) and (1992) confirmed that organic mulch improved the soil by increasing
microbial activity in the soil and controlling soil temperature. Same results have
been achieved in Asia, while studying the effect of organic materials and animal
manures on soil microorganisms. It was reported that organic products are a
major source of organic matter for agricultural soils. It contains significant
amounts of N and P, (Van Erp and Van Dijk, 1992; Van Lune et al, 1993 and
Velthof et al, 1998).
One study found that application of livestock manure and other organic
materials resulted in more diverse root fungal flora. Solid organic materials
produced more diversification than liquid ones. Thus, microorganisms are useful
in eliminating problems associated with the use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides; they are now widely applied in nature farming and organic
agriculture, (Higa, 1994 and Parr et al, 1994). Also, the use of crop rotations,
organic manure and mulches increased the soil pH; the main reason for manure
to raise the soil pH is due to the lime like materials such as Ca and Mg in the
manure, (Zhang, 1998) and, organic matter content. Hence, improves soil
structure and encourages the development of a vigorous population of soil
microorganisms.
Delschen (1999) argued that after a long term field experiment carried out
to study the impact of application of organic fertilizers on soil quality parameters
that, the regular input of organic matter (manure, waste compost, sewage
sludge) favors the accumulation of soil organic matter. However, the type of
organic material applied influence annual accumulation rates in the first years
after reclamation. Also, it seems to be less important for the long-term
accumulation process than the application rate. This is also important for
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Review of Literature

composted and uncomposted manure; nevertheless, the application of similar

amounts of organic C in the form of manure resulted in a higher accumulation of
Soil Organic Matter (SOM) in nitrogen reduced farming system.
Decomposition of plant residues and nutrient cycling are the most
important soil processes related to soil fertility and stability, (FAO, 1999). In
Organic farming, crop rotation is a widely used method of fertility maintenance
and pest and disease control, moreover, it encourages a diversity of food crops,
fodder and under-utilized plants; this in addition to improve overall farm
production and fertility may assist the on-farm conservation of plant genetic
resources. Scialabba (2000) wrote that crop rotation is a valuable tool for weed
control, maintenance of soil structure and organic matter, recycling of plant
nutrients, contribution to overall species and habitat diversity, preventing
erosion, and green manuring. Composting and application techniques of
manure have to be optimized in order to guarantee a nutrient transfer to the
plants with minimum losses and adapted to the requirement of plants. The most
basic requirement for every type of composting method is the correct choice
and preparation of the used compost materials. Factors that are important
include the C : N ratio, humidity and ventilation. The ratio in the materials
chosen should ideally be 25 - 30 : 1, this may be higher at warm, humid sites.
The same level of productivity, both quantitatively and qualitatively, is
maintained by replacing cattle manure with compost, (Beyea et al, 1993 and
Roe et al, 1993).
An 8 years study was set up at the Sustainable Agriculture Farming
System in USA by Clark et al, (1998), to document changes in soil fertility status
and nutrient storage during the transition from conventional to organic farming
practices, Four farming systems differing in crop rotation and in the use of
external inputs were established on land that had been previously managed
conventionally. Fertility in the organic system depended upon animal manure
applications and winter cover crops while the two conventional systems
received synthetic fertilizers input. After 4 years of production, soils in the
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Review of Literature

organic and low-input system had higher soil organic C, soluble P,

exchangeable K, and pH. Whilst, discontinuation of manure application in the
low-input system in the 4th year resulted in declining levels of organic C, soluble
P, and exchangeable K. Differences in crop rotation also had a significant effect
on the organic C levels due to the presence or absence of corn in the cropping
sequence. Differences in total N appeared to be related partially to inputs, the
low-input system appeared to be the most efficient in storing excess N.
Electrical conductivity (EC) levels were relatively stable in the organic system
thereby showing that the use of animals' manures has not resulted in increased
salinity.
Another study was conducted by Adetunji (1997) to evaluate the effects
of organic residues treatment on soil nutrients after clearing a 3-year secondary
fallow land. Burning the fallow and crop residue led to significant increases in
soil pH, total N, organic matter, available P, exchangeable K within one month
in both fertilized and unfertilized treatments. In fertilized one the increases due
to residues incorporation were small but more sustainable, while in bare
unfertilized plots the nutrients decreased below the pre treatment levels
throughout the period of the experiment.
Another investigation focused on studying the application of different rates
of compost to artificial field plots of a low humic Andosol in Japan for 15 or 28
years, and their effects on the chemical properties of wheat rhizosphere soil and
non-rhizosphere soil measured. Continuous application of compost for 28 years
resulted in an increase in soil C, N, P, pH, and exchangeable bases. The build
up of organic matter in the soil occurred slowly. A residual effect of the compost
on soil chemical properties was still present after 13 years of no application, but
this effect was weaker in comparison with that of the continuous application. In
the rhizosphere soil, NaHCO3-extracted P and exchangeable Ca were higher
than those in the bulk soil. The removal of free organic acid slightly affected the
soil pH, especially in the rhizosphere soil. The increase in soil pH resulted from
an increase in exchangeable bases through the application of compost, (Shen
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Review of Literature

et al, 1996). As proved by Ott et al, (1983) Composted FYM led to the greatest
increase in both soil organic matter and soil nitrate content in the top 30 to 40
cm. These results were in a close agreement with those obtained by Matsumura
and Witjaksono (1999), they studied the impact of farmyard manure in
comparison with chemical fertilizer and mixture of organo-mineral fertilizers on
some crops on rotation (oats - soybean and wheat – corn). Results showed that
FYM significantly affected the yield of wheat – corn crops, and soil pH, total
nitrogen and microbial biomass nitrogen, but only in the soil surface layer (0–20
cm). Amounts of soil organic matter changed in accordance with the amount of
crop residues reincorporated, especially in the surface layer. El-Emam (1999)
conducted a trial aiming at spotting the light on the effect of some composted
plant materials and organic manures on the macronutrients status in two
textured soils. Results obtained indicated the significant increment of total N
and available P in the soil accordingly on the order of biogas manure sludge <
composted broad bean straw < composted zea maize stalks < FYM.
2.10. THE EFFECT OF COMPOST ON ORGANIC CROPS
Sawan et al, (1999) studied twenty-five combinations of peat, vermiculite,
composted sawdust (composted for 1, 2, 3 or 4 months) and crop residues
compost as growing media for cucumber (cv. Katia) seedling production.
Results obtained showed that the best plant growth and the highest yield were
obtained by mixing the control medium with sawdust and plant residues
compost 2:2:1 (v/v/v). These results indicate that sawdust can be used as a
substitute for high percentages of peat in media for cucumber seedling
production.
Another field trial held to study the effect of composted crop residues
(sesame straw, water hyacinth and peanut straw) at a different application rates
(5, 10, 15 tons/fed.) on the soil chemical and physical properties as well as crop
growth (corn) and production, organic carbon decreased. On the contrary, NPK
and Micronutrients significantly increased which reflected in decreasing C/N
ratio as compared to the raw organic residues, (Taha, 2000).
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Review of Literature

Gurung and Sherchan (1993) studied the effects of long-term applications

of compost and chemical fertilizers alone, or in different combinations, on crop
yields were studied in a field experiment under a rice-wheat cropping pattern in
Nepal. In the fourth year the residual effect of the compost treatments applied to
wheat was observed on the succeeding rice crop. The grain yields of rice
produced from 15 t/ha compost alone, 15 t/ha compost supplemented with 30
kg/ha nitrogen top dressing and 15 t/ha compost plus 60 : 30 : 30 kg/ha N, P
and K were significantly higher than with chemical fertilizers only and the control
treatments. The response of rice to potassium has also been observed. In the
fourth year, grain yield of wheat was greatest from an application of 15 t/ha
compost plus 60 : 30 : 0 kg/ha N, P and K which was significantly higher than
the control, 15 t/ha compost and 60:30:30 kg/ha, N, P and K treatments.
Another field experiment was conducted to study the effect of organic manure
and inorganic fertilizers on growth, yield and quality of kharif onion cv. Agrifound
Dark Red. The organic manures evaluated were sunflower cake at 19 q/ha,
poultry manure at 57 q/ha and FYM at 143 q/ha and 72 q/ha. The inorganic
fertilizers evaluated were urea at 252 kg/ha, CAN 444 kg/ha and ammonium
sulfate at 565 kg/ha. The control plot was maintained without any
organic/inorganic fertilizer. The bed size was 3.6 x 1.8 m. The studies revealed
that FYM at 72.0 q/ha along with ammonium sulfate at 565 kg/ha were effective
in increasing the growth, yield and quality contributing characters such as bulb
color, compactness, TSS and dry matter and gave the highest net return,
(Gupta et al, 1999). Also, In a pot study with tomato cv. Paiyur 1, using a soil
neutral in reaction with a low salt concentration and poor organic carbon, the
following treatments were assessed: T1, control; T2, 100% soil-test-based NPK
+ ZnSO4 (50 kg/ha) + borax (10 kg/ha); T3, T2 + Tankslit [no details given] (40
t/ha); T4, T2 + composted coir pith (5 t/ha); T5, 75% soil-test-based NPK +
ZnSO4 (50 kg/ha) + borax (10 kg/ha) + Tankslit (40 t/ha); and T6, 75% soil-test-
based NPK + ZnSO4 (50 kg/ha) + borax (10 kg/ha) + composted coir pith (5
t/ha). T4 recorded the highest fruit yield of 1487.0 g/pot compared with 447.5
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Review of Literature

g/pot in the control. The dry matter production, content and uptake of nutrients,
and the residual soil fertility were favorably influenced by this treatment,
(Balasubramaniam et al, 1998).
A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of organic and
inorganic manures on adult coconut palm. The treatments comprised of control,
100% of recommended dose of chemical fertilizers (1.3 kg urea + 2 kg single
superphosphate + 2 kg muriate of potash per palm per year), composted coir
pith (CCP) at 50 kg per palm per year, 50 % CCP (25 kg) + 50% of
recommended dose of chemical fertilizers, 2 kg neem cake + 0.5 kg bone meal
+ 4 kg ash per palm per year, farmyard manure (FYM) + recommended dose of
chemical fertilizers. The results revealed that application of 50 kg FYM, along
with the recommended dose of NPK, recorded the highest N, P and K content
in soil and leaf, with 47% higher nut yield compared to the control, (Marimuthu
et al, 2001).
Rice plants grown in a field experiment were treated with: organic products
(OP) I-IV combined with 75 or 50 % NPK; 100 % NPK; and a control (no
fertilizer or manure applied). OP I consisted of poultry manure, fish scraps, bone
meal and neem cake; OP II consisted of goat droppings, poultry manure, bone
meal and neem cake; OP III consisted of cow dung, poultry manure, fish scraps
and neem cake; and OP IV consisted of cow dung, goat droppings, fish scraps
and bone meal. Treatments with OP I-IV + 50 or 75% NPK at 1 t/ha resulted in
higher grain and straw yields than treatments with 100% NPK and the control.
OP + 75% NPK increased the absorption of the major nutrients (N, P, K, Ca and
Mg), while OP + 50% NPK treatment did not. The OP IV + 75% NPK treatment
resulted in the highest grain and straw yields, and the highest mineral uptake,
(Bhoite et al, 2000).
Another investigation by Jak et al, (1999) showed that farmyard manure
(FYM) and compost from chicken deep layer manure and bark were compared
to mineral fertilization (NPK) and to non-fertilized control plots. The amount of
added fertilizer was adjusted to a total N supply of 200 kg/ha for cabbage
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Review of Literature

production and 100 kg/ha for the following spinach production. Results showed
that the highest yield (8500 kg dry matter/ha) was obtained with mineral
fertilization where N was supplied twice (before transplanting and during head
formation), followed by mineral fertilization in which the whole amount of N was
added at transplanting time (7900 kg d.m. /ha), then the treatment fertilized with
FYM (6000 kg d.m. /ha), compost (4200 kg d.m. /ha) and, finally, the control
(3700 kg d.m. /ha).
A field experiment was conducted by Bhardwaj et al, (2000) during 1995-
98 at Jachh to find out the effect of organic sources of nutrients, i.e. FYM, neem
cake and rapeseed cake as partial or complete alternative to chemical fertilizers
on yield of tomato, okra, cabbage and cauliflower and its economic feasibility.
Application of sole organic sources of nutrients recorded 11 - 17% lower yield in
different vegetable crops. However, application of 50% recommended NPK +
50% rapeseed cake (0.72 ton/ha) in tomato, 50% recommended NPK + 50%
neem cake (0.72 ton/ha) in okra, 33.3% recommended NPK + 33.3% farmyard
manure (6.66 tons/ha) + 33.3% rapeseed cake (0.48 ton/ha) in cabbage, 33.3%
recommended NPK + 33.3% farmyard manure (6.66 tons/ha) + 33.3% neem
cake (0.48 ton/ha) in cauliflower recorded higher yield which were statistically at
par with recommended doses of chemical fertilizers. Net returns in organic
produce of different vegetables were higher as the produce received higher
price in the market.
El-Shinawy et al, (1999) conducted a field trial, lettuce (cv. Calona) plants
grown under nutrient film technique (NFT) conditions were supplied with
inorganic fertilizer (control), chicken manure, pigeon manure or buffalo manure,
for 2 seasons. The electrical conductivity of the nutrient solution was maintained
at 1.8-2 mmhos/cm while pH ranged between 5.5 and 6.5. Head fresh and dry
weights, chlorophyll content and mineral composition (total NO3-N, P, K, Ca, Zn,
Mn, Fe and Cu) were determined. Yield was highest in the control treatment,
followed by chicken manure; pigeon manure and finally buffalo manure. Mineral
composition of plants was influenced by treatment. The results suggested that
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Review of Literature

chicken manure, with some modifications, could be used as an organic source

under the nutrient film technique system.

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