TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS....................................................................................2

2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS...................................................................................................7
3. TRANSISTOR COMMON -BASE CONFIGURATION.....................................................................12
4. TRANSISTOR CE CHARACTERSTICS.............................................................................................17
6. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER.....................................................................................................................27
7. FET CHARACTERISTICS.....................................................................................................................32
8. H-PARAMETERS OF CE CONFIGURATION...................................................................................38
9. TRANSISTOR CE AMPLIFIER............................................................................................................46
10. COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER............................................................................................52
11. RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER................................................................................................................57
12. COMMON SOURCE FET AMPLIFIER............................................................................................62
13. WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR...........................................................................................................67
15. CURRENT-SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER................................................................................76
16. VOLTAGE-SERTES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER...............................................................................82
17. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR...................................................................................................................89
18. COLPITT’S OSCILLATOR.................................................................................................................93
19. SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER(SCR) CHARACTERISTICS..........................................97
20. UJT CHARACTERISTICS.................................................................................................................102
21. BRIDGE RECTIFER...........................................................................................................................107
 2

1. P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:-To observe and draw the Forward and Reverse bias V-I Characteristics of a
P-N Junction diode.
APPARATUS:-

P-N Diode IN4007.

Regulated Power supply (0-30v)
Resistor 1KΩ
Ammeters (0-200 mA, 0-500mA)
Voltmeter (0-20 V)
Bread board
Connecting wires
THEORY:-
A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I
characteristics of the diode are curve between voltage across the diode and
current through the diode. When external voltage is zero, circuit is open and the
potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit current is
zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is
connected to –ve terminal of the supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The
potential barrier is reduced when diode is in the forward biased condition. At
some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and current
starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be in
ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type
(Anode) is connected –ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse
bias and the potential barrier across the junction increases. Therefore, the
junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse
saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The
reverse bias current due to minority charge carriers.
 3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
FORWARD BIAS:-

REVERSE BIAS:-
 4

MODEL WAVEFORM:-

PROCEDURE:-
FORWARD BIAS:-

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and
RPS –ve is connected to the cathode of the diode,
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in
Steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage
across the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.
 5

OBSERVATION:-

S.NO APPLIED VOLTAGE (V) VOLTAGE ACROSS CURRENT

DIODE(V) THROUGH
DIODE(mA)

PROCEDURE:-
REVERSE BIAS:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2 . For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and
RPS –ve is connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in
Steps
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage
across the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated
6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.
OBSEVATION:-

S.NO APPLIEDVOLTAGE VOLTAGE CURRENT

ACROSSDIODE(V) ACROSS THROUGH
DIODE(V) DIODE(mA)

PRECAUTIONS:-
 6

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Parallax error should be avoided while taking the readings from the Analog
meters.

RESULT:- Forward and Reverse Bias characteristics for a p-n diode is

observed

VIVA QESTIONS:-

1. Define depletion region of a diode?

2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is the break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?
 7

2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: - a) To observe and draw the static characteristics of a zener diode

b) To find the voltage regulation of a given zener diode

APPARATUS: -
Zener diode.
Regulated Power Supply (0-30v).
Voltmeter (0-20v)
Ammeter (0-100mA)
Resistor (1KOhm)
Bread Board
Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:-
 8

REGULATION CHARACTERISTICS:-

Theory:-
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially
made to operate in the break down region. A p-n junction diode normally does
not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is increased, at a
particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down
Voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with zener
diode. Once the diode starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage
across the terminals what ever may be the current through it, i.e., it has very
low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.

PROCEDURE:-

Static characteristics:-

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The zener current (lz), and the zener voltage (Vz.) are observed and then
noted in the tabular form.
4. A graph is plotted between zener current (Iz) and zener voltage (Vz).
 9

Regulation characteristics:-

1. The voltage regulation of any device is usually expressed as percentage

regulation
2. The percentage regulation is given by the formula
((VNL-VFL)/VFL)X100
VNL=Voltage across the diode, when no load is connected.
VFL=Voltage across the diode, when load is connected.
3. Connection are made as per the circuit diagram
4. The load is placed in full load condition and the zener voltage (Vz), Zener
current (lz), load current (IL) are measured.
5. The above step is repeated by decreasing the value of the load in steps.
6. All the readings are tabulated.
7. The percentage regulation is calculated using the above formula

OBSERVATIONS:-

Static characteristics:-

S.N ZENER ZENER

O VOLTAGE(VZ) CURRENT(IZ)
 10

Regulation characteristics:-

S. VNL(VOLTS) VFL RL %
N0 (VOLTS) (KΏ) REGULATION

MODEL WAVEFORMS:-
 11

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The terminals of the zener diode should be properly identified
2. While determined the load regulation, load should not be immediately
shorted.
3. Should be ensured that the applied voltages & currents do not exceed the
ratings of the diode.

RESULT:-

a) Static characteristics of zener diode are obtained and drawn.

b) Percentage regulation of zener diode is calculated.

VIVAQUESTIONS:-
1. What type of temp? Coefficient does the zener diode have?
2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion width effected?
3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?
4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns?
5. Draw the zener equivalent circuit?
6. Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation?
7. In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
8. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
9. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
10. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche
breakdown diodes?
 12

3. TRANSISTOR COMMON -BASE CONFIGURATION

AIM: 1.To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor
connected in common base configuration.
2. To find α of the given transistor.

APPARATUS: Transistor, BC 107

Regulated power supply (0-30V, 1A)
Voltmeter (0-20V)
Ammeters (0-100mA)
Resistor, 1000Ω
Bread board
Connecting wires
THEORY:

A transistor is a three terminal active device. T he terminals are emitter,

base, collector. In CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter)
and output (collector). For normal operation, the E-B junction is forward biased
and C-B junction is reverse biased.
In CB configuration, IE is +ve, IC is –ve and IB is –ve.
So,
VEB=f1 (VCB,IE) and
IC=f2 (VCB,IB)
With an increasing the reverse collector voltage, the space-charge width
at the output junction increases and the effective base width ‘W’ decreases.
This phenomenon is known as “Early effect”. Then, there will be less chance for
recombination within the base region. With increase of charge gradient with in
the base region, the current of minority carriers injected across the emitter
junction increases.The current amplification factor of CB configuration is given
by,
α= ∆IC/ ∆IE
 13

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCE is kept constant
at 0V and for different values of VEB note down the values of IE.
3. Repeat the above step keeping VCB at 2V, 4V, and 6V.All the readings are
tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VEB and IE for constant VCB.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For plotting the output characteristics, the input IE iskept constant at 10m A
and for different values of VCB, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 20 mA, 40 mA, and 60 mA,
all the readings are tabulated.
 14

4. A graph is drawn between VCB and Ic for constant IE

OBSERVATIONS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

S.No VCB=0V VCB=1V VCB=2V

VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IE=10mA IE=20mA IE=30mA

S.No
VCB(V) IC(mA) VCB(V) IC(mA) VCB(V) IC(mA)
 15

MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
 16

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The supply voltages should not exceed the rating of the transistor.
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities.

RESULT:
1. The input and output characteristics of the transistor are drawn.
2. The α of the given transistor is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the range of α for the transistor?
2. Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in CB
configuration?
3. Identify various regions in output characteristics?
4. What is the relation between α and β?
5. What are the applications of CB configuration?
6. What are the input and output impedances of CB configuration?
7. Define α(alpha)?
8. What is EARLY effect?
9. Draw diagram of CB configuration for PNP transistor?
10. What is the power gain of CB configuration?
 17

4. TRANSISTOR CE CHARACTERSTICS
AIM: 1. To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor connected in
CE configuration
2. To find β of the given transistor.
APPARATUS:
Transistor (BC 107)
R.P.S (O-30V) 2Nos
Voltmeters (0-20V) 2Nos
Ammeters (0-200μA)
(0-500mA)
Resistors 1Kohm
Bread board
THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter,
base, collector. In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied
between base and emitter terminals and out put is taken across the collector
and emitter terminals.
Therefore the emitter terminal is common to both input and output.
The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode
curve. This is expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is
forward biased. As compared to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with
VBE . Therefore input resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit.
The output characteristics are drawn between I c and VCE at constant IB.
the collector current varies with VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector
current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up
to which the collector current changes with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The
transistor always operated in the region above Knee voltage, I C is always
constant and is approximately equal to IB.
The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by
Β = ΔIC/ΔIB
 18

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

INPUT CHARECTERSTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept
constant at 1V and for different values of VBE . Note down the values of IC
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V.
4. Tabulate all the readings.
5. plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE

OUTPUT CHARACTERSTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. for plotting the output characteristics the input current I B is kept
constant at 10μA and for different values of VCE note down the values of IC
3. repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75 μA 100 μA
4. tabulate the all the readings
5. plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB
 19

OBSERVATIONS:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 4V

S.NO
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

OUT PUT CHAREACTARISTICS:

IB = 50 μA IB = 75 μA IB = 100 μA
S.NO
VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) ICmA) VCE(V) IC(mA)
 20

MODEL GRAPHS:
INPUT CHARACTERSTICS:

OUTPUT CHARECTERSTICS:
 21

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

RESULT:
1. the input and out put characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration are
Drawn
2. the β of a given transistor is calculated

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the range of β for the transistor?
2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics?
4. what is the relation between αand β
5. Define current gain in CE configuration?
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor?
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE configuration?
 22

5. HALF – WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM: - To obtain the load regulation and ripple factor of a half-rectifier.

1. with Filter
2. without Filter
APPARATUS:-
Experimental Board
Multimeters –2No’s.
Transformer (6-0-6).
Diode, 1N 4007
Capacitor 100μf.
Resistor 1KΩ.
Connecting wires
THEORY: -
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward
bias and conducts through the load resistor R1. Hence the current produces an
output voltage across the load resistor R1, which has the same shape as the +ve
half cycle of the input voltage.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse
biased and there is no current through the circuit. i.e, the voltage across R1 is
zero. The net result is that only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears
across the load. The average value of the half wave rectified o/p voltage is the
value measured on dc voltmeter.
For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for
two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.
2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus
preventing shock hazards in the secondary circuit.
 23

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

PROCEDURE:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary
side to the rectifier input.
3. By the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and
dc voltage at the output of the rectifier.
4. Find the theoretical of dc voltage by using the formula,

Vdc=Vm/П

Where, Vm=2Vrms, (Vrms=output ac voltage.)

The Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula
r=ac output voltage/dc output voltage.
 24

REGULATION CHARACTERSTICS:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. By increasing the value of the rheostat, the voltage across the load and
current flowing through the load are measured.
3. The reading is tabulated.
4. Draw a graph between load voltage (VL and load current ( IL ) taking VL
on X-axis and IL on y-axis
5. From the value of no-load voltages, the %regulation is calculated using
the formula,

Theoretical calculations for Ripple factor:-

Without Filter:-
Vrms=Vm/2
Vm=2Vrms
Vdc=Vm/П
Ripple factor r=√ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 =1.21
With Filter:-
Ripple factor, r=1/ (2√3 f C R)
Where f =50Hz
C =100µF
RL=1KΩ

PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS:-

Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor with out Filter =
Ripple factor with Filter =
 25

OBSERVATIONS:-

WITHOUT FILTER

USING Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

DMM

WITH FILTER

USING Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

DMM

WITHOUTFILTER:-
Vdc=Vm/П, Vrms=Vm/2, Vac=√ ( Vrms2- Vdc 2)

Vm(v) Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

USING
CRO

WITHFILTER
V1(V) V2(V) Vdc= Vac= r=
USINGCRO (V1+V2)/2 (V1- V2)/2√3 Vac/
Vdc
 26

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The primary and secondary sides of the transformer should be carefully

identified.
2. The polarities of the diode should be carefully identified.
3. While determining the % regulation, first Full load should be applied and then
it should be decremented in steps.

RESULT:-

1. The Ripple factor for the Half-Wave Rectifier with and without filters is
measured.
2. The % regulation of the Half-Wave rectifier is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the PIV of Half wave rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of half wave rectifier?
3. What is the rectifier?
4. What is the difference between the half wave rectifier and full wave
Rectifier?
5. What is the o/p frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
6. What are the ripples?
7. What is the function of the filters?
8. What is TUF?
9. What is the average value of o/p voltage for HWR?
10. What is the peak factor?
 27

6. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
AIM:-To find the Ripple factor and regulation of a Full-wave Rectifier with and
without filter.
APPARATUS:-
Experimental Board
Transformer (6-0-6v).
P-n Diodes, (lN4007) ---2 No’s
Multimeters –2No’s
Filter Capacitor (100μF/25v) -
Connecting Wires
Load resistor, 1KΩ

THEORY:-
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes
D1&D2. During positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the
diode D1 is forward biased and D2is reverse biased.
The diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor RL. During
negative half cycle, diode
D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now, D2 conducts
and current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction. There is a
continuous current flow through the load resistor RL, during both the half cycles
and will get unidirectional current as show in the model graph. The difference
between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full wave rectifier allows
unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360 degrees of the
input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180
degree).
 28

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

3. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the
secondary side to the rectifier.
4. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier.
5. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
6. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula
Vdc=2Vm/П
7. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the
values of Vac and Vdc at the output.
 29

8. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor are
calculated.
9. From the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors are
calculated. The practical values are compared with theoretical values.

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:-

Vrms = Vm/ √2
Vm =Vrms√2
Vdc=2Vm/П
(i)Without filter:
Ripple factor, r = √ ( Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 0.482
(ii)With filter:

Ripple factor, r = 1/ (4√3 f C RL) where f =50Hz

C =100µF
RL=1KΩ
PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS:

Without filter:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor, r=Vac/Vdc
With filters:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor=Vac/Vdc

Without Filter:
 30

USING Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

DMM

With Filter

USING Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

DMM

Without Filter

Vrms = Vm/ √2 , Vdc=2Vm/П , Vac=√( Vrms2- Vdc 2)

Vm(v) Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

USING
CRO

With Filter
V1(V) V2(V) Vdc= Vac= r=
USINGCRO (V1+V2)/2 (V1- Vac/
V2)/2√3 Vdc

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully

identified
 31

2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.

RESULT:-
The ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier (with filter and without filter) is
calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?
2. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV)? And write its value for Full-wave
rectifier?
3. If one of the diode is changed in its polarities what wave form would you
get?
4. Does the process of rectification alter the frequency of the waveform?
5. What is ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier?
6. What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
7. What are the applications of a rectifier?
8. What is ment by ripple and define Ripple factor?
9. Explain how capacitor helps to improve the ripple factor?
10. Can a rectifier made in INDIA (V=230v, f=50Hz) be used in USA (V=110v,
f=60Hz)?
 32

7. FET CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: a). To draw the drain and transfer characteristics of a given

FET.
b). To find the drain resistance (rd) amplification factor (μ) and
Tran conductance (gm) of the given FET.

APPARATUS: FET (BFW-11)

Regulated power supply
Voltmeter (0-20V)
Ammeter (0-100mA)
Bread board
Connecting wires
THEORY:
A FET is a three terminal device, having the characteristics of high input
impedance and less noise, the Gate to Source junction of the FET s always
reverse biased. In response to small applied voltage from drain to source, the n-
type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current increases linearly with
VDS. With increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between the source and the
channel region reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the
channel begins to remain constant. The VDS at this instant is called “pinch of
voltage”.
If the gate to source voltage (V GS) is applied in the direction to
provide additional reverse bias, the pinch off voltage ill is decreased.
In amplifier application, the FET is always used in the region
beyond the pinch-off.
FDS=IDSS(1-VGS/VP)^2
 33

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:
1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. To plot the drain characteristics, keep VGS constant at 0V.
3. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS at 0.1V and 0.2V.
5. All the readings are tabulated.
6. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V.
7. Vary VGG and observe the values of VGS and ID.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 1.5 V and 2V.
9. The readings are tabulated.
10. From drain characteristics, calculate the values of dynamic resistance (rd) by
using the formula
rd = ∆VDS/∆ID
 34

11. From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of transconductace (g m) By

using the formula
Gm=∆ID/∆VDS
12. Amplification factor (μ) = dynamic resistance. Tran conductance
μ = ∆VDS/∆VGS
OBSERVATIONS:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO VGS=0V VGS=0.1V VGS=0.2V

VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO VDS VDS=1V VDS

=0.5V =1.5V
VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA)
 35

MODEL GRAPH:

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
 36

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The three terminals of the FET must be care fully identified

2. Practically FET contains four terminals, which are called source, drain,
Gate, substrate.
3. Source and case should be short circuited.
4. Voltages exceeding the ratings of the FET should not be applied.

RESULT :

1. The drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET are drawn

2. The dynamic resistance (rd), amplification factor (μ) and Tran
conductance (gm) of the given FET are calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of FET?
2. Different between FET and BJT?
3. Explain different regions of V-I characteristics of FET?
 37

4. What are the applications of FET?

5. What are the types of FET?
6. Draw the symbol of FET.
7. What are the disadvantages of FET?
8. What are the parameters of FET?
 38

8. h-PARAMETERS OF CE CONFIGURATION

AIM: To calculate the H-parameters of transistor in CE configuration.

APPRATUS: Transistor BC 107

Resistors 100 K Ώ 100 Ώ

Ammeter (0-200µA), (0-200mA)

Voltmeter (0-20V) - 2Nos

Regulated Power Supply (0-30V, 1A) - 2Nos
Breadboard

THEORY:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

The two sets of characteristics are necessary to describe the

behavior of the CE configuration one for input or base emitter circuit and other
for the output or collector emitter circuit.

In input characteristics the emitter base junction forward biased

by a very small voltage VBB where as collector base junction reverse biased by
a very large voltage VCC. The input characteristics are a plot of input current I B Vs
the input voltage VBE for a range of values of output voltage VCE . The following
important points can be observed from these characteristics curves.

1. The characteristics resemble that of CE configuration.

2. Input resistance is high as IB increases less rapidly with VBE
3. The input resistance of the transistor is the ratio of change in base emitter
voltage ΔVBE to change in base current ΔIB at constant collector emitter
voltage ( VCE) i.e... Input resistance or input impedance hie = ΔV BE / ΔIB at VCE
constant.
 39

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

A set of output characteristics or collector characteristics are a

plot of out put current IC VS output voltage VCE for a range of values of input
current IB .The following important points can be observed from these
characteristics curves:-

1. The transistor always operates in the active region. I.e. the collector
current

IC increases with VCE very slowly. For low values of the VCE the IC
increases rapidly with a small increase in VCE .The transistor is said to be
working in saturation region.

Output resistance is the ratio of change of collector emitter voltage ΔV CE ,

to change in collector current ΔIC with constant IB. Output resistance or Output
impedance hoe = ΔVCE / ΔIC at IB constant.

Input Impedance hie = ΔVBE / ΔIB at VCE constant

Output impedance hoe = ΔVCE / ΔIC at IB constant

Reverse Transfer Voltage Gain hre = ΔVBE / ΔVCE at IB constant

Forward Transfer Current Gain hfe = ΔIC / ΔIB at constant VCE

 40

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect a transistor in CE configuration circuit for plotting its input and

output characteristics.
2. Take a set of readings for the variations in I B with VBE at different fixed
values of output voltage VCE .
3. Plot the input characteristics of CE configuration from the above readings.
 41

4. From the graph calculate the input resistance hie and reverse transfer
ratio hre by taking the slopes of the curves.
5. Take the family of readings for the variations of IC with VCE at different
values of fixed IB.
6. Plot the output characteristics from the above readings.
7. From the graphs calculate hfe ands hoe by taking the slope of the curves.

Tabular Forms

Input Characteristics

VCE=0V VCE=6V
S.NO
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

Output Characteristics

IB = 20 µA IB = 40 µA IB = 60 µA
S.NO
VCE (V) IC(mA) VCE (V) IC(mA) VCE (V) IC(mA)
 42

MODEL WAVEFORM: Input Characteristics

 43

Output Characteristics
 44

RESULT: The H-Parameters for a transistor in CE configuration are calculated

from the input and output characteristics.

1. Input Impedance hie =

2. Reverse Transfer Voltage Gain hre =
3. Forward Transfer Current Gain hfe =
4. Output conductance hoe =

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the h-parameters?

2. What are the limitations of h-parameters?
3. What are its applications?
4. Draw the Equivalent circuit diagram of H parameters?
5. Define H parameter?
6. What are tabular forms of H parameters monoculture of a transistor?
7. What is the general formula for input impedance?
 45

8. What is the general formula for Current Gain?

9. What is the general formula for Voiltage gain?
 46

9. TRANSISTOR CE AMPLIFIER

AIM: 1. To Measure the voltage gain of a CE amplifier

2. To draw the frequency response curve of the CE amplifier

APPARATUS:
Transistor BC-107
Regulated power Supply (0-30V, 1A)
Function Generator
CRO
Resistors [33KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 330Ω, 1.5KΩ
1KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 4.7KΩ]
Capacitors- 10µF -2No
100µF
Bread Board
Connecting Wires

THEORY:
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency response.
The emitter lead is common to both input & output circuits and is grounded. The
emitter-base circuit is forward biased. The collector current is controlled by the
base current rather than emitter current. The input signal is applied to base
terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across collector terminal.
A very small change in base current produces a much larger change in collector
current. When +VE half-cycle is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward
bias of the circuit which causes the collector current to decrease, it decreases
the voltage more –VE. Thus when input cycle varies through a -VE half-cycle,
increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector current to
increases thus the output signal is common emitter amplifier is in out of phase
with the input signal.
 47

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram

2. Apply the input of 20mV peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using
Function Generator
3. Measure the Output Voltage Vo (p-p) for various load resistors
4. Tabulate the readings in the tabular form.
5. The voltage gain can be calculated by using the expression
Av= (V0/Vi)
6. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at
20mV peak-to-peak and the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz Using
function generator
7. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency.
8. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by Using
The expression Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi)
9. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis
On Semi-log graph.
 48

The band width of the amplifier is calculated from the graph

Using the expression,
Bandwidth, BW=f2-f1
Where f1 lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier, and
Where f2 upper cut-off frequency of CE amplifier
The bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated using the
Expression
Gain Bandwidth product=3-dBmidband gain X Bandwidth

OBSERVATIONS:

Input voltage Vi=20mV

LOAD OUTPUT GAIN GAIN IN dB

RESISTANCE(KΩ) VOLTAGE (V0) AV=(V0/Vi) Av=20log10
(V0/Vi)

FREQUENCY RESPONSE: Vi=20mv

FREQUENCY(Hz) OUTPUT GAIN IN dB
VOLTAGE (V0) Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi)
 49

MODELWAVE FORMS:

INPUT WAVE FORM:

OUTPUT WAVE FORM

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
 50

RESULT: The voltage gain and frequency response of the CE amplifier are
obtained. Also gain bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is phase difference between input and output waveforms of CE

amplifier?
2. What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?
3. If the given transistor is replaced by a p-n-p, can we get output or not?
4. What is effect of emitter-bypass capacitor on frequency response?
5. What is the effect of coupling capacitor?
6. What is region of the transistor so that it is operated as an amplifier?
7. How does transistor acts as an amplifier?
8. Draw the h-parameter model of CE amplifier?
9. What type of transistor configuration is used in intermediate stages of a
multistage amplifier?
10. What is Early effect?
51
 52

10. COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER

AIM: 1. To measure the voltage gain of a CC amplifier

2. To draw the frequency response of the CC amplifier

APPRATUS:
Transistor BC 107
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)
Function Generator
CRO
Resistors 33KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 330Ω, 1.5KΩ, 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ & 4.7KΩ

Capacitors 10µF -2Nos

100µF
Breadboard
Connecting wires

THEORY:
In common-collector amplifier the input is given at the base and the
output is taken at the emitter. In this amplifier, there is no phase inversion
between input and output. The input impedance of the CC amplifier is very high
and output impedance is low. The voltage gain is less than unity. Here the
collector is at ac ground and the capacitors used must have a negligible
reactance at the frequency of operation.
This amplifier is used for impedance matching and as a buffer
amplifier. This circuit is also known as emitter follower.
 53

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For calculating the voltage gain the input voltage of 20mV peak-to-peak and 1
KHz frequency is applied and output voltage is taken for various load resistors.
3. The readings are tabulated.
The voltage gain calculated by using the expression, Av=V0/Vi
4. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept constant a
20mV peak-to- peak and the frequency is varied from 100Hzto 1MHz.
5. Note down the values of output voltage for each frequency.
All the readings are tabulated the voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the
expression, Av=20log 10(V0/Vi)
6. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on X-axis and gain in dB on y-axis on
Semi-log graph sheet.
The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the
Expression,
Bandwidth BW=f2-f1
Where f1 is lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier
f2 is upper cut-off frequency of CE amplifier
 54

10. The gain Bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated using the
Expression,
Gain -Bandwidth product=3-dB midband gain X Bandwidth

OBSERVATIONS:

LOAD OUTPUT GAIN GAIN IN dB

RESISTANCE(KΩ) VOLTAGE( V0) Av=V0/Vi Av=20log 10(V0/Vi)

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:
Vi=20mV
FREQUENCY(Hz) OUTPUT GAIN IN dB
VOLTAGE( V0) Av=20log 10(V0/Vi)
 55

WAVEFORM:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The input voltage must be kept constant while taking frequency response.
2. Proper biasing voltages should be applied.

RESULT:
The voltage gain and frequency response of the CC amplifier are
obtained. Also gain Bandwidth product is calculated.
 56

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the applications of CC amplifier?

2. What is the voltage gain of CC amplifier?
3. What are the values of input and output impedances of the CC amplifier?
4. To which ground the collector terminal is connected in the circuit?
5. Identify the type of biasing used in the circuit?
6. Give the relation between α, β and γ.
7. Write the other name of CC amplifier?
8. What are the differences between CE,CB and CC?
9. When compared to CE, CC is not used for amplification. Justify your
answer?
10. What is the phase relationship between input and output in CC?
 57

11. RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

AIM: To calculate voltage gain, to observe frequency response.

APPARATUS:
Transistors - BC 107 -2Nos,
Resistors - 3.3K -2Nos,
33k -2Nos,
330Ω -2Nos,
1k -2Nos,
Capacitors - 100uF -3Nos,
10uF -2Nos,
Bread Board,
Regulated power supply,
Cathode ray oscilloscope,

THEORY:
This is most popular type of coupling as it provides excellent audio
fidelity.
A coupling capacitor is used to connect output of first stage to input of second
stage. Resistances R1, R2,Re form biasing and stabilization network. Emitter
bypass capacitor offers low reactance paths to signal coupling Capacitor
transmits ac signal, blocks DC. Cascade stages amplify signal and overall gain
is increased total gain is less than product of gains of individual stages. Thus for
more gain coupling is done and overall gain of two stages equals to A=A1*A2
A1=voltage gain of first stage
A2=voltage gain of second stage.
When ac signal is applied to the base of the transistor, its amplified output
appears across the collector resistor Rc.It is given to the second stage for
further amplification and signal appears with more strength. Frequency
response curve is obtained by plotting a graph between frequency and gain in
db .The gain is constant in mid frequency range and gain decreases on both
 58

sides of the mid frequency range. The gain decreases in the low frequency
range due to coupling capacitor Cc and at high frequencies due to junction
capacitance Cbe.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

VCC
12V

R5 R8
R1 1kohm R4 1kohm
33kohm C3 33kohm C5

Q1 Q2
C1 BC107BP 10uF BC107BP 10uF

10uF

R9
V1 4.7kohm
20V R2 C2 R6 C4
R3 R7
14.14V_rms 3.3kohm 100uF 3.3kohm 100uF
330ohm 330ohm
1000Hz
0Deg

PROCEDURE:
1. Apply input by using function generator to the circuit.
2. Observe the output waveform on CRO.
3. Measure the voltage at
a. Output of first stage
b. Output of second stage.
4. From the readings calculate voltage gain of first stage, second stage and
overall gain of two stages. Disconnect second stage and then measure
output voltage of first stage calculate voltage gain.
5. Compare it with voltage gain obtained when second stage was connected.
6. Note down various values of gain for different frequencies.
7. A graph is plotted between frequency and voltage gain.
 59

OBSERVATIONS: -

APPLIED O/P VOLTAGE VOLTAGE GAIN

FREQUENCY (Vo) in dB (20 log10Vo/Vi)

MODELGRAPH:-
INPUT WAVE FORM:

FIRST STAGE OUTPUT:

 60

SECOND STAGE OUTPUT:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

PRECAUTIONS:
1) All connections should be tight.
2) Transistor terminals must be identifying properly.
3) Reading should be taken with out any parallax error.

RESULT: Thus voltage gain is calculated and frequency response is observed

along with loading affect.
 61

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1) What is the necessity of cascading?

2) What is 3dB bandwidth?
3) Why RC coupling is preferred in audio range?
4) Which type of coupling is preferred and why?
5) Explain various types of Capacitors?
6) What is loading effect?
7) Why it is known as RC coupling?
8) What is the purpose of emitter bypass capacitor?
9) Which type of biasing is used in RC coupled amplifier?
 62

12. COMMON SOURCE FET AMPLIFIER

AIM: 1. To obtain the frequency response of the common source FET

Amplifier
2. To find the Bandwidth.
APPRATUS:
N-channel FET (BFW11)
Resistors (6.8KΩ, 1MΩ, 1.5KΩ)
Capacitors (0.1µF, 47µF)
Regulated power Supply (0-30V)
Function generator
CRO
CRO probes
Bread board
Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 63

THEORY:

A field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor commonly used

for weak-signal amplification (for example, for amplifying wireless (signals). The
device can amplify analog or digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as
an oscillator. In the FET, current flows along a semiconductor path called the
channel. At one end of the channel, there is an electrode called the source. At
the other end of the channel, there is an electrode called the drain. The physical
diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective electrical diameter can be
varied by the application of a voltage to a control electrode called the gate.
Field-effect transistors exist in two major classifications. These are known as
the junction FET (JFET) and the metal-oxide- semiconductor FET (MOSFET).
The junction FET has a channel consisting of N-type semiconductor (N-
channel) or P-type semiconductor (P-channel) material; the gate is made of the
opposite semiconductor type. In P-type material, electric charges are carried
mainly in the form of electron deficiencies called holes. In N-type material, the
charge carriers are primarily electrons. In a JFET, the junction is the boundary
between the channel and the gate. Normally, this P-N junction is reverse-biased
(a DC voltage is applied to it) so that no current flows between the channel and
the gate. However, under some conditions there is a small current through the
junction during part of the input signal cycle. The FET has some advantages
and some disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor. Field-effect
transistors are preferred for weak-signal work, for example in wireless,
communications and broadcast receivers. They are also preferred in circuits
and systems requiring high impedance. The FET is not, in general, used for
high-power amplification, such as is required in large wireless communications
and broadcast transmitters.

Field-effect transistors are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips. A
single IC can contain many thousands of FETs, along with other components
such as resistors, capacitors, and diodes.
 64

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. A signal of 1 KHz frequency and 50mV peak-to-peak is applied at the
Input of amplifier.
3. Output is taken at drain and gain is calculated by using the expression,
Av=V0/Vi

4. Voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the expression,

Av=20log 10(V0/Vi)
5. Repeat the above steps for various input voltages.
6. Plot Av vs. Frequency

7. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the
Expression,
Bandwidth BW=f2-f1
Where f1 is lower 3 dB frequency
f2 is upper 3 dB frequency

OBSERVATIONS:

S.NO INPUT OUTPUT VOLTAGE

VOLTAGE(Vi) VOLTAGE(V0) GAIN
Av= (V0/Vi)
 65

MODEL GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Transistor terminals must be identified properly
.
RESULT: The frequency response of the common source FET
Amplifier and Bandwidth is obtained.
 66

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between FET and BJT?
2. FET is unipolar or bipolar?
3. Draw the symbol of FET?
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. FET is voltage controlled or current controlled?
6. Draw the equivalent circuit of common source FET amplifier?
7. What is the voltage gain of the FET amplifier?
8. What is the input impedance of FET amplifier?
9. What is the output impedance of FET amplifier?
10. What are the FET parameters?
11. What are the FET applications?
 67

13. WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

AIM: To study and calculate frequency of. Wein Bridge Oscillator.

APPARATUS:
Transistor (BC 107) 2 No
Resistors 10K Ω 4 No
1 KΩ 3 No
2.2 K Ω 2 No
33 K Ω
6.8 K Ω
Capacitors 10 µF 2 No
100 µF
0.01 µF 2 No
RPS (0 – 30 V)
Potentiometer
Bread Boar
CRO
Connecting wires
 68

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The wein bridge oscillator is a standard circuit for generating low
frequencies in the range of 10 Hz to about 1MHz.The method used for getting
+ve feedback in wein bridge oscillator is to use two stages of an RC-coupled
amplifier. Since one stage of the RC-coupled amplifier introduces a phase shift
of 180 deg, two stages will introduces a phase shift of 360 deg. At the
frequency of oscillations f the +ve feedback network shown in fig makes the
input & output in the phase. The frequency of oscillations is given as
f =1/2π√R1C1R2C2
In addition to the positive feedback
 69

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. Feed the output of the oscillator to a C.R.O by making adjustments in the
Potentiometer connected in the +ve feedback loop, try to obtain a stable
sine Wave.
3. Measure the time period of the waveform obtained on CRO. & calculate the
Frequency of oscillations.
4. Repeat the procedure for different values of capacitance.

OBSERVATION:
Given R=10kΩ, C=0.01μF
fT = 1/ 2π RC
1
fP = =
T
Amplitude,V0 =
MODEL WAVE FORM:

RESULT:
The frequency of the wein bridge oscillator is calculated and is verified

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Give the formula for frequency of oscillations?

2. What is the condition for wien bridge oscillator to generate oscillations?
3. What is the total phase shift provided by the oscillator?
4. What is the function of lead-lag network in Wein bridge oscillator?
 70

5. which type of feedback is used in Wein bridge oscillator

6. What is gain of Wein bridge oscillator?
7. what are the application of Wein bridge oscillator
8. What is the condition for oscillations?
9. What is the difference between damped oscillations undamped
Oscillations?
10. Wein bridge oscillator is either LC or RC oscillator.
 71

14. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

AIM: To calculate the frequency of the RC phase shift oscillator & to measure the
phase angles at different RC sections.

APPARATUS:
1. Transistor BC107
2. Resistors: 10KΩ -3Nos
8KΩ or 10KΩ
22KΩ
1.2KΩ
100KΩ
3. Capacitors: 0.001µf – 3 Nos
10µF – 2Nos
1µf
4. Regulated power Supply
5. CRO

THEORY:
RC-Phase shift Oscillator has a CE amplifier followed by three
sections of RC phase shift feed back Networks the out put of the last stage is
return to the input of the amplifier. The values of R and C are chosen such that
the phase shift of each RC section is 60º.Thus The RC ladder network
produces a total phase shift of 180º between its input and output voltage for the
given frequencies. Since CE Amplifier produces 180 º phases shift the total
phase shift from the base of the transistor around the circuit and back to the
base will be exactly 360º or 0º. This satisfies the Barkhausen condition for
sustaining oscillations and total loop gain of this circuit is greater than or equal
to 1, this condition used to generate the sinusoidal oscillations.
 72

The frequency of oscillations of RC-Phase Shift Oscillator is,

1
f= -----------
2π RC* √6

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connection as per the circuit diagram as shown above.
2. Observe the output signal and note down the output amplitude and time
period (Td).
3. Calculate the frequency of oscillations theoretically and verify it practically
(f=1/Td).
4. Calculate the phase shift at each RC section by measuring the time shifts
(Tp) between the final waveform and the waveform at that section by using
the below formula.
 73

OBSERVATIONS:

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS: R = 10KΩ, C = 0.001 μf

1
f= -------------- =
2π RC* √6
PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS:

Td =

1
f= -----
Td

Tp1
(1). θ 1= --------*3600 =
Td

Tp2
(2). θ 2 = ------- * 3600 =

Td

Tp3
(3). θ 3= ----------- *3600 =
Td
 74

MODEL WAVE FORMS:

OUT PUT WAVE FORM :

OUT PUT WAVE FORM : θ = 600

OUT PUT WAVE FORM : θ = 1200

OUT PUT WAVE FORM : θ = 180

 75

RESULT: The frequency of RC phase shift oscillator is calculated and the

phase shift at different RC sections is noted.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the conditions of oscillations?

2. Give the formula for frequency of oscillations?
3. What is the total phase shift produce by the RC ladder network?
4. Whether the oscillator is positive feedback or negative feedback?
5. What are the types of oscillators?
6. What is the gain of RC phase shift oscillator?
7. What is the difference between damped oscillations undamped
oscillations?
8. What are the applications of RC oscillations?
9. How many resistors and capacitors are used in RC phase shift network
10. How the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied in RC phase shift oscillator
 76

15. CURRENT-SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

AIM: To measure the voltage gain of current - series feed back amplifier.

APPARATUS: Transistor BC 107

Breadboard
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V,1A)
Function Generator
CRO(30 Mhz,dualtrace)
Resistors 33kΩ,3.3kΩ,330Ω,1.5kΩ,2.2k Ω,4.7k Ω, 1 k Ω.
Capacitors 10µF - 2Nos
100µF

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 77

THEORY:

When any increase in the output signal results into the input in such a way as to
cause the decrease in the output signal, the amplifier is said to have negative
feedback.
The advantages of providing negative feedback are that the transfer gain of the
amplifier with feedback can be stablised against varations in the hybrid
parameteresof the transistor or the parameters of the other active devices used
in the circuit. The most advantage of the negative feedback is that by propere
use of this, there is significant improvement in the frequency respponse and in
the linearity of the operation of the amplifier.This disadvantage of the negative
feedback is that the voltage gain is decreased.
In Current-Series Feedback, the input impedance and the output
impedance are increased.Noise and distortionsare reduced cosiderably.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep the input voltage constant at 20mV peak-peak and 1kHz
frequency.For different values of load resistance, note down the output
voltage and calculate the gain by using the expression

Av = 20log(V0 / Vi ) dB

3. Remove the emitter bypass capacitor and repeat STEP 2.And observe the
effect of feedback on the gain of the amplifier.

4. For plotting the frquency the input voltage is kept constant at 20mV peak-
peak and the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz.

5. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency. All the readings
are tabulated and the voltage gain in dB is calculated by using expression
Av = 20log (V0 / Vi ) dB
 78

6. A graph is drawn by takung frquency on X-axis and gain on Y-axis on semi

log graph sheet

7. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the
expression Bandwidth B.W = f2 – f1.

Where f1 is lower cutt off frequency of CE amplifier

f 2 is upper cutt off frequency of CE amplifier

8. The gain-bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated by using the

expression

Gain-Bandwidth Product = 3-dB midband gain X Bandwidth.

OBSERVATIONS:

Voltage Gain: Vi = 20 mV

S.NO Output Voltage Output Voltage Gain(dB) Gain(dB)

(Vo) with (Vo) without with without
feedback feedback feedback feedback

Frquency Response:
 79

S.NO Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (Vo) Gain A = Vo/Vi Gain in dB

20log(Vo/Vi)

MODEL WAVEFORM:
 80

Frequency response

PRECAUTIONS:

1. While taking the observations for the frequency response , the input voltage
must be maintained constant at 20mV.

2. The frequency should be slowly increased in steps.

3. The three terminals of the transistor should be carefully identified.

4. All the connections should be correct.

 81

RESULT:

The effect of negative feedback (Current-Series Feedback ) on the

amplifier is observed. The voltage gain and frquency response of the amplifier
are obtained.Also gain-bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the effect of Current-Series Feedback amplifier on the input

inmpedance of the amplifier?
2. What is the effect of negative feedback on the Bandwidth of an amplifier?
3. State the reason for the usage of negative feedback in an amplifier?
4. What are the fundamental assumptions that are made in studying feedback
amplifiers?
5. What are the advantages of providing negative feedback amplifier?
6. What are the ideal characteristics of a voltage amplifier?\
7. Draw the circuit for the current series feedback?
8. What is the other name for current series feedback amplifier?
9. What is the formula for input resistance of a current series feedback?
10. What is the formula for output resistance of a current series feedback?
 82

16. VOLTAGE-SERTES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

AIM: To study the effect of voltage series feedback on Gain of the Amplifier.

APPARATUS:

Transistor BC 107
Breadboard
Regulated Power Supply(0-30V,1A)
Function Generator
CRO(30 Mhz,dualtrace)
Resistors 33kΩ,3.3k Ω,1.5kΩ,1kΩ,2.2k Ω,4.7k Ω,330Ω
Capacitors 10µF - 2Nos
100µF - 1No

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 83

THEORY:
When any increase in the output signal results into the input in such
a way as to cause the decrease in the output signal, the amplifier is said to
have negative feedback.
The advantages of providing negative feedback are that the transfer gain of the
amplifier with feedback can be stablised against varations in the hybrid
parameteresof the transistor or the parameters of the other active devices used
in the circuit. The most advantage of the negative feedback is that by propere
use of this , there is significant improvement in the frequency respponse and in
 84

the linearity of the operation of the amplifier.This disadvantage of the negative

feedback is that the voltage gain is decreased.
In Voltage-Series feedback , the input impedance of the amplifier is
decreased and the output impedance is increased.Noise and distortionsare
reduced cosiderably.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep the input voltage constant at 20mV peak-peak and 1kHz
frequency.For different values of load resistance, note down the output
voltage and calculate the gain by using the expression
Av = 20log(V0 / Vi ) dB
3. Add the emitter bypass capacitor and repeat STEP 2.And observe the
effect of Feedback on the gain of the amplifier
4. For plotting the frquency the input voltage is kept constant at 20mV peak-
peak and the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz.
5. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency. All the readings
are tabulated and the voltage gain in dB is calculated by using expression
Av = 20log(V0 / Vi ) dB
6. A graph is drawn by takung frquency on X-axis and gain on Y-axis on
semi log graph sheet
7. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the
expression Bandwidth B.W = f2 – f1.

Where f1 is lower cutt off frequency of CE amplifier

f 2 is upper cutt off frequency of CE amplifier

The gain-bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated by using the

expression

Gain-Bandwidth Product = 3-dB midband gain X Bandwidth.

 85

OBSERVATIONS:

Voltage Gain:

S.NO Output Voltage Output Voltage Gain(dB) Gain(dB)

(Vo) with (Vo) without with without
feedback feedback feedback feedback
 86

Frquency Response: Vi = 20mV

S.NO Frequency (Hz) Gain A = Vo- Gain in dB

Output Voltage
/Vi
(Vo) 20log(Vo/Vi)

MODEL WAVEFORMS:
 87

PRECAUTIONS :

1. While taking the observations for the frequency response , the input
voltage must be maintained constant at 20mV.

2. The frequency should be slowly increased in steps.

3. The three terminals of the transistor should be carefully identified.

4. All the connections should be correct.

RESULT:

The effect of negative feedback (Voltage -Series Feedback ) on the

amplifier is observed. The voltage gain and frquency response of the amplifier
are obtained.Also gain-bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated.
 88

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by Feedback?

2. What are the types of feedback amplifiers? Explain?
3. Draw the circuit for voltage series feedback?
4. What are the differences between positive and negative feedback?
5. What is the effect of negative feedback on gain of an amplifier?
6. What is the formula for voltage gain with negative feedback?
7. What are the other names for positive and negative feedback circuits?
8. What is the formula for input resistance of a voltage series feedback?
9. What is the formula for output resistance of a voltage series feedback?
 89

17. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

AIM: To study and calculate frequency of oscillations of Hartley oscillator.
Compare the frequency of oscillations, theoretically and practically.

APPARATUS: Transistor BC 107

Capacitors 0.1μF, 10 μF
Resistors 6.8Kohm, 1Kohm and 100Kohm
Decade inductance box (DIB)
Decade resistance box (DRB)
Cathode ray oscilloscope
Bread board
Regulated power supply (0-30V)
Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 90

THEORY:
Hartley oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local
oscillator in radio receivers. It has two main advantages viz... Adaptability to
wide range of frequencies and easy to tune. The tank circuit is made up of L1,
L2, and C1. The coil L1 is inductively coupled to coil L2, the combination
functions as auto transformer. The resistances R2 and R3 provide the
necessary biasing. The capacitance C2 blocks the d.c component. The
frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of L1, L2 and C1 and is
given by,

F=1/(2π (C1(√L1+L2)))

The energy supplied to the tank circuit is of correct phase. The auto transformer
provides 180˚ out of phase. Also another 180˚ is produced
By the transistor. In this way, energy feedback to the tank circuit is in phase
with the generated oscillations.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect CRO at output terminals and observe wave form.
3. Calculate practically the frequency of oscillations by using the
Expression.
F=1/T, Where T= Time period of the waveform
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of L1 and note
Down practical values of oscillations of colpitts oscillator.
5. Compare the values of frequency of oscillations both theoretically
And Practically.
 91

OBSERVATIONS:

CAPACITANCE(μF) Theoritical frequency Practical frequency

(KHZ) (KHZ)

MODEL GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be correct.
2. Transistor terminals must be identified properly.
3. Reading should be taken without any parallax error.

RESULT: Frequency of oscillations is calculated and compared with theoretical

values.
 92

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the applications of LC oscillations?

2. What type of feedback is used in oscillators?
3. What the expression for frequency of oscillations?
4. Whether an oscillator is dc to ac converter?
5. What is the loop gain of an oscillator?
6. What is the difference between amplifier and oscillator?
7. What is the condition for oscillations?
8. How many inductors and capacitors are used in Hartley Oscillator?
9. How the oscillations are produced in Hartley oscillator?
10. What is the difference between damped oscillations undamped oscillations?
 93

18. COLPITT’S OSCILLATOR

AIM: To study and calculate frequency of oscillations of colpitt’s oscillator.

APPARATUS: Transistor BC 107

Capacitors 0.1µF - 2Nos
10µF - 2Nos
47µF - 1No
Resistors 6.8kΩ, 1kΩ,100kΩ
Decade Inductance Box (DIB)
Decade Resistance Box (DRB)
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)
Connecting Wires
CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
 94

THEORY:

The tank circuit is made up of L1,C4 and C5 .The resistance R2 and

R3 provides the necessary biasing. The capacitance C2 blocks the D.C
component. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of L1,C4
and C5, and is given by

f = 1 / (2π (CTL1)1/2) Where CT = C1C2 / ( C1 + C2)

The energy supplied to the tank circuit is of correct phase. The tank circuit
provides 1800 out of phase. Also the transistor provides another 1800 . In this
way, energy feedback to the tank circuit is in phase with the generated
oscillations.

PROCEDURE:

1. connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Connect CRO output terminals and observe the waveform.
3. Calculate practically the frequency of oscillations by using the expression

f = 1 / T ( T= Time period of the waveform)

4. Repeat the above steps 2,3 for different values of L, and note down the
practically values of oscillations of the collpitt’s oscillator.
5. Compare the values of oscillations both theoritically and practically.
 95

OBSERVATIONS:

Inductance ( mH ) Theoretical Frequency Practical Frequency

( Hz ) ( Hz )

MODELWAVEFORM:

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The connections should be correct.

2. Transistor terminals should be identified properly.
3. Readings should be taken without parallalox error.
 96

RESULT: Frequency of oscillations of colpitts oscillator is measured practically

and campared with theoritical values .

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the applications of LC oscillators?

2. What type of feedback is used in oscillators?
3. What is the expression for the frequency of oscillations of colpitt’s
oscillator?
4. Is an oscillator DC to AC converter?
5. What is the loop gain and loop phase shift of an oscillator?
6. How does colpitt’s differ from Hartley?
7. Which pair in circuit forms stabilizing circuit?
8. What is the function of input and output capacitor?
9. What is the condition for sustained oscillations in this oscillator?
10. Output capacitor acts as a?
 97

19. SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER(SCR)

CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To draw the V-I Charateristics of SCR

APPARATUS: SCR (TYN616)

Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)
Resistors 10kΩ, 1kΩ
Ammeter (0-50) µA
Voltmeter (0-10V)
Breadboard
Connecting Wires.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 98

THEORY:

It is a four layer semiconductor device being alternate of P-type and N-type

silicon. It consists os 3 junctions J1, J2, J3 the J1 and J3 operate in forward
direction and J2 operates in reverse direction and three terminals called anode
A, cathode K , and a gate G. The operation of SCR can be studied when the
gate is open and when the gate is positive with respect to cathode.
 99

When gate is open, no voltage is applied at the gate due to reverse

bias of the junction J2 no current flows through R2 and hence SCR is at cutt off.
When anode voltage is increased J2 tends to breakdown.

When the gate positive,with respect to cathode J 3 junction is forward

biased and J2 is reverse biased .Electrons from N-type material move across
junction J3 towards gate while holes from P-type material moves across junction
J3 towards cathode. So gate current starts flowing ,anode current increaase is in
extremely small current junction J2 break down and SCR conducts heavily.

When gate is open thee breakover voltage is determined on the

minimum forward voltage at which SCR conducts heavily.Now most of the
supply voltage appears across the load resistance.The holfing current is the
maximum anode current gate being open , when break over occurs.
 100

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Keep the gate supply voltage at some constant value
3. Vary the anode to cathode supply voltage and note down the readings of
voltmeter and ammeter.Keep the gate voltage at standard value.
4. A graph is drawn between VAK and IAK .

OBSERVATION

VAK(V) IAK ( µA)

MODEL WAVEFORM:
 101

RESULT: SCR Characteristics are observed.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What the symbol of SCR?

2. IN which state SCR turns of conducting state to blocking state?
3. What are the applications of SCR?
4. What is holding current?
5. What are the important type’s thyristors?
6. How many numbers of junctions are involved in SCR?
7. What is the function of gate in SCR?
8. When gate is open, what happens when anode voltage is increased?
9. What is the value of forward resistance offered by SCR?
10. What is the condition for making from conducting state to non conducting
state?
 102

20. UJT CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: To observe the characteristics of UJT and to calculate the Intrinsic Stand-
Off Ratio (η).

APPARATUS:
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V, 1A) - 2Nos
UJT 2N2646
Resistors 10kΩ, 47Ω, 330Ω
Multimeters - 2Nos
Breadboard
Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 103

THEORY:

A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device

that has only one junction. The UJT Unijunction Transistor (UJT) has three
terminals an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by
lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached
at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The resistance
between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called interbase
resistance.The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is
essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material
 104

has been diffused somewhere along its length. The 2N2646 is the most
commonly used version of the UJT.

Circuit symbol

The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a
potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven
approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the P
diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base
region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current
(actually charges in the base region) causes (conductivity modulation) which
reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction
and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction
is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect
is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT
useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits.When the emitter voltage reaches
Vp, the current startsto increase and the emitter voltage starts to decrease.This
is represented by negative slope of the characteristics which is reffered to as
the negative resistance region,beyond the valleypoint ,RB1 reaches minimum
value and this region,VEB propotional to IE.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connection is made as per circuit diagram.

2. Output voltage is fixed at a constant level and by varying input voltage
corresponding emitter current values are noted down.
 105

3. This procedure is repeated for different values of output voltages.

4. All the readings are tabulated and Intrinsic Stand-Off ratio is calculated
using η = (Vp-VD) / VBB
5. A graph is plotted between VEE and IE for different values of VBE.

MODEL GRAPH:
 106

OBSEVATIONS:

VBB=1V VBB=2V VBB=3V

VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA)

CALCULATIONS:

VP = ηVBB + VD

η = (VP-VD) / VBB

η = ( η1 + η2 + η3 ) / 3

RESULT: The characteristics of UJT are observed and the values of Intrinsic
Stand-Off Ratio is calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Wha is the symbol of UJT?

2. Draw the equivalent circuit of UJT?
3. What are the applications of UJT?
4. Formula for the intrinsic stand off ratio?
5. What does it indicates the direction of arrow in the UJT?
6. What is the difference between FET and UJT?
7. Is UJT is used an oscillator? Why?
8. What is the Resistance between B1 and B2 is called as?
9. What is its value of resistance between B1 and B2?
10. Draw the characteristics of UJT?
 107

21. BRIDGE RECTIFER

AIM: - To calculate the ripple factor of a bridge rectifier, with and without filters.

APPARATUS:-
Experimental board
Diodes, IN4007 ---- 4 Nos.
Resistor, 1KΩ
Capacitor, 100μF/25v.
Transformer (6-0-6v)
Multi meters –2 No
Connecting Wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

THEORY:-
 108

The bridge rectifier is also a full-wave rectifier in which four p-n diodes
are connected in the form of a bridge fashion. The Bridge rectifier has high
efficiency when compared to half-wave rectifier. During every half cycle of the
input, only two diodes will be conducting while other two diodes are in reverse
bias.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the ac main to the primary side of the transformer and secondary
side to the bridge rectifier.
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input of the rectifier using the multi meter.
4. Measure both the ac and dc voltages at the output of the Bridge rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the formula,

CALCULATIONS:-
Theoretical calculations:-
Vrms = Vm/ √2
Vm =Vrms√2
Vdc=2Vm/П
(i)Without filter:
Ripple factor, r = √ ( Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 0.482
(ii)With filter:

Ripple factor, r = 1/ (4√3 f C RL) where f =50Hz

C =100µF
RL=1KΩ
Practical Calculations:-
Without filter:-
Vac=
Vdc=
 109

Ripple factor, r=Vac/Vdc

With filters:-
Vac=
Vdc=
Ripple factor,r=Vac/Vdc
OBSEVATIONS:-
Without Filter

USING Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

DMM

With Filter

USING Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

DMM

Without Filter:-
Vrms = Vm/ √2 , Vdc=2Vm/П , Vac=√( Vrms2- Vdc 2)

Vm(v) Vac(v) Vdc(v) r= Vac/ Vdc

USING CRO

WITHFILTER
V1(V) V2(V) Vdc= Vac= r=
USINGCRO (V1+V2)/2 (V1- V2)/2√3 Vac/
Vdc
110
 111

MODELWAVEFORM:-

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. The voltage applied should not exceed in the ratings of the diode
2. The diodes will be connected correctly

RESULT:-

The Ripple factor of Bridge rectifier is with and without filter calculated.
 112

VIVAQUESTIONS:-

1. What is the PIV of Bridge rectifier?

2. What is the efficiency of Bridge rectifier?
3. What are the advantages of Bridge rectifier?
4. What is the difference between the Bridge rectifier and fullwaverectifier?
5. What is the o/p frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
6. What is the disadvantage of Bridge Rectifier?
7. What is the maximum secondary voltage of a transformer?
8. What are the different types of the filters?
9. What is the difference between the Bridge rectifier and half wave
Rectifier?
10. What is the maximum DC power delivered to the load?

gnanadeep