Basic Electronics

S. N. Whittlesey and J. Hamill This chapter gives a brief overview of elementary electronic circuit concepts that are relevant to the collection of human movement data. The topics discussed in this chapter include basic electronic components, Ohms Law, circuit diagrams and the function of several common lab instruments such as amplifiers and electrogoniometers. Students interested in further detail or sample problems on any particular topic will find such in textbooks on electronics or linear circuits (such as a Schaums Outline or Winter & Patla, 1997). The focus here is on simple, steady-state circuit concepts and how they apply to common measurements of human movement. Electronics notation and symbols are standardized across different fields. In this chapter, we will use the following: Quantity Symbol Current I Voltage V Resistance R Capacitance C Power P SI unit ampere volt ohm farad watt SI abbreviation A V F W

Circuit Diagrams A circuit diagram is a formal means of representing an electric circuit. We shall use these diagrams in this chapter to illustrate different examples. Circuit diagrams have many conventions of which the most common are: 1) Components are represented by standard icons with their size; 2) wires are represented by straight lines or zero resistance; 3) wires are drawn only in north-south-east-west directions;

C.2 4) a connection of two wires is indicated by a solid dot; 5) one wire passing over another is indicated by a short loop and 6) interface points are indicated by open dots and labeled. Circuit diagrams can of course become very complicated. The conventions listed above are displayed in Figure C.1. This diagram shows the symbols for various components: a 9volt (V) battery, ground, a 100 ohm () resistor, a 10 variable resistor and a 1 microfarad (F) capacitor. We shall now proceed to a discussion these electrical components as well as several principles of electricity.

10 9V

100

1 F

Figure C.1 - Circuit diagram of a 9-volt battery powering two resistors and a capacitor. The lower side of the battery is grounded. The voltage V is the quantity that we would measure. The 10- resistor has a variable resistance with a maximum of 10 .

C.3 Electric Charge, Current and Voltage Electric charge may be either positive or negative, depending on whether we are dealing with protons or electrons. Electricity is the flow of electrons through some medium, whether through a wire in a house or lightning through the air. The basic SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb. It represents about 6.25x1018 electrons. The rate of flow of electricity, or current, has units of amperes; one ampere is a flow rate of one coulomb per second. As practical examples, a hand-held calculator operation requires a few microamperes; a D-cell battery can supply about 100 mA; a car battery offers a maximum of about 2 A; and a typical house circuit can provide 20 A. Current flow occurs because there is a difference in electrical potential energy between two sites. This potential difference is called a voltage. One volt is defined as one joule of energy per coulomb of charge. As practical examples, a D-cell battery offers 1.25 V; a car battery offers 12 V; house electricity averages 110 V. Human EMG, by contrast, is in the order of V. A point of zero voltage is called a ground. This is never an absolute quantity, but rather a defined reference point in a circuit. Thus, two circuits may have their own grounding references, but there may be a potential difference between the grounds of the two circuits. For example, in a small battery-powered circuit such as a clock or a flashlight, ground is typically defined as the negative terminal of the battery powering the circuit. In house applications, ground is defined as the potential of the surrounding soil. This is accomplished by connecting to a metal rod driven into the earth. This house ground is different from the ground in any battery-powered circuit unless a connection is made between them. As another example, jump-starting a car is dangerous because potential differences can exist between two cars: even though the battery in each car is 12 V, their tires insulate them from the road (ground). In human movement, we often see these principles applied in EMG recording because different voltage potentials can exist over the skin surface of the body depending on what muscles are active. As we shall see

C.4 later, we often record EMG with a separate grounding plate on a bony landmark away from the musculature. Voltage and current are related, as will be discussed later in this chapter. The fact that they are related is often a source of confusion. One has to first retain the basic principles stated above, that current is the flow of electrons and voltage is a potential energy difference that can cause electron flow. If current is flowing between two sites, then there must be a voltage difference between them. However, there can be a voltage difference without current flowing; in that case, there is no complete circuit for the current to flow through. For example, there is a voltage difference between the terminals of a wall outlet, regardless of whether or not an appliance is connected to it. Current only flows between the terminals when an appliance is connected to them and turned on. An extreme example is that birds can land on a high-voltage overhead power line without harm. The same principle applies to line workers: so long as a worker is highly insulated from the ground, it is possible to touch the wire with bare hands. When contact is made, the worker will be thousands of volts higher than the ground, but virtually no current can flow through the insulation, so the worker is unharmed. However, when a power line comes down in a storm, touching the wire can be fatal because contact with the wire connects a circuit to the ground. Circuit concepts are often difficult because they cannot be visualized directly. We must use a measurement instrument, such as a voltmeter, an oscilloscope or a computer to establish the state of a circuit. This is an abstract task, and thus it can be helpful to use analogies to fluid flow through pipe systems. Electric current (amperage) is analogous to the rate of fluid flow through the pipe (i.e., litres per second). Voltage is analogous to the pressure in the pipe system. Thus, following the discussion above, if water is flowing through a hose, there must be a pressure difference between the ends of the hose; however, we can have a closed, pressurized container with no water leaking out of it. Flow implies that a potential energy difference exists. However, the fact that a potential

C.5 energy difference exists does not imply that something is flowing. Other fluid examples will be offered throughout this chapter to illustrate key points. We most often think of voltage as the strength of a power supply. However, it is also an important quantity that we measure: in biophysical systems, we almost always measure a voltage, not a current. This is primarily a matter of ease of use and the relative durability of voltmeters as compared to ammeters. However, it is still an important point: when we speak of a biophysical signal, we are referring to a time-varying voltage produced by a human subject or some device attached thereto. Resistors Electrical resistivity is a fundamental material property: as electrons pass through a material, energy is dissipated as heat. Resistance is a measure of this effect in a specific object. Resistance has units of ohms (), and thus resistivity has units of ohms per meter (/m). In other words, the resistance of an object is a function of the resistivity of its material as well as the objects dimensions. In particular, resistance is directly proportional to the length of the material. Returning to fluid flow, resistivity is analogous to the friction that exists between a fluid and a pipe that it flows through; resistance is analogous to the total frictional force of the pipe system. The total resistance of a pipe depends on the frictional characteristics as well as its length. Electrical resistivities of materials vary over many orders of magnitude. As examples, copper wire has a resistance of about 10-4 /m; human skin, 20 k/m to 50 k/m; semiconductors like silicon are around 105 /m; and wood about 1013 /m.

Example Estimate the resistance of one centimeter of copper wire using the resistivity given above, 10-4 /m. Answer: Total resistance (R) is the product of the resistivity and the length: R = (10-4 /m)(10-2 m), which equals 10-6 .

C.6 A resistor is a device that provides resistance to electricity. Typical resistor sizes vary from around 1 to 1 M. Knowledge of the resistances within a circuit is critical to understanding its behavior. Indeed, we typically use our knowledge of resistors to manipulate the flow of current and perform the desired function. Also, in human movement study, we often need to be aware of the resistances in both our instruments and the human body. Some resistors have variable resistances. A common type of variable resistor is the potentiometer, often called a pot. Some potentiometers can be adjusted by turning them (a rotary pot), others slide linearly. Volume controls on radios can take both forms, as can dimmer switches on house lighting. Most circuits are comprised of multiple resistances. Thus, it is important to understand how resistors act when connected together. There are two basic manners of connecting, series and parallel. In a series connection, there is one path. One resistor follows the other, and all current flowing through one resistor must flow through the other (Figure C.2). The total resistance of two resistors in series is equal to the sum of the resistances, i.e., R = R1 + R2 (C.1)

R1

R2

Figure C.2 - Circuit diagram of two resistors in series. If more resistors are added to the series, the total resistance is equal to the sum of each resistance: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . .+ RN (C.2)

C.7 In a parallel connection, there is a branching (Figure C.3). The total current flowing through the system is divided between two or more resistors. The total resistance R of two or more resistors in parallel is given by: 1 1 1 1 R = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn For the case of two resistors in parallel this reduces to: R1 R2 R=R +R 1 2

(C.3)

(C.4)

R1

R2

Figure C.3 - Circuit diagram of two resistors in parallel.

Examples 1) What is the total resistance of two 10 resistors in series? In parallel? Answer: In series, the total resistance is 10 + 10 , which equals 20 . In parallel, the total resistance is
(10 )(10 ) 10 + 10

which equals 5 . ________________________________________________________________________ 2) What is the total resistance of a 10- resistor and a 1- resistor in series? In parallel? Answer: In series, the total resistance is 10 + 1 , which equals 11 .

C.8 In parallel, the total resistance is

(10 )(1) 10 + 1

which equals 0.91 . Note that when resistors are in series, the total resistance must be greater than the largest resistor in the circuit. However, when resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance must be less than the smallest resistor in the circuit.

Capacitors A capacitor is a device that stores electric charge; in terms of our analogies to fluid flow, a capacitor would be equivalent to a tank or a bucket that holds water. Its behavior is very different from a resistor and will not be discussed in detail here. The important thing about capacitance is that it is a common physical property that we often must account for. It typically attenuates the voltage that we try to measure. Its effects can be noticeable on certain data. For example, high-speed devices such as telephones and computer networks have very thin cables because the capacitance of thicker cables would essentially absorb the small amounts of electricity being sent through them. This would be analogous to the fact that a garden hose holds water; thus, water does not come out the hose for a few seconds after the faucet is turned on. It is for this reason that certain accelerometers have extremely thin cables. It is also the reason for preamplified EMG electrodes: they provide a stronger source of electricity to overcome the capacitance of the wires. Note that capacitance is not a bad factor, but simply a factor that must be taken into account. We in fact exploit the behavior of capacitors so that radios can tune to different stations. Capacitors can also be used to filter signals in the same manner as the digital filters introduced in Chapter 2 and detailed in Chapter 12. Readers interested in relevant examples may again refer to any linear circuits text. Along with capacitors, it is important to introduce the term impedance. Impedance, denoted Z, is a more general term for all of the factors that limit electrical flow

C.9 through a circuit. Thus, impedance includes the net effects of all resistors and capacitors in the circuit. The symbol for a capacitor represents the two plates that would hold the electric charge. Sometimes the plates are drawn parallel, other times the plate with the lower voltage is denoted with a curved shape. Ohms Law Ohms Law is very common and important, perhaps the most fundamental law in all of electronics. It states that the voltage across a resistor equals the product of its resistance and current flowing through it: V=IR (C.5)

where V is the voltage across the resistor, I is the current through the resistor, and R is the magnitude of the resistance. There are different ways to express this law. If we increase the voltage in a circuit, the current will increase in proportion; or if we increase the size of a resistor, then the current will decrease proportionately. When plotted, this function is a straight line, as shown in Figure C.4. This is a linear function. It remains true regardless of the magnitude of the current or how it changes over time. We can express this mathematically as: V(t) = I(t) R (C.6)

Because of this linearity, resistor circuits are the most straightforward to analyze, although they can get complicated. Ohms Law is analogous to fluid flow: electrical resistance R corresponds to the resistance of the piping, the current I corresponds to the volume rate of fluid flow, and voltage V corresponds to pressure. If we increase the voltage, more current will flow, the same way that if we increase the pressure of water in a pipe, more water will flow. If we increase the resistance in a circuit, less current will flow, again, just like water flow.

C.10

V slope = R I

Figure C.4 - Graphical representation of Ohm's Law. Examples 1) What is the current flowing in this circuit?
10 A 20 V B

Answer: By Ohms Law, V I=R ??I = ?

________________________________________________________________________ 2) In this circuit, what is the size of the resistor?

C.11

9V

2 mA
Answer: By Ohms Law, R= 9V V ?R = 0.002 A ? I = 4.5 k

________________________________________________________________________ 3) Suppose a 110 V house outlet is wired to a 15 amp (A) circuit breaker. What is the minimum resistance that can be applied to this outlet? Answer: By Ohms Law, 110 V R = 15 A ? R = 7.33 ?

In practical situations, we are not concerned with the currents flowing through loops as above; rather, we often speak in terms of the voltage drop across a resistor. This has to do with the manner in which you would measure voltage. Since voltage is a potential difference between two points, a voltmeter has two leads. For example, in the previous circuit, if we placed one lead before the 9V battery above and one lead after it, the voltmeter would register a voltage gain of 9V. If you placed the leads across the resistor, the voltmeter would measure a voltage drop of 9V (that is, it would read -9 V). If you placed the leads across points A and B, the voltmeter would register 0 V because there is no resistance between these points. This is the basic process of measuring any electrical device: there is a specific component across which we measure the changes in voltage. Earlier in this chapter, we discussed impedance. When measuring impedance, the formula is analogous to Ohms Law:

C.12

Z=

V I

(C.7)

where Z is the impedance, V is the voltage across the circuit, and I is the current through it. If a circuit is comprised entirely of resistors, then the impedance is equal to resistance. However, for reasons beyond the scope of this chapter, if the voltage varies with time we will observe the effects of the capacitance of the circuit. Power Laws Sliding friction between two objects generates heat. In a similar manner, electrical resistance generates heat. This is simply a matter of energetics: if there exists a difference in electrical potential between sites and current is flowing between them, then energy must be dissipated in some manner, whether it be via a motor, a light bulb, or a heating element. The power dissipated by a resistor is given by: P=IV (C.8)

where P is the power dissipated by the resistor, I is the current through it, and V is the voltage across is. That is, the power dissipated by a resistor as heat is given by the product of the current flowing though and the voltage across it. Power, as in mechanical applications, has units of watts (W). Via Ohms Law, we may also derive two other forms of the power law: P = I2 R and V2 P= R (C.9)

where R is the magnitude of the resistance. These latter equations demonstrate that heating devices such as ovens and hair dryers work by having low resistances. A heating element (coil) is simply a resistor; as current flows through, energy dissipates as heat. Using the equation on the left, we see that the power increases as the square of the current. Therefore, a decrease in the resistance of the heating element causes a proportional increase in the current.

C.13

Examples 1) What is the resistance of the heating coils of a 1200 W toaster that runs on 110 V house circuitry? Answer: Rearranging the power law, V2 R = P R = 10.1 ________________________________________________________________ 2) In an earlier example, we had a 110 V house outlet on a 15 A circuit breaker. What is maximum wattage appliance that you can plug into this outlet? Answer: Using the power law, P = (15 A)(110 V) P = 1650 W

Measurement of Physical Systems Having discussed the basic behaviors of simple circuit components, we shall now turn to a discussion of how we use these components in the laboratory. We begin with a discussion of how we convert human movements into electrical signals that our computers can measure. Transducers In the vast majority of cases when we measure physical quantities electrically, we measure changes in voltage. This is a fundamental principle that cannot be overemphasized. A 0 or a 1 in a computer is represented by a voltage of 0 V or 5 V, respectively. When sound is transmitted through a wire to a speaker, the changes in voltage are interpreted as sound. When radio signals are transmitted to a satellite these too are registered by the voltages they impart on the receiver. This is also true for the measurement of myoelectric activity (EMG), force and even the reflections from body markers to a camera. The process of converting a physical dimension into a voltage is called transduction. A device that performs this function is thus called a transducer. Some

C.14 examples of transducers include force, pressure, linear displacement, rotary displacement, and acceleration. The common principle in all these devices is that the quantity being measured causes the resistance of the transducer to change. For example, a force transducer (as in a force platform) has tiny resistors that deform slightly when force is applied. An electrogoniometer has a rotary resistor that changes as it is rotated. When these resistances change, then by Ohms Law a constant current through a transducer will cause the voltage to change proportionately. Example Suppose that we have a blood pressure transducer connected to a 10 mA current supply. As the pressure changes from 80 mmHg to 120 mmHg, the transducers resistance changes from 1000 to 1200 . What will the voltage outputs be at these two pressures? Answer: The change in voltage will be given by Ohms Law: V80 = 1000 (10 mA) = 10.0 V V120 = 1200 (10 mA) = 12.0 V This change is easily measured, as typical voltmeters are sensitive to at least millivolts.

Voltage Dividers Let us turn to the question of how we would go about measuring a sensor with a variable resistance. This is slightly more complicated than the blood-pressure example discussed earlier because most electrical supplies offer a constant voltage, not a constant current. Suppose we have a variable resistor and connected a voltage source across it as shown in Figure C.5. The standard nomenclature is to label the source voltage as Vin and the measured voltage as Vout. For the simple circuit above, no matter how much the variable resistance RV changes, Vout will always equal Vin. This circuit is useless for measuring changes in RV.

C.15

+ Vin + R V V out Figure C.5 - Circuit diagram of a variable resistor connected to a voltage source.

Let us try a modification of this circuit. In this case (Figure C.6), there is a resistor R in series with the variable resistance. We want to know the voltage Vout. To do this, we can determine via Ohms Law that the current, I, is: Vin I=R+R V

(C.10)

Since current, I, flows through both resistors, we can substitute it into Ohms Law for RV and Vout: Vin RV Vout = R + R V (C.11)

This circuit is referred to as a voltage divider. Vout for this circuit varies over an easily measurable range when R and RV are of similar magnitudes. It is commonly used for a simple potentiometer.
+ R + R V V out -

V in

Figure C.6 C ircuit diagram of a resistor in series with w ith a variable resistance.

C.16

Example In the voltage divider, what is Vout for the following cases? 1) Vin = 15V, RV = 100 , and R = 100 2) Vin = 15V, RV = 110 , and R = 100 3) Vin = 15V, RV = 100 , and R = 10 4) Vin = 15V, RV = 110 , and R = 10 Answers: 1) Vout =

15V (100 ) = 7.5 V 100 + 100 15V (110 ) = 8.25 V 100 + 100 15V (100) = 13.63 V 10 + 100 15V (110) = 13.75 V 10 + 110

2) Vout =

3) Vout =

4) Vout =

Voltage dividers are most sensitive to changes in one resistor when the two resistances are of similar magnitude. Note that between cases 1 and 2 and between cases 3 and 4 RV changed 10%. When R was 100 , there was a 0.75 V (5%) change in Vout when RV changed 10%. However, when R was 10 , the 10% change in RV yielded only a 0.12 V (0.8%) change in Vout. Wheatstone Bridges There are two problems with voltage dividers. In many sensors, the variability of resistance is very small, often less than 5%. Also, we often like to zero a sensor, rather than having to subtract a constant voltage to establish zero for the quantity we are measuring. This is accomplished with a Wheatstone bridge (Figure C.7). This is a circuit

C.17 of two parallel voltage dividers. In its neutral state, it has four equivalent resistances. When the variable resistance changes, we are able to compare the amount by which the variable resistance has changed from its neutral state by measuring Vout.

R + in R

V + V out -

Figure C.7 - Circuit diagram of a Wheatstone bridge.

Example In the Wheatstone bridge, what is the formula for Vout? Let R1 = R2 = R3. Answer: Vin is applied across each of two voltage dividers. From the previous example, we can write a formula for the voltage across R2 as: Vin V2 = R2 R + R V 2 and we can write a formula for the voltage across R3 as: Vin V3 = R3 R + R 1 3 Vout represents the difference in voltages between these two points, i.e.: Vin Vin Vout = V2 - V3 = R2 R + R - R3 R + R V 2 1 3

C.18 Letting R1 = R2 = R3 and doing some algebra yields: R1 - RV Vout = Vin 2(R + R ) 1 V This is the classic formula for the output voltage of a Wheatstone bridge.

Some Common Laboratory Instruments There are many common laboratory instruments that employ principles discussed in this chapter. These instruments include: 1) linear variable differential transducer (LVDT); 2) electrogoniometer; 3) strain-gauge force transducers; and 4) amplifiers. We will now discuss each of these instruments. Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) The LVDT is a common instrument that measures a linear movement over a short range of motion, typically less than 30 cm. Its main cylinder contains a finely manufactured and calibrated linear potentiometer. Thus, its resistance changes linearly as it is moved. LVDTs can measure within fractions of a millimeter--a computer-controlled milling machine, for instance, measures within 2.5 m. Common lab applications include treadmill inclination, digital calipers, footwear impact testers, and knee arthrometers (for measuring joint laxity or stiffness).

C.19 Figure C.8 Photograph of a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) Electrogoniometer An electrogoniometer, as its name suggests, measures joint angles electronically. Its basic component is a rotary potentiometer. Its internal structure is diagrammed in Figure C.9. The end terminals (A and C) are connected to the ends of the resistive material. The middle terminal (B) is connected to a rotating slider. As the knob of this slider is turned, the middle contact moves across the resistive material. Since resistance is a function of material length, we observe the change in resistance. For example, suppose we have a 10 k potentiometer. The resistance from A to C would measure 10 k. As the rotating slider is moved from A to C, we would measure a resistance across A and B changing from 0 to 10 k, while the resistance from B to C would change from 10 k to 0.

Rotating slider

Resistive material

Figure G.9 - Schematic of a rotary potentiometer.

C.20

Figure C.10 Photograph of two electrogoniometers with a four-bar linkages.

Strain-Gauge Force Transducers When force is applied to a material, it deforms. This is called mechanical strain. Therefore, because resistance is a function of material length, we will observe a change in resistance when the material is deformed. This is the basic principle of a strain gauge: if we have a resistor with a precisely known resistance glued to a deformable object, then we can measure its change in resistance as it deforms. The gauges themselves are usually much smaller in area than a postage stamp but equally thin (see Figure C.11). Once glued to the surface of a structure, they will bend with the material without altering the structural properties. Strain gauges are usually placed in a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

C.21

Figure C.11 Photograph of three types of strain gauges and a strain-gauged link for measuring axial loads. Strain gauges are commonly used to measure forces in human movement: floormounted force plates, tension transducers, pressure transducers, and even accelerometers. It is also common in biomedical research to mount gauges to orthoses and prostheses, as well as to cadaver samples of bone, cartilage and tendon. Amplifiers An amplifier is a device that increases the voltage of a signal. Figure C.12 shows how the idealized amplifier is designated in circuit diagrams.

V cc + V dd Figure C.12 - Symbols for an operational amplifier. The detailed form, on the right, labels the inputs and indicates the power supply for the amplifier (VCC and Vdd ). out

C.22 The most common type of amplifier is the operational amplifier. These commonly appear on silicon chips. Unlike resistors and capacitors, op-amps are active circuit elements and thus require current to power them. Op-amps have many different uses and implementations. Two common connections are the inverting and noninverting configurations (Figure C.13). The noninverting op-amp circuit increases the magnitude of the voltage it measures. The noninverting op-amp circuit increases the incoming voltage and inverts (i.e., takes the negative of) it.

V in

+ -

V out R R F V in

V out

Figure C.13 - Circuit diagrams for noninverting (left) and inverting (right) operational amplifier connections.

The performance of an amplifier is called the gain. Gain is the ratio of the Vout incoming voltage to the amplified voltage, V . In op-amp circuits, gain is controlled by in altering the ratio of the resistors RF and R. For noninverting configurations the gain is RF RF given by 1 + R , and for inverting configurations the gain is - R . For a variable gain, a potentiometer may be substituted for either RF or R. Applications for amplifiers are too numerous to mention. The most common everyday application is to turn weak electromagnetic waves into audible sound, as in radios and cell phones. In human movement science, we use them to measure tiny

C.23 electromyographic (EMG), electrocardiographic (ECG) and electroencephalographic (EEG) signals; in force plates and other force transducers and in accelerometers. They may also be used to construct analog filters, integrators and differentiators. An important characteristic of op-amps and other active circuits is their input impedance. This is a measure of the sensitivity of the op-amp: high input impedance means, in effect, that the op-amp needs to draw very little current from the measured quantity to function. This is very important in human movement because most biophysical signals are extremely small. Ideally, the input impedance of an EMG amplifier, for example, would be infinite. Typically, amplifiers have input impedances of 1 M but EMG or bioamplifiers have input impedances of 10 M or more. EMG amplifiers require higher impedances because skin can have resistances of about 20 to 100 k and when unprepared as high as 2 M and more.

Suggested Readings Bobrow, L.S. (1987) Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, Second edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cathey, J.J. (2002) Schaums Outline of Electronic Devices and Circuits, Second edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Horowitz, P. & Hill, W. (1989) The Art of Electronics, Second edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ohanian, H.C. (1994) Electric force and electric charge, Principles of Physics, Second edition. New York: W.W.Norton & Company. OMalley, J. (1992) Schaums Outline of Basic Circuit Analysis, Second edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Winter, D.A. & Patla, A.E. (1997) Signal Processing and Linear Systems for Movement Sciences, Waterloo: Waterloo Biomechanics.