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The large number of deaths and other health problems associated with particulate pollution was first demonstrated
in the early 1970s [6] and has been reproduced many times since. PM pollution is estimated to cause 22,000-52,000 deaths per year in the United States (from 2000)[7] and 200,000 deaths per year in Europe. The effects of inhaling particulate matter that have been widely studied in humans and animals now include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, birth defects, and premature death. The size of the particle is a main determinant of where in the respiratory tract the particle will come to rest when inhaled. Because of their small size, particles on the order of ~10 micrometers or less (PM10) can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs such as the bronchioles or alveoli.[8] Larger particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus, but particulate matter smaller than about 10 micrometers, referred to as PM10, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. The 10 micrometer size does not represent a strict boundary between respirable and non-respirable particles, but has been agreed upon for monitoring of airborne particulate matter by most regulatory agencies. Similarly, particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers, PM2.5, tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung, and very small particles (< 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. In particular, a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association indicates that PM2.5 leads to high plaque deposits in arteries, causing vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis a hardening of the arteries that reduces elasticity, which can lead to heart attacks and other cardiovascular problems.[9] Researchers suggest that even short-term exposure at elevated concentrations could significantly contribute to heart disease. A study in The Lancet concluded that traffic exhaust is the single most serious preventable cause of heart attack in the general public, the cause of 7.4% of all attacks.[10] The site and extent of absorption of inhaled gases and vapors are determined by their solubility in water. Absorption is also dependent upon air flow rates and the partial pressure of the gases in the inspired air. The fate of a specific contaminate is dependent upon the form in which it exists (aerosol or particulate). Inhalation also depends upon the breathing rate of the subject. [11] The smallest particles, less than 100 nanometers (nanoparticles), may be even more damaging to the cardiovascular system.[12] There is evidence that particles smaller than 100 nanometers can pass through cell membranes and migrate into other organs, including the brain. It has been suggested that particulate matter can cause similar brain damage as that found in Alzheimer patients. Particles emitted from modern diesel engines (commonly referred to as Diesel Particulate Matter, or DPM) are typically in the size range of 100 nanometers (0.1 micrometer). In addition, these soot particles also carry carcinogenic components like benzopyrenes adsorbed on their surface. It is becoming increasingly clear that the legislative limits for engines, which are in terms of emitted mass, are not a proper measure of the health hazard. One particle of 10 m diameter has approximately the same mass as 1 million particles of 100 nm diameter, but it is clearly much less hazardous, as it probably never enters the human body and if it does, it is quickly removed. Proposals for new regulations exist in some countries, with suggestions to limit the particle surface area or the particle number.
A further complexity that is not entirely documented is how the shape of PM can affect health. Of course the dangerous feathery shape of asbestos is widely recognised to lodge itself in the lungs with often dire consequences. Geometrically angular shapes have more surface area than rounder shapes, which in turn affects the binding capacity of the particle to other, possibly more dangerous substances. The inhalable dust fraction is the fraction of dust that enters the nose and mouth and may be deposited anywhere in the respiratory tract. The thoracic fraction is the fraction that enters the thorax and is deposited within the lung airways and the gas-exchange regions. The respiratory fraction is what is deposited in the gas exchangeregions (alveoli). [13]
[edit] Public Health Effects

Researchers at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health have conducted the largest nationwide study on the acute health effects of coarse particle pollution. Coarse particles are airborne pollutants that fall between 2.5 and 10 micrometers in diameter.[14] The study, published in the May 14, 2008, edition of JAMA, found evidence of an association with hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases but no evidence of an association with the number of hospital admissions for respiratory diseases. After taking into account fine particle levels, the association with coarse particles remained but was no longer statistically significant. Health effects on the public are considered to be caused by climate change, which is determined to be a result of increased global temperatures. An increased burden of malnutrition, diahhreal, cardio-respiratory, and infectious diseases, in addition to an increased morbidity and mortality caused by heat waves, floods, and droughts are all thought to be public health effects of global warming. Alarmingly, a change in the distribution of disease vectors, such as insects, is affecting public health, and thought to be initiated by climate change and air pollution. [15] The primary health concern caused by air pollution, and particulate matter specifically is cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. The idea is that the earth has reached its carrying capacity and our ecological footprint is high across the world, and increasing. The rise of CVD as the leading cause of death in America and developing countries, and the world in general, is resulting in premature mortality that can directly be linked to air pollution. [16]
Particulate matter studies in Bangkok Thailand indicated a 1.9% increased risk of dying from cardiovascular disease, and 1.0% risk of all disease for every 10 micrograms per cubic meter. Levels averaged 65 in 1996, 68 in 2002, and 52 in 2004. Decreasing levels may be attributed to conversions of diesel to natural gas combustion as well as improved regulations.[17] The Mongolian government agency has recorded a 45% increase in the rate of respiratory illness in the past five years. Bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and interstitial pneumonia are the most common ailments treated by area hospitals. Levels of premature death, chronic bronchitis, and cardiovascular disease are increasing at a rapid rate. [18]
[edit] Effects on vegetation

Particulate matter can clog stomatal openings of plants and interfere with photosynthesis functions.[19] In this manner high particulate matter concencentrations in the atmosphere can lead to growth stunting or mortality in some plant species.
[edit] Climate effects

Climate effects can be extremely catastrophic; sulfur dioxide ejected from the eruption of Huaynaputina probably caused the Russian famine of 1601 - 1603, leading to the deaths of two million. Particles can affect the climate in two different ways. The "direct effect" is caused by the fact that the particles scatter and absorb solar and infrared radiation in the atmosphere.[20] The "indirect effect" of particles are more complex and more difficult to assess. Changes in the concentration of aerosols and PM in the atmosphere cause variations in the density and size of cloud droplets. There is a set amount of water available for clouds. The water can form large droplets within the clouds, which causes precipitation (a major removal mechanism for aerosols and source of acid rain). The addition of PM into the atmosphere causes the water to condense on to the particles. This results in more, but smaller droplets in the clouds, which increases the cloud albedo. In addition to increasing the albedo, this effect tends to decrease the chance of precipitation. If precipitation is suppressed, this results in excess water remaining in the atmosphere.[21] The primary concern for climate effects of air pollution is an increase in global average temperatures. Greenhouse gases produced as a result of human activity trap heat in earth's atmosphere, warming the surface. Urbanization and industrialization is the main cause of airborn particulate matter, and so it follows that air pollution is a more serious threat in densely populated areas. Electricity and heat produced by antiquated methods such as wood burning and coal combustion is still the primary method for sustaining everyday life in developing countries. Climate effects inevitably lead to health effects, which are listed above, but consist mainly of respiratory problems, cardiovascular disease, and premature death. [22]

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The large number of deaths and other health problems associated with particulate pollution was first demonstrated

[edit] Public Health Effects

[edit] Effects on vegetation

[edit] Climate effects

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