Program for

Volvo Eicher Comm Veh Ltd Pithampur

Domain Training on

LATEST TRENDS IN DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT OF I.C.ENGINES

16, 17, 18th Nov 2011

Off-road Emission Norms

The Tier 4/Stage IV emissions standards drive NOx and PM to near-zero limits. Tier 4 Interim/ Stage IIIB, the focus is on 90% PM reduction and 45% NOx reduction Tier 4 Final/Stage IV, the focus is on an additional 45% NOx reduction.

Major Emission reduction technology Options Engine Strategies

Combustion optimization
Cooled Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Variable Geometry Turbocharging (VGT) High Pressure Common Rail (HPCR) fuel systems Electronic controls Crankcase filtration Direct Flow air filtration system

Aftertreatment Strategies
Catalyzed Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) NOx adsorbers

One scenario is the use of SCR aftertreatment for NOx reduction and in-cylinder combustion for PM control together with some particulate aftertreatment.
The other scenario is to use combustion optimization and cooled EGR for NOx reduction along with a catalyzed Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) for PM control. Key engine systems such as VGT, HPCR and electronics are critical components.

Off-Road Engine Test Cycles

LOAD
100%
75%
0.10 0.10 0.15 0.15

50%
25% 10% 0%

WF

0.10

0.15

Steady-state test characterizes emissions at eight (8) isolated points typical of engine operation. Emissions are measured under a hot-stabilized engine condition
SPEED

C1 8 mode test cycle & WF

0.10 0.15 Low idling Max Torque Rated

Transient test operation (NRTC cycle) captures emissions across a broad range of engine speed and load combinations attained during actual-use conditions. The procedure requires measurement of both cold-start and hot-start emissions over the transient duty cycle.

NRTC cycle

Off-road test cycles

Tier 4 and beyond

Non-road transient test cycle (NRTC) comparison with 8-mode test

Not-to-Exceed (NTE) test envelope

Comparison of on-road and non-road emissions requirements

Deterioration Factor !!
The term deterioration refers to the degradation of an engines exhaust emissions performance over its lifetime due to normal use or misuse (i.e., tampering or neglect). Engine deterioration increases exhaust emissions, usually leads to a loss of combustion efficiency, and can in some cases increase non-exhaust emissions. The amount of emissions increase depends on an engines design, production quality, and technology type. Other factors, such as the various equipment applications in which an engine is used, usage patterns, and how it is stored and maintained, may also affect deterioration.

The term deterioration rate refers to the degree to which an engines emissions increase per unit of activity.
Nonroad engine activity is expressed in terms of hours of use or fraction of median life. The term deterioration factor refers to the ratio of an engines emissions at its median life divided by its emissions when new. Useful life is a regulatory term used to indicate the amount of time during the life of a nonroad engine that a manufacturer must certify to the statutory authority that the engine meets a required emission standard as defined by a regulation. Median life refers to the age at which 50 percent of the engines sold in a given year have ceased to function and have been scrapped.

Other factors emission & FE Factors, other than engine technology, influencing emission & fuel economy
Periodic phasing out of older vehicles Infrastructure development Improved roads / express highways / ring roads etc Removal / reduction of traffic congestions inside city Synchronization of traffic signals to have least stoppages at signals Fuel quality improvement

Advantages of Turbo-Charged Engines

The turbocharger can supply large displacement to the cylinder, so that a high level of output can be obtained with a small exhaust volume. Achieving high power with a small exhaust volume means that the engine's weight and size can be made smaller, and this translates into a lighter vehicle weight and improved fuel efficiency.
Moreover, a turbo-charged engine can generate 20% to 50% more torque ( power / speed ) compared to a non-turbo-charged engine with the same displacement. These advantages make turbo-charged engines ideal for vehicles used for longdistance, high-speed transportation. On the other hand, non-turbo-charged engines feature high levels of torque in the low speed range, which gives them a better startup and acceleration performance and makes them suitable for vehicles used mainly for city driving involving repeated starting and stopping. In recent years, turbo-charged engines are getting more popular for their high fuel economy and remarkable power performance.

THE WORLDWIDE DIESEL ENGINE TREND

16,000,000

All engines
14,000,000 12,000,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Turbocharged

Naturally Aspirated

Year

Engine Development downsizing carrying load is increasing operating speed is increasing

Governing Factors

Continuous increase in specific power output :

Economy improvements:
reduced fuel consumption reduced oil consumption increased filter change period increased oil drain interval increased life, wear & durability

Emission regulation :
continuously getting more stringent controlled fuel quality reduced oil consumption engine design technology development

Driving Forces for fuel quality requirements

Legislation

mixture preparation
(physical properties of fuel)

Ignition
combustion
(Chemical properties of fuel) (chemical properties of fuel)

Conflicting Demands

Combustion trend

New technology concepts

Indirect injection (IDI) diesel engine

Fuel is injected into a small prechamber, which is connected to the cylinder by a narrow opening. The initial combustion takes place in this pre-chamber. This has the effect of slowing the rate of combustion, which tends to reduce noise. Glow plug is essentially required. This design has the advantage of less noise and faster combustion, but typically suffers from poorer fuel economy due to heat and pumping losses.

MAIN CHAMBER

Direct injection (DI) diesel engine

Fuel is directly injected into a combustion chamber on top of the piston.

Glow plug is not necessary

Some designs may use glow plugs to improve cold startability for extreme conditions.

Glow plug
Glow plugs is essentially used in diesel engines equipped with a pre-combustion chamber ( IDI diesel engines ) and may be used in direct injection ( DI ) diesel engines to aid starting. A glow plug is a heating element that uses 12 volts from the battery and aids in the starting of a cold engine. As the temperature of the glow plug increases, the resistance of the heating element inside increases, thereby reducing the current in amperes needed by the glow plugs. Glow plugs are used to help start a cold diesel engine and help prevent excessive white smoke during warm-up.

DI vs IDI Diesel Engines

Efficiency better with DI - reduced thermal & pumping losses DI offers 10 - 15% fuel economy Exhaust emissions worse in case of DI Noise is worse in case of DI DI is more adaptable to design changes for emission control

DI vs IDI Diesel Engines

DI
(1) (2) (3) NOx CO HC

IDI

(4)
(5)

PM
Smoke : Full load Part load

(6)

Fuel Consumption

Direct injection (DI) diesel engine Direct injection ( DI ) engines have two design philosophies: High-swirl design
which have a deep bowl in the piston, a low number of holes in the injector and moderate injection pressures.

Low-swirl or quiescent designs

These are characterized by having a shallow bowl in the piston, a large number of holes in the injector and higher injection pressures.
Smaller engines tend to be of the high-swirl type Bigger engines tend to be of the quiescent type All newer diesel engines use direct fuel injection Much higher fuel pressure then indirect fuel injection (example TDI ) Injection/Injector Timing is critical Equipped with in-line pumps, distributor pumps, rail injection systems, or pump injector units

Phases of DI combustion
Ignition occurs in a diesel engine by injecting fuel into the air charge, which has been heated by compression to a temperature greater than the ignition point of the fuel or about 1,000F (538C). There are three distinct phases or parts to the combustion in a diesel engine : Ignition delay Rapid combustion Controlled combustion

DI Diesel Engine Combustion Stages

Delay period Pre-mixed combustion Diffusion combustion Tail burning

DI Diesel Engine Combustion Stages

Delay period
Atomisation of fuel into small droplets Evaporation Mixing with air Reaching auto-ignition temperature

Pre-mixed combustion
Fuel injected in delay period burns abruptly raising temperature and pressure at a high rate. Combustion depends upon rate of injection i.e. quantity of fuel injected.

DI Diesel Engine Combustion Stages

Diffusion combustion
In this phase fuel burns, as it is injected, in the presence of mixture of unused air and products of combustion of previous cycles. Combustion depends upon quality of airfuel mixing.

Tail burning

Rate of heat release

1 :
: : ignition delay premixed burning period duration of injection 2 3

mixing controlled combustion

1
3

Rate of heat release

Lower initial comb. Temp. NOx reduction Fast comb. PM reduction PM reduction, Good economy

RoHR

Deg CA

Shortened diffusion combustion.

Combustion characteristics - example

Cylinder pressure, injector end pressure & needle lift

Swirl vs emissions

NOx

HC

BSFC

smoke X
Swirl

2X

Combustion Process influencing parameters

Engine

Diesel engine emissions

Visible emission

Smoke
Invisible emission
NOx ( NO, NO2, N2O, etc ) CO HC Particulates (PM )

Fuel air mixing spray structure

Liquid fuel
Close to the nozzle tip

Vapour
Surrounding the liquid core

Air fuel mixture

While the form of liquid core is apparently stationary, the other two parts expand as the spray penetrates

Chemistry of fuel combustion

Swirl and injection pressure

SWIRL

Start of ignition HIGH PRESSURE INJECTION + LOW AIR SWIRL HIGH AIR SWIRL + LOW PRESSURE INJECTION

Swirl and injection pressure

Wall wetting

SWIRL

Start of combustion

HIGH PRESSURE INJECTION + LOW AIR SWIRL

HIGH AIR SWIRL + LOW PRESSURE INJECTION

Wall wetting control measures

Smaller nozzle hole sizes with larger number of holes More centrally positioned injector Larger bowl dia More intense swirl Higher mean injection pressures

Wall wetting control measures

Re-entrant Bowl

Open Bowl

BOWL SWIRL

Compressi on stroke

Expansio n stroke

TD C

Smaller nozzle hole x more no of holes

More centrally located injector Larger bowl dia Smaller l/d ratio of orifice More intense air swirl VCO nozzle

Re-entrant Bowl Open Open bowl Bowl

deg CA

swirl

Smoke
The general condition of diesel engine can be determined by type of smoke it emits.
Smoke is generally considered as The

pulse of the

engine. Smoke is a characteristic of diesel.

Smoke normally emitted by the diesel engines is of one of the following nature :

Black smoke Blue smoke White smoke

Smoke formation depends on the density in the centre of fuel spray and entrainment of air into it. If adequet oxygen is made available at the centre of fuel spray, smoke formation reduces.

Smoke
During later part of combustion (diffusion combustion), if air swirl assists to swipe products of combustion around the injected fuel spray by fresh air, smoke formation reduces.

Reasons for concern :

reduction visibility is easily respiratable into lungs, hence causing chronic lung problems like bronchitis they increase the risk of cancer and shorten life span. they cause material damage

Black Smoke Black smoke is formed due to insufficient oxygen availability, poor air fuel mixing and over fuelling.
Black smoke denotes improper combustion due to : Less Air : Chocked / wrong air cleaner More Fuel : Defective fuel injection equipment

Excess Back pressure : Chocked exhaust system or wrong size exhaust pipe
Overloading: Wrong loading / incorrect application.

Blue Smoke

Blue smoke denotes burning of oil in the combustion chamber due to : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Excess oil in oil bath type air cleaner Excess oil in the sump Excess lub. oil pressure Worn piston rings or liners. Worn valve stem or valve guides.

white Smoke
This is caused by presence of water in the combustion chamber due to : Cracked cylinder head Cracked or damaged liner Water in diesel Burnt / Damaged cylinder head gasket Cold start

Smoke formation vs injection timing

Soot formation R a t e
Soot in exhaust

20

16 12 8 SoI deg bTDC

TDC

Formation of SOOT Emission Soot formation is favored by :

High temperature High pressure Lack of oxygen

Soot oxidation is favored by :

High temperature High pressure Availability of oxygen

Control of SOOT Emission

Minimisation of soot formation is required rather than soot oxidation.
Reduced wall wetting ( wide free spray length ) Good atomisation by small spray holes and higher injection pressures Enhanced mixing by re-entrant bowl shape

Maximum useful number of spray holes for best distribution of fuel in combustion chamber
Intake swirl level optimisation. Swirl variability.

Formation of Hydrocarbon (HC)

In-homogenous mixture and locally different air fuel ratio existing in the diesel engine combustion chamber is the main cause for formation of hydrocarbon.
Major sources of HC emissions are fuel air mixture is too lean to burn. Lower temperature reduces evaporation.

fuel air mixture is too rich to burn resulting in-complete combustion.

fuel traped in sac area and holes of the injector is drawn out at the end of injection at very low pressures. Hence, larger droplet size, relatively lower temperatures and inadequate oxygen availability together cause unburnt HC. longer injection duration and late injection. high wall impinging spray combined with unmatched air swirl.

quenching of fuel or fuel-air mixture by the surrounding with lower temperature.

HC Control measures
Optimised combustion chamber shape & volume Increased compression ratio Reduced quench area Reduced dead volumes Optimum spray hitting plane Low sac / zero sac nozzles VCO nozzles Optimum injection timing Rapid needle closing no dribble No secondary or after injection High injection pressure atomisation Ring pack optimisation Oil consumption control

Formation of Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide is formed due to in-homogenity of fuel distribution with fuel-rich mixture. This is an intermediate product in the combustion of hydro-carbon fuels.
CO is formed when Oxygen is not available in adequate quantity Cycle temperatures are low CO will be oxidised into CO2 at higher cycle temperatures when oxygen is available adequately.

Generally, CO emission is significant at full loads, close to smoke limits, as the air availability reduces.
As the diesel engine operates with excess air, CO emissions are comparatively lower.

CO control measures
Combustion chamber optimisation

High air-fuel ratio high excess air Turbocharging Multi-valve configuration Swirl optimisation
Controlled wall wetting Optimum injection duration reduce late burning Higher compression ratio

Higher cylinder temperatures

Formation of NOx Emission Diesel engine works with excess air Diesel engine works with higher compression ratio. Thus higher combustion pressures and temperatures are characteristic of diesel engine combustion.

In the combustion chamber, NOx is formed in the condition of :

ample air ( oxygen ) high cycle temperatures

ample Resident / reaction time

Formation of Particulate Matter (PM)

According to EPA definition, all components excluding water collected on a prescribed filter after dilution with air at a temperature below 51.7 deg C are called Particulate Matter.

Formation of Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate Matter consists of:

a) Organic in-soluble such as soot : solid matter b) Organic soluble fractions (SOF) originating from fuel and lub. oil - liquid phase

incomplete combustion of lubricating oil past through piston and piston ring passages and valve guide clearance owing to inadequate air and temperatures cause SOF fraction of particulates originating from lub. oil. c) Sulfates due to sulphur content in diesel

Formation of Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulates
Carbon Fuel

sulfates

Lub oil

Fuel composition

Mixture formation Injection pressure Bowl shape Intake swirl Nozzle design

Oil consumption O/C control design Oil leaks Lub oil formulation

Sulphur content

Sources of PM Emissions
Excessive black smoke Inadequate a/f ratio Poor combustion Acceleration / turbolag Partial fuel evaporation during cold Partial combustion of fuel due to misfire

White smoke

HC emission sources

Loss of oil control

Cyl bore polishing Improper ring pack Valve stem leakage

Fuel quality

High sulfur content High aromatic content Low cetane no

Sources of PM Emissions
SOURCE Carbon Fuel Mixture Formation
Injection pressure Bowl shape Intake swirl Nozzle design

Lub oil

Oil consumption

Oil consumption design parameters Oil leaks into combustion chamber Lub oil formulation

Sulphates

Fuel composition

Fuel sulfur content

Constituent of PM (typical)
OriginFUEL

66%

Soot 43% 13%

sulfates SOF fuel

Insoluble

5%
SOF lub
Origin LUBRICANT

10 %

29%

34%

NOx and PM emissions

Parameter change Cycle temperature higher excess air in bowl Longer premixed combustion phase Effect on NOx Effect on PM

NOx / PM Trade-off

This is a special characteristic of Diesel Combustion and is popularly known as :-

NOx / PM Trade-off
critical diesel tuning
PM NOx

Concept of low NOx / PM formation

Basis combustion region Soot formation region
rich

NOx Formation region Lean fuel/air ratio Excess air

lean

Fuel/air ratio
Low NOx/PM combustion region Low

Low flame temp

Flame temp

high

SOOT vs NOx SOOT

Std. nozzle 10% HG nozzle Std. nozzle

HG nozzle

25% HG nozzle

NOx
Cold EGR

SOOT

SOOT

Larger hole orifice

Hot EGR (PM)

Smaller hole orifice

Smaller hole orifice + Boost pressure

NOx

NOx

Injection Parameters vs NOx-PM trade-off

Spray hole dia

Inj timing retard PM

Spray hole dia

Inj timing advanced

Pumping rate
Pumping rate NOx

Injection parameters
noise

Needle lift

NOx PM

Time or deg CA

Injection pressure Injection rate shaping Orifice size Orifice shape Multiple injections

Injection Rate on Emissions

Rate of Heat Release Pattern

Needle lift

NOx

SoI
DoI(a)

DoI(b)

EoI(a)

EoI(b)

SOOT
Start of injection CONSTANT

dP/d

Duration of Injection (CA)

NOx Control measures

Reducing peak flame temperature by :

Injection timing retardation Turbocharging and inter-cooling

EGR
Smoother burning

NOx control using EGR

EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation)
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) systems effectively reduce NOx emissions by recirculating a portion of the exhaust gas and mixing it with the intake air to lower the burning temperature. A computer automatically controls the EGR amount in accordance with the engine load or speed.
Continuous Control EGR System (for Light Duty Tucks) employ a continuous control system for the EGR valve. This system contributes to NOx reduction by electronically controlling the EGR volume and the intake air amount through linkage with the EGR valve and intake system.

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

Exhaust gas is taken from exhaust manifold and is Cooled sometimes Exhaust gas is added to the intake manifold and is controlled by some means : ECM determines volume EGR Valve controls Mixture of exhaust gas and fresh air is used in combustion cycle

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

Effect of EGR
Replacement of air by inert combustion products Exhaust gas has higher specific heat than air Reduce in-cylinder oxygen content Reduced temperature in the combustion chamber
NOx reduces, PM increases

EGR

Types of EGR
Internal EGR External EGR Hot EGR Cooled EGR Partially cooled EGR Choice for EGR systems High pressure EGR Internal or External EGR Low pressure EGR Cooled or un-cooled EGR High pressure or low pressure EGR

Internal EGR

NOx control using EGR

One-Way Cooled EGR (for Heavy Duty Trucks)
In the EGR gas pipe of heavy duty trucks with intercooler turbocharger, cooling devices are equipped to lower the EGR gas temperature before feeding it back into the engine intake. This "Cooled EGR system" results in an even cooler combustion temperature than when using an ordinary EGR system.

Using a cooled EGR system raises the density of the intake air so the amount of air entering the combustion chamber increases. This helps to make combustion more complete, thereby reducing the generation of PM.
In the EGR system equipped with the check valve, it prevents new air from entering the EGR gas pipe as well as a back-flow of gas. Also, the check valve increases the EGR recirculation amount by ensuring the gas flows in one direction.

Cooled EGR
Cooled Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) technology is very effective at controlling NOx.

The EGR system takes a measured quantity of exhaust gas and passes it through a cooler before mixing it with the incoming air charge to the cylinder.
The EGR adds heat capacity and reduces oxygen concentration in the combustion chamber by diluting the incoming ambient air with cool exhaust gas. During combustion, the lower oxygen content has the effect of reducing flame temperatures, which in turn reduces NOx, since NOx production is exponentially proportional to flame temperature. This allows the engine to be tuned for the best fuel economy and performance at low NOx levels. In EGR engines, exhaust gasses are cooled by engine coolant which raises the cooling system requirement.

Low pressure EGR

EGR LAYOUT LPL
Low-Pressure-Loop

Intercooler

PM Trap

Air Filter EGR Valve EGR Cooler

50

High pressure EGR

EGR LAYOUT HPL
High-Pressure-Loop

Intercooler

EGR Valve EGR Cooler PM Trap

Air Filter

49

Effect of EGR on engine performance

BSFC

SMOKE

NOx

HC

EGR (%)

50

SOOT Reduction measures

INCREASED MIXING VELOCITY
High injection pressure
Multiple injections Small orifice ( nozzle hole )

Bowl design ( spray / wall wetting )

INCREASED MIXING TIME

High cooled EGR Reduced compression ratio Water injection

PM Control Strategy
Reduction of insolubles

Reduction of SOF

sulfates Low sulfur diesel

Soot Air swirl Combustion chamber shape Injection Timing & rate

Fuel SOF Oxicat

Oil SOF Oil consump. control Unburnt oil

(comb. Eff. improvement)

Diesel fuel : properties

Fuel must possess certain physical, chemical and combustion properties to make it worthy for an I C Engine

high energy density

high thermal stability

good fire safety

Low deposit forming tendency FUEL low pollution tendency

good combustion quality

compatibility with material easy handling, transferability, on-board storage

low toxicity

Diesel Fuel Quality parameters

volatility

Properties affecting mixture formation

viscosity density
flash point fire point

Properties affecting ignition

Properties affecting combustion

Cetane number
aromatic content sulfur content

Diesel Fuel properties

Cetane Number Flashpoint Viscosity Cloud Point Lubricity
Measures the temperature at Measures the which the vapors readiness of a fuel above the liquid to auto-ignite. can be ignited. High cetane Primarily used to number means determine whether the fuel will ignite a liquid is quickly at flammable or the conditions in combustible the engine (does Generally any not mean the liquid with a flash fuel is highly point flammable or below 38C is explosive). flammable. Most fuels have flash point for cetane numbers diesel : ~52C between 40 and flash point for bio60. diesel : > 130C A measurement Corresponds to the The ability of a of the resistance temperature at fluid to minimize to flow of a liquid which fuel first friction between, Thicker the starts to crystallize and damage to, liquid, higher the (forms a faint surfaces in viscosity cloud in liquid) relative motion Water (lower when cooled. under loaded viscosity) vs. Pour Point: conditions. Vegetable Oil temperature at Diesel fuel (higher viscosity) which fuel thickens injection diesel fuel = 1.3 and will not pour equipment relies 2.4 mm2/s Cold Filter Plug on the lubricating diesel fuel = 1.9 Point (CFPP): The properties of the 4.1 mm2/s temperature at fuel. Biodiesel = 4.0 which fuel crystals Biodiesel has 6.2 mm2/s have agglomerated shown higher Soybean based in sufficient lubricity biodiesel = 4.0 amounts to cause properties than 4.5 mm2/s. a test filter to plug. petroleum diesel

Influence of fuel properties on diesel performance

Parameter Change

Influence

Cetane no Density

Viscosity
Aromatic content Sulfur content

CO, HC, NOx BSFC Smoke, power HC,CO,PM Smoke Cetane no PM , SO2

Influence of diesel properties on combustion

injection

evaporation

Precombustion

Start of combustion

End of combustion

density

cetane no volatility
viscosity

Summary of Emission Formation

Soot formation:

High Temperature Improper fuel air mixing

Lack of Oxygen
NOx Formation:

Higher Cycle Temperatures

Excess Air
HC Formation:

Too Lean Mixture

Too Rich Mixture

Operating Temperatures Below Ignition Poor Atomisation- Large Fuel Droplet Size

Higher Crevice volumes