CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Abstract
From this study we learned the method to measurement breakdown point and partial discharge value likewise we know now how can compared properties of cables with European standards. two tests were used in the study

1.1 Introduction
The electric power system is one of the tools for converting and transporting energy, which is playing an important role in meeting the challenge of making energy available whenever needed. The industry, by some standards, is the largest in the world. The advance of science is to solve the problems of the electric power industry and to assure a very high degree of system reliability along with the utmost regard for the protection of our ecology. An electric power systems consists of three principal divisions: 1- Generation stations. 2- Transmission lines. 3- Distribution system. Transmission lines are the connecting links between the generation stations and the distribution systems and lead to other power systems over interconnections. Cables are very important for transmission of electrical energy by underground means. They are also very important means for transmitting voltage signals at high voltages. For power engineers, large power transmission cables are of importance, and hence testing of power cables is necessary to check whether the cable agrees with the system specification or not
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the cable system is said to be fit if it withstands the test. For impulse tests, impulse voltage of the prescribed magnitude as per specifications is applied, and the cable has to withstand more than application without any damage. The object of this project is to study the behavior of underground cables under high voltage, their classifications, kinds, and finally the most attention will be devoted to present methods of testing of underground cables.

This project comprises two parts:

Part 1: Theoretical part
In this section various types of cables will be reviewed and their specifications will be tested in terms of conductors and insulators which used in transmission and distribution and will be reviewedConstruction of the cables and will be reviewed the tests from where the type and methods respected the specifications European (IEC) and will be reviewed the equipments employee in tests.

Part 2: practical part

This section contain on tests to care according to the specification European (IEC) on the cables and we will be doing routines tests and the type tests on the cables elite the voltages low and voltages high in high voltage laboratory will be examined to come out with results that can help to know the specification of the cables that being used in distribution the electric power.

CHAPTER TWO
UNDERGROUND CABLES

2.1 Introduction
Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by underground cables. The underground cables have several advantages such as less liable to damage through storms or lightning, less chances for faults, smaller voltage drop and better general appearance. However their major drawback is that they have greater installation cost and introduce insulation problems at high voltages compared with the equivalent over head system. For this reason, underground cables are employed where it is impracticable to use overhead lines. Such locations may be thickly populated areas where municipal authorities prohibit overhead lines for reasons of safety, or around plants and sub-station or where maintenance conditions don't permit the use of overhead construction [1]. The chief use of underground cables for many years has been for distribution or electric power in congested urban areas at comparatively low or moderate voltage. However recent

improvements in the design and manufacture have led to the development of cables suitable for use at high voltage. This has made it possible to employ underground cables for transmission of electric power for short or moderate distance. Although several types of cables are available, the type of cable to be used will depend upon the working voltage and service requirements. In general, a cable must fulfill the following necessary requirements: 1. The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or aluminum of high conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor may become flexible and carry more current.

2. The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load currentwithout overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits. 3. The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of safety and reliability at the voltage for which it is designed. 4. The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may withstand the rough use of laying it. 5. The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such thatthere is complete chemical and physical stability throughout.

2.2 Construction of cables[2]

Fig 2.1 shows the general construction of three-conductor cable and the various parts are

Fig 2.1 construction of a cable

2.2.1Cores or conductors
Core conductor is the material in which the current flows in the cable which should be isolated from the rest of the cable contents. The cable may have one or more than one core depending up on the type of service for which it is intended. A Copper and aluminum are often used in cable industry, but in some special cables, sodium conductors are used. Using copper conductors is advisable because of their high conductivity and their mechanical and chemical properties, despite these facts, aluminum conductors are used on large scale because of their lower weight for the same value of current flowing in the cable. table 2.1 gives the important electrical properties for metals used in cable industry. Table 2.1 electrical materials properties[2]
Thermal coefficient Resistivity (.cm) per degree C,
T=20c

Metal

Relative conductivity
in %,(IACS)

Silver Copper Aluminum Sodium

106 100 61 35

1.626 1.724 2.803 4.926

0.0041 0.0039 0.004 0.0054

A-Copper conductors:
IEC (International Electro-technical committee) put the international value for annealed copper resistivity on the basis that a copper resistivity of 1.724(. cm) at 20 c is equivalent to resistivity of 100%. Round solid copper conductors are used up to a cross section area of 16 mm2. A stranded conductor consists of group of small round wires twisted together. Stranding should be done at high degree of accuracy for providing as much of elasticity and flexible bending as possible for which the cable is subjected to, during rolling . Usually the conductor is made round or compact & forming processes provide the following features for the cable: 1. Smoother surface. 2. Smaller conductor dimensions. B -Aluminum Conductor: Although aluminum has many technical disadvantages in comparison with copper, from cable current carrying capacity and voltage drop point of view, these disadvantages can be over passed or they can be taken into consideration just in order to get advantage of the lower price of aluminum. One of the main disadvantages of aluminum conductors is that a thin oxide layer is constructed on them. Although this layer provides a fair protection against corrosion, yet it causes a problem when aluminum cable endings being welded connected or fixed .
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2.2.2 Insulators
Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the thickness of layer depending up on the voltage to be withstood by the cable, the commonly used material for insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric, polyvinyl chloride and vulcanized India rubber .

2.2.2.1 Impregnated paper

It consists of chemically pulped paper made from wood chippings and impregnated with some compound such as paraffinic or naphthenic material. With this type of insulation paper tape is lapped on to the core until the required thickness is obtained, it is then dried and impregnated with insulating compound. The paper should be long fibred, strong free from ligneous fibers and from metallic or other conducting substances and without pin-holes or other blemishes. Wrinkling and creasing of the paper may be caused if the cable is bent with too small a radius as may occur during manufacture or laying; to overcome this it is necessary that the various layers of paper shall be able to slip over one another when the cable is bent. The compound with which the paper is impregnated should be of such a consistency that it is plastic at ordinary temperatures, has no tendency to drain away from the higher to the lower and when the cable is laid on a gradient, or to alter its distribution in the dielectric under any conditions of temperature and stress that arise in operation. The dielectric strength of impregnated paper is 20 to 30 kV/mm .

2.2.2.2 Vulcanized India Rubber (V.I.R)

It is prepared by mixing pure rubber with mineral matter such as zinc oxide, red led and 3 to 5% of sulphur. The sulphur used in the vulcanizing process must be prevented from attaching the copper, this was originally done by first tinning the core and then covering it with a thin layer of pure rubber, but nowadays the control of the sulphur in the vulcanizing compound is such that the pure rubber layer may be omitted. The required thickness of vulcanized rubber is first applied to the cable and protection against ingress of moisture is given by a braiding of jute soaked in compound. In some cases a waterproof cotton tape is added between the rubber and the jute. The dielectric strength of India rubber is between 10 and 20 kV/mm and the dielectric constant is about 2.5, but by adding materials such as talc, zinc oxide and sulphur the value can be increased to 6.1 without an appreciable weakening of dielectric strength. 2.2.2.3 Varnished Cambric It is a cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish. The cambric is lapped on the conductor in the form to tape and its surfaces are coated with petroleum jelly compound to allow for sliding of one turn over another as the cable is bent. The insulation is not completely waterproof and a lead sheet must be applied although braiding may be used instead in favorable conditions. The dielectric strength is about 4 kV/mm and the dielectric constant is 2.5 to 3.8. This type of cable has the advantage that there is no fluid insulating compound and the terminating process is relatively simple. As an
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alternative ethylene may be used instead of cambric, this is mechanically stronger and is not hygroscopic, it also may be operated at a much higher temperature .

2.2.2.4 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

This insulating material is a synthetic compound. It is obtained from the polymerization of acetylene as in the form of white powder. For obtaining this material as a cable insulation, it is compounded with certain materials known as plasticizers which are liquids with high boiling point. The plasticiser forms a jell and renders the material plastic over the desired range of temperature. Polyvinyl chloride has high insulation resistance, good dielectric strength and mechanical toughness over a wide range of temperature. It is inert to oxygen and almost inert to alkalize and acids. Therefore, this type of insulation proffered over VIR in extreme environmental conditions. Such as in cement factory or chemical factory .

2.2.3 Metallic Sheath

It is necessary for paper insulated cables to have metallic sheathing in order to get mechanical protection and to prevent water leakage, on the other hand there is no necessity for metallic sheathing in some cable types like polymeric insulated cables. However, when it is used it should be noted that metallic sheath must be stuck exactly over insulator, sometimes it could be stuck over

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each conductor insulator or over all the conductors insulators or the two ways can be applied. at the same time. Lead and aluminum and their alloys can be used to make metallic sheathing.

2.2.4 Armuring
Cables normally installed with certain mechanical protection to carry earth fault current and at the same time a mechanical protection, for the cable is normally subjected to different kinds of mechanical stresses during transporting, installing and also in service. Usually two layers of soft steel with thickness of (0.5-0.8mm) are used, according to the cable diameter. There is another way of armoring, by using wires of flexible steel or by using copper alloy. It is noticeable that armoring process is different from company to another.

2.2.5 OverSheathing
It is made out material with certain properties so that is sustains corrosion and different atmospheric conditions and it should be the last layer to protect internal materials. The widely used material in over sheathing is a PVC.

2.3. Classifications of cables [3]

Cables for underground service may be classified in two ways according to: 1. The type of insulating material used in their manufacture. 2. The voltage for which they are manufactured.
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However, the latter method of classification is generally preferred, according to which cables can be divided in to the following groups: 1- Low-tension (L.T) cables-up to 1000v. 2- High-tension (H.T) cables-up to 11000v. 3- Super-tension (S.T) cables-from 22kv to 33kv. 4- Extra-high tension (E.H.T) cables-from 33kv to 66kv. 5- Extra super voltage cables-beyond 132kv. A cable may have one or more than one core depending up on the type of service as for which it is intended, as shown in fig 2.2, it may be: 1. Single core. 2. Two core. 3. Three core. 4. Four core. For a 3-phase service, either 3-single-core cables or three-core cable can be used depending up on the operating voltage and load demand, fig 2.2 shows the construction details of a single-core low-tension cable. The cable has ordinary construction because the stresses developed in the cable for low voltages (up to 6600v) are generally small. It consists of one circular core of tinned stranded copper or aluminum insulated by layers of impregnated paper. The insulation is surrounded by a lead sheath, which prevents the entry of moisture in to the inner parts. In order to protect the lead sheath from corrosion,
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an overall serving of compound fibrous material is provided. Singlecore cable is not usually armored in order to avoid excessive sheath losses. The principal advantages of single-core cables are simple construction and availability of larger cross section.

2.3.1 Cables for 3-phase Services

In practice, underground cables are generally required to deliver 3phase power. For the purpose, either three-core cable or three single core cables (separate single-core cable for each phase) may be used. For voltage up to 66kv, three-core cables become too large and unwiedely and therefore, single core cables are used . The following types of cables are generally used for 3-phase service: 1. Belted cables-up to 11kv. 2. Screened cables-from 22kv to 66kv. 3. Pressure cables-beyond 66kv.

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2.3.1.1 Belted cables

These cables are used for voltages up to 11kv but in extraordinary cases, their use may be extended up to 22kv. Fig 2.3 shows the constructional details for 3-core belted cable.

Figure 2.3 Three core belted cable

The cores are insulated from each other by layers of impregnated paper tape, called paper belt is wound round the grouped insulated cores. The gap between the insulated cores is filled with fibrous insulating material. So as to give circular cross-section to the cable. The cores are generally stranded and may be of non-circular shape to make better use of available space. The belt is covered with lead sheath to protect the cable against ingress of moisture and mechanical injury. The lead sheath is covered with one or more layers of armoring with an outer serving.
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2.3.1.2 Screened cable

These cables are meant for use up to 33kv but in particular cases their use may be extended to operating voltages up to 66kv. Two principle types of screened cables are H-type cable and S.L. type cables.

1. H-type cables
This type of cable was first designed by H.Horbistader and hence the name. Fig 2.4 shows the constructional details for a typical 3core

,H-type cable, Each core is insulated by layers of impregnated paper. The insulation on each core is covered with a metallic screen, which is usually consists of perforated aluminum foil.

The cores are laid in such a way that metallic screens make contact. An additional conducting belt (copper woven fabric tape) is wrapped around the three cores.
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The cable has no insulating belt but lead sheath, bedding, armoring, and serving follows as usual. Two principal advantage are claimed for H-type cable: Firstly, the perforation in the metallic screens assist in the complete impregnation of the cable with the compound and thus the possibility of air pockets or voids (vacuous spaces) in the dielectric is eliminated. If the voids present, tend to reduce the breakdown strength of the cable and may cause considerable damage to the paper insulation. Secondly, the metallic screens increase the heat dissipating power of the cable.

2. Separate lead (S.L) type cables

Fig 2.5 shows the constructional details of a 3-core S.L (separate lead) type cable.

Fig 2.5 S.L. Type cable

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It is basically h-type cable but, the screen round each core insulation is covered by its own lead sheath. There is no overall lead sheath but only armoring and servings are provided. The S.L type cables have two main advantages over h-type cables. Firstly, the separate sheath minimize the possibility of core to core breakdown. Secondly, bending of cables becomes easy clue to the elimination of overall lead sheath. However, the disadvantage is that the three-lead sheath of S.L. cable are much thinner than the single sheath of Hcable.

Limitation of solid type cables[3]

All the cables of the above construction are referred to as solid type cables because solid insulation is used and no gas or oil circulates in the cable sheath. The voltage limit for the solid type cables is 66kv due to the following reasons: 1. As a solid cable carries the load, its conductor temperature increases and the cable compound expands. This action stretches the lead sheath, which may bedamaged. 2. When the load in the cable decreases, the conductor cools and partial vacuuis formed within the cable sheath. If pinholes are present in the lead sheath, moistair may be drawn in to the cable. The moisture reduces the dielectric strength of insulation and may eventually cause the breakdown of the cable. 3. In practice, voids are always present in the insulation of the cable Modem techniques of manufacturing have resulted in void free cable

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However, under operating conditions, the voids are formed as a result of the differential expansion and contraction of the sheath and impregnated compound. The breakdown strength of voids IS considerably less than that of insulation.

2.3.1.3 Pressure cables

For voltages beyond 66kv solid cables are unreliable because there is a danger of breakdown of insulation due to the pressure of voids. When the operatingvoltages are greater than 66kv. Pressure cables are used. In such cables, voids are eliminated by increasing the pressure of compound and for this reason they are called pressure cables. There are two types of pressure cables oil-field cables and gas pressure cables are commonly used:

1-Oil-filled cables
In such types of cables, channels or ducts are provided in the cable for oil circulation. The oil under pressure (it is the same oil used for impregnation) it kept constantly supplied to the channel by means of external reservoirs placed at suitable distances (say 500m) along the route of the cable. Oil under pressure compresses the layers of paper insulation and is forced in to any voids that may have formed between the layers. Due to the elimination of voids oil filled cables can be used for higher voltages, the range being between 66kv up to 230kv.

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Fig 2.6 single core conductor channel oil filled cable

Oil-filled cables are of three types; single-core conductor channel, single-core sheath channel and three-core filler-space channels. Fig 2.6 shows the construction details of a single-core conductor channel, oil filled cable. The oil channel is formed at the center by stranding the conductor wire around cylindrical steel spiral tape. The oil under pressure is supplied to the channel by means of external reservoir. As the channel is made of spiral steel tape, it allows the oil to pass between copper strands to the wrapped insulation. The system is so designed that when the oil gets expanded due to increase in cable temperature, the extra oil collects in the reservoir. However, when the cable temperature falls during light load conditions, the oil from the reservoir flows to the channel.

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Fig 2. 7 Single core sheath channel oil filled cable

The disadvantage of this type of cable is that the channel in the middle of the cable and is at full voltage with respect to earth. Fig 2.7 shows the constructional details of single-core sheath channel oil-filled cable. In this type of cable the conductor is solid similar to that of solid cable and is paper insulated. In the 3-core oil filled cable shown in fig 2.8, the oil ducts are located in the filler space. These channels are composed of perforated metal-ribbon tubing and are at earth potential.

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Fig 2.8 three core oil filled cable

The oil-filled cables have three principal advantages: Firstly, formations of voids and ionization are avoided. Secondly, allowable temperature range and dielectric strength are increased. Thirdly, if there are leakage, the defect in the lead sheath is at once indicated and the possibility of earth fault is decreased. However, their major disadvantages are the high initial cost and complicated system of laying.

2-Gas pressure cable

The voltage to setup ionization inside void increases as the pressure is increased. Therefore, if ordinary cable is subjected to a sufficiently high pressure, the ionization can be altogether eliminated. At the same time, the increased pressure produces radial compression, which tends to close any voids. This is the underlying principle at gas pressure cables. fig 2.9 shows the section of external pressure cable designed by ,Hockstadter, Vogal and Bowden.
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The construction of the cable is similar to that of an ordinary solid type except that it is of triangular shape and thickness of lead sheath is 75% that of solid cable.

Fig 2.9 gas pressure cable

The-triangular section reduces the weight and gives low thermal resistance but the main reason for triangular shape is that the lead sheath acts as pressure membrane. A thin metal tape protects the sheath. The cable is laid in a gas-tight steel pipe. The pipe is filled with dry nitrogen gas 12 to 15 atmospheres. The gas pressure produces radial compression and close the voids that may have formed between the layers of paper insulation.

2.4 Insulation resistance of single-core cable

The cable conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulating material in order to prevent leakage current. The path for leakage current is radial through the insulation.
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The opposition offered by insulation to leakage current is known as insulation resistance of the cable. For satisfactory operation, the insulation resistance of the cable should be very high. Consider a single-core cable of conductor radius r1 and internal sheath r2 as shown in fig 2.10. Let "L" be the length of the cable and be the resistivety of the insulation. Consider a very small layer of insulation of thickness dx at a radius x. The length through witch leakage current tends to flow is dx and the area of x-section offered to this flow is 2xL.

Insulation resistance of considered layer

Insulating resistance of the whole cable

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This shows that insulation resistance of a cable is inversely proportional to its length. In other words, if the cable length increases, its insulation resistance decreases and vice-versa.

Fig 2.10 single core cable

2.5 Capacitance of insulated cables

The capacitance of a cable system is of much greater importance than that of an overhead line of the same length owing to the proximity of the conductors to one another and to the earthed sheath, and to their separation by a dielectric of permittivity greater than that of air [6]. Assuming a perfectly uniform dielectric it is possible to calculate the capacitance, but in practice it is usual to measure this quantity on the finished length of cable, since the dielectric is far from uniform and the calculated value is, at best, only approximate.

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(a) C1 =Capacitance between cores .

(b)

(c)

C2 =Capacitance between each core and sheath . Fig 2.11 Electrostatic field of a three-core belted cable

Consider the case of three-phase cable. Since there is a potential between pairs of conductors and between each conductor and the sheath, there will be the electrostatic field in the cross-section of the cable somewhat as indicated in fig2.11(a). this figure gives the average distribution of the field; actually the distribution is continually changing because of the changing p.d.s between pairs of conductors and between conductors and earth. The existence of an electrostatic field between two metal bodies indicates that there exists a capacitance between these bodies and we thus see that there are six such capacitances involved in a three-phase cable, as indicated in fig 2.11(b). Three of these are delta connected, and three star-connected, the lead sheath (which is assumed to be at zero potential) forming the star point. The arrangement in fig 2.11(b).is thus equivalent to the system of six capacitors in fig 2.11 ( c). It is convenient to reduce this system to the equivalent star-connected system. Let the three delta-connected capacitors, each having a value

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Cl, be equivalent to three star-connected capacitors each of value C3, fig 2.12(a) and (b). Using the delta-star transformation.

Hence the whole cable is equivalent to three star-connected capacitors, each of capacitance (3C1+C2) as shown in fig 2.12 (c)

Fig 2.12 equivalent capacitance of a three-core cable

The capacitances C1 and C2 are determined by measurement as follows; first the capacitance between two cores is measured, the third core being connected to the sheath. This eliminates one of the capacitors C2, so that if Cl is the measured capacitance.

C2=3C1
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2.6 Capacitance of single-core cable

A single core cable can be considered to be equivalent to two long coaxial cylinders. The conductor or core of the cable is the inner cylinder while the outer cylinder is represented by lead sheath, which is at earth potential. Consider a single core-cable with conductor diameter (d) and inner sheath diameter (D) fig 2.13. Let the charge per meter axial length of the cable be (Q) coulombs and be the permittivity of the insulation material between core and lead sheath. Obviously =0r wherer is the relative permittivity of the

insulation [6]. Consider a cylinder of radius x meters, and axial length l meter. According to Gauss is theorem, electric flux passing through this cylinder is (Q) coulombs.

The surface area of this cylinder is

For one meter

Electric flux density at any point P on the considered cylinder is

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Electric intensity at point P is

The work done in moving a positive charge from point P through a distance dx in the direction of electric field is Ex dx Hence, the work done in moving a unit Positive charge from conductor to sheath which is the potential difference V between conductor and sheath is given by:

Capacitance of the cable is

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If the cable has a length of L meters, then capacitance of the cable is:

Fig 2.13 single core cable

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CHAPTER THREE
CABLE TYPE TESTING ACCORDING TO IEC

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3.1 Introduction
Cables are very important electrical apparatus for transmission of electrical energy . This chapter presents some of the techniques and theory involved in the testing of high-voltage cable in the laboratory.Wewill do

tests on high voltagecables and low voltagecablesaccording to European standards (iec) and partial discharge testing can, to some extent, help in the selection and design of insulation of electrical equipment.

3.2 Classification of cable tests[4]

1- Mechanical tests

2-test voltage
3-Physical and chemical tests 4-Dielectric power factor test 5 Impulse withstand voltage test

3.2.1 Mechanical tests

A. Tension test The tests to the resistance to tension and the relative elongation are of considerable importance for bare copper and aluminum wires. The tension tests are carried out in tensile machines of the required capacity on samples 200-mm long. The tensile strength, the relative and residual elongations of the insulation rubber of cable conductors of up to and including 10-mm2 in cross section and of the tough rubber having

32

adiameter up to 4-mm are determined on samples in the form of tubes removed from the cable.

B. Bending test Bending test is one of the mechanical tests, the test is to be on a sample length at least five times the test drum diameter called for hereunder. The sample shall undergo three forward and reverse bending cycles unless the sheath is of smooth died-down aluminum, in which case the number of cycles is reduced to two. It is required that after bending the sample shall withstand application of a voltage test precisely as required for the routine testing of factory drum lengths of cable. It is also required that sheath and reinforcing tapes shall be free from cracks or tears; reinforcing tapes must not be noticeably displaced; the insulation tapes shall not be torn. The test drum diameters shall be in accordance with the following requirements as tabulated in table 3.1 where d is the drum diameter.

Table 3.1 Terms of bending test

Sheath material Lead alloy Died down aluminum

Number of cores 1 30d 30d 3 20d 30d

-Voltage test.3.2.2
The power frequency test voltage shall be 2.5U0+2KV. Values of singlephase test voltage for the standard rated voltages are given in table 3.2 at cables for rated voltages of 1kv and 3kv

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Rated voltage Uo Test voltage table 3.2

0.6 3.5

1.8 6.5

If, for three-core cables, the voltage test is carried out with a three-phase transformer.the test voltage between the phases shall be 1.73 times the values given in table.

Test procedure for single-core cables

For single-core screened cables,the test voltage shall be applied for 5 min between the conductor and the metallic screen. Single-core unscreened cables shall be immersed in water at room temperature for 1 h and the test voltage then applied for 5 min between the conductor and water

The power frequency test voltage shall be 3.5U0. Values of single-phase test voltage for the standard rated voltages are given in table 3.3 at cables for rated voltages from 6kv up to 30kv

Rated voltage Uo Test voltage

3.6 6 12.5 21 Table 3.3

8.7 30.5

12 42

18 63

If, for three-core cables, the voltage test is carried out with a three-phase transformer.the test voltage between the phases shall be 1.73 times the values given in table

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3.2.3 Physical and chemical tests.

The sealing of lead, aluminum, and plastic sheaths is checked by filling them with compressed gas or dry air. Benzene resistance of high strength cables is checked by testing the mechanical strength of the enamel film after immersion of the sample in benzene at temperature of 60C. Frost resistance of cables samples after keeping them in a cold chamber, and other samples are tested by bending them for 30 minutes at a room temperature.

3.2.4 Dielectric power factor test.

For very-high voltage cables, tests for power factor are associated with the high-voltage test. The measurement of the power factor is generally made with a shearing bridge as shown in fig , and is taken before and after the high voltage test, the results being compared. For a well designed and manufactured cable there should be no change in the power factor figures .

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fig(3.1) Schering bridge

The power factor is usually taken at voltages from half-working to double-working voltage, and the graph relating power factor to test voltage is known as the ionization curve as shown in fig 3.1. The measured power factor at normal working voltage shall not exceed the value declared by the manufacturer and shall not exceed 0.01.

3.2.5 Impulse withstand voltage test.

This test is to measure the ability of a cable in service to withstand high-voltage surges caused by switching-operations and lightning discharges. The test is to be carried out with the cable conductor temperature not less than the normal maximum and not exceeding this by more than
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5C. the assembly is to be maintained at constant temperature for two hours immediately before it is submitted to ten successive negative followed by ten successive positive impulses of the required peak voltage as given in Table 3.4 the official test requirements are satisfied by an installation which withstands the impulse voltage applications without failure (3.2)

Fig (3.2) Ionization curve

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Table 3.4 Withstand test voltage

System voltage (KV) 33

Withstand test voltage (KV/p) 194 239 (inner insulation)

25 (single phase) 95 (outer insulation) 66 132 275 342 640 1050

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CHAPTER FOUR
TESTING OF UNDERGROUND CABLES

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4.1 Partial discharge test

Corona discharges may occur on the surface or in voids within its volume. The presence of corona may be detected by several nonelectrical and electrical methods. The electrical discharge detection methods make use of the current impulses accompanying discharges in the cavity. An insulating material of a cable specimen containing a gas void can be represented as shown in fig4.l (a) and its equivalent circuit in fig4.l(b). The capacitance Cv represents the void and Cb the dielectricabove and below it. Ca represents the rest of the dielectric. When an alternating voltage Va in excess of that corresponding to the break down threshold of the gas in the void is applied to the dielectric a partial discharge (PD) will Start in it. The process of partial discharge in the void is illustrated in fig4.2. The voltage appearing across the void if there were no discharge is Vv and is given by the expression

Where d and dl are the thickness of the insulating specimen and the gas void, respectively, and r is the relative permittivity of the dielectric. Partial discharge in the void will start at a voltage Vi on the positive half-cycle and approximately -Vi on the negative half-cycle. Ve is the voltage at which the discharge stops.

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d: thickness of insulation. d1: thickness of void. Ca: rest of dielectric. Va: alternating voltage. Vv: void voltage. Cv: represents the void. Cb: dielectric above and below Fig(4.1) a- void representation.

b- its equivalent circuit.

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Fig(4.2) voltage and current traces of partial discharge in a void

The discharge in the void will be accompanied by sharp current pulses, as indicated in fig 4.2. This may be repeated several times on the increasing part of the positive half-cycle. At point m the voltage across the void reverses its polarity, since at this instant v is decreasing, and discharge will continue with almost regular negative current pulses. The electrical partial discharge detection methods are classified as balanced or straight methods.

A. Balanced detection methods[5]

Balanced detection methods are much more sensitive than straight detection methods. In the straight PD detection methods discharges in any part of the test circuit and not within the test sample may be detected and displayed along with the discharge impulses in the

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sample this implies the use of discharge-free-high-voltage sources or the prevision of filters. Discharges on the high voltage leads or loose earth connections, although they can be recognized, should be eliminated. In addition, noise may be picked up from a variety of possible sources having nothing to do with the test set up (e.g., nearby thyristor-controlled machines, ultrasonic generators, and arcing contacts).

B. Straight discharge detection methods

The circuit arrangement shown in fig 4.3 gives a simplified circuit for detecting partial discharges. The high voltage transformer shown is free from internal discharges. A resonant filter is used to prevent any pulses starting from the capacitance of the winding and bushings of the transformer. Cx is the test object, Cb is the coupling capacitor, and Zm is adetection impedance. The signal developed across the impedance Zm is passed through a band pass filter and amplifier and displayed on a CRO or counted by a pulse counter multi-channel analyzer unit. In the wide band detection scheme (E.R.A Discharge Detector Model III) Zm is an R-C network connected to a double tuned transformer.

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1-H.V.testing transformer 2-Filter 3-Band pass filter 4-Amplifier 5-Display unit

Fig (4.3) Straight discharge detection circuit

The bandwidth is about 250 KHz with center frequency between 150 to 200 KHz. A wide band amplifier is used, and the signal is displayed on the CRO.

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With the E.R.A Discharge Detector Model III, wide band detector samples up to 250 f capacitance can be tested. Sensitivity of the measurement varies from 0.005 picocolomb (pc) at 6 pF sample capacitance to about 15 pc at a sample capacitance of 250 F.

4.2 Identification of type of discharge

Four main types of discharge pattern displayed by the E.R.A. Discharge Detector Model III. When interpreting patterns the following points should be borne in mind:

a. The ellipse is always written in a clockwise direction. b. The markers always occur at the zeros of the test voltage
waveform.

c. The positive marker pulse indicates when the test voltage is

changing frompositive to negative polarity.

d. Thenegativemarkerpulseindicates whenthe testvoltage is changing

fromnegative to positive polarity. A typical discharge pattern from most types ofinsulation is shown in fig4.4 in this pattern discharges appear on the quadrants the ellipse, which correspond to the test voltage rising from zero to maximum either positively or negatively. The discharges usually start near the peaks of the test voltage but spread towards the zeros as the test voltage is increased above inception the number and magnitude of discharges on the opposite half cycles are approximately the same. A typical discharge pattern from a void bounded on one side by insulation and on the other side by a conductor is shown in fig 4.5
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this type of discharge is commonly produced in a polythene insulated cable when the insulation has not adhered to the conductor properly.

Fig(4.4) Discharges in voids in insulation

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Fig(4.5) Discharges in voids bounded on one side by conductor and on the other by insulation

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Fig(4.6) Corona discharge

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Fig(4.7) Corona discharges in a capacitive circuit

The discharge is distinguished by the large number of small discharges on the positive half cycle and the smaller number of larger discharges on the negative half cycle. Fig 4.6 shows the pattern produced by a discharge from a sharp point into air. This is usually produced by a sharp point on the high voltage connections of the test circuit and may be distinguished by the fact that it only occurs around the negative peak of the test waveform. Contact discharges are shown in fig 4.7 and may be distinguished by the characteristic shape of their pattern and their position at the current peaks of the test waveform.

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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCHARGE TESTING USING DISCHARGE DETECTOR MODEL

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5.1 Introduction
Cables are very important electrical apparatus for transmission of electrical energy by underground means. After the cable is made up, each drum length is subjected to a set of routine electrical tests. These voltage tests are applied between conductors and sheath; the conductors of a three-core cable are connected in parallel to one single-phase voltage source for the proof test, since the cores are individually screened. The routine tests include also measurement of capacitance, conductor resistance, and voltage test.

At one time breakdown tests upon short lengths of cable with alternating voltages of commercial frequency, rapidly applied, were called for, but it was later realized that such tests gave little or no reliable information regarding the cable, since the breakdown value when the voltage is applied for a considerable time is usually considerably smaller than that obtained with rapid application of voltage. Thus, tests with a voltage applied for 15 or 30 min. were carried out in addition to the rapid tests. In this chapter general information will be given about discharge testing systems using the Discharge Detector Model. This device can be used to test bus bars, bushings, capacitors, machines, materials, transformers, and cables. Here only the cable testing procedure and connections are described by using the Discharge Detector Model.

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5.2 Discharge testing system[6]

The discharge testing system used is the Discharge Detector Model Fig 5.1(a) shows a typical discharge test installation in block form [4]. The single-phase test voltage is normally derived from the main supply and applies via a regulator, isolating transformer and filter tothe primary of a discharge free test supply transformer. The secondary of the test supply transformer is wound to give the desired test voltage and feeds a discharge free capacitor, the specimen, and a voltmeter resistor. Discharges produced by the specimen are coupled via the charge free capacitor and input unit to the discharge detector where they are amplified and displayed on cathode ray tube. The test voltage is monitored on the discharge detector voltmeter via the voltmeter resistor. The items shown in fig 5.l(a) with a double line round them are normally standard items, but the others are designed to suit the particular system. For test circuits with a maximum load of 55kva, the burden on the mains may be limited to 5kva, reactors being provided to supply reactive loads between 5kvar and 55kvar, and a standard control unit is used. For greater loads, the regulator, isolating transformer and filter are normally supplied as separate items together with a control panel for remote control of the test circuit parameters. These larger systems are designed specifically to meet the customer is particular requirements. Fig 5.1 (b) shows a telescopic view of the Discharge Detector Model.

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5.2 Installation of equipment

5.2.1 safety precautions Any discharge detection test installation is potentially lethal unless the short circuit current of the test supply transformer can be limited to a maximum of about 3mA. As this is only possible with a very small proportion of installations, care must always be exercised when designing a discharge test area.

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Fig.5.1(b) Telescopic view of the Discharge Detector Model

It is strongly recommended that the test supply transformer and test circuit components should be located within a separate enclosure, the entrance to which should be fully interlocked with the mains supply to the control gear by means of micro switches. On standard control units provision is made for external interlock switches. These should be wired in series so that the opening of any interlock switch automatically de-energizes the control gear. Standard control units are also fitted with a key operated isolator switch which should be locked off and the key removed when work is being carried out on the test area.

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5.2.2 Installation procedure[6]

a. Set up the equipment in the chosen test area. b. Wire upthe output of the control gearto the primaryof thetest supplytransformer using either screened wire or metallic conduit bonded to earth ancontaining only these leads. c. Wire all the test area interlock switches in series with thecontrol unitinterlocksocket. d. Select the test circuit configuration appropriate to the type of specimen beingtested. e. Connect the circuit, being careful to make good joints and ensuring that no sharp points remain. The higher the test voltage that is being used, the more care must be taken with the high voltage connections soastoavoid discharges from them. Do not under any circumstances earth the terminal of the input unit to which thecalibration coupling capacitorcq is connected. f. Connect the voltmeter and input unit to the Discharge Detector via the coaxial cables provided. The color code of the plugson these leads shouldbeobserved,and under no circumstances must the length of the lead with green plugs bealtered. g. The equipment is now ready for use.

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5.3 Test circuit configuration

The basic test circuits have an advantages and disadvantages so the choice must be made depending on the test requirements. The usual test circuits, which are used, are: 5.3.1 Standard test circuit The circuit shown in fig (5.2) suffers from the disadvantage that the stray capacitance of the test transformer must be added to the specimen capacitance unless rejecter coils are fitted. For large specimens this stray capacitance is negligible but with small specimens it may introduce appreciable errors. A discharge simulator can be used to determine this error. 5.3.2 Modified test circuit Fig (5.3) shows the modified test circuit. This circuit is much better than the standard test circuit provided the specimen can be isolated from earth. The main disadvantage of this circuit is that failure of the specimen could destroy the input unit. 5.3.3 Balanced test circuit For this circuit shown in fig (5.4) two nearly identical specimens are required. Advantages of this circuit include some reduction of interference pick up and elimination of transformer stray capacitance effects. It is also possible to test too much higher voltages than with the unbalanced circuits. The main disadvantages are the need to

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provide two specimens and if discharges are found the need to determine which specimen is discharging. 5.3.4 Balanced and unbalanced test circuits These circuits are shown in fig (5.5) fig (5.6)These circuits may only be used when the specimen can be tested with both ends isolated from earth. Stray transformer capacitance must be taken in to consideration unless rejecters are fitted or two separate transformers are used. 5.3.5 Bridge test circuit This circuit shown in fig (5.7) may be used where two non-earthed specimens having similar dielectric properties are available. It possesses theadvantageof giving extrarejection ofunwantedexternal disturbances. At the same time these together with discharges from terminations may be recognized as such because they are reduced in magnitude by balancing the bridge.

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5.5 Identification of source of discharge pulses

A response in the form of the pulses on the display, having characteristics recognizable as due to discharges, may originate in any part of the test circuit subject to the test voltage. It is essential that the test circuit should be discharge-free in order to observe discharges in the specimen under test. A check test should, therefore, always be made with the specimen replaced by a discharge free capacitor, or other insulation having capacitance of the same order as that of the specimen. If the specimen has terminations it will be necessary to know whether any discharges observed originate in the terminations or in the specimen.

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Fig 5.8(a) Method of connecting specimen & terminations in order to discriminate between discharges in them

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Fig 5.8(b) Waveforms associated with Fig 5.8(a)

This may be done by connecting the terminations across the blocking capacitor as shown in fig4.8. If the discharges originate in the specimen, the discharge pulses appearing on the display will be in the same direction as the calibration pulse on the negative half wave of the test voltage, and in the opposite direction on the positive half wave. If they originate in the blocking capacitor or terminations the directions will be reversed. Should the alternative method of connection be used, with the input unit connected to the blocking capacitor, the equivalent circuit and
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the waveforms will be as in fig 4.9. If the discharges originate in the specimen, the discharge pulses appearing on the display will be in the same direction as the calibration pulse in the positive half wave of the test voltage, and in the opposite direction on the negative half wave. If theyoriginate in the blocking capacitor or terminations, the directions will be reserved. The pulse shaping circuits in the amplifier cause any given pulse to have overshoot, but operation of the pulse brightening switch enables the direction of a pulse to be distinguished.

Fig 5.9(a) alternative method of connecting specimen & terminations in order to discriminate between discharges in them

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Fig 5.9(b) Waveforms associated with Fig 5.9(a)

The pulse shaping circuits in the amplifier cause any given pulse to have overshoot, but operation of the pulse brightening switch enables the direction of a pulse to be distinguished. A practical way of deciding, with any given circuit configuration, in which direction specimen discharge pulses appear on the display, is to connect a low voltage mica capacitor across the specimen, increase
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the voltage slowly unit discharges occur and note the direction of the pulse on any particular part of the ellipse. These would correspond to discharges in the specimen with termination discharges being opposite in direction. The latter may be confirmed by connecting the mica capacitor across the blocking capacitor cb.

5.6 Earthing
Correct earthing plays a major part in reducing interference. If possible all components requiring earthing in the test circuit should be connected together to a single highly efficient earth point by the shortest leads possible. Not only does this provide a measure of protection for the discharge detection equipment, but it also provides a low impedance earth connections and voids the possibility of the earth loops. The neutral output connection of the control unit should also be bonded to the same earth as the test circuit.

5.7 Stray capacitance in the test circuit

When setting up the test circuit, care should be taken to ensure that the stray capacitance falling across the specimen is small in comparison with the capacitance of the specimen itself. Where the test circuit involves the connection of the specimen directly across the test supply transformer, it may be that with low capacitance specimens the stray capacitance of the transformer is comparable with that of the specimen. This will result in a loss of sensitivity which cannot be accurately predicted. This may be avoided in one of two ways.

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If a discharge simulator is available it may be used to ascertain the actual loss of sensitivity thus enabling accurate measurements to be made. Alternatively the transformer stray capacitance may be isolated from the specimen by means of suitable rejectors. These rejectors should consist of inductors chosen to have a self-resonant frequency greater than 60khz and a resonance when tuned by the capacitance of the specimen at a frequency below 10khz.

Fig 5.10 Electrical oven

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5.8 Heat effect on underground cable.

The temperature rise of a cable under operating conditions depends on the following factors: 1- The production of heat within the external periphery of the cable. 2- The conveyance of heat as far as the periphery that is, up to the boundary of thesurrounding medium. 3- The conveyance of heat through this medium, and away from thecable. 4- The method of installation of the cable. 5- The nature of the load, i.e. whether continues orintermitted; not infrequentlytherating under short-circuit conditions has to be taken to be account. The characteristics of the dielectric will be change as the temperature change, so we will check the temperature effect on the dielectric, this will be done by using an electrical oven shown in fig 4.10 To estimate the temperature affection on the cable insulation, the temperature of the cable insulator material will be raised by putting the cable specimen inside the oven for about half an hour to reach about 90c . therefore

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CHAPTER SIX
TESTING RESULTS

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Sample 1:

-Diameter 3*150/120mm -Length 40cm -Rated voltage 400kv -Thickness of insulation (internal) 2mm -Thickness of insulation (external) 4mm -Number of conductors (phases) 39 conductors -Number of conductors (ground) 19 conductors

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Sample 2:

-Diameter 1*400 mm -Length 32cm -Rated voltage 8.7/15kv -Conductor

-Diameter of conductor 19.5 mm -Number of conductors 61 conductors

-Thickness of paper insulation 4.95 m -Thickness of lead sheath 1.5 mm -Thickness of bedding 1.2 mm -Thickness of serving 1.8 mm

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Sample 3:

-Diameter 3*35/16 mm -Length 50cm -Rated voltage 400kv -Thickness of insulation (internal) 1mm -Thickness of insulation (external) 2mm -Number of conductors (phases) 7 conductors -Number of conductors (ground) 7 conductors
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Tests
In this part we will study some electrical properties of cable and compared with European standards, that with applied different voltages to different times, take into consideration (rated voltage).and we will study temperature effect on samples too.

-First sample
3.5kv were applied on this sample, that between brown color and black color,after five minutes ,do not occur spark on the device that means do not occur the partial discharge.but when increase the voltage to 6kv in this case we see spark on device ,that means occur partial discharge . When applied same voltage on black color and another black the results was same previous state. When 2.5kv were applied between external insulator and black color we see partial discharge. After five minutes from increase the voltage to 3.5kv do not occur breakdown.

-Second sample
Voltage was increased gradually between conductor and isolator until occur partial discharge at 605kv,then we rise the voltage until occur spark (breakdown) at 20kv.

-Third sample
Voltage was applied (about 3.5kv) between red color and black color ,but do not occur spark in this case .when increase in the voltage to 6.2kv ,in this point occur partial discharge .and between red and yellow and between black and yellow were same result in previous state .and we rise voltage gradually between black and blue to 3kv that point occur partial discharge ,while next step was applied voltage between external insulator and red color that lead up to occur partial discharge at 1kv.
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CHAPTER SVEN
CONCLUSION

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1.Voltage test
When applied rated voltage for five minutes we noted correspondence samples with European standards , subsequently we can used it .

2.partial discharge test

Rising the voltage gradually until given signal from device ,this point is begin of partial discharge ,and registered that values.

3. temperatureeffect
In this test samples were inserted in oven about one hour .the result was decrease the rated voltage with increase the temperature.

4.earthing
When performed this tests we must sure that device is earthing.

5- thickness of isolator
thickness of isolator was measured where it was correspond to European standards.

6. preparation of sample
We must have specific samples to insure get correct results that before tests .

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References

1.William D. Stevenson, Jr Elements of Power System Analysis, McGRAW-HILL,1982. 2.V.K.Method.Principles of Power System. P.J.Lawrenson,1980. 3.V.Pirvezentsev,I.Grodnev,S.Kholodny,I.Rayazanov,Fundamentals of Cable Engineering,1973. 4.H.Cotton,H.Barber. The Transmission And Distribution of Electrical Energy,1970. 5.High Voltage Engineering Theory and Practice. Edited by M. Khalifa Cairo University. Giza, Egypt,1990. 6.E.R.A Discharge Detector Model III Catalog.

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