Physics for Scientists and Engineers

Introduction and Chapter 1

TOPICS TO BE COVERED (1)

CHAPTER 1: Unit and Measurements CHAPTER 2: Motion in 1 Dimension CHAPTER 3: Vectors CHAPTER 4: Motion in 2 Dimensions CHAPTER 5: The Laws of Motion CHAPTER 6: Circular Motion and Other Applications of Newtons Laws CHAPTER 7: Energy of a System CHAPTER 8: Conservation of Energy CHAPTER 9: Linear Momentum and Collision

TOPICS TO BE COVERED (2)

CHAPTER 10: Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis CHAPTER 11: Angular Momentum CHAPTER 12: Static Equilibrium and Elasticity CHAPTER 13: Universal Gravitation CHAPTER 14: Fluid Mechanics

Physics

Physics is a fundamental science

concerned with the basic principles of the Universe foundation of other physical sciences Classical Mechanics Relativity Thermodynamics Electromagnetism Optics Quantum Mechanics

Divided into five major areas

Classical Physics

Mechanics and electromagnetism are basic to all other branches of classical physics Classical physics developed before 1900

Our study will start with Classical Mechanics

Also called Newtonian Mechanics

Classical Physics, cont

Includes Mechanics

Major developments by Newton, and continuing through the latter part of the 19th century

Thermodynamics Optics Electromagnetism

All of these were not developed until the latter part of the 19th century

Modern Physics

Began near the end of the 19th century Phenomena that could not be explained by classical physics Includes theories of relativity and quantum mechanics

Classical Mechanics Today

Still important in many disciplines Wide range of phenomena that can be explained with classical mechanics Many basic principles carry over into other phenomena Conservation Laws also apply directly to other areas

Objective of Physics

To find the limited number of fundamental laws that govern natural phenomena, e.g. Newtons law, the 3 thermodynamics laws etc. To use these laws to develop theories that can predict the results of future experiments Express the laws in the language of mathematics

Theory and Experiments

Should complement each other When a discrepancy occurs, theory may be modified

Theory may apply to limited conditions

Example: Newtonian Mechanics is confined to objects traveling slowly with respect to the speed of light

Try to develop a more general theory

Major Concepts in Chapter1

Units of Length, Mass, and Time Dimensional Analysis Converting Units Significant figures and uncertainties Order-of-Magnitude Calculations

Quantities Used

In mechanics, three basic quantities are used

Length Mass Time These are other quantities can be expressed in terms of these

Will also use derived quantities

Standards of Quantities

Standardized systems

agreed upon by some authority, usually a governmental body agreed to in 1960 by an international committee main system used in this text

SI Systme International

Length

Units

SI meter, m

Defined in terms of a meter the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a given time See Table 1.1 for some examples of lengths

Mass

Units

SI kilogram, kg

Defined in terms of a kilogram, based on a specific cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Standards, France See Table 1.2 for masses of various objects

Mass of Various Objects

Standard Kilogram

Time

Units

seconds, s

Defined in terms of the oscillation of radiation from a cesium atom See Table 1.3 for some approximate time intervals

One Second (1 s)
Unit

of time: one second (=9,192,631,770 cycle of a cesium atomic clock)

Various Length Scales in Universe

1019m 1Pc

1022 m 1 MPc 1011m 1 A.U

107m

Microscopic Units

100

m=1m

10-6 m = 1 m

10-15m 1 fm

10-10 m = 1 Angstrom

Reasonableness of Results

When solving a problem, you need to check your answer to see if it seems reasonable Reviewing the tables of approximate values for length, mass, and time will help you test for reasonableness

Prefixes

Prefixes correspond to powers of 10 Each prefix has a specific name Each prefix has a specific abbreviation

Prefixes (1)

The prefixes can be used with any base units They are multipliers of the base unit Examples:

1 mm = 10-3 m 1 mg = 10-3 g

Basic Quantities and Their Dimension

Dimension has a specific meaning it denotes the physical nature of a quantity Dimensions are denoted with square brackets

Length [L] Mass [M] Time [T]

Dimensional Analysis

Technique to check the correctness of an equation or to assist in deriving an equation Dimensions (length, mass, time, combinations) can be treated as algebraic quantities

add, subtract, multiply, divide

Both sides of equation must have the same dimensions REMEMBER: Units are very important in Physics!!

Dimensional Analysis, cont.

Cannot give numerical factors: this is its limitation Dimensions of some common quantities are given below

Symbols

Time in second: t Lengths: x, y, z, r, d, h, etc. Length along horizontal direction: x Length along vertical direction: y and z

r: Radius d: Diameter h: height

Dimensional Analysis, example 1

Given the equation: x = at 2 Check dimensions on each side: [L] = [T2]. [L]/[T2] The T2s cancel, leaving L for the dimensions of each side

The equation is dimensionally correct There are no dimensions for the constant

Dimensional Analysis, example 2

Given a fundamental equation: F= ma We can find the dimension of force, F:

L LHS = M 2 T RHS = Newton

So, [Newton] = [N] = M L/T2 Question: What is the dimension for energy in unit of Joule = J? That is, [J] =?

Conversion of Units

When units are not consistent, you may need to convert to appropriate ones Units can be treated like algebraic quantities that can cancel each other out Some useful unit conversions are: 1 in =2.54 cm 1 mi =1.609 km 1 mph = 0.447 m/s 1 m = 39.37 in 1 km = 0.621 mi 1 m/s =2.24 mph

Unit Conversion

Always include units for every quantity, you can carry the units through the entire calculation Multiply original value by a ratio equal to one Example
15.0 in = ? cm 2.54 cm 15.0 in = 38.1 cm 1 in

Example

1 atomic mass, 1 u (defined) = 1.660 538 x 10-27kg Mass of 1 carbon-12 nucleus is 12 u = 12 x 1.660 538 x 10-27kg 1 km = 103 m; 1 hr. = 60 min = 60 (60 s) = 3600 s Thus, v = 50 km/h = 50 x (103 m) / 3600 s = 50 x (103) / 3600 x (m /s ) = 13.89 m/s

Choice of Suitable Unit

1 Joule = (1/e) eV = 1/ (1.6 x 10-19 ) eV = 6.25 x 1018 eV hc = (6.63 x 10-34 Js) x (3 x 108 m/s) = 6.63 x 10-34 x (6.25 x 1018 eVs) x 3 x 108 x (109 nm/s) = 1240 nmeV = hc/ = 1240 nmeV / 100 nm = 12.4 eV Compare = 12.4 eV with energy in S.I. unit: = 2 x 10-18 J. Unit nm, eV are more convenient to handle Moral: choose units that suit the system being studied.

Order of Magnitude

Approximation based on a number of assumptions

may need to modify assumptions if more precise results are needed

Order of magnitude is the power of 10 that applies

To be able to guess the order of magnitude for the answer in a calculation before actual calculation is done is very useful in checking the validity of a formula or theory. Usually, estimation is done correct to the nearest order, i.e. in factor of 10 Use symbol ~ in estimated order E.g. : 0.0086 ~ 10-2, 0.0021 ~ 10-3, 720 ~ 103 Try this: 0.00057 ~ ? 600 000 000 ~ ?

Uncertainty in Measurements

There is uncertainty in every measurement -- this uncertainty carries over through the calculations

need a technique to account for this uncertainty

We will use rules for significant figures to approximate the uncertainty in results of calculations

Significant Figures

A significant figure is one that is reliably known Zeros may or may not be significant

Those used to position the decimal point are not significant To remove ambiguity, use scientific notation

In a measurement, the significant figures include the first estimated digit

Significant Figures, examples

0.0075 m has 2 significant figures

The leading zeros are placeholders only Can write in scientific notation to show more clearly: 7.5 x 10-3 m for 2 significant figures The decimal point gives information about the reliability of the measurement Use 1.5 x 103 m for 2 significant figures Use 1.50 x 103 m for 3 significant figures Use 1.500 x 103 m for 4 significant figures

10.0 m has 3 significant figures

1500 m is ambiguous

E.g. Stating Uncertainty

Using ruler, find the area of diskette, A? a = (5.5 0.1) cm; b = (6.4 0.1) cm, a = b = 0.1 cm (1 sig. fig.) A = a b = (5.5 x 6.4) cm2 = 34.02 cm2 error/uncertainty in A gives A / A= a/a + b/b A = (a/a + b/b) A = (0.1/5.5 + 0.1/6.4) x5.5x6.4 cm2 = 1.17 cm2 A must be correct to 1 sig. fig. only, i.e. A = 1 cm2 Value of A must be stated consistent with the no. of sig. fig. in A So, area A is stated as (34 1) cm2 (2 sig. fig.) But not A = (34.02 1.17) cm2 (4 sig. fig.) & not A = (34.0 1.2) cm2

Derivation of Uncertainty in A=ab

A A = ( a a )( b b ) Consider the case A + A. suuuuu t A + A = ( a + a )( b + b ) = ab + ab + ba + ab = ab + ab + ba A = ab + ba A ab ba = + ; A = ab A A A A a b b a = + A ab ab A b a = + A b a

E.g. Stating Uncertainty

Using ruler, find the area of diskette, A? a = (5.5 0.1) cm; b = (6.4 0.1) cm, a = b = 0.1 cm (1 sig. fig.) A = a b = (5.5 x 6.4) cm2 = 34.02 cm2 error/uncertainty in A gives A / A= a/a + b/b A = (a/a + b/b) A = (0.1/5.5 + 0.1/6.4) x5.5x6.4 cm2 = 1.17 cm2 A must be correct to 1 sig. fig. only, i.e. A = 1 cm2 Value of A must be stated consistent with the no. of sig. fig. in A So, area A is stated as (34 1) cm2 But not A = (34.02 1.17) cm2 (4 sig. fig.) & not A = (34.0 1.2) cm2

Derivation of Uncertainty in A=a/b

a a A A = b b a + a A + A = b + b (a + a ) (1 + bb ) 1 = b a = (1 + aa )( 1 bb + ...) b a . b = (1 + aa bb aab + ..) b A aa bb A

Addition/ Subtraction

How do we calculate the uncertainty in a b or a + b? If a = (5.5 0.1) cm; b = (6.4 0.1) cm, a = b = 0.1 cm Say X = b a Error/uncertainty in X is X = a + b = 0.2 cm X is correct to 1 dec. place , i.e X = 0.2 cm Value of X must be consistent with the no. of dec. place of X So, X = (11.9 0.2) cm or (0.9 0.2) cm

Comparing Accuracy of Tools

As comparison, if the vernier caliper with the smallest division (0.01mm = 0.001cm) is used, measurements are: 5.501 0.001 cm and 6.403 0.001 cm Number of sig. fig is 4.

Repeat previous calculation!

a = (5.501 0.001) cm; b = (6.403 0.001) cm, a = b = 0.001 cm 2 2 A = a b = (5.501 x 6.404) cm = 35.228404 cm Error/uncertainty in A is A = (a/a + b/b)A = (0.001/5.501 + 0.001/6.403)x 35.228494 cm2 = 0.011907023cm2 2 A must be correct to 1 sig. fig. only, i.e A = 0.01 cm 2 So, area of A is (35.23 0.01) cm (4 sig. fig.) In general, if the number of sig. fig. is more, the uncertainty is smaller. 2 c.f. (35.23 0.01) cm (4 sig. fig., 2 dec. plc.) (vernier)

Operations with Significant Figures Multiplying or Dividing

When multiplying or dividing, the number of significant figures in the final answer is the same as the number of significant figures in the quantity having the lowest number of significant figures. Example: 25.57 m x 2.45 m = 62.6 m2

The 2.45 m limits your result to 3 significant figures

Operations with Significant Figures Adding or Subtracting

When adding or subtracting, the number of decimal places in the result should equal the smallest number of decimal places in any term in the sum. Example: 135 cm + 3.25 cm = 138 cm

The 135 cm limits your answer to the units decimal value

Operations With Significant Figures Summary

The rule for addition and subtraction are different than the rule for multiplication and division For adding and subtracting, the number of decimal places is the important consideration For multiplying and dividing, the number of significant figures is the important consideration

Rounding

Last retained digit is increased by 1 if the last digit dropped is 5 or above Last retained digit remains as it is if the last digit dropped is less than 5 If the last digit dropped is equal to 5, the retained digit should be rounded to the nearest even number Saving rounding until the final result will help eliminate accumulation of errors

More examples and excercises

Convert the following to SI units: (a) 9.12s (b) 44cm/ms (c) 0.81g/cm3 How many significant figures does each of the following numbers have? (a) 6.21 (b) 62.1 (c) 0.620 (d) 0.062 (e) 6200 (f) 0.006200 (g) 1.0621 (h) 6.21 x 103

More examples and exercises

Compute and apply the significant figure rules. (a) 33.3 x 25.4 (b) 33.3 - 25.4 (c) 33.3 (d) 333/25.4 (e) 44.4-1 A = 34.780.03 B = 78.40.1 Compute AB and A/B.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

Serway (7th edition). Problems at the end of chapter 1. 5, 8, 9, 18, 30, 32, 44, 45 Serway (8th edition). Problems at the end of chapter 1 5, 8, 10, 18, 31, 47, 64, 53