April 2013

Separation
along the
Sulfur Recovery Trail
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www.che.com
PAGE 38
Relief-
Valve
Sizing
Focus on
Seals &
Gaskets
Single-Use
Strategies
Nano-
Engineered
Coatings
Facts at Your
Fingertips:
Gas Hazards
Safety-
Instrumented
Systems
Heat & Power
Cogeneration
TWO-PART STORY
STARTS PAGE 46
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Circle 34 on p. 68 or go to adlinks.che.com/45771-34
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2013 1
APRIL 2013 VOLUME 120, NO. 4
COVER STORY
38 Cover Story Filtration and Separation In Sulfur Recovery
Controlling contaminants is key to reliable, economical processing
across all segments of industry
NEWS
11 Chementator A new way to desalt water without using RO or distilla-
tion; Simplified carbon dioxide-to-methanol process uses copper-oxide
nanowires; A method for using an iron-titanium alloy for hydrogen-
storage; A production facility for stabilized sodium is slated for startup;
and more
17 Newsfront Nano-Engineering Infuses Growing Coatings Market
Controlling the structure of coatings at the nanoscale level is increas-
ingly common in a coatings market projected for growth
24 Newsfront Single-Use Strategies
Systems comprised of disposable equipment satisfy strategic drivers
for the biotech industry
ENGINEERING
32a Facts at Your Fingertips Gas Hazard Definitions and Data
This one-page reference summarizes terminology and data that are
pertinent to gas-detection in a manufacturing environment
37 Technology Profile Sodium Hypochlorite Chemical Production
This one-page profile describes the technology
for sodium hypochlorite production
46 Feature Report Part 1 Boosting Energy Efficiency
in Chemical Manufacturing: A Look at Cogeneration
Producing electricity and heat from a single energy source offers
operational, environmental and financial benefits
50 Feature Report Part 2 Combined Heat and Power
for the CPI: Modern Concepts
Tips on maximizing the output from a cogeneration plant and
maintaining proper chemistry in a heat-recovery steam generator
iltra
tio
n
www.che.com
Transformer
sales t
Heat recovery
steam
generators
High pressure
steam sales
to host
Low-pressure
steam sales
to host
Gas
turbine
Gas
turbine
38
17
24
46
2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2013
54 Engineering Practice A Best Practice for Relief-Valve Sizing
An easy-to-use methodology that delivers accurate results
58 Engineering Practice Safety-Instrumented Systems:
Focus on Measurement Diagnostics
New approaches help operators to achieve the needed safety
at the lowest lifecycle cost
EQUIPMENT & SERVICES
30 Focus on Seals & Gaskets
Avoid pipe corrosion with this spacer; This packing system removes par-
ticles; Very soft gaskets prevent water ingress into enclosures; and more
33 Interphex Show Preview* Targeting the pharmaceutical industry, In-
terphex 2013 takes place April 2325 in New York. This section presents
a sampling of the products and services to be on display
32I-1 Powtech Show Preview To be held April 2325 in Nuremberg, Ger-
many, Powtech showcases solids processing and handling equipment.
Here is a sampling of the products and services to be on display
32I-8 New Products* These actuators are designed for high pressures;
Outsource high-throughput research with this service; Use this light for
boiler inspections; Cover all applications with this rheometer; and more
COMMENTARY
5 Editors Page Bringing mobility to the plant In this era of informa-
tion-driven manufacturing, mobile handheld devices are finding their way
onto the plant floor
65 The Fractionation Column We need NASA Inspired by a presentation
about the Mars Curiosity mission, the author describes the many ways
NASAs work impacts us
*ONLY ON CHE.COM
Look for more on the Interphex
Show Preview and New Products;
as well as Latest News and more
33
DEPARTMENTS
6 Letters
8 Calendar
70 Whos Who
68 Reader Service
71 Economic Indicators
ADVERTISERS
66 Product Showcase
67 Classified Advertising
69 Advertiser Index
COMING IN MAY
Look for: Feature Reports on Root-Cause Analysis; and Inline Measurement;
Engineering Practice articles on Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers; and Speci-
fying Compressors; a Focus on Mixing; News articles on Petroleum Refining;
and Dust Control; and more
Cover: David Whitcher
54
30
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Editors Page
In his keynote presentation at this years ARC Forum (February 1114,
Orlando, Fla.; www.arcweb.com), Andy Chatha, president and founder of
ARC, stated that there were over ten billion WiFi-connected devices in 2012
and that over 50 billion are expected by 2020. He called this the era of con-
nected devices and introduced the concept of information-driven manufac-
turing (IDM), where competitiveness is driven by the ability to effectively
obtain and use information that is available from a wide variety of sources.
Rapidly advancing technologies are driving IDM, and one of the enablers is
the readily accessible, mobile device.
Mobile handheld devices, which were once forbidden on the plant floor, are
moving into the realm of being sought-after solutions for manufacturing per-
sonnel. The high attendance at the ARC Forum track devoted to this topic is
indicative of the growing interest in mobile devices for manufacturing.
There seems to be a convergence of several factors that are driving the
movement toward mobility in the plant. First, the nature of many jobs is
changing, and the need to do more with less opens opportunities where mo-
bility of information can help. For example, many operators no longer stay
in one control room all day overlooking one process unit. Instead, they need
to cover several units in a plant, and so accessing information remotely is
a plus. Second, the nature of the workforce itself is changing. As mobile de-
vices have become so prevalent in our daily lives, people want to be able to
get the same instant information in their workplaces that they can get out-
side of it. Young millenials entering the workforce expect mobility. Third,
the availability of the technology for the mobile devices themselves, and
supporting technologies like wireless instrumentation, and smart sensors
and transmitters, is advancing rapidly.
A number of examples of mobile devices in operation in the chemical
process industries (CPI) was given at the ARC Forum. Those examples
included environments where an iPad could be used, as well as environ-
ments where intrinsically safe (IS) devices were required. Areas that
could, or already are benefitting from handheld devices on the plant floor
include: maintenance; inventory management; quality control; and data
management, such as being able to fulfill regulatory paperwork require-
ments from out in the field rather than having to come back to an office
setting to do so.
There are certainly issues that need to be addressed in this age of mo-
bility the most important being safety and data security. A robust ap-
proach to cybersecurity is certainly needed. This is an issue that is be-
coming increasingly important for manufacturing (see Chemical Plant
Security: Gating More Than the Perimeter, Chem. Eng., September 2012,
pp. 1822). I expect some earlier considerations about introducing hand-
held devices on the plant floor included concerns about lost productivity
due to workers using these devices for non-work-related activities. Years
ago, this was also a main concern in allowing internet accessibility in the
workplace, but the resulting improvements in productivity outweighed
those fears.
One suggestion that was heard during the ARC Forum
was that companies need to put a set of policies in place
before implementing the use of mobile devices in order
to address some of the concerns, particularly about data
security. With this sound advice, handheld devices are
poised to help increase productivity as manufacturers
embrace the new technologies available to them.
Dorothy Lozowski, Managing Editor
Bringing mobility to the plant
Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal
Awards for Editorial Excellence
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Jenike & Johanson, Inc.
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MixTech, Inc.
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IIT Madras, India
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Fluor Corp.
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Loughborough University, U.K.
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(Retired) The Linde Group
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Respiratory Protection*
. . . OSHA requires employers to institute engineering and
work practice controls as the primary means to reduce
and maintain employee exposures to air contaminants to
levels at or below the OSHA permissible exposure limits
(PELs). Primary reliance on engineering controls and
work practices is consistent with good industrial hygiene
practice. OSHA also relies on traditional adherence to a
hierarchy of controls that prefers engineering and work
practice controls over dependence upon respirators. . . .
Comments
1. Page 28, middle column, 1st full paragraph
This paragraph should incorporate: Where toxic sub-
stances are present in the workplace, OSHA requires
employers to maintain exposure levels at or below the
PEL by implementing engineering and work practice
controls.. . .
Unfortunately, OSHA standard 29 CFR 1910.134(a)(1)
fails to mention the ability of the employer to rely on
work practice controls to reduce exposures. . . .
2. Page 28, right column, last paragraph
It is unclear what the author means when he states,
The aforementioned statistic reveals that too many
workers are not employing appropriate protection
from respiratory hazards on the job. What does not
employing appropriate protection, mean? . . .
Ira Wainless,
Senior Industrial Hygienist, OSHA (retired)
Authors response
. . . 1. In this article my intent was to give an overview
of the standard and therefore I followed OSHAs word-
ing as closely as possible. However, even if OSHA failed
to mention the ability of the employer to rely on work
practice controls to reduce exposure, the article did state
Where toxic substances are present in the workplace and
engineering controls such as . . . are inadequate to reduce
or eliminate them, it is time to turn to respirators.. . .
2. In 2011, Respiratory Protection, General Indus-
try (29 CFR 1910.134) was OSHAs fourth most
frequently cited standard violation. This means that
too many workers are not employing appropriate pro-
tection from respiratory hazards. More specifically,
workers are either not using the correct protection or
are wearing it incorrectly. And by following the stan-
dards (i.e., ensuring that they are properly trained on
usage, are fit tested, and are maintaining the respira-
tory properly) the number of violations should conse-
quently decrease. . . .
Dennis Capizzi,
Product Line Manager Air Purifying Respirators
MSA Safety
*Editors Note: The above are excerpts from letters sent to
the editors regarding the article, Clearing the Air About
Respiratory Protection, Chem. Eng., pp. 2833, December
2012. The full letters can be found on our website (www.
che.com).
Letters
Mller GmbH - 79618 Rheinfelden (Germany)
Industrieweg 5 - Phone: +49(0) 7623/969-0 - Fax: +49(0) 7623/969-69
A company of the Mller group
info@mueller-gmbh.com - www.mueller-gmbh.com
Details of the Ultra-Clean line:
Sanitary welded edging
Geometry of beads and bottom
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Body, base and lid in stainless
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Choose from a range
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The New Longhorn
Fine Mesh Screener
from Triple/S Dynamics is based on a simple design.
Less is more.
No large spare parts investment.
Mechanically simple with very few moving parts.
Really.
Very low vibration transmission.
Only the screen cloth vibrates.
Very low energy consumption.
The Longhorn is powered by two motors
typically 1/3 HP each.
No screening blinding.
Innovative burst cycle keeps
the screen free from blinding.
The Longhorn Fine Mesh Screener
can screen down to 325 mesh.
Typical applications include
screening frac sand, foundry
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iron powders, and lours.
Find out whats in it for you
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EUROPE
In-Cosmetics . Reed Exhibitions (Richmond, U.K.).
Phone: +44-207-240-2444; Web: in-cosmetics.com
Paris, France April 1618

ImagineNano 2013. Phantoms Foundation (Madrid,
Spain). Phone: +34-911-402145; Web: imaginenano.com
Bilboa, Spain April 2326
5th International Symposium on Advances in
Synthetic & Medicinal Chemistry. LD Organization
(Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium). Phone: +32-10-454777;
Web: asmc2013.org
Moscow, Russia May 58
EU BC&E 2013 21st European Biomass Confer-
ence and Exhibition . ETA Florence Renewable
Energies (Florence, Italy). Phone: +39-055-500-2174;
Web: conference-biomass.com
Copenhagen, Denmark June 37
Introduction to Foundation Fieldbus. Industry
Source (Mesa, Ariz.). Phone: 480-775-6020;
Web: fieldbus.org
Frankfurt, Germany June 18
ASIA & ELSEWHERE
World Coal-to-Liquids (CTL) 2013. World CTL (Paris).
Phone: +33-607-28-5247; Web: world-ctl.com
Shanghai, China April 1619
Introduction and Advanced Principles of Founda-
tion Fieldbus. Industry Source (Mesa, Ariz.).
Phone: 480-775-6020; Web: fieldbus.org
Pune, India April 2326

CPhi Japan 2013. UBMi BV (Amsterdam, The Nether-
lands). Phone: +31-204-0990544; Web: cphijapan.com
Tokyo, Japan April 2426
BioTech 2013 Japan. Reed Exhibitions Japan Ltd.
(Tokyo, Japan). Phone: +81-3-3349-8518; Web: bio-t.jp
Tokyo, Japan May 810
The 13th China International Environmental
Protection Exhibition and Conference.
Goodwill Exhibition and Promotion Ltd.
(Hong Kong). Phone: +852-2893-4338;
Web: goodwill-exh.com.hk/ciepec2013/
Beijing, China May 1316
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A
process developed by researchers at the
University of Texas at Arlington (www.
uta.edu) uses copper-based semiconduc-
tor nanoscale-rod arrays and solar radia-
tion to carry out a photoelectroreduction
of carbon dioxide to methanol. The process
offers a pathway to utilize the greenhouse
gas CO
2
as a feedstock to synthesize a
widely manufactured chemical (CH
3
OH)
under much milder conditions that those
needed for steam reforming of methanol
from hydrocarbon-based feedstock. Also,
the researchers note that no co-catalysts
are needed for the selective conversion
process. Since the method uses copper-
based semiconductor materials, less abun-
dant (Te and Ga) and more toxic (As and
Cd) materials are not necessary. The two
types of copper oxide were used because
both are photo-active and the two have
complementary solar-light absorption, the
researchers say.
The semiconductor arrays are prepared
using a two-step approach that consists of a
thermal process of growing CuO nanorods,
and a controlled electrodeposition of Cu
2
O
crystallites on the walls of the nanorods.
The hybrid CuO-Cu
2
O nanoarrays are con-
structed on a copper substrate. When the
nanorod arrays were submerged in a wa-
ter-based solution rich in CO
2
and exposed
to simulated sunlight, methanol was pro-
duced without the need for excess energy
input (overpotential).
Simplified CO
2
-to-methanol process
uses copper-oxide nanowires
C
apacitive desalination, in which salt
ions are electrically removed from
saltwater, has been researched for de-
cades as a potentially cheaper alterna-
tive to energy-intensive reverse osmo-
sis (RO) and distillation, but so far its
application has been limited to waters
with very low salt concentrations. A new
method, which may change that, is being
developed by researchers at Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL,
Livermore, Calif.; www.llnl.gov).
In capacitive desalination, saltwater
is typically pumped through a channel
between two capacitor-electrodes (dia-
gram). The electrodes remove the Na
+

and Cl
ions from the saltwater by cap-

turing them on the surface of the elec-
trodes. LLNL has built a flow-through
electrode (FTE) module that has no
channel, but consists of two highly po-
rous blocks of carbon aerogel (with
negative and positive charges), divided
by a thin polymer membrane. Saltwater
is pumped through the entire capacitor
and the ions, which can pass through
the membrane, are accumulated by the
appropriate electrode.
Earlier experiments (in the 1990s)
used aerogels with small pores and had
a channel between the electrodes. This
limited ion-transport times from the
channel into the electrodes, says Mi-
chael Stadermann, an LLNL staff sci-
entist. The FTE uses a newly developed
aerogel that combines large pores, of
13-m dia. with small pores of 12-nm
dia. The large pores allow easy flow at
low pressure, while the small ones give
the aerogel a vast surface area of up to
3,000 m
2
/g for capturing ions. The struc-
ture permits elimination of the channel,
thereby reducing the transport distance
from millimeters to micrometers, with a
corresponding decrease in desalination
time, he says.
The aerogel is made by sol-gel po-
lymerization of resorcinol with formal-
dehyde in water, using acetic acid as a
catalyst. The water is removed by wash-
ing with acetone, which is then evapo-
rated by heating. Finally, the material
is pyrolized at 950C and activated by
a carbon dioxide etch. Pyrolysis stabi-
lizes the pores and makes for a robust
structure, says Stadermann. Laboratory
tests with the FTE module achieved salt
removal of 80 mmol/L in a single pass
and indicate the process would require
less than a hundredth of the pressure of
conventional RO, he says, but the higher
electricity use would even out the op-
erating costs. However, he expects the
capital cost would be lower and that the
process would have an advantage over
RO for processing brackish water.
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number
on p. 68, or use the website designation.
Edited by Gerald Ondrey April 2013
Biosteel
The worlds irst artiicial-silk
iber that is entirely made of re-
combinant spider-silk proteins
has been produced by AMSilk
GmbH (Planegg/Martinsreid,
Germany; www.amsilk.com), a
spin-off company of the Tech-
nical University of Munich.
The ibers tensile strength is
comparable to that of natural
spider silk, and has thus been
tradenamed Biosteel. Fiber
prototypes are smooth to the
touch, pleasant to the skin and
shine like silk, says the com-
pany. Potential applications
include high-performance
technical textiles, sporting
goods, medical textiles and
surgical products.
CHeMiCAl enGineerinG www.CHe.CoM APril 2013 11
Flow-between architecture
Feed
water
<100 nm
Separator
Separator
Electrode
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e
Desalted
water
Feed
water
Desalted
water
LLNL flow-through
electrode architecture
~10 nm
~1 m
(Continues on p. 12)
A new way to desalt water
without using RO or distillation
CHEMENTATOR
A
new and inexpensive way to produce TiFe
an alloy with potential as a material
for reversibly storing hydrogen has been
developed by the research groups of profes-
sors Zenji Horita and Etsuo Akiba at Kyushu
University (Fukuoka, Japan; www.kyushu-u.
ac.jp). The TiFe is made by a technique known
as high-pressure torsion (HPT), whereby
a precursor is both pressed and twisted be-
tween two dies under high pressure. Treating
a brittle TiFe with B2 structure as a precur-
sor, the HPT (8 MPa pressure) yields a TiFe
alloy exhibiting heterogeneous microstruc-
tures composed of nano-grains, coarse-grains,
amorphous-like phases and disordered
phases with a high, steady-state hardness of
around 1,050 Hv. The TiFe made by this pro-
cess adsorbs 1.7 wt.% H
2
, which is near the
theoretical maximum of 1.9 wt.%.
The TiFe alloy uses less expensive metals
than other intermetallic alloys being con-
sidered for H
2
storage, and also requires no
activation pretreatment at high tempera-
tures and pressures. The group is investi-
gating the mechanism for the formation of
this TiFe alloy, enabling the adaption of a
conventional rolling process for industrial-
scale production.
12 ChemiCal engineering www.Che.Com april 2013
The Biosteel ibers are pro-
duced using a scalable spin-
ning process, which is based
on inventions of Thomas Schei-
bel, professor of Biomaterials
at the University of Bayreuth,
and technical developments of
amSilk engineers. The com-
pany is now optimizing the iber
and scaleup of the raw material
production in its new pilot plant.
The synthetic spider-silk pro-
teins are made by a fermenta-
tion process (Chem. Eng., may
2011, p. 10).
F-T catalyst
a new Fischer-Tropsch (F-T)
catalyst has been developed by
chemists at the heterogeneous
Catalyst and Sustainable group
(Vant hoff institute for mo-
lecular Sciences), University of
amsterdam (The netherlands;
www.uva.nl). The catalyst con-
sists of spherical nanoparticles
with iron-oxide cores (8-nm
dia.) and cobalt-oxide shells
(1-nm thickness). The core-shell
catalyst is made by a process
similar to that used for making
audio cassette tape, known
as surface nucleation. The
catalyst is said to perform at
least as well as pure cobalt F-T
catalysts, and to produce good
diesel fractions. Because the
bulk of the catalyst is inexpen-
sive iron-oxide, the catalyst is
expected to be signiicantly less
expensive than conventional
F-T catalysts, and the produc-
tion process is cheap, reliable,
efficient and scalable. Total S.a.
(paris, France; www.total.com)
has patented the catalyst.
Lignin made in the U.S.
Domtar Corp. (montreal,
Canada: www.domtar.com)
installed a commercial-scale
lignin-separation plant at its
plymouth, n.C. mill said to
be the irst U.S. facility of its
type in 25 years. production
of the so-called BioChoice
lignin began in February, with
a targeted rate of 75 ton/d. The
lignin can be used as fuels,
resins and thermoplastics.
Turbine protection
innovnano (porto Salvo,
portugal; www.innovnano-
materials.com) has com-
A method to produce an iron-titanium alloy for H
2
-storage
F
ollowing a positive feasibility study, Ameri-
can Vanadium Corp. (Vancouver, B.C.;
www.americanvanadium.com) will construct
the worlds first sulfuric acid heap-leach min-
ing operation for vanadium at a specific geo-
logic formation in central Nevada, known as
Gibellini Hill. The project is currently in the
permitting and mine-engineering stage, and
once operational in 2015, will become North
Americas only primary producer of vana-
dium for making steel and titanium alloys, as
well as for making vanadium electrolytes for
grid-scale flow batteries for energy storage.
American Vanadium CEO Bill Radvak
explains that the unique geology of the Gi-
bellini area heavily oxidized ore and soft
rock (shale) allows the company to pro-
duce high-purity vanadium cost effectively
at high volumes.
Heap-leach mining was originally used for
low-grade gold deposits. For vanadium, the
ore is stacked on an impermeable liner, over
which dilute sulfuric acid is sprayed. The
acid leaches the vanadium out of the ore as
it flows through the rock stack and into a
pregnant-solution pond. The vanadium solu-
tion then moves to a solvent-extraction pro-
cess and organic-stripping circuit to gener-
ate vanadium pentoxide product. American
Vanadium has filed a patent on its purifica-
tion process for producing high-purity vana-
dium onsite.
First application of sulfuric acid heap leach to vanadium
(Continued from p. 11)
A hybrid acid catalyst makes levulinate from cellulose
K
en-ichi Tominaga and colleagues at the
National Institute of Advanced Industrial
Science and Technology (AIST; Tsukuba,
Japan; www.aist.go.jp) have developed a hy-
brid catalyst system that can be used to con-
vert cellulose into levulinic acid. The catalyst
consists of two types of acid: indium(III) tri-
fluoromethanesulfonate (In(OTf)
3
), a Lewis
acid; and p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA), a
Brnstead acid. In laboratory experiments,
the combination converts cellulose in meth-
anol (at 180C and 0.05 MPa nitrogen pres-
sure) directly to methyl levulinate. Yields
of 6075% were achieved after 5 h for cel-
lulose, and 60% using powdered cedar wood
as starting material. The catalysts can be
recycled, and only a few mole percent of the
catalyst is required two orders of magni-
tude below the 600 mol% needed for the ex-
isting sulfuric acid process.
The researchers believe the new catalyst
will open up new routes to making chemi-
cals from cellulose. For example, levulinic
acid can be used to synthesize 2-methyl-tet-
rahydroquinone, a precursor for a gasoline
additive; a-methylene g-valerolactone, an
alternative monomer of methyl methacry-
late (MMA); a-amino levulinic acid, a raw
material for a biodegradable herbicide; as
well as a promoter for photosynthesis.
The group is working to optimize the reac-
tion using real biomass as a raw material,
and looking to collaborate with a company
that has biomass pretreatment technology.
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D e l t a V S I S Y C D T _ 8 1 2 5 x 1 1 _ L a y o u t 1 8 / 1 3 / 2 0 1 2 7 : 4 9 A M P a g e 1
A
new plant for manufacturing sodium sili-
cide (Na
4
Si
4;
diagram), a non-flammable,
air-stable powder that reacts with water to
generate pure hydrogen, is under develop-
ment near Niagara Falls, N.Y. by SiGNa
Chemistry Inc. (New York; signachem.com).
Scheduled for startup in the third quarter of
2013, the facility will produce 1,000 ton/yr
of sodium silicide using a proprietary ther-
mal process that was developed by SiGNa,
says CEO Michael Lefenfeld. The process
combines sodium metal and silicon powder
to create a stable, free-flowing powder that
can be handled easily in dry air. The non-
pyrophoric powder absorbs water slowly and
reacts without ignition to yield H
2
gas and
the environmentally benign sodium silicate.
SiGNas manufacturing process for sodium
silicide produces no waste and is exothermic,
which translates into low energy inputs for
manufacturing, explains Lefenfeld.
The stabilized sodium silicide powder is
used in several energy-related applications,
including tertiary flooding of oil-and-gas
wells to enhance recovery. In this applica-
tion, the powder reacts with water from
the well, producing H
2
and heat to displace
heavy crude oil deposits. SiGNa has shown
that sodium silicide can more than triple
the amount of heavy crude oil that can be
recovered, compared to current tertiary oil
recovery technologies.
The material is also used as a source of
pure H
2
for portable fuel-cell applications.
SiGNa currently has H
2
cartridges on the
market for recharging consumer electronics.
It is also developing H
2
cartridges for mili-
tary power, back-up power for industrial and
home uses, and portable power for disaster
relief efforts. SiGNa is also exploring the use
of sodium silicide cartridges to extend the
range of electric and fuel cell vehicles.
The company utilizes similar thermal-pro-
cess technologies to stabilize other reactive
alkali metals for use in industrial synthesis
of chemicals via Birch and Wurtz reductions,
and in other applications.
A
newly launched gas chromatography (GC)
device from Analytical Pixels Technology
(APIX; Grenoble, France; www.apixtechnol-
ogy.com), called GCAP, uses a nanoscale sili-
con-beam resonator to detect mass. A piezo-
electric cross-beam initiates the vibration
of the nanoscale silicon resonator, and the
resonance frequency varies with the mass in
contact with the silicon resonator.
Because GCAPs architecture is highly
flexible, it can be used in a wide array of
applications. Among them are the detection
and precise quantification of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), including BTEX (ben-
zene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes), as
well as natural gas and permanent gases,
such as N
2
, O
2
, CO
2
and H
2
, at concentra-
tions from sub-ppm levels to 100%.
The instrument achieves sensitivities not
possible with conventional GC devices, and
is compact and portable enough for use in
in-line process testing in an industrial or re-
search setting. Further, the nanoscale mea-
surement mechanism can generate near-
realtime gas-analysis results. GCAP can
handle a variety of carrier gases, including
He, H
2
, Ar, N
2
and scrubbed air.
Because the system is miniaturized
compared to alternative GC technologies,
the instrument requires a significantly
lower power and sample volume and can
be deployed in a variety of settings, says
Jean-Pierre Braun, CEO of APIX. The
low-maintenance product is a large step
toward making GC technology ubiquitous,
says Braun.
The product arose out of a joint develop-
ment agreement with Frances Atomic En-
ergy Commission (CEA) and the California
Institute of Technology (CalTech; Pasadena,
Calif.; www.caltech.edu). GCAP is currently
undergoing beta testing at customer sites,
and was recently demonstrated at PittConn
2013 (Philadelphia, Pa.; March 1721).
New GC based on resonating nanosensor
CHEMENTATOR
mercialized a highly pure, 4
mol% yttria-stabilized zirconia
(4YSZ), a thermal barrier
coating material that has
exceptionalproperties for
withstanding extreme temper-
ature variations. Due to its low
thermal conductivity, only a
very thin coating is necessary,
thus the coating is suitable for
low-weight applications such
as turbines.
The 4YSZ has a melting
point of around 2,700C and
a hardness of 14 GPa. It has
been shown by CPT, an in-
dependent center for thermal
spray technology, to demon-
strate the same thermal diffu-
sivity and corrosion resistance
as conventional coatings, but
at much lower thickness and
weight, says the company. The
powders are made using the
company's Emulsion Detona-
tion Synthesis (EDS) process.
Customized, sub-micron
powders are available in stable
aqueous or ethanol-based
suspensions for suspension
plasma-spraying applications,
as well as spray-dried granules.
A new composite
SGL Group (Wiesbaden, Ger-
many; www.sglgroup.com) has
developed a new type of high-
strength composite material
for industrial heat-treatment
applications. Dubbed Sig-
raBond, the carbon-ber-
reinforced graphite material is
said to have advantages over
alternative carbon-ber-rein-
forced carbon materials. For
Production facility for stabilized
sodium slated for startup
D
etection of extremely small quantities of danger-
ous or hazardous substances is important in many
areas, including national security, safety of public
utilities and radiation prevention. Several analyti-
cal methods have been developed using structural,
functional and electronic properties of nanomate-
rials. In particular, noble-metal quantum clusters
(QCs), a family of nanomolecules exhibiting intense
luminescence, are highly sensitive and selective for
specific analytes. Anchoring such QCs on small par-
ticles (100 nm to a few micrometers in diameter)
leads to surface-enhancement of their luminescence,
and may create a new platform for ultrasensitive de-
tection especially when combined with the use of
optical microscopy.
Now researchers from the Dept. of Chemistry,
Indian Institute of Technology Madras (www.iitm.
ac.in), led by professor Thalappil Pradeep, have de-
veloped a simple and reliable strategy for the se-
lective detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and
Hg
2+
ions at the sub-zeptomole level (zmol; less than
10
21
moles) in solution.
Their method involves anchoring silver clusters,
which are comprised of 15 atoms and embedded in
bovine serum albumin (BSA), onto silica-coated gold
mesoflowers (MFs), denoted by Au@SiO
2
@Ag
15

MFs, and using this setup for analyte detection. Gold
mesoflowers are anisotropic materials with five-
fold symmetric stems containing surface-enhancing
nanoscale features. An MF which is only a few
micrometers in size has a distinct shape, allowing
for clear identification by optical microscopy. Thus,
changes in the properties of an MF can be used for
the immediate and efficient detection of analytes.
The Au@SiO
2
@Ag
15
MFs have a length of about 4
m. The BSA-protected silver cluster is a red lumi-
nescent, water-soluble quantum cluster. It exhibits
a high quantum yield (10.7%) in water, and is stable
over a wide pH range.
The researchers exposed varying concentrations of
TNT to Au@SiO
2
@Ag
15
MFs and found that even a
concentration of less than 1 zmol of TNT per meso-
flower quenches the luminescence of the composite
mesoflowers within 1 min. The simultaneous disap-
pearance of the luminescencne of Ag
15
on the MF
and the appearance of the luminescence of another
embedded fluorescent compound allows for easy
identification of the analyte.
The researchers say the same method could be
extended to other QCs with brighter luminescence,
opening up numerous applications in catalysis, bio-
imaging and other areas where novel devices can be
visualized, merged and tailored. This approach can
be considered a single-particle, single-molecule de-
tection technique, which is, probably, the ultimate in
ultra-trace sensitivity, they say.
Quantum clusters serve as
ultra-sensitive detectors
engineering for a better world
Compact, efficient and
absolutely safe: these are
the properties of our new
ecoforce generation
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Everything under
Control
GEA Westfalia Separator Group GmbH
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ws.info@gea.com, www.gea.com
C
P
-
2
1
4
-
1
-
0
0
9
CHEMENTATOR
A
n Australian team has developed a struc-
ture made of a metal organic framework
(MOF) that captures and then releases CO
2

using natural sunlight. The team includes
researchers from: CSIRO Division of Ma-
terials Science and Engineering, (Clayton
South, Victoria; www.csiro.au) the Dept. of
Chemical Engineering, Monash University
(www.monash.edu.au) and the School of
Chemistry, University of Sydney (www.syd-
ney.edu.au).
The capture and release process can be
compared with soaking up water with a
sponge and then wringing it out, explains
Matthew Hill, who led the CSIRO group.
When ultraviolet (UV) light hits the ma-
terial, its structure bends and twists and
stored gas is released.
MOFs are among the most attractive po-
tential adsorbents to replace more energy-de-
manding commercial adsorbents, because of
MOFs high adsorption capacity, and the pos-
sibility of incorporating light-responsive or-
ganic groups within the MOFs pore structure.
The large internal surface areas of the newly
developed MOFs can adsorb large quantities
of gases, including H
2
, CH
4
and CO
2
.
Azobenzene and its derivatives, in par-
ticular, can undergo clean and efficient re-
versible photoisomerization about the azo
bond to cis and trans states upon irradiation
(coordinated trans: l
max
370 nm, cis: l
max

460 nm). Conversion of azobenzene to the
4,4'-dicarboxylate (AzDC) delivers a ligand
that can be incorporated into MOF architec-
tures. Besides, the pillar ligand trans-1,2-
bis(4-pyridyl)ethylene (4,4'-BPE) also ex-
hibits cis-trans photoisomerizability when
coordinated to a metal complex.
Combination of these two ligands within
zinc-based MOFs generates the triply
interpenetrated framework Zn(AzDC)
(4,4'-BPE)
0.5
,which exhibits a selective and
high capacity adsorption of H
2
and CO
2
.
Exposure to UV light results in an in-
stantaneous release of up to 64% of the
absorbed CO
2
using broadband radiation,
similar to concentrated solar sources. Fur-
thermore, the response was found to be
fully reversible.
2013 Chemstations, Inc. All rights reserved. | CMS-2336 4/13
Good thinking.
Feedback from our users is what inspires us to keep making
CHEMCAD better. Many features, like this one, were added to
the software as a direct response to user need. Thats why we
consider every CHEMCAD user part of our development team.
Get the whole story behind this user-inspired feature and
learn more about how CHEMCAD advances engineering
at chemstations.com/InspireUs.
Engineering advanced
Simultaneous heat transfer
and mass transfer model
in column.
C
H
E
M
CA
D

6
.
5
N
O
W

A
VA
I
L
A
B
L
E
example, it is 20% stiffer and
can be processed to create in-
tricate structures. Applications
for the new composite include
the heat-treatment of steel
components for the automo-
tive and aerospace industries,
and in the coating of silicon
wafers in the photovoltaic in-
dustry, says the company.
Largest CSP launched
Last month, Masdar (Abu
Dhabi, UAE; www.masdar.
ae) and partners inagurated
Shams 1, which is said to be
the largest concentrated solar
power (CSP) plant operating
in the world. The 100-MW CSP
incorporates 258,000 mirrors
mounted on 768 tracking par-
abolic-trough collectors, which
concentrate heat from sunlight
onto oil-illed tubes. The heat
is used to make steam to drive
a turbine for generating elec-
tricity. The $600-million facility
was designed and developed
by Shams Power Co., a joint
venture of Masdar, Total and
Abengoa Solar.
MOFs that reversibly capture CO
2

T
he continuous quest to maximize
process efficiency and boost prod-
uct performance, in which all
sectors of the chemical process
industries (CPI) are engaged, is driv-
ing demand for technologically ad-
vanced coatings. And engineering at
the nanoscale level is an increasingly
common avenue to reach these goals
in commercial coatings.
Progress in nano-steps
As the traditional coatings market
continues to grow, engineering on the
nanoscale will play an increasingly
prominent role in infusing the new-
est coatings with specialized proper-
ties and enhanced performance (Fig-
ure 1). Nanostructured materials are
being applied in all industry sectors
to improve properties such as corro-
sion resistance, specific chemical and
mechanical characteristics, flame re-
tardance, ultraviolet radiation stabil-
ity, gloss retention and others. Accord-
ing to a recent market research report
from Future Markets Research Inc.
(Rockville, Md.; www.marketresearch.
com), nanocoatings are likely to replace
traditional coatings in the medium to
long-term in end-use segments such as
packaging, anti-microbial coatings, ar-
chitectural coatings, industrial manu-
facturing, marine, wood, auto refinish,
transportation and protective coat-
ings (see sidebar, p. 22).
Theres definitely a drive to impart
more and more functionality to exist-
ing products, especially onto powders,
explains Tony Taylor, CEO of AeonClad
Coatings (Austin, Tex.; www.aeonclad.
com), and nano-engineered coatings
are a good way to do that.
Currently, though, Charles Bangert,
partner at the management consult-
ing company Orr & Boss (Knoxville,
Tenn; www.orrandboss.com), says that
Nanotechnology-based coatings have
not yet changed the overall coatings
market on a macro level, although
they are being used for many niche
applications. Along with Orr & Boss
colleague Scott Detiveaux, Bangert re-
cently authored a report on the global
coatings market (see sidebar, p. 18).
Though the presence of nanotech-
nology in the coatings sector is signifi-
cant and growing, the pace of advance
is likely to be halting and uneven,
rather than sweeping and revolution-
ary. Progress in nanocoatings will
likely continue to be an evolutionary
process where incremental advances
will be the general rule, say Victor
Castao and Amlan Gupta, senior sci-
entific consultant and president, re-
spectively, of CG
2
NanoCoatings Inc.
(Ottawa, Ont.; www.cg2nanocoatings.
com). Nano-engineered coatings have
huge potential, but the science and en-
gineering problems to which they are
being applied are very difficult, says
Castao, adding, nanotechnology is
not magic youve still got to work
hard on the science and technology de-
velopment.
The industry has generally strug-
gled in moving nanotechnology from
the laboratory to the production floor,
says Jack Angel, CEO of DuraSeal
Coatings Co. (Kansas City, Mo.; du-
rasealcoatings.com).
Nanohybrids for automotive
One way nanotechnology has entered
the market has been through the cre-
ation of hybrid coatings that incor-
porate nanotechnology features into
a more conventional coating. One ex-
ample of this approach has been de-
veloped by BASF SE (Ludwigshafen,
Germany; www.basf.com) for the auto-
motive market, which is a large end-
use segment of coatings.
BASF has created a topcoat for auto-
mobile paint that combines two types
of materials in a nanostructured hy-
brid. Between 90 and 95% of the coat-
ing is organic material, making the
finish flexible, elastic and weather-
resistant, the company says, while the
remaining 5 to 10% consists of nano-
scale clusters of inorganic silicate that
are particularly hard and scratch-
resistant. The organic and inorganic
components are covalently bound.
The special nanostructure of the
coating does not form until the paint,
with the addition of a hardener to-
gether with a catalyst, is baked on the
surface of the car, says BASF.
The coating performs better than
conventional topcoats in springing
back after contact by a potential source
Newsfront
Controlling the structure of coatings at the
nanoscale level is increasingly common
in a coatings market projected for growth
NANO-ENGINEERING INFUSES
GROWING COATINGS MARKET
FIGURE 1. Coatings with specially
designed structure at the nanoscale
level, such as this one from P2i, generate
properties like liquid repellancy
P2i
Newsfront
of scratching, such as brush bristles.
While existing topcoats have an elas-
tic recovery of around 70%, the BASF
hybrid nanocoating achieves 90%, the
company says, adding that the coating
can be applied using existing paint ap-
plication apparatus, and has been used
by carmaker Daimler for several auto-
mobile models at its Bremen plant.
Nano agglomerations
While chemical makers like BASF are
integrating nanotechnology into their
coatings businesses, small solutions-
based companies are applying their
expertise in nano-engineered coatings
to address complex customer problems.
CG
2
NanoCoatings Inc. is an example.
As a way of imparting new functional-
ity onto materials, CG
2
s proprietary
coating platform is based on functional-
izing nanoparticles with specific chemi-
cal groups for use in base coatings.
The company has made an important
advance with its method to prevent
nanoscale particles from agglomerat-
ing, a pervasive challenge that creates
non-homogeneous environments at the
nanoscale and negates the potentially
useful behaviors of the nanoparticles.
We make a trade with nature, says
CG
2
s Castao, by minimizing the en-
ergy of the nanoparticles with specific
chemical modifications, we offset the
thermodynamic instability of the tiny
particles, which would ordinarily cause
them to agglomerate. In some cases,
researchers at CG
2
chemically modify
commercially available nanoparticles
for a specific application. Rather than
selling a specific products, the company
applies its expertise and methodology to
various industry challenges.
Corrosion and abrasion
Two cross-industry issues where nano-
coatings are poised to have an impact
are resistance to corrosion and abra-
sion. DuraSeal is one company that
is marketing a nanocoating in this
area. The company has developed a
corrosion-resistant nanoscale coating
that can be applied to metal surfaces,
such as pipes, pump assemblies, well
casing, valves, fittings and others as
an alternative to fusion-bonded epoxy
coatings. The coating is designed for
use in hostile environments, including
H
2
S, HCl, H
2
SO
4
, brines, CO
2
and bi-
carbonates across a wide temperature
range. To date, DuraSeal has coated
more than five million feet of pipe,
primarily tubulars and rods, and has
seen performance levels improve by
200500% or more, the company says.
DuraSeals highly hydrophobic coat-
ing depends on reactive nanoscale sili-
con particles forming a cross-linked
barrier at the surface. The coating
forms covalent bonds with the metal
substrate and forms a glass-like sur-
face that withstands corrosive sub-
stances and has abrasion-resistant
hardness. Further, the surfaces rela-
tive smoothness can reduce frictional
losses, the company says.
Once you get down to the nanoscale
level, conventional coatings are not
able to completely fill in all the crev-
ices of an irregular metal surface, ex-
plains DuraSeals Jack Angel. Nano-
scale particles in these coatings can
fit into all those spaces on the surface,
forming a hydrophobic, cross-linked
barrier film.
The method of application is just as
important as the engineering of the
coating itself, Angel notes. We have
seen more uptake of our technology
since we have focused the same at-
tention and effort on improving ap-
plication techniques and production
processes including pre-cleaning of
metal surfaces to minimize dust par-
ticles, and adjusting coating thickness
and rotational speed of the applica-
tor as we do on the coating itself.
Dust particles, can weaken the bond
between coating and substrate.
In DuraSeal coating, a thermal pro-
cess initiates the interaction between
the coating and the free ions of iron
within the surface metal. Combined
with the penetration of the nanopar-
ticles into the surface irregularities of
the metal, the resulting bond of coat-
ing to substrate is strong.
Plasma for nanocoatings
Several companies are looking at
coating-application methods as a way
to help engineer surface properties at
the nanoscale. One significant area of
development is in modifying plasma-
enhanced chemical vapor deposition
(PECVD) processes to allow improved
control over nanostructure. PECVD de-
posits thin films onto solid substrates
from molecules in the gas phase by
generating plasmas with electrical
discharges. Among the challenges of
traditional PECVD is that the contin-
uous plasma-generating discharge can
erode newly deposited coating mate-
rial, as well as underlying substrate.
A modified version of PECVD de-
veloped by Aeonclad Coatings (Aus-
tin, Tex.; www.aeonclad.com) is aimed
at creating a gentler environment for
building a nanocoating. The Aeonclad
method avoids surface ablation by
using pulsed discharges, rather than
continuous. This approach allows fine
control over the surface composition
and thickness (Figure 2).
By carefully controlling the pulse
length, the pulse power, the pressure
of the vacuum chamber and the type of
vapor, we can put down a surface gen-
tly, without ablating the surface, says
Tony Taylor, president of Aeonclad.
The pulsed radio-frequency plasma
technique also allows the company
to engineer surfaces by incorporating
different chemical functional groups
GLOBAL COATINGS REPORT
T
he Global Market Analysis Report for
the Paint and Coatings Industry (3rd
ed.) was sponsored by the Interna-
tional Paint and Printing Ink Council (IPPIC)
and was assembled by analysts at Orr &
Boss. The following represent a selection
of the points made in the report.
The global paint and coatings industry
took in $106.1 billion in revenue in
2011 on a volume of 33.1 billion liters
of product, the report estimates.
Thedecorative-coatingsmarketsegment
dominates, with 56% of the volume sold
and 44% of the value. Other coatings
market segments include general indus-
trial (10% by value), auto OEM coatings
(8% of value); powder coatings 8%;
wood coatings (6%) and others.
The report forecasts growth for the
global coatings market to $144 billion
in projected revenue in 2016.
Theglobalcoatingsindustryhasbecome
increasingly consolidated over the past
two decades, and the trend toward con-
solidation will continue, the report says
Coatingsdemandtendstofollowoverall
economic activity a strong correlation
exists between gross domestic product
(GDP) per capita and coatings demand.
Migration away from solvent-based
coatings to water-based coatings has
largely happened already for the deco-
rative paint segment, but the transition is
still occurring in the industrial coatings
market segment. Often, the move there
is toward high-solids, solvent-based
technologies and powder coatings.
End-use segments for coatings are di-
verse and fragmented compared with
other industries.
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at varying densities to tune surface
properties and control behavior at
interfaces. For example, the pulsed
technique can selectively break the
most labile chemical bond, while leav-
ing others in tact, explains Taylor, so
we can access many different surface
chemistries in a flexible way. The
pulsed-plasma technique is compatible
with a wide range of chemical groups
and substrates Weve coated dis-
crete objects, as well as powders,
notes Taylor, and weve made surfaces
with a host of properties, including
chemical inertness, hydrophilic, lubri-
cious and others.
Since May 2012, the company has
operated a pilot plant in Austin, Tex.
that has the capability to coat up to
2,000 lb of material at a time using
the pulsed-PECVD approach.
Liquid repellancy
Pulsed-plasma vapor deposition also
figures heavily into the technology of
P2i Ltd. (Abingdon, U.K.; www.p2i.
com). The company has developed a
process to apply an engineered nano-
scale fluorocarbon-polymer coating in
a way that minimizes surface energy
of the coating and minimizes the in-
teraction it has with liquids. The re-
sult is a surface that can repel both
water-based liquids and oils, as well
as alcohols and others.
At the molecular level, the coating
application process induces a structure
whereby fluorocarbon chains point up-
ward, like a forest of trees, with CF
3

groups at the top, says Delwyn Evans,
P2i senior principal chemist, so the
surface energy is significantly reduced
(about 8 dyn/cm) compared to that of
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene; about
1821 dyn/cm), whose polymer chains
have CF
2
groups lying flat.
The coating is applied to finished
products inside a vacuum chamber
using a two-stage plasma polymeriza-
tion process. In the first stage, a room-
temperature plasma is applied to a
product under vacuum, a process that
creates free-radical sites on the surface
of the substrate material, while also
freeing the surface of water and other
materials that could disrupt bonding.
In a second stage, a vapor of the fluo-
rocarbon monomer is introduced and
the polymer is grown on the surface.
The reactive radical sites form cova-
lent bonds with the polymer nanocoat-
ing, making the coating durable.
The pulsed plasma, with specific
dark times, allows us to create the
surface reactive sites and form the
coating more gently than with a con-
tinuous discharge, explains Evans.
Growing the polymer in a vacuum
Newsfront
23148 A.W. Chesterton Company, 2013. All rights reserved.
Do you have the right expert to
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Rely on Chesterton to seal your
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FIGURE 2. Pulsed-plasma techniques,
like the one Aeonclad Coatings used to
make this epoxy nanocomposite, allow
better control of surface chemistry and
avoid surface ablation
Aeonclad
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allows a greater degree of vapor pen-
etration, Evans adds, so that a coat-
ing only tens of nanometers thick has
high performance and durability.
The key to P2is commercial suc-
cess, the company says, is the ability
to provide a high-volume manufactur-
ing solution. P2is customers integrate
its plasma-coating-application process
into their own manufacturing lines. For
small-volume manufacturing, the com-
pany also does toll processing. In addi-
tion to the electronics market (hearing
aids and mobile phones), P2is coating
is also being applied to filter media,
to prevent hydrocarbon liquids from
blocking flow through the media.
Ultratech International Inc. (Jack-
sonville, Fla.; www.spillcontainment.
com) is also among the host of com-
panies working in the liquid repellant
space. The company has developed
a superhydrophobic and oleophobic
nanocoating that repels liquids because
of a molecular architecture that traps a
layer of air at the surface, preventing
liquids from contacting the surface.
Previous efforts in this area have
given rise to coatings that generally
lacked the durability needed for many
applications, explains Ultratech CEO
Mark Shaw. The innovation that the
company has developed involves a two-
layer coating that greatly increases
the abrasion resistance of the coating.
Both the top coat and bottom coat can
be applied with air sprayers directly
to a wide range of surfaces, including
steel, aluminum, plastic, fabric, wood
and others.
Aculon Inc. (San Diego, Calif.; www.
aculon.com) is another company that
markets liquid repellency products.
The companys approach is to employ
a layer of self-assembled monolayer
of phosphonates (SAMPs) to impart
surface properties. The phosphonate
head groups form covalent bonds with
the substrate, while the tails are con-
structed with a number of chemical
groups that face outward and give the
surface desired properties, Aculon di-
rector of business development Mario
Gattuso says. The SAMP coating can
be used to functionalize both surfaces
and particles used in highly special-
ized applications, the company says.
Scott Jenkins
Newsfront
NANOCOATING MARKETS
N
anocoatings are opening new market opportunities in the global coatings arena.
A wide range of possible applications for nano-engineered coatings are being ex-
plored, but it is sometimes difficult to predict what will be the most significant appli-
cations for nanocoatings even five years from now. Coatings that impart characteristics,
such as easy cleaning, antifouling, dirt resistance, self-healing, electrical conductivity,
abrasion resistance, antibacterial coatings and others, are likely to generate a great
deal of interest in the near future. A Research and Markets (www.researchandmarkets.
com) report from 2009, entitled Nanostructured Coatings: Applications and Markets,
projected that the global market for nanoscale coatings and thin films would grow from
approximately $2.4 billion in 2009 to over $13 billion by 2016. The fastest growing
markets to 2016 will be in interior and exterior household protection, textiles and medi-
cal markets, driven by the increased demands for protective and repellent coatings, the
report said.
Were changing the future of heat transfer
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Newsfront
S
ingle-use equipment has come
a long way from its modest ori-
gins as a convenient storage
and transportation method. As
a matter of fact, recent market trends
and business drivers have made dis-
posable equipment, with its inherent
benefits, so attractive to the biotech-
nology and biopharmaceutical
industries that theyve begun
requesting and implementing
entire systems for use throughout
the process line.
The initial use of disposables
for storage and transportation
purposes eventually led to the use
of bags in bioreactors and other in-
process technologies, which has
more recently led to advances in
downstream use, says Michael
LaBreck, global product manager
with Novasep (Marcus Hook, Pa.;
www.novasep.com). As the confi-
dence has begun to build, we see
biotech companies doing actual
processing in disposables and moving
single-use equipment closer and closer
to the purified product.
Single-use perks
One of the first benefits that attracted
the biotech industry to single-use
equipment was the reduction of cross-
contamination risk in high-purity ap-
plications where even a few molecules
remaining in the equipment after a
process run could not be tolerated.
In a traditional stainless-steel world,
such a critical application would have
required a strict cleaning regimen
followed by validation. However, the
introduction of disposables allowed
operators to simply throw away the
contaminated components and start
over fresh. The cost of doing this was
much, much less than dealing with the
possibility of cross contamination and
having to throw away an entire days
work, says Wallace Wittkoff, director
of global hygienic segment market-
ing with Pump Solutions Group (PSG;
www.psgdover.com), a division of Dover
Corp. (Oakbrook Terrace, Ill.).
While the reduced risk of cross
contamination itself was enough of
a benefit to attract attention, it was
the ability to reduce the labor asso-
ciated with cleaning and validation
that made single-use technology espe-
cially attractive. LaBreck says one of
Novaseps customers conducted a Six
Sigma project that compared down-
stream processes using traditional
clean-and-reuse methods to the same
processes employing single-use tech-
nology. What they found, he says, was
that the use of disposables eliminated
non-value-added steps like flushing,
cleaning and storage, which reduced
labor and actual process time by 50%.
Reduced labor time not only pro-
vides a cost savings, but it also in-
creases productivity for the facility,
Newsfront
SINGLE-USE
STRATEGIES
EMD Millipore
Disposable equipment systems satisfy
strategic drivers
for the biotech industry
FIGURE 2. Sius is a single-use, skid-mounted system for TFF for pre-clinical to clinical
cGMP biomanufacturing applications
FIGURE 1 (above). The Mobius
FlexReady Solution with Smart Flexware
assemblies for TFF is a fully automated, single-
use system that is ready to implement and
features scalable ltration technologies
Novasep
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LaBreck explains. If a facility runs
a process in the traditional way over
eight hours, entire shifts are devoted
to running and cleaning that process,
but by employing single use to elimi-
nate some of the non-value-added
steps, the same process can run in just
four hours. The facility can get more
throughput because each unit opera-
tion will take less time, and getting
more product through the facility in a
shorter time cycle is a huge benefit to
end users.
This speedier method also comes in
handy during R&D. The R&D process
is long and expensive, and theres a
lot of different runs and variables in-
volved and batches to fine tune, says
Wittkoff. And if traditional methods
are employed, the process must be
cleaned after each run and then re-
documented and revalidated, which
is time consuming. By throwing the
equipment away after each run, op-
erators get rapid acceleration in the
R&D process. This means they can get
the product through R&D faster and
recoup their investment sooner.
The same flexibility provided on
the R&D side also applies, on a larger
scale, to full-scale processes that re-
quire agility. One of the biggest trends
in the biopharmaceutical industry
right now is the trend toward per-
sonalized medicine, says John Stover,
director of product management with
New Age Industries (South Hampton,
Pa.; www.newageindustries.com). In
order for these facilities to keep up,
they need the ability to make smaller
batches of multiple drugs with quick
conversions, he says. Disposables
give them the ability to plug a single-
use system into the production line
for making Drug X today and a week
later plug in a fresh new system for
making Drug Y. It is so much faster
and more flexible than trying to force
different drugs through the same type
of equipment while stopping to clean
and validate in between.
This agility serves another purpose,
as well. Many countries have man-
dated that pharmaceuticals consumed
in a country must be manufactured
in that country, says Paul Priebe, di-
rector of fluid management technolo-
gies with Sartorius Stedim Biotech
FIGURE 3. FlexAct is a new system that enables custom-congurable single-use solutions for entire biomanufacturing steps
Sartorius Stedim Biotech
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North America (Bohemia, N.Y.; www.
sartorius.com). For a lot of western
countries, this means transferring
technology to sites around the world.
A flexible facility, or a plug-and-play,
single-use facility that can be dropped
anywhere in the world and still func-
tion as it was designed and operated
by the mothership really is an en-
abling technology that is being driven
by our customers, explains Priebe.
For example, in the vaccine world,
western vaccine producers have very
little footprint in the emerging mar-
kets around the world, but many
want to participate in that space.
However, building up a stainless-
steel facility for hundreds of millions
of dollars in a five-year project is no
way to try your luck in that market,
he says. But, with a relatively small
capital investment of tens of millions
of dollars and a six-month project
using platform-single processes that
are ready to go anywhere they are
dropped into place, it becomes a more
feasible investment.
Systems versus components
Faster implementation, more flexible
facilities, avoidance of cross-contami-
nation risk and elimination of costly
and labor-intensive cleaning and
validation steps are the main driv-
ers behind the success of single-use
equipment. And, because these are
primarily business or strategic driv-
ers, biotech companies started re-
questing more and more components
and even complete systems from
equipment providers.
What were seeing is a strategic
initiative among major biopharmaceu-
tical manufacturers to establish plug-
and-play platform processes using sin-
gle-use technology, says Priebe. They
want to be more flexible and more
agile and able to expand into emerg-
ing markets, and we can help them do
that. Its not childs play. Its definitely
on the cutting edge of where single-use
technology is going, but customers are
pulling and suppliers are responding
and its a reality thats not far away.
Currently, single-use technology is
available for all applications through-
out the process, says Roman Rodri-
guez, global group product manager
with EMD Millipore (www.emdmilli-
pore.com), a division of Merck KgaA
(Darmstadt, Germany). But the real
effort is to provide full coverage or in-
terconnected materials so there are no
gaps anymore, providing the ability to
process from raw materials down to
final product using single-use technol-
ogy, he says.
There are a lot of different prod-
ucts available to cover all different
applications. We have single-use for
liquid handling, storage, transporta-
tion, taking samples, connectors, mix-
ing systems, bioreactors and so on, but
everyone is striving to create a flexible
facility using all these components to-
gether. We are not there. There are still
some technical gaps. In the meantime,
we are providing single-use systems
FIGURE 4. The incorporation
of single-use pumps in biologic-
handling applications is gaining
wider acceptance among biotech
and pharmaceutical manufacturers
because they can help optimize
end-product speed to market. Dis-
posable pumps feature a replace-
able wetted pump chamber. These
single-use pumps reduce
downtime between two
batches, save time and
money and are quick
and easy to change.
Quattroow posi-
tive displacement
pumps are suitable
for single-use systems
because they incorporate
a four-piston-diaphragm
technology with no mechan-
ical seals that is driven by an
eccentric shaft and motor
Pump
Solutions
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Newsfront
for downstream applications that offer
flexibility to the end user.
For example, Millipores Mobius
FlexReady Solution with Smart Flex-
ware assemblies (Figure 1) is a fully
automated, single-use system for tan-
gential-flow filtration (TFF). Modular-
ity provides the ability to switch from
TFF to chromatography with a mini-
mum number of component changes,
making it suitable for pilot plants and
contract-manufacturing organizations
(CMOs) that have rapidly changing
demands. The system is suited for a
range of concentration and diafiltration
processes. In addition to the feed pump
and retentate-valve-control loops, the
system also includes an automated
flow-control valve on the filtrate line to
enable open ultrafiltration and micro-
filtration operations, increasing overall
flexibility for clinical development and
manufacturing facilities.
A variety of recycle vessel configu-
rations are available to provide maxi-
mum process capability. In addition to
different vessel volumes, users can se-
lect a plastic carrier or a double-jack-
eted stainless-steel carrier, depending
on whether or not temperature control
is required. All recycle vessels have
been designed so that the containers
can be easily and accurately installed
by a single operator.
Similarly, Novasep has launched
the Sius single-use TFF skid (Figure
2), which the company says is the
first 100% single-use TFF solution
for pre-clinical to clinical cGMP bio-
manufacturing. The skid is comprised
of an automated bench-top unit with
a fully disposable flowpath and is
compact. It is capable of laboratory-to
pilot-scale TFF operations. The skids
flowpath can be combined with the
companys TangenX Sius TFF cas-
settes and filter-plate inserts with
the option of a feed bag to provide
a complete single-use TFF solution
from a single supplier. And Sartorius Stedim Biotech is
now offering FlexAct (Figure 3), an
innovative system for pre-configured
single-use solutions for entire bioman-
ufacturing steps in both upstream
and downstream processing. The Flex-
Act system, a workstation, consists of
the central operating module that of-
fers a variety of configuration options.
Priebe says the level of integration
and standardization makes it easy for
users of stainless-steel equipment or
individual disposable components to
convert to single-use operations. Flex-
Act disposable solutions are available
for buffer preparation, cell harvest,
virus inactivation, media preparation,
virus removal and manifold filling.
In addition, Sartorius Stedim has
formed a partnership with G-Con
Manufacturing (College Station, Tex.;
www.gconbio.com), a manufacturer of
portable, configurable cleanroom Pods
that allows the pre-configured unit
operations to be placed inside portable
cleanrooms, so it is fully self-contained
and can travel on the back of a truck.
You just plug it in and are ready to
go the next day, says Priebe. We call
it FlexMoSys because its a flexible
and mobile system that provides rapid
response and easily reconfigurable op-
erations that really address the needs
of this emerging market.
Joy LePree
FIGURE 5. On a smaller scale, labora-
tory, pilot and prototype applications
are also employing systems, which may
include just a bottle, connections and
ilters, such as this single use integrated
molded cap and tube system providing
for aseptic transfer and storage
SaniSure
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Avoid pipe corrosion
with this spacer
Flexspacer (photo) has
been developed to effec-
tively create an air gap
between topside pipelines
and thermal insulation,
thereby avoiding the corrosion that
can occur when using traditional insu-
lation systems such as mineral wool.
By stopping direct contact between
the insulation and the pipe, Flexspacer
prevents any damage to the corrosion
protection on the pipe, thus helping to
guarantee thermal performance. Flex-
spacer is a new rubber-based solution
that provides a 12-cm air gap be-
tween the pipe and insulation. It can
be easily installed without using hot
works or special tools, and can be con-
nected and split to the desired length
using just a pair of scissors, says the
company. It has been qualified for use
up to 150C continuous service tem-
perature, for more than 30 years.
Trelleborg Group, Stavanger, Norway
www.trelleborg.com/offshore
This packing system removes
particles from stufng boxes
The SuperSet (photo) combines seal-
ing capabilities of this companys me-
chanical packing products with the
patented design of the EnviroSeal
SpiralTrac Version P Environmental
Controller for packed stuffing boxes.
This total sealing set is designed and
proven to increase packing and equip-
ment service life while dramatically
reducing flush rates, says the company.
The savings are real increased reli-
ability with lower maintenance and
operating costs. SpiralTrac enhances
the utilization of the flow and centrif-
ugal effects around the shaft, and per-
forms like a centrifugal separator. The
built-in lantern ring and helical groov-
ing system impart motion to the flush,
and the resulting centrifugal force
throws particles in the fluid outside of
the bushing. The patented SpiralTrac
grooving system then hydrodynami-
cally pumps the solids to the bottom of
the stuffing box and back out into the
pump casing. W.A. Chesterton Co.,
Wobum, Mass.
www.chesterton.com
Very soft gaskets prevent water
ingress into enclosures
This company recently introduced
molded liquid silicone rubber (LSR)
gaskets with 10 and 20 durometer
Shore A. The gaskets provide improved
water sealing and protection for en-
closures and portable devices. Low
durometer LSR gaskets are said to
have improved sealing properties over
silicone foam or closed-cell silicone
sponge gaskets. Enclosures and por-
table devices are frequently required
to pass water ingress requirements,
such as IP65, IP66 and
IP67, and silicone rubber
provides consistent deflec-
tion properties in cold and
hot climates while resisting
the damaging effects of ul-
traviolet and sunlight. The
10 and 20 durometer LSR
compounds are Wacker
Silicones LR3003/10TR
and LR3003/20TR respec-
tively. This company injec-
tion molds 1212-in. LSR
sheets in 10 and 20 durom-
eter, with standard thick-
nesses from 0.032 to 0.125
in. Stockwell Elastomer-
ics, Inc. Philadelphia, Pa.
www.stockwell.com
This elastomer meets
the demands of deionized water
The elastomer compound 70 EPDM
291 (photo) offers very good proper-
ties when in contact with both water
and deionized water. The material ex-
hibits no significant increase in mass
or volume when submerged in water
at 200C over long periods of time,
nor after prolonged immersion in de-
ionized water at 100C. O-rings and
O-ring-type seals in special shapes
or seals for valves and fittings made
from 70 EPDM 291 remain reliably
resistant in water up to 180C, deion-
ized water up to 160C and in air up to
150C. The material meets the specifi-
cations of the European standard DIN
EN 681 1 WB and the U.S. standard
Note : For more information, circle the 3-digit number
FOCUS ON
Seals &
Gaskets
Trelleborg Group
W.A. Chesterton
Freudenberg Process Seals
NSF 61, as well as German, British
and French standards. The material
also meets U.S. Food and Drug Amin.
standards for both food and pharma-
ceutical products, and has USP Class
VI approval for its high purity.
Freudenberg Process Seals GmbH &
Co. KG, Weinheim, Germany
www.freudenberg-process-seals.com
Cold is okay for this
chemically resistant elastomer
The Perplast ICE G75LT offers a
combination of excellent chemical
resistance and low-temperature per-
formance. This perfluoroelastomer
material has been specifically devel-
oped to perform under extreme condi-
tions, in temperatures as low as 40C
or lower. The elastomer has been for-
mulated to provide increased resis-
tance to a broad range of chemicals by
carefully controlling the molecular ar-
chitecture. Also, this material has low
permeability and as a result, it is less
prone to swelling, leading to extended
in-service performance in valves,
pumps and mechanical seals. Said
to be ideal for use in exploration and
completion applications, and equip-
ment operating or stored
in sub-zero condi-
tions, Perlast ICE
G75LT is suitable
for both dynamic
and static appli-
cations and can
be fully molded
into O-rings (any
size up to 2.5-m
internal dia.) and cus-
tom shapes. Precision Polymer En-
gineering Ltd., Blackburn, England
www.prepol.com
This composite improves
hydraulics sealing performance
High-frequency, hydraulics cylinder
operation is particularly demanding
on seals. Traditional wedge-profiled
PTFE composite seals are prone to
early failure under the effect of re-
petitive short strokes and often dry-
running conditions. This French seals
maker has developed a better alterna-
tive the Danastep HF seal (photo).
It uses a modified PTFE seal profile
by adding a back heel for additional
stability, as well as a rectangular elas-
tomer energizer, making it impossible
for the PTFE seal to tilt and break free.
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In addition, the PTFE grade is capable
of sustaining dry running conditions.
The seal fits within standard ISO/DIN
grooves. Repack-S, Cuisery, France
www.repack-s.com
This high-temperature sealant is
also available in sheets
This companys Therma-Pur ultra-
high-temperature sealing material
(photo) is now available in sheet form
and in cut gaskets. Since its production
in 2011, the material has been field
proven to seal connections in biomass
gasification, marine and land-based
exhaust systems, turbochargers, min-
eral and fertilizer processing, incinera-
tion and cogeneration. The material is
available in 40 40 in. sheets with an
available fiber core thickness of 1/16
and 1/8 in. It is also available in pre-
cut gaskets as well as in Kammprofile
and corrugated metal gaskets. The
proprietary material provides seal-
ing at temperatures of up to 1,000C,
including ex-
treme ther-
mal cycling
conditions. Be-
cause of its low
or gani c - f i ber
content and non-
oxidizing formula-
tion, Therma-Pur ex-
hibits only minimal weight
loss at these extreme temperatures.
Garlock Sealing Technologies LLC,
Palmyra, N.Y.
www.garlock.com
Save on maintenance and oper-
ating costs with this elastomer
Kalrez perfluoroelastomer parts, such
as O-rings, gaskets, valve seats or dia-
phragms, can withstand aggressive
chemicals and maintain tight seals
over a very wide temperature range.
In real-life applications, the seals have
been shown to save from 10 to 200% in
total system operating costs in chemi-
cal, pharmaceutical and petrochemi-
cal processes, says the company. Data
on file at the company showed that
seal lifetimes of O-rings in an aggres-
sive chemical process were about six
months for non-perfluoroelastomer
O-rings and about three years for Kal-
rez, resulting in savings of 98% in cost
of O-ring seals, installation, down-
time and loss or productivity, says the
manufacturer. DuPont Performance
Polymers, Wilmington, Del.
www.dupont.com
Gerald Ondrey
CALFLO AF delivers longer fluid life and better equipment protection. And more savings to you.
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Focus
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
T
he detection of gases in plant environments
has a critical and wide-ranging role in the
chemical process industries (CPI). Among
the major applications of gas detection are
limiting personnel exposure to hazardous
chemicals, preventing explosive atmospheres,
protecting the environment and identifying
leaks in process equipment. Table 1 summa-
rizes the main reasons for gas monitoring.
All CPI workers should be conversant with
gas-detection terms to promote safety, health
and environmental quality. The following is a
collection of terms and data involving hazard-
ous gases (Table 2).
PEL (permissible exposure limit). Set by OSHA
to limit workers exposure to an airborne
substance, PELs are based on an eight-hour
time-weighted average. PELs are enforceable
legal limits.
TLV (threshold limit value). Established by
the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, TLVs are based on known
toxicity of chemicals in humans or animals, and
are recommendations, rather than legal limits.
IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and
health). Dened in the U.S. by the National
Institute for Industrial Safety and Health (Part of
the Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
tion) as a level of exposure that is likely to
cause death or immediate or delayed perma-
nent adverse health effects
LC
50
(median lethal concentration). A measure
of the toxicity of a surrounding medium that
will kill half of a sample population of test
animals in a specied period through exposure
via inhalation.
Oxygen deiciency
Normal ambient air contains 20.8 vol.% oxy-
gen. When oxygen concentration dips below
19.5 vol.% of the total atmosphere, the area
is considered oxygen decient. Oxygen de-
ciency may result from O
2
being displaced by
other gases, such as carbon dioxide, and can
also be caused by rust, corrosion, fermentation
or other forms of oxidation that consume oxy-
gen. Table 3 outlines the physiological effects
of oxygen deciency by concentration.
If oxygen concentrations in the air rise
above 20.8%, the atmosphere is said to be
oxygen-enriched. Higher oxygen levels can
increase the likelihood and severity of a ash
re or explosion, because the oxygen-enriched
atmosphere tends to be less stable than air.
Combustible atmospheres
Vapor and gas. Although these two terms
are sometimes used interchangeably, they
are not identical. Vapor refers to a substance
that, though present in the gaseous phase,
generally exists as a liquid or solid at ambient
temperatures. Gas refers to a substance that
generally exists as a gas at room temperature.
Vapor pressure and boiling point. Vapor pres-
sure can be dened as the pressure exerted
by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with
its condensed or solid form. Vapor pressure is
directly related to temperature, and along with
boiling point, determines how much of a chemi-
cal is likely to become airborne. Substances
with low vapor pressures generally present less
of a hazard because there are fewer molecules
of the substance to ignite, but they may require
higher-sensitivity instrumentation to detect.
Vapor density. Vapor density is the weight ratio
of a volume of vapor compared to an equal vol-
ume of air. Most ammable vapors are heavier
than air, so they may settle in low areas.
Explosive limits. To produce a ame, a suf-
cient amount of gas or vapor must exist. But
too much gas can displace the oxygen in an
area, making it unable to support combustion.
Therefore, there is a window of concentrations
for ammable gas concentrations where com-
bustion can occur. The lower explosive limit
(LEL) indicates the lowest quantity of gas re-
quired for combustion, while the upper explo-
sive limit (UEL) indicates the maximum quantity
of gas (Table 4). Gas LELs and UELs can be
found in NFPA 325. LELs are typically 1.4 to
5 vol.%. As temperature increases, less energy
is required to ignite a re and the percent gas
by volume required to reach the LEL decreases,
increasing the hazard. An environment with
enriched oxygen levels raises the UEL of a gas,
and the rate of ame propagation. Mixtures of
multiple gases add complexity, so their exact
LEL must be determined by testing.
References
1. U.S. Dept. of Labor, Occupational Safety
& Health Administration (OSHA), 29 CFR
1910.1000 Table Z-1.
2. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
tion. National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH). NIOSH Pocket Guide to
Chemical Hazards. www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg.
Accessed March 2013.
3. Mine Safety Appliances Co., Gas Detection
Handbook 5th ed. MSA Instrument Div.,
August 2007.
4. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 325:
Guide to Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable
Liquids, Gases and Volatile Solids, 1994.
Gas Hazard
Denitions and Data
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF THE MAIN REASONS FOR GAS MONITORING.
Type of monitoring Purpose Hazard Possible source of hazard
Personal protection Worker safety Toxic gases Leaks, fugitive emissions,
industrial process defects
Explosive Worker safety
and facility
safety
Explosions Presence of combustible
gases and vapors due to
leaks or process defects
Environmental Environmental
safety
Environmental deg-
radation
Acid gas emissions
Industrial process Process control Process malfunction Process errors
Source: MSA
TABLE 2. EXPOSURE DATA FOR SELECTED HAZARDOUS GASES
Chemical and formula Properties OSHA PEL
(ppm)
IDLH
(ppm)
LC
50
(ppm)
Ammonia (NH
3
) Corrosive, ammable 50 300 4,000
Boron triuoride (BF
3
) Toxic 1 25 806
Bromine (Br
2
) Highly toxic, corrosive,
oxidizer
0.1 3 113
Carbon monoxide (CO) ammable 50 1,200 3,760
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) 5,000 40,000 Not available
Chlorine (Cl
2
) Toxic, corrosive, oxidizer 1 10 293
Chlorine dioxide (ClO
2
) Toxic, oxidizer 0.1 5 250
Ethylene oxide (C
2
H
4
O) Flammable 1 800 4,350
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) corrosive 5 50 2,810
Hydrogen sulde (H
2
S) Toxic, ammable 20 100 712
Methyl isocyanate
(CH
3
NCO)
Highly toxic, ammable 0.02 3 22
Nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) Highly toxic, oxidizer 5 20 115
Phosphine (PH
3
) Highly toxic, pyrophoric 0.3 50 20
Sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) Corrosive 5 100 2,520
TABLE 3. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OXYGEN DEFICIENCY BY DEGREE
Concentration of O
2

in atmosphere, vol. %
Physiological effect
19.5 to 16 No visible effect
16 to 12 Increased breathing rate; accelerated heartbeat; Impaired
attention, thinking and coordination
14 to 10 Faulty judgment and poor muscular coordination; Muscular
exertion, causing rapid fatigue; Intermittent respiration
10 to 6 Nausea and vomiting; Inability to perform vigorous movement or
loss of the ability to move; Unconsciousness, followed by death
Below 6 Difculty breathing; convulsive movements; death in minutes
Source: MSA
TABLE 4. EXPLOSION CONCENTRATION RANGES FOR SELECTED GASES
Gas type LEL UEL
Methane 5.0 vol. % 15 vol. %
Hydrogen 4.0 vol. % 75 vol. %
Propane 2.1 vol. % 9.5 vol. %
Acetylene 2.5 vol. % 100 vol. %
Source: MSA
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any density, even below 0.6 SG, and no DIP switch to configure, youll be assured of superior
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MORE Information Separate relay outputs for diagnostics and level alarms.
MORE Advanced Diagnostics Thorough testing of electronics, transducer,
crystals, and for electromagnetic noise.
A new pinch valve with
a variety of connectors
New to this companys pinch-valve
(photo) product range are the pneu-
matic pinch-valves type VMC, which
are currently available in sizes
DN10100. These are multifunctional
modular systems, which consist of a
four-part construction: the housing
(body), an elastomeric sleeve and two
connection covers (socket ends). A va-
riety of different end-connection types
is available: flange; internal thread;
Tri-clamp; weld-on ends; and threaded
spigot (RJT connection). Special con-
ductive models with separate ground-
ing are also available for use in haz-
ardous areas for Zones 1, 2, 21 and 22.
The VMC Series of air-operated pinch
valves meets all requirements of the
Pressure Equipment Directive 97/23/
EC. Hall 4, Stand 211 AKO Arma-
turen & Separationstechnik GmbH,
Trebur-Astheim, Germany
www.pinch-valve.com
Guided radar for level measure-
ment of bulk solids
The new guided radar sensor Vegaflex
82 (photo) features a new, automatic
probe-end-tracking function, which
enables the device to measure the lev-
els of bulk solids even those with
dielectric constants of 1.1 and higher
with unprecedented reliability, says
the company. When there is an in-
creasingly unreliable product signal,
the sensor switches automatically to
the stable probe-end-tracking signal,
which is always proportional to the
level. This guarantees accurate, con-
sistent readings, especially with criti-
cal products, such as plastic powder.
Vegaflex 82 is suitable for level mea-
surement in almost all bulk solids. It
delivers reliable measurement data
in process temperatures from 40 to
200C and process pressures from
1 to 40 bars. Its applications range
from large-volume bunkers to 75-m-
high silos, from light, fine powders
to coarse, heavy gravel. Hall 6, Stand
209 VEGA Grieshaber KG, Schilt-
ach, Germany
www.vega.com
Use this strong magnet to
remove impurities from product
The recently developed, fast-cleaning
clean-flow magnet (photo) reaches a
magnetic field of 10,700 Gauss on the
bars that are within the product. The
magnetic system removes iron par-
ticles and weakly magnetic particles
from powdery substances, such as
powdered milk, sugar and flour. With
the application of the new generation
of Neoflux magnets, it is also possible
to capture weakly magnetic particles,
such as 304 stainless steel (SS). Be-
cause the grill of this type of clean-
flow magnet can be drawn outward via
a rail, the magnet ensures a smooth
operation and safety for the operators.
The casing is made of 304 SS and the
entire machine has a smooth finish
(Ra 0.8), thus complying with the
HACCP/EHEDG requirements. Three
standard sizes are available for han-
dling capacities of 10 to 20 m
3
/h. Hall
1, Stand 339 Goudsmit Magnetic
Systems B.V., Waalre, the Netherlands
www.goudsmit.eu
Many material-characterization
instruments on display here
This company is exhibiting a number
of instruments, including the new Zeta-
sizer Nano ZSP, a system for measuring
particle size, zeta potential, molecular
weight and protein mobility, as well
as for microrheology applications. The
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2013 32I-1
Show Preview
Malvern Instruments
AKO Armaturen & Separationstechnik
April 2325, Nuremberg, Germany
Goudsmit Magnetic Systems
VEGA Grieshaber
Show Preview
Mastersizer 3000 laser-diffraction
particle-sizing instrument (photo,
p. 32I-1) will also be at the stand, as
will the Insitec process analyzer for
realtime monitoring. Finally, the
company will show visitors how
the Morphologi G3 can be com-
bined with Raman spectroscopy to
extend analytical capabilities. Hall
1, Stand 357 Malvern Instruments
Ltd., Malvern, U.K.
www.malvern.com
These two inspection companies
merge at Powtech
By joining forces, these two compa-
nies Loma and Lock will create
one of the most diverse, technically
advanced and service-oriented inspec-
tion companies. Among the products
being exhibited together for the first
time is the Insight PH (photo) for in-
specting tablets and capsules. The
unit is capable of accepting a high-
output rate from tablet presses up
to 30,000 tablets or capsules per min-
ute and rejecting any minute metal
contaminants with high efficiency.
Also on the show floor is the Insight
VF Vertical Fall metal detector, which
inspects powders and granules at high
throughput rates (up to 50 ton/h). Hall
6, Stand 237 Lock Inspection Sys-
tems B.V., Etten-Leur, the Netherlands;
and Loma Systems, Carol Stream, Ill.
www.lockinspection.com
www.loma.com
Filter bags and cartridges
featuring patented microbers
The Viledon Nexx and Hi-Nexx fil-
ter bags (photo), along with the sin-
Texx Plus filter cartridges have been
designed for maximum efficiency in
dust-removal applications. These
new media feature the unique Evolon
technology, which is based on a pat-
ented microfiber material that offers
advantages compared to conventional
needlefelt-type bags, says the com-
pany. Thanks to the fine microfiber
surface featuring endless filaments,
valuable recovered products will not
be contaminated. Viledon Nexx and
Hi-Nexx filter bags are up to 50%
lighter than conventional needlefelt
bags, which simplifies cleaning and
installation. The Viledon sinTexx Plus
Series of filter cartridges feature cor-
rugated polyester nonwovens with a
nanofiber coating, enabling the filters
to handle dust and smoke, and an
antistatic version is available for ap-
plications with potentially explosive
dusts. Hall 5, Stand 235 Freuden-
berg Filtration Technologies SE & Co.
KG, Weinheim, Germany
www.freudenberg-filter.de
Doubling the production rate of
personal-care products
This company has set a new mile-
stone in mixing technology for large-
Freudenberg Filtration Technologies
Lock Inspection
Systems
www.sms-vt.com
Buss-SMS-Canzler
Buss-SMS-Canzler GmbH
Kaiserstrae 13 -15
D-35510 Butzbach
Germany
Tel: +49 60 33-85 0
Fax. +49 60 33-85 249
E-mail: info@sms-vt.com
We live process engineering
and special manufacturing
Thin Film Dryer
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GEA Process Engineering
GEA Process Engineering A/S
Gladsaxevej 305, DK-2860 Soeborg, Denmark
Tel: +45 39 54 54 54, Fax: +45 39 54 58 00
gea-niro.chemical@gea.com, www.gea.com
engineering for a better world
To make superior powders, look for a GEA Niro drying system. We specialise in supplying
industrial drying systems designed to match your exact product and plant specications, and
with more than 10,000 references worldwide our expertise is unsurpassed. Our comprehensive
product range includes GEA Niro spray dryers, uid bed systems, spray congealers and the
SWIRL FLUIDIZER. At our extensive test facilities, the most experienced test engineers and
process technologists in the business will help you move rapidly from idea to product development
and protable production.
GOOD
POWDER
We know
what makes a
32I-4 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2013
Show Preview
volume batch processing. The Parav-
isc agitator enables very fast wetting
and the incorporation of structure-
forming components, thereby allowing
a very high powder-dosing rate to be
achieved. The high-shear homogenizer
S-Jet/V has the ability to incorporate
thickener in high doses without the
buildup of agglomerates. It exhibits a
high circulation rate, even with high-
viscosity media. Maximum production
rate of existing 4,0005,000-L equip-
ment can now be more than doubled
to 9,00012,000 kg/h. The Unimix
SRC 10,000 (photo) is said to be the
worlds largest batch-production ma-
chine. Hall 6, Stand 410, Ekato Sys-
tems GmbH, a subsidiary of the Ekato
Group, Schopfhein, Germany
www.ekato.com
One machine that combines
two milling principles
The new universal mill Pilotina MU
(photo) is said to be the ideal combina-
tion of a cutting and impact mill. This
universal 2-in-1 dry mill combines the
features and benefits of both a cutting
and an impact mill into one machine.
This dry mills modular design allows
for an easy transition from impact to
cutting mill (and vice versa) within a
matter of seconds. In addition, the mill
features the highest milling quality as
well as an adjustable circumferential
speed of the tool to meet specific ap-
plication needs. The machine is also
equipped with special safety features.
Hall 5, Stand 322 IKA-Werke GmbH
& Co. KG, Staufen, Germany
www.ika.com
This versatile, heavy-duty
processor is self-cleaning
The Reactotherm (photo, p. 32I-5) con-
sists of a cylindrical, horizontal shell
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17817
installation friendly
perfect tting
shock explosion proof
easy expandable
QUICK CONNECT
EUROPES NO. 1 IN MODULAR

PIPEWORK SYSTEMS
The QUICK CONNECT
pull-ring
makes the acclaimed Jacob modular
pipe system even more economical
for installation. In new plants for
animal feed, pharma ceuticals, chemi-
cals, food, glass, semi con duc tors or
environmental techno logy as well as
for upgrading existing layouts user-
friendly system installation becomes
precise and easy due to the great
versatility of mass-produced pipe
components.
Fr. Jacob Shne GmbH
& Co. KG | Germany
Tel. + 49 (0) 571 95580
www.jacob-pipesystems.eu
Straight welded, lipped-end
pipes and components.
60 mm to 800 mm
in a standard range.
Up to 400 mm normally
dispatched immediately from stock.
Larger than 350 mm also available
with ange connection.
Powder coated steel or
hot-dipped galvanised steel
as well as stainless steel.
1-3 mm wall thicknesses.
Larger diameters / special
requirements upon request.
Shock-explosion certied pipes
and components available.
Original Quality
to a Modular Design
Visit us at POWTECH 2013
April 23 rd-25 th, Germany, hall 5, booth 5-348, powtech.de
IKA-Werke
Ekato Systems
and a rotor with segmented discs and
mixing bars. Stationary mixing hooks
are attached to the inside of the shell.
The close clearance between the mix-
ing hooks, the segmented discs and
the rotor results in a high mixing and
kneading effect and largely self-clean-
ing properties of the rotor. Mixing bars
are used to clean the inside of the shell,
which prevents fouling of heat exchange
surfaces and the formation of agglom-
erates. The shell, shaft and discs can
be heated or cooled. The system can
operate continuously or batch-wise
under vacuum, atmospheric pressure
and overpressure. Units are available
with volumes from 160 to 10,000 L and
3 to 104 m of heat-exchange surface
area. Research and pilot units are also
available with working volumes of 8 to
60 L. Hall 5, Stand 112 Buss-SMS-
Canzler GmbH, Dren, Germany
www.sms-vt.com
A system to accurately stack
bags and package the pallet
Among the products and system solu-
tions on display is the paletpac high-
performance layer palletizer (photo)
for palletizing bags filled with bulk
materials. This flexible unit stacks
polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene
(PP) bags, layer-by-layer, on pallets of
all common sizes up to a stack height
of 2.4 m with geometrical accuracy
and extreme stability. The user can
quickly and easily set the required pa-
rameters using a multi-program. De-
pending on the product requirements,
the paletpac is fitted with a rotary
clamp or double-belt turning device
that moves the filled bags quickly and
gently into the required position. The
stacked bags can then be packaged
using the companys stretch hood. Hall
1, Stand 135 Beumer Group GmbH
& Co. KG, Beckum, Germany
www.beumergroup.com
This containment valve protects
workers and the product
This company is presenting the new
generation of the Mller Containment
Valve (MCV), which is designed for
the handling of toxic or highly potent
products. The new series is suitable
up to OEB (occupational exposure
bands) Level 5 (occupational exposure
level less than 1 g/m), and not only
safeguard the health of employees, but
maintain the purity of the product and
protect the environment. The locking
device of the valve has been improved,
offering advantages for the operator.
The valve is sturdy, but lightweight,
and the handling is simple. It can be
used for applications under vacuum
(1 bar) as well as for those with
overpressure (up to 6 bars). A new ex-
plosion-pressure-shock resistant ver-
sion is also available offering safety
against flame breakthrough for gases
of explosion group IIB (up to 6 bars).
Hall 1, Stand 345 Mller GmbH,
Rheinfelden, Germany
www.mueller-gmbh.com
Many new features incorporated
in this electronic weighing scale
Like its predecessor of the MEC series,
the new MEC 4 electronic weigher
was designed in this packaging-ma-
chine manufacturers development
department for electronic weighing
systems. The MEC 4 features a com-
pletely new family of hardware that
allows the machines to keep up with
the increasingly demanding require-
ments for more flexibility, speed and
operator comfort. With its touch-
HAVER & BOECKER
THE SERVICE DIVISION
FILLING VISIONS
SERVICE VISIONS
n worldwide reliable punctual
n service contracts, teleservice,
e-commerce, spare parts
deliveries
n training and instruction
n plant inspections
n modernisation and plant
optimisation
HAVER & BOECKER, Germany
Phone: +49 2522 30-0
Fax: +49 2522 30-403
E-mail: service@haverboecker.com
www.haverboecker.com M

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Buss-SMS-Canzler Beumer Group
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screen panel (photo), the MEC 4
offers a user-friendly interface,
and is programmable with CoD-
eSys. Additional features include
a high-speed processor, good
electromagnetic compatibility
and temperature stability up to
70C. Up to 31 modules can be
integrated for complex applica-
tions. Hall 1, Stand 533 Haver
& Boecker OHG, Oelde, Germany
www.haverboecker.com
Reduce tablet coating times
with this system
This fully optimized tablet
coater (photo) is said to revolu-
tionize the efficiency of coating
processes and enables coating
times that are 40 to 50% shorter
than with conventional solutions
due to its innovative drum geometry
combined with a special configura-
tion of the installed nozzles. The
unit will be at the stand to demon-
strate the possibilities for mixing
processes and related technologies
in the chemical, pharmaceutical,
food and environmental industries.
Also on display will be the horizon-
tal Ploughshare mixer, which has
a total volume of 900 L. A continu-
ously operating Ploughshare mixer
with the same volume will be used
to demonstrate a multi-stage, con-
tinuous process that uses three con-
tinuous mixers of different sizes and
designs. Hall 5, Stand 222 Gebr.
Ldige Machinenbau GmbH, Pader-
born, Germany
www.loedige.de
Thin-lm dryers gently process
liquids, slurries and pastes
The thin-film drying technology
(photo) from this company can be
used for continuous drying of sus-
pensions, municipal sludge, slurries,
pastes, wet solids, filter cakes and
chemical products. It is also suitable
for heat-sensitive products, such as
polymers, foods and pharmaceuticals.
A thin-film dryer is a special type of
wiped-film evaporator. The product
to be dried is distributed over the
circumference of the heating surface
to form a downward-flowing thin film
of liquid that is stirred by a specially
shaped rotor system to create optimal
turbulence. These dryers can pro-
duce dry powder from a liquid feed.
They can be used either alone, or as
a pre- or post-dryer combined with
other equipment. Horizontal thin-
film dryers are ideal for drying slur-
ries and pastes, while their vertical
counterparts are preferred for con-
tinuous drying of liquids to wet solids
in a single step. Both types feature
short residence times, low holdup,
self-cleaning characteristics and low-
energy consumption. Closed-system
operation allows toxic and dangerous
products, such as solvents, to be han-
dled safely. Hall 6, Stand 328 GIG
Karasek GmbH, Gloggnitz, Austria
www.gigkarasek.at
0
5
2 5
7 5
9 5
1 0 0
Haver & Boecker OHG
Gebr. Ldige Machinenbau
GIG Karasek
This sampling system is
completely automated
This new, fully automated
sampling system (photo)
complies with the most re-
cent criteria of EHEDG (Euro-
pean Hygienic Engineering and
Design Group) and can be used for
the automated sampling of incoming,
stationary and outgoing product flows.
The system can be used for continuous
and batch production processes based
on dry powders, granules or granu-
lates. The user simply selects the de-
sired parameters (frequency, volume
and weight) beforehand, and the sys-
tem then takes the required samples
quickly, accurately and efficiently,
says the company. Sample capacity
ranges from 25 to 1,000 g per sample.
Hall 4, Stand 323 Dinnissen B.V.,
Sevenum, the Netherlands
www.dinnissen.nl
More owrate and power from
this hybrid compressor series
The Delta Hybrid rotary-lobe com-
pressor series has been extended by
another size. The 14 sizes now cover
intake volume flowrates of 110 up to
5,800 m
3
/h, and overpressures of up
to 1,500 mbar. The new sizes D 98
S and D 98 H are used in the upper
volume flow range of 1,470 to 5,900
m
3
/h, with drive powers up to 250 kW.
The company is also preparing a ver-
sion in the size D152S (photo), with
volume flows of up to 9,100 m
3
/h and
maximum drive power of 400 kW. The
multi-patented design of these com-
pressors is said to improve energy
efficiency, with energy savings of up
to 15% compared to conventional de-
signs. Aerzener Maschinenfabrik
GmbH, Aerzen, Germany
www.aerzen.com
Measure nanoparticles in gases
with this condensation unit
The Universal Fluid Condensation
Particle Counter (UF-CPC; photo)
measures the number concentration
of nanoparticles in air or gases by
means of a condensation process that
makes the particles large enough to
be detected optically. The patented
way that the working fluid is deliv-
ered in the UF-CPC enables the use
of butanol, water or other environ-
mentally friendly liquids. The modu-
lar design allows the unit to be opti-
mized for single counting of droplets
containing up to 10
6
particles/cm
3
,
and allows most maintenance tasks
to be performed by the operator. For
process control applications, the UF-
CPC supports standardized inter-
faces (such as Modbus), remote access
and data storage (internal network or
internet). Hall 5, Stand 156 Palas
GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany
www.palas.de
Piping for handling bulk goods,
dust extraction and exhaust air
Pipe systems for bulk material han-
dling as well as dust extraction and
exhaust air units for environmental
engineering (cooling and exhaust air)
are the largest application areas for
this companys modular pipe systems.
The piping and components are avail-
able with 60800-mm dia., or larger
as a customized production, with 13-
mm pipe wall thickness, and can be
supplied as primed, galvanized or in
stainless steel. The main applications
are found in the chemical, pharmaceu-
tical, plastics and food industries, and
many more. Hall 5, Stand 348 Fr.
Jacob Shne GmbH & Co. KG, Porta
Westfalica, Germany
www.jacob-rohre.de
Bulk-material handling from
components to systems
This company is presenting its latest
generation of system components for
bulk-material technology, including
rotary feeders, double-flap gates and
dome valves. The companys conveyor
systems enable transport distances
of over 1 km and capacities of over
100 ton/h. All systems are energy-
optimized and tailored to the specific
requirements of the user. Rotary feed-
ers (including ceramic versions), pres-
sure vessels, jet conveyors and screw
sluices are used as feed-in units. In
April, the company will also commis-
sion an in-house technical labora-
tory, which is equipped with indus-
trial-scale bulk-material transport
and storage systems that can reach
a test capacity of up to 20 m
3
/h and
transport distance of 250 m. Hall 5,
Stand 217 Kreisel GmbH & Co. KG,
Krauschwitz, Germany
www.kreisel.eu
Gerald Ondrey
Dinnissen
Aerzener Maschinenfabrik
Palas
These actuators are designed for
large pressures
Designed for use on rising-stem globe
control valves, the PL Series actua-
tors (photo) provide up to 4,400 lb of
force and up to 3.9 in. of travel. This
increased up-and-down force, the com-
pany says, allows the use of globe valves
for increased flow control in larger pipe
diameters with higher close-off pres-
sures compared to a corresponding
butterfly valve with less flow control
and lower close-off pressure. The force
and travel of the PL Series actuators
is said to be greater than competitive
electric linear actuators. Key features
of the PL Series actuators include:
field-selectable travel stops, a customi-
zable mounting system, precision pro-
portional control, a manual override
system and others. Promation Engi-
neering Inc., Brooksville, Fla.
www.promationei.com
Outsource high-throughput re-
search with this service
Collaboration between an Italian uni-
versity and an American company has
resulted in a new service that will pro-
vide research services for outsourcing
catalyst discovery and optimization
to consultants and laboratory staff
interested in high-throughput cata-
lyst research. The service utilizes a
range of high-throughput research
tools for specialized polyolefin and or-
ganometallic catalysis investigation.
The services are offered by a newly
formed company spun off from a labo-
ratory at the Federico II University
of Naples (Italy), and are designed
to extend the accessibility of high-
throughput research. HTExplore
s.r.l., Naples, Italy; and Freeslate Inc.,
Sunnyvale, Calif.
www.freeslate.com
www.htexplore.com
Use this light for
boiler inspections
The recently launched WALBL-2 x
1000WMH Boiler Light (photo) is a
telescoping light tower with a folding
boom that is designed to allow versatile
deployment and high-output illumina-
tion. The light features a right-angle ex-
tension arm, wheeled base, and a pair of
1,000-W metal halide lamps for effective
illumination during the servicing and
maintenance of boilers and tanks. The
WALBL boiler light generates 220,000
lumens of light output in a wide flood
pattern, and is easily maneuverable,
the company says, allowing operators to
position the light tower assembly to illu-
minate boiler interiors with maximum
effectiveness. The telescoping arm can
be shortened or lengthened, as well as
angled, and an extra support leg on the
boom provides extra stability. Larson
Electronics, Kemp, Tex.
www.larsonelectronics.com
Cover all applications with this
versatile rheometer
The MCR 702 rheometer (photo) fea-
tures this companys modular Twin-
Drive technology, and is said to be the
only instrument capable of handling
all rheological applications. The device
has two synchronous EC (electrically
commutated) motor units one is per-
manent and one can be extracted and
integrated when needed. The renowned
dynamism and precision of the EC mo-
tors, the company says, allows users to
take advantage of several options for
meeting the requirements of their ap-
plications. In what is called 2EC mode,
the rheometer employs both motors as
drive units and torque transducers,
rotating in either parallel or opposite
directions. The double EC motors ex-
tend the scope of testing options. For
example, the device can be used with
counter rotation for enhanced rheo-
microscopy. The lower motor can also
be removed for use as a single-drive
rheometer, enabling classic stress-
controlled tests, the company says.
Anton Paar USA, Ashland, Va.
www.anton-paar.com
Scott Jenkins
Larson Electronics
Promation
Engineering
Anton Paar USA
A
imed at the pharmaceutical and
biopharmaceutical industry,
Interphex 2013 will take place
April 2325 at the Jacob Javits
Convention Center in New York. The con-
ference program for the event features 52
sessions organized into five tracks, includ-
ing supply chain, regulatory and quality
control, product development, facility and
process design, and manufacturing and
packaging. Meanwhile, the exhibit floor
will showcase over 1,000 product lines from
more than 650 suppliers. The following
descriptions represent a small sample
of the products and services that will
be highlighted in the exhibit hall.
This lter and valve system is
integrated into one assembly
The companys IFV (integral filter
valve; photo) system integrates a ster-
ile filter assembly and adjacent valv-
ing into one integral block. Designed
to increase yields and avoid dropped
batches, the assembly reduces contact
surfaces and hold-up volume while
greatly reducing dimensional enve-
lope constraints and installation time,
the company says. The IFV comes
with a universal filter-housing mount,
two conventional hygienic diaphragm
valves and one double-weir robolux
hygienic diaphragm valve. Booth 3553
Brkert Fluid Control Systems,
Irvine, Calif.
www.burkert-usa.com
This rupture disc technology
has been expanded
The Atlas line of rupture discs (photo)
is the latest to be manufactured with
this companys G2 technology. G2 is a
patented manufacturing process for
rupture discs that avoids the use of
hard-score tooling. The process builds
rupture discs that are free of stress
zones that can fatigue, says the com-
pany. Also the Atlas line offers higher
pressure capability than was previ-
ously available. The product line is
suitable for liquid or vapor service,
and has a 95% operating ratio, back-
pressure resistance and high cycling
capability. Booth 2236 Fike Corp.,
Blue Springs, Mo.
www.fike.com
Transfer viscous products
with this system
The Vispro (photo) transfers viscous
materials from manufacturing sites to
other locations, such as the packaging
machine. The system uses air pressure
to raise a plunger located inside the
smooth wall of a stainless-steel drum.
The viscous product is discharged
through an outlet in the units lid.
Booth 2725 M.O. Industries, Inc.,
Whippany, N.J.
www.moindustries.com
Use these benchtop
bioreactors for scaleup
RALF benchtop bioreactors and fer-
menters (photo) are designed for
scaleup, and come with specialized
software known as BioSCADA. This
powerful software requires no pro-
gramming knowledge, and allows
users to benefit from the sophisticated
tools of manufacturing experts in a
straightforward, user-friendly way,
the company says. The bioreactor con-
trol tower and vessels require minimal
bench space, and offer superior acces-
sibility to all components, as well as
the ability to rotate a full 360 deg. The
measurement and control components
are durable and allow for thorough
documentation. A two-year warranty
is standard with all systems. Booth
1671 Bioengineering USA, Cam-
bridge, Mass.
www.mybioreactor.com
Use these pumps to
control uids without drift
Valveless, ceramic pumps from this
company are designed for drift-free
fluid control for pilot plants and bench-
top operations. The pumps routinely
monitor a wide range of substances,
including monomers, catalysts, al-
ternative fuels and water-treatment
chemicals. These pumps also control
additions of viscous fluids and slurries.
The pump design eliminates the need
for check valves, and can maintain ac-
curacies of 1% or better for millions
of cycles, the company says. Fluid
Metering Inc., Syosset, N.Y.
www.fmipump.com
Save energy
with these air lters
The Megapleat M8 premium pleated
air filter (photo, p. 35) is said to reduce
energy costs by up to 20% compared
to the leading MERV 8 pleated filter
available in the market. It also lasts
2013
Show Preview
Brkert Fluid
Control Systems
Fike
M.O.
Industries
Bioengineering USA
Order your copy today by visiting store.che.com
This guidebook contains how-to engineering articles formerly published in Chemical Engineering. The
articles in Volume 2 provide practical engineering recommendations for process operators faced with the
challenge of treating inlet water for process use, and treating industrial wastewater to make it suitable for
discharge or reuse.
There is a focus on the importance of closed-loop or zero-discharge plant design, as well as the selection,
operation and maintenance of membrane-based treatment systems; treating water for use in recirculated-
water cooling systems; managing water treatment to ensure trouble-free steam service; designing stripping
columns for water treatment; and more.
Table of Contents
Process Water Treatment Challenges and Solutions
Water Reuse and Conservation in the CPI
Strategies to Minimize Wastewater Discharge
Strategies for Water Reuse
Wastewater: A Reliable Water Resource
Membranes for Process Water Reuse
Strategies for Controlling Membrane Fouling
Fact at Your Fingertips: Membranes
Facts at Your Fingertips: Membrane Congurations
Facts at Your Fingertips: Controlling Membrane Fouling
Biodegradation and Testing of Scale Inhibitors
Keeping Cooling Water Clean
Caring for Cooling Water Systems
Purifying Coke-Cooling Wastewater
Non-Chemical Water Treatment
CPI Water and Steam Chemistry
Designing Steam Stripping Columns for Wastewater
Process Water and Wastewater Treatment
and Reuse Guidebook- Volume 2
Now Available in the Chemical Engineering Store:
20611
Show Preview
30% longer and is 40% stron-
ger than existing air filters,
says the company. The Mega-
pleat M8 filter has a patent-
pending design that includes
a heavy-duty, galvanized ex-
panded metal support grid
with an optimized pattern
to reduce blockage to airflow.
The metal cross-sectional
area is 40% larger than other
wire-backed designs. The
strength of the grid, combined with
the proprietary moisture-resistant
glue formulation helps prevent blow-
outs and failures under the toughest
environments, including high-mois-
ture applications, the company says.
Booth 3185 American Air Filter Co.,
Louisville, Ky.
www.aafintl.com
This milling system delivers a
narrow particle-size distribution
The ARTMiS (Automated Real-Time
Milling System) features this companys
Micronizer Jet Mill a sanitary de-
sign, low-maintenance mill that deliv-
ers a narrow particle-size distribution,
the company says, in the sub-micron
size range. The ARTMiS is designed
to simplify particle size reduction and
maintain product quality despite fluc-
tuating variables. The company says
that the system can help pharmaceu-
tical manufacturers increase yield and
efficiency, improve batch quality, enable
realtime decision-making, and help re-
alize return on investment within 12
months. Booth 2267 Sturtevant Inc.,
Hanover, Mass.
www.sturtevantinc.com
This cleaning system
has a small footprint
The PH 810 cleaning system is de-
signed for cleaning small pieces of
pharmaceutical equipment and glass
items, and is said to be the most com-
pact pharmaceutical cleaning system
in its class. With a width of 100 cm
and chamber volume of 307 L, the PH
810 has an excellent ratio of payload-
space to room-space. Specially suited
to pharmaceutical production and
research laboratories, the PH 810
cleaning system consumes 20% less
water, energy and detergent, the com-
pany says. The system features items-
dependent level control of detergent
solution, and the companys gravi-
metric dosing system. Booth 3283
Belimed AG, Sulgen, Switzerland
www.belimed.com
Use these NIR analyzers in the
laboratory and in the plant
The XDS near-infrared (NIR) analyzer
(photo) is designed for analytical per-
formance with high sensitivity and
precise instrument matching, says the
company. The analyzers are capable of
inline or online measurements and are
available in single- and multiple-point
configurations. They meet most electri-
cal area classifications. Booth 2072
Metrohm NIRSystems (formerly FOSS
NIRSystems), Riverview, Fla.
www.metrohmusa.com
Apply semi-custom modications
to these transport containers
This company has a range of standard
bins, drums, totes and hoppers that
can be modified to allow users the op-
timal return on investment, and attain
sustainable material-handling solu-
tions. The reusable plastic containers
for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical
applications can help users achieve
efficiency increases and waste reduc-
tion, the company says. Booth 2162
Remcon Plastics Inc., Reading, Pa.
www.remcon.com
This tool polisher has a larger
capacity in the same footprint
The next generation in this companys
MF product line (photo) is the MF40,
a system for automated polishing of
pharmaceutical tablet punches and
dies. The MF40 has larger holders
to allow more punches per polishing
cycle, but fits into the same compact
footprint of its predecessor. The MF40
polishing machine is part of a wider
system for maintaining and storing
tabletting equipment. Booth 3164
I Holland, Nottingham, U.K.
www.iholland.co.uk
This separator is now available
with a stainless-steel base
The Eco Separator is a spring-
mounted grading separator that is
suited to sizing, classifying or grad-
ing powders. The unit is now available
with a fully stainless-steel base, mak-
ing it ideal for applications in which
the equipment is continuously washed
down, and where painted equipment
is not permitted, says the company.
The Eco Separator has the ability to
separate wet or dry materials on up to
five fractions, and is available in six
different sizes from 24 to 72 in. The
grading sieve can be used in any sized
plant, including laboratory-, pilot- or
production-scale. Booth 2733 Rus-
sell Finex Inc., Pineville, N.C.
www.russellfinex.com
Remove rust from stainless steel
with these abrasive cloths
Abratec cleanroom abrasive cloths are
designed to remove rust from stain-
less-steel aseptic processing equip-
ment. Corroded surfaces are difficult
to disinfect because the rough surfaces
do not allow good contact in wiping
and can provide bacteria with places
to hide, the company explains. The
Abratec cloths are made with various
levels of abrasive grits, and are backed
by the companys Quiltec fabric, which
is said to be more durable than foam-
backed abrasives. This allows the
Abratec cloths to removed sanding
debris without contributing additional
American Air Filter
Metrohm NIRSystems
I Holland
Show Preview
particles to the remedia-
tion process. Abratec cloths
are designed to work with
solvents, including the
water and isopropyl alcho-
hol (IPA) mixtures that are
typically found in sterile
processing environments.
Also, the cloths are irradi-
ated with 2550 kilograys
of ionizing radiation to
maintain sterile environ-
ments. Booth 1338 Contec Inc.,
Spartansburg, S.C.
www.contecinc.com
This coating system uses
ultrasonic vibration
This company has developed a new
fluidized-bed coating system that uses
an ultrasonic spray nozzle for gentle
Wurster-type coating of solid-dosage
pharmaceutical products. Rather than
atomizing air pressure, the spray noz-
zle uses a tiny, ultrasonic horn that
vibrates at a fixed frequency to break
up droplets of coating material. The
ultrasonic horn technology enables
the nozzle to produce uniform droplet
sizes in the range of 10 to 30 microns.
The Wurster process involves sus-
pending fine particulate substances
in the fluid bed, while a nozzle applies
the coating. The new ultrasonic nozzle
system also features a controller for
fine-tuning the spray pattern and
shape, allowing users the ability to
exert adjustable control over the size
of the coating droplets. The system is
designed for laboratory research and
development applications. Booth 1542
Fluid Air Inc., a div. of Spraying
Systems Co., Aurora, Ill.
www.fluidairinc.com
This powder feeder is designed
for pharmaceutical materials
The PureFeed AP-300 feeder (photo)
was designed specifically for pharma-
ceutical processes and was engineered
to have the following features: quick
and easy disassembly, a dual-arm agi-
tation system for maximizing mate-
rial-handling versatility, and an FDA-
compliant EPDM (ethylene propylene
diene monomer) feed hopper that is
disposable and recyclable. The design
features allow simpler, shorter clean-
ing cycles and virtually no chance of
cross-contamination when switch-
ing materials, the company says. The
PureFeed AP-300 is available in volu-
metric and gravimetric configurations
for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical
applications with feedrates from 0.5 to
about 150 kg/h. Booth 1843 Schenck
AccuRate, Whitewater, Wisc.
www.accuratefeeders.com
These mills are suited
to wet grinding
Toothed colloid mills in the MZ series
are suited to wet grinding in phar-
maceutical, cosmetic and chemical
applications of almost any viscosity.
The milling system has a ring-shaped
stator with internal teeth that slides
over a high-speed rotor with external
teeth. The rotor revolves in the sta-
tor around its own axis at speeds that
can peak at up to 50 m/s. The unit has
a choice of coarse, standard or cross-
toothed tools and an individually ad-
justable milling gap. The shearing,
rebound and crushing forces acting
on the product can be precisely con-
trolled because the rotor speed is con-
tinuously variable, the company says.
The mill is available in several dif-
ferent versions, including laboratory
models with a product throughput of
100 L/h to industrial types capable of
handling up to 40,000 L/h, depend-
ing on the application. The design
eliminates dead spaces, such as gaps,
corners and slots from the interior
to prevent material accumulation.
Booth 3033 Romaco FrymaKo-
ruma, Karlsruhe, Germany
www.frymakoruma.com
Use these oor cranes
inside cleanrooms
Stainless-steel portable floor cranes
and strap hoists (photo) from this
company are specifically designed for
handling material in pharmaceutical
cleanrooms. Design updates minimize
contamination potential within the
full line of the cleanroom material-
handling equipment. The hoists and
cranes are paint-free, and can be
cleaned using methods that do not
interfere with production schedules,
the company says. Booth 2041 The
David Round Co., Streetsboro, Ohio
www.davidround.com
These single-use sensors make
multiple measurements
This companys single-use sensors
measure conductivity, pressure, tem-
perature, and ultraviolet-absorbance,
and can be used in numerous types
of bioprocess operations. The sensors
are offered in a wide range of sizes for
inline measurement, and can elimi-
nate several processes that would be
required for reusable measurement
devices, including parts cleaning,
tracking, sanitation and possible re-
sterilization. Booth 3565 Pendo-
TECH, Princeton, N.J.
www.pendotech.com
Hand-load small products with
this packaging system
The Compact-4 vertical end-load car-
toner erects cartons, pauses for hand-
filling, and then glues or tucks each
paperboard carton at speeds of up to 40
per minute. The unit is ideal for hand-
loading vials, leaflets and other items
into small cartons. The easy-to-oper-
ate machine features two ergonomic
loading areas, and a quick-changing
star-wheel design that allows for eight
unique operations, including erecting,
filling, closing flaps and sealing. Its
footprint is 4 ft by 6 ft. Booth 3384
Adco Manufacturing, Sanger, Calif.
www.adcomfg.com
Scott Jenkins
Schenck The David Round Co.
Sodium Hypochlorite
Chemical Production
S
odium hypochlorite (NaClO) is the active constitu-
ent in chlorine bleach, a strong oxidizer and
bleaching agent. Increases in household bleach
demand are driven mostly by population growth. In
turn, population growth and its corresponding increases
in water consumption coupled with limited fresh
water resources makes water treatment the largest
application for bleach, as well as the fastest-growing
segment of bleach use.
Sodium hypochlorite chemical production is a well-
established process in the industry, and the principle
behind its operation is also employed for preventing
chlorine emissions in chlor-alkali plants. The chemical
process relies on the acquisition of chlorine and caustic
soda (sodium hydroxide; NaOH) feedstock from exter-
nal sources, in contrast with the electrochemical process
for bleach, which also involves brine electrolysis.
The process
The chlorination of caustic soda to sodium hypochlorite is an exother-
mic reaction. The chemical production process depicted below is a
widely used process, similar to the one employed by Solvay Chemicals
(Brussels, Belgium; www.solvay.com), for example. The process is suited
to producing both household bleach (56 wt.%) and industrial bleach
(1015 wt.%), and relies on the chlorination of caustic soda by chlorine
gas within packed columns.
The industrial sodium-hypochlorite plant can be divided into two main
sections: reaction and product discharge; and bleach ltration.
Reaction and product discharge. The chlorine absorption system can
be divided into two parts: in the rst, a packed column is operated
with a safe excess of caustic to prevent reduction in pH; the second
part, in turn, receives the liquor from the rst column to be post-
chlorinated, until the desired bleach concentration is reached. Prior
to reaction, caustic soda is diluted with water in the rst buffer tank,
along with the rst-column bottom stream. Chlorine gas is diluted
with air and fed into the bottom of both columns. Flow to the second
part of the system is established when the nished product is sent to
the ltration steps.
Bleach ltration. Bleach ltration is necessary to meet product quality re-
quirements and is often the last step before storage. Usually, the bleach
lter system consists of pressure-leaf lters. After ltration, the product is
sent to storage. Backwash water containing spent lter aid can be taken
to a dry-cake pressure lter for further processing.
Sodium hypochlorite solutions are very sensitive and special opera-
tions must be carried out to prevent its decomposition. Besides pH,
other factors affecting degradation are the initial bleach concentration,
exposure to ultraviolet light, presence of certain metals and elevated
temperatures. The graph above shows temperature dependency for
bleach degradation, starting from a 12.5 trade-percent solution. Trade
percent is an expression of available chlorine, in units of grams per liter
of available chlorine.
Economic performance
An economic evaluation of the process was conducted for three distinct
locations the U.S. Gulf Coast region, Germany and Brazil and is
based on data from the rst quarter of 2012. The following assumptions
are made for the analysis:
A250,000ton/yrchemicalproductionunit(NaClOsolution,12.5
wt. %) erected inside a chlor-alkali facility (all equipment is repre-
sented in the simplied owsheet)
Storageofproductsisequalto20daysofoperation,andthereisno
storage for feedstock
The estimated capital investment for such a plant on the U.S. Gulf Coast
is about $35 million, the lowest among the regions compared. Germany
presented a higher capital investment, at $40 million, and the highest
operatingcostsabout$170/ton(comparedto$140/tonintheU.S.)
Global perspective
Selling prices for bleach vary substantially, depending on supply and
demandluctuationsofthechlorine/causticmarket.Basedonthe
estimated capital and operating costs, a U.S. Gulf Coast-based bleach
manufacturing venture can reach an internal rate of return (IRR) above
15%,bysellingbleachatanaveragepriceof$175/ton,areasonable
value. However, a venture in Germany would not be economically at-
tractive at the same selling price.
Edited by Scott Jenkins
Editors Note: The content
for this column is supplied
by Intratec Solutions LLC
(Houston; www.intratec.
us) and edited by Chemical
Engineering. The analyses
and models presented herein
are prepared on the basis of
publicly available and non-
confidential information. The
information and analysis are
the opinions of Intratec and
do not represent the point
of view of any third parties.
More information about the
methodology for preparing
this type of analysis can be
found, along with terms of
use,atwww.intratec.us/che.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
B
l
e
a
c
h

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

t
r
a
d
e

%
Time, days
15 C 20 C 25 C 30 C 40 C
Caustic soda
Offgas to
scrubber
Water
Chlorine
Bleach
to storage
Backwash
water to
disposal
Air
2
4
CW
CW
1 3
5
6
(1) 1st Absorption
column
(2) 1st Buffer
tank
(3) 2nd Absorption
column
(4) 2nd Buffer
tank
(5) Bleach filter
system
(6) Backwash
water filter
CW = Cooling
water
By Intratec Solutions
S
ulfur is a major contaminant in
the oil and gas industry that ex-
ists in various forms and requires
separation from both water and
process streams. In recent years the
removal of sulfur species has received
increasing attention because of safety
concerns, the need to reduce emissions
of sulfur oxides (SOx), and the fact that
sulfur harms the combustion proper-
ties of fuels. The sulfur recovery trail
starts with hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) and
mercaptans either present in raw hy-
drocarbon streams or arising in the pe-
troleum refinery as a result of cracking
or hydrogenation processes. The trail
continues as H
2
S and mercaptans are
captured by methods such as amine
treatment, caustic scavenging, or sour
water stripping, and ends with the con-
version of H
2
S to elemental sulfur, sul-
furic acid, salts or other materials.
In the many plants that make up
the sulfur recovery trail, filtration and
other separation processes are im-
portant in minimizing process upsets
caused by the presence of contami-
nants. In fact, contamination control
through separation is a key step in
helping to maintain process control.
Separation processes are often the
first sometimes the only line of
defense for avoiding many process
variations and out-of-control episodes,
and separation devices play critical
roles in minimizing downtime and in-
creasing systems reliability.
Studies at a number of plants
worldwide reveal that many possess
less than adequate separation and
filtration systems, resulting in signifi-
cantly higher operating costs. Many of
the lessons learned along the sulfur
recovery trail about the need for good
separation are equally applicable to
other parts of the chemical process in-
dustries (CPI).
SULFUR RECOVERY TRAIL
Sulfur in hydrocarbons has two major
sources. It can be found naturally
as covalent sulfides in hydrocarbon
macrostructures, and it also occurs in
other chemical forms in crude oil, con-
nate water, produced water, natural
gas and gas condensates. New sulfur
species can also be generated when
crude oil is processed. For instance,
when water containing high levels of
sulfate is used to aid crude oil produc-
tion, sulfur reducing bacteria can turn
sulfates into H
2
S. In some cases, H
2
S
is produced by bacterial degradation
of organic matter.
Removal of H
2
S is accomplished
without much difficulty by amine
systems, solvent systems, redox
(reduction-oxidation) reactions, pre-
cipitation and chemical scavenging.
Mercaptans (also called thiols or, in
chemical shorthand, RSH), are some-
what closely related to H
2
S and are
removed by fairly similar technolo-
gies. However, sulfur species that are
covalently linked to organic systems
are not as reactive as H
2
S and need
to be transformed to H
2
S before they
can be removed.
One of the most common ways to do
this is through reduction with excess
hydrogen, using catalysts, heat and
pressure to drive the reaction to near
completion. This is the basis of cata-
lytic hydrogenation (also called cata-
lytic hydrodesulfurization), in which
sulfur residues (and to some extent ni-
trogen residues) in hydrocarbons are
replaced by hydrogen. The sulfur com-
bines with excess hydrogen to produce
H
2
S, while nitrogen yields ammonia.
The resulting H
2
S-laden hydro-
carbons are purified alongside hy-
drogenated hydrocarbons by amine
Feature Report
Cover Story
David Engel
Sulphur Experts, Filtration Division
Controlling contaminants
is key to reliable,
economical processing
across all segments
of industry
Exploration and production
oil field/gas field
Gas
plants
Refinery
Hydrotreater,
coker,
visbreaker,
catalytic cracker
Amine
unit
Sulfur
reaction
plants
Sulfur
reaction
plants
Residual
gas
treatment
Residual
gas
treatment
Mercaptan
removal
Amine
unit
Sour
water
stripper
FIGURE 1. Typical stages of the sulfur recovery trail include (red) sulfur generation,
(green) sufur capture, and (yellow) sulfur reaction
Filtration and Separation
In Sulfur Recovery
units and other methods, followed, if
necessary, by further processing to re-
duce mercaptan levels. H
2
S in water
streams can be removed using chemi-
cal methods such as resin beds or ad-
ditives, or by volatilization in a strip-
per (oftentimes with co-separation of
NH
3
). In both cases the resulting gas-
eous H
2
S is generally sent to a sulfur
recovery unit. At the downstream end
of the sulfur recovery unit, remaining
trace sulfur species can be further re-
moved using a SCOT-type unit or other
tail-gas recovery technologies before
venting to the atmosphere. Taken to-
gether, these processes form the basis
of the sulfur recovery trail (Figure 1),
in which sulfur is generated, captured
and converted for further use, trans-
port, storage or disposal.
Role of separation processes
The sulfur recovery trail is a complex
interlocked array of different units.
Optimal performance of the trail is
dependent on each of the units oper-
ating at its highest efficiency. Among
the most basic needs for any pro-
cess, system and plant in the sulfur
recovery trail is the control of con-
taminants. Contamination control is
essential in that it allows effective
process control and enables units to
operate consistently at an optimized
cost and while maintaining or en-
hancing throughput.
Separation systems play a dual role
in the process. They not only remove
the daily contamination that exists
in a normal process, but also protect
the process from upstream upsets. The
most common separation technologies
in the sulfur recovery trail include de-
misters, filters to remove suspended
solids from liquids, adsorption (ac-
tivated carbon) beds, gas coalescers,
flash tanks and two-phase/three-
phase separators. Other systems are
also utilized, but are more specialized
and less common.
To cover all separation systems in a
single article would lead to a lengthy
discussion, so for simplicity we will
look at one specific unit the amine
unit which encompasses most, if
not all, of the basic separations uti-
lized in the sulfur recovery trail. The
amine unit arguably suffers the most
from contamination instabilities that
considerably affect the performance,
stability and reliability of the whole
sulfur recovery process, but the con-
cepts discussed here apply for the
most part to other units in the sulfur
recovery trail, and can be extended to
the rest of the CPI.
Even well-operated amine units
have uncontrollable factors that cause
process upsets. Some of these relate
to contaminants entering the plant
via the gas or liquid to be processed,
which is generally liquefied petroleum
gas (LPG, C3/C4). To better under-
stand its ramifications, it is important
to understand what kind of contami-
nation might be present in the feed. In
addition to the gaseous hydrocarbon
containing the H
2
S, the amine unit
must handle many other components
generated in the upstream oil produc-
tion and transmission stages or in the
various upstream refinery units.
Upstream gas production yields
produced water loaded with a vari-
ety of water-soluble contaminants,
and compressor lubricants with sur-
factant properties. Additives used to
enhance production include demul-
sifiers, hydrate inhibitors, biocides,
methanol and many others, and with
the recent rise of shale gas availabil-
ity we might expect new contami-
nants in both the upstream gas and
the produced water. Clearly, proper
separation technology is critical.
On the refinery side, contamination
can take the form of coke fines, heat-
stable salt precursors, corrosion prod-
ucts, water, additives (such as corrosion
inhibitors and anti-fouling agents),
carbon fines and compressor oil. Most
if not all of these have some kind of sur-
factant activity or other detrimental ef-
fect. Together, these contaminants can
cause a multitude of plant problems,
such as amine contactor foaming lead-
ing to lower capacities, amine losses
and low efficiencies. Additionally, some
components can also cause issues such
as amine degradation and formation of
heat-stable salts.
Effective separation is especially
challenging since all these con-
taminants can be in three possible
states: solid, liquid and gas. In the
solid state it is generally found that
iron clusters predominate, along
with carbon and coke fines, and in
some cases sand, salts and oxides.
Most of the liquid contaminants are
lubricants, carried-over hydrocarbon
products, carried-over amine solvent,
cleaning products and water. This
water can also contain soluble impu-
rities, such as chlorides, sulfates and
acetates among others. In the gas
phase the predominant contaminants
are substances such as hydrogen cya-
nide, oxygen and carbonyl sulfide.
Other contaminants that can cause
major plant upsets include methanol
and BTEX (benzene/toluene/ethyl-
benzene/xylene).
EQUIPMENT IN DETAIL
Shortcomings of demisters
Inlet separation for gas streams is
usually carried out using a knockout
drum equipped with a demisting el-
ement, such as a mesh pad or vane
pack, installed near or at the outlet
of the vessel. These systems are typi-
cally horizontal in gas plants and
vertical in petroleum refineries. The
basic difference is that a horizontal
drum offers increased residence time
and holding volume, while a vertical
drum has a smaller footprint. Some
less-used technologies include con-
ventional horizontal filter-separators
as well as cyclonic separators.
However, conventional demisters
are only adequate for removing large-
diameter contaminant droplets. These
separators were originally designed
for bulk liquids removal (hence their
alternative name of slug catchers). In
addition, they are not designed for sol-
ids separation (usually done by a wet
scrubber or a particle filter), with the
exception of cyclonic systems that can
remove large solid particles and some
larger liquid droplets.
Most traditional approaches to
separating liquid droplets, including
demisters with mesh pads, vane packs
or certain horizontal filter-separators,
display rather low efficiencies when
removing sub-micrometer aerosols
from the gas streams. As a result, only
a small number of plants have the nec-
essary means to adequately condition
sour gas entering amine plants.
The most challenging contaminants
to separate in any gas stream are
sub-micrometer liquid aerosols. These
finely divided liquid droplets have
Cover Story
diameters ranging from less than
0.1 m to a few hundred micrometers.
Droplets around the 0.11.0 m range
are the most difficult to remove due
to the absence of a specific separation
mechanism that yields high removal
efficiency. Yet, as Figure 2 shows,
about 50 wt.% of all liquid droplets in
the gas stream are smaller than 1 m,
and 80 wt.% are smaller than 10 m.
The lack of efficiency of most tradi-
tional separators relates to the aerosol
droplet-size distribution, the flow con-
figuration inside the separator, and
the mechanism of liquid droplet inter-
ception. In other words, the separation
medium is simply not capable of inter-
cepting and coalescing sub-microm-
eter liquid droplets, followed by the
liquid unloading required to maintain
proper high-efficiency separation. As
a result, most aerosol contaminants
break out of the system almost intact,
or are re-entrained in the gas flow.
Mesh pads suffer from flooding
when excessive liquids are introduced
and the mesh becomes saturated with
liquid. This leads to efficiency losses
through carry-over. These devices are
also prone to fouling by solid particles,
further reducing efficiency and caus-
ing considerable maintenance costs
and pad failures. Movement of the
mesh pad inside the vessel is some-
what common due to the difficulty of
properly anchoring these devices to
the vessel interior.
Vane packs offer better mechanical
performance and lower differential
pressure, but inferior separation effi-
ciencies. Sub-micrometer liquid drop-
lets in particular do not have enough
momentum to properly contact the
vane surface, so most small droplets
are just carried with the stream.
In many vane packs and some mesh
pads, one cause of inefficiency is the
formation of interfacial layers. Vendors
have tried to mitigate this through
designs including double and single
pockets, and also by combining vane
packs with mesh pads. In general,
however, none of these results in re-
moval efficiencies adequate to protect
sensitive equipment and processes.
Even when the separation medium
is appropriate to the job at hand, the
wrong vessel configuration can reduce
separator performance. Gas routing
inside the separator can be a source of
significant inefficiency, and poor ves-
sel design can actually shatter liquid
aerosols into smaller sizes, adding
more difficulty to an already challeng-
ing separation process. If the gas flow
creates sufficiently large shear forces,
large droplets will break up into suc-
cessively smaller droplets until the
distribution is stabilized by the bal-
ance of energy distribution, gravita-
tional settling and shear.
Microfibers perform better
Demisters are often used in sulfur
recovery units, where care has to
be taken to properly design and size
them because these factors directly
impact contamination removal and
plant performance. So if mesh pads,
vane packs, and cyclones should only
be considered for liquid aerosols with
droplet sizes well above 10 m, what
is the answer for sub-micrometer aero-
sols? Today, the technology of choice is
built around specially formulated mi-
crofiber media. Properly designed and
installed, a coalescer separator incor-
porating microfibers should remove
99.98+ wt.% of all droplets larger than
0.1 m at least in laboratory tests.
Such a high-efficiency sub-microm-
eter coalescer is a specialized piece of
equipment that needs to be carefully
designed depending on the flow, pres-
sure, temperature, gas composition
and contaminants. Many fabricators
say that their systems are capable of
removing sub-micrometer liquid aero-
sols, but most do not correlate these
claims with actual performance. Only
a small number of companies possess
the proper technology to supply sub-
micrometer gas-liquid coalescers.
The sub-micrometer coalescer
should be installed as closely as possi-
ble to the unit or process it is intended
to protect. It should be protected in
turn by an upstream separator de-
signed to remove large droplets typ-
ically a conventional mesh pad. This
extends the on-line life of the coalescer
and minimizes operational costs, as a
mesh pad is much less expensive to re-
place than a coalescer element.
A typical amine inlet-gas separator
therefore has two stages mounted one
above the other. Gas flows upwards
into the lower stage, where large drop-
lets are removed by a mesh pad, or
sometimes a vane pack or cyclone. The
gas then flows upward to the second
vessel, across the microfiber coalesc-
ing medium, and the purified gas exits
from the top of the vessel. Each stage
has a liquid removal system compris-
ing a level control and drain valves.
Typical campaign times for gas co-
alescing elements vary from a few
months to two years, depending on the
amount of solids entering the coalesc-
ing stage and the nature of the addi-
tives present.
Flash tanks and separators
Separation technologies based on pres-
sure decay, velocity changes and resi-
dence time are among the most com-
mon separation systems used in oil
and gas operations. All have the com-
mon theme of using simple concepts to
attempt to solve a separation problem.
One such example is the amine flash
tank. This device removes off-gases by
reducing the pressure of the rich amine
solution downstream of an amine con-
tactor. If designed correctly, the flash
tank also provides limited liquid-liquid
separation capabilities for hydrocarbon
removal in the event that the stream
has a high hydrocarbon content. How-
ever, removal will only apply to free
A
e
r
o
s
o
l

c
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

w
e
i
g
h
t

%
Oil aerosol mean spherical diameter, m
0.01
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
30
20
10
0
0.1 1.0 10 100
FIGURE 2. A typi-
cal oil aerosol size
distribution at the
outlet of a compres-
sor shows that half
of the oil load is in
the hard-to-remove
size range of 1 m
and below
hydrocarbons that separate from the
amine solution over a timescale of min-
utes. Emulsified or dissolved contami-
nants are unaffected.
A number of different flash tank de-
signs are available, but most feature
poor design and short residence times.
Some designs even incorporate metal
mesh internals to promote coalescence
and decrease residence time. Another
reason why these apparently promis-
ing devices often provide poor to mar-
ginal results is their designers poor
understanding of highly fouling, rich
amine streams. Detailed design of the
internals with respect to hydrocarbon
separation is also an area of weak-
ness: many vessel fabricators do not
consider proper location and sizing for
the internal box or weir that serves to
remove hydrocarbons.
Two- and three-phase separators
are similar to flash tanks with the
difference that they are often larger
in size and in some cases do not have
any mist elimination devices at the
gas outlet.
Many two- and three-phase sepa-
rators are sized based on the correct
parameters, but with a lack of under-
standing of liquid and solid loading.
To use coalescing mesh pads correctly,
these should be designed not only ac-
cording to the gas velocity across the
pad using the modified Souders-Brown
equation, but also considering liquid
(that is, water versus liquid sulfur)
and solid (iron sulfide gels versus coke
fines) properties and internal flow ge-
ometry. Any disregard of these aspects
will invariably lead to element flood-
ing and liquid carry-over or fouling
with a differential pressure increase.
Liquid-liquid coalescers
Less commonly used, but quite power-
ful as separation devices, are liquid-
liquid coalescers. These are often used
to remove water or hydrocarbons from
process streams. In the sulfur recov-
ery trail they typically are installed in
rich amine streams, sour water feeds,
mercaptan removal unit outlets and
many others. In sour water strippers
and rich amine streams, hydrocarbon
removal is important for plant reli-
ability and is critical in enabling acid
gases to be processed in sulfur recov-
ery units (by minimizing hydrocar-
bons in the gas stream).
Liquid-liquid coalescers fall basi-
cally into two categories:
Low-efficiency systems with metal
internals
Systemswithmicrofiberinternals
Both perform rather differently and
should be used for different objectives.
While coalescers with metal internals
are good for separating free liquids
and macroemulsions (about 100 m
and larger), coalescers with microfi-
bers are more in line to separate mi-
croemulsions (100 m and smaller),
almost down to solubility limits.
Most liquid-liquid coalescers should
be protected by particle filters or other
solids pre-separation devices. These
not only protect the coalescing pads
or microfiber elements from solids
plugging, but also disrupt solids-stabi-
lized emulsions.
Suspended solids filtration
Most of the filtration in the sulfur
recovery trail occurs in the amine
unit (the sour water stripper, due to
its highly corrosive environment, is
another unit where filtration is impor-
tant). The lean-amine filtration sys-
tem is better defined as lean-amine
conditioning, because filtration is not
the only event taking place. Lean-
amine filtration generally comprises
three separate components, each with
distinct functions and requirements.
None of these can be replaced, elimi-
nated or by-passed, and all of them
are necessary for proper lean-amine
conditioning. Rich-amine filtration is
the most cost-efficient way to purify
the amine solution. Its objective is to
protect the amine solution itself, safe-
guard the lean/rich heat exchanger
from deposition, reduce instability in
amine regeneration, decrease corro-
sion rates in the regeneration stage,
and reduce the solids burden on the
lean-amine filters. It also provides a
way to control high iron concentra-
tions, which can cause unexpected
foaming in the absorber through sud-
den sulfide formation (soluble iron
entering the absorber with the lean
amine rapidly generates insoluble
iron sulfide upon exposure to H
2
S).
Filtration can be applied to either
the full rich-amine flow or to a side
stream. If structured packing is used
in amine regenerators or absorbers,
full upstream filtration is the best way
to protect the packing and minimize
solids deposition. Column packings
make great particle filters.
Most plants find that rich-amine
filtration brings significant process
improvement and enhanced reliabil-
ity. Prior to embarking on rich-amine
filtration, however, a cost/benefit
analysis and return-on-investment
study, taking into account the costs
of maintenance and filter disposal,
are recommended. For amine solu-
tion filtration, the best technology is
still disposable cartridges. These are
relatively low in cost, easy to use, re-
liable, and ensure that contaminants
are actually removed from the refin-
ery. Other systems, such as automatic
filters, generate significant second-
ary impacts in the form of the solids-
laden backwash stream, which is
generally sent to slop tanks or cokers.
Automatic filters do not require fre-
quent maintenance, but their filtra-
tion efficiency is low and in some ap-
plications their overall operating cost
can be higher than that of cartridge
filters. Automatic filters or backwash
systems should preferably not be used
in streams with a high fouling ten-
dency, such amine units and others
with complex mixtures of adherent
suspended solids and hydrocarbons.
Centrifuges are one of the most
promising emerging technologies for
amine purification. However, draw-
backs include high capital costs and
maintenance costs, limited fluid capac-
ity, poor efficiency on small particles,
FILTER EFFICIENCY: DONT RELY ON THE LAB
F
iltration efficiency has always been an area of nebulous and sometimes inconsistent
recommendations. Experience shows that efficiencies measured in the laboratory
under controlled conditions, using a single, uniform contaminant, might not be to-
tally relevant to field conditions. The only way to ascertain real filter efficiency is
through tests on operating systems: measuring particle compositions and size distribu-
tions at the inlet and outlet of the filter. This allows filtration to be optimized as necessary
by changing the properties of the filter medium.
As a starting point for filter optimization, if possible, it is recommended to match the
particle size distribution to the medium in terms of efficiency and micrometer sizes. In
the absence of such information, it is best to start with a filter of lower efficiency and
increase efficiency as needed based on periodic sample analysis. Filter lifetime and cost
are also important to consider.
Cover Story
and challenges in operating under the
highly fouling conditions that charac-
terize amine streams.
Adsorption beds
Adsorption materials used to remove
soluble contaminants include molecu-
lar sieves, alumina, salts, activated
carbon, sand and fruit shells. Contam-
inants removed include certain heat-
stable salts (residues) and their pre-
cursors, amine degradation products,
certain dissolved hydrocarbons and
foam-promoting species.
Activated carbon is perhaps the
most common adsorbent. Many dif-
ferent types of activated carbon are
available, with varying adsorptive
powers for contaminant molecules of
different types and sizes. Differences
in the performance of different grades
of activated carbon originate from
the source of the material coconut
shells, wood, bitumen, fruit skins and
many others and the different ac-
tivation processes used to enhance
surface area and eliminate impurities
from the pores. Some activated car-
bons also contain additives to enhance
their mechanical strength.
Activated carbon for liquid streams
is usually granular in form. Powder
types are more suitable for some gas
applications. Extruded carbons are
now being used more widely; these
tend to have slightly lower surface
areas and somewhat higher differen-
tial pressures.
From a design perspective, activated
carbon beds are simple, but require
good understanding of their operation
and failure modes. Fundamental as-
pects for efficient performance include
correct carbon type, effective bed load-
ing, proper liquid distribution to avoid
channelling, adequate residence time,
correct cross-sectional velocity, and
a suitable ratio of bed diameter to
length. Activated carbon beds are not
filters (see box above): they are not
designed to separate suspended sol-
ids, nor free or emulsified hydrocar-
bons. The presence of these types of
contaminants will rapidly render the
bed useless.
Activated carbon beds release car-
bon fines (small carbon particles) from
fractured carbon granules, and it is
necessary to capture these solids before
they reach any downstream operation.
For amine plants this is generally the
absorber tower, where the presence of
carbon particles will cause foaming,
fouling, and depending on fluid veloc-
ity, erosion corrosion. Any of these can
lead to low sweetening efficiency and
amine losses. More often than not, car-
bon particles are also found in the rich
amine stream, inside and downstream
of the rich-amine flash tank, and even
in the regeneration stage.
Amine recovery
Amine losses have become an area of
great interest lately due to the con-
siderable economic costs of amine re-
placement. Often overlooked is the fact
that the lost amine will end up in a
downstream process unit, wastewater
treatment facility or slop oil tank. Any
of these destinations will have a signif-
icant impact on equipment reliability,
process stability and economics.
Methods of recovering lost amine in-
clude knockout drums with mesh pads
or vane packs, water washes, coalescers
and other more specialized technolo-
gies. Removal of amine from treated
liquid-hydrocarbon streams is impor-
tant due to the high emulsification rate
of the amine in the hydrocarbon, in
addition to its solubility and mechani-
cal entrainment. In this case, water
washes and other separation systems
have been implemented with varying
degrees of success. Conventional water
washes tend to use large amounts of
water and have low amine-recovery ef-
ficiencies. Today, there are newer and
more technologically advanced systems
called extractive separation technolo-
gies. These devices are capable of re-
covering amines much more efficiently
and with lower costs, reduced water
use and minimal footprint.
TYPICAL FLUID CONTAMI-
NATION SCENARIOS
In principle, a well-operated amine
unit has no need for filtration. Such an
ideal system is seldom encountered,
however. In the real world, filtration
and related separation technologies
may be the only line of defense against
serious upsets in amine units, and in
other plants too. Deploying the best
and most advanced contamination-
control devices helps to ensure pro-
cess stability, equipment reliability,
and enhanced throughput. Separation
technologies mitigate a series of prob-
lems commonly found in the sulfur re-
covery trail, such as the following:
Fouling. This is deposition of solids
and hydrocarbons along with other
components to form a coating over
equipment surfaces typically in hot,
low-velocity locations, such as heat
exchangers and reactor columns. Foul-
ing has many mechanisms, but there
is some agreement that there are two
main routes: (a) a free radical polym-
erization, condensation or decomposi-
tion of dissolved species present in the
stream, or (b) deposition of suspended
matter present in the stream. Today,
fouling is generally prevented by chem-
ical means (free radical inhibitors such
as hindered phenols) or by mechanical
means, such as filtration. Both methods
can be effective, depending on the foul-
ing mechanism and process conditions.
Fouling also leads to energy losses and
flow reductions and is a source of major
maintenance efforts.
Corrosion. Typically, where there is
fouling, the next natural progression is
electrochemical corrosion beneath the
fouling deposit. This is caused by el-
evated local concentration of corrosion
initiators and the formation of elec-
trochemical cells. Usually if fouling is
A CARBON BED IS NOT A CARBON FILTER
T
he core of lean-amine conditioning is the activated carbon bed. It is critical to re-
member that carbon beds are not filters. They are designed to remove dissolved
species via surface attraction forces (adsorption), and as such it is always necessary
to keep the surface of the activated carbon clear of solids.
To achieve this, the carbon bed has to incorporate a suitable pre-filter designed to
remove suspended solid particles, which would otherwise block the pores on which
activated carbon relies for adsorption.
An activated carbon bed should show only a small pressure drop, if any. If the pres-
sure drop is significant, the system is already saturated with solids or emulsions, with a
high probability that the activity of the bed has been long extinguished. The activated
carbon is commonly tested for lifetime and activity using empirical foaming tests at the
bed inlet and outlet. More sophisticated spectroscopic tests require removing samples of
the activated carbon.
The activated carbon bed also requires a post-filter designed to retain any fractured
or residual activated carbon particles present at the outlet stream of the bed. Carbon
residues can stabilize foam due to their small size and density, and can also cause de-
position and erosion corrosion in pipes and equipment.
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minimized, corrosion rates will be low-
ered as well. Some plants also suffer
from erosion corrosion, which occurs
when hard, dense particles strike the
material surface, removing passivation
layers and the metal beneath. Corro-
sion mechanisms are often complex.
Heat-stable salts and amine de-
composition. Heat-stable salts are
amine salt contaminants that do not
decompose under normal regeneration
conditions. Despite the name, some
heat-stable salts will break down at
temperatures higher than those rou-
tinely found in the plant. It is believed
that the formation of many of these
salts is accelerated by the presence
of suspended solid contaminants and
mediated by dissolved metal ions such
as iron. Solid surfaces possess many
active sites for heterogeneous reac-
tions and are also rich in metal spe-
cies that can catalyze salt formation,
which increases the concentration of
heat-stable salts and promotes amine
decomposition. In many cases, reduc-
ing suspended solids and hydrocarbons
in the amine solution will decrease the
rate of heat-stable salt formation.
Foaming. This is generally produced
by the association of gases and liquids
stabilized by surfactants, which lower
surface tension at oil/water interfaces.
These surfactants can be solids (such
as micrometer-size iron sulfide par-
ticles) or individual molecules (such
as compressor lubricant). Foaming in-
variably leads to amine loss and lower
efficiency. Removal of solids and hydro-
carbons greatly reduces foaming and
hence the need for antifoam additives.
In amine units, however, other factors
can also lead to foaming, and these can
have many root causes. Hence, proper
plant evaluation (process, equipment,
feed composition) is required to deter-
mine the source of foaming. Antifoam
agents should be used with caution
as in large doses they may actually
promote foaming, and they may sepa-
rate out in certain filtration systems.
Remember that antifoam agents treat
only the symptom, not the cause.
Regenerator protection and acid
gas quality. Filtration and separa-
tion systems on the rich-amine stream
are designed to protect the regenera-
tion section of an amine plant and to
protect the sulfur recovery unit by fa-
cilitating the delivery of good-quality
acid gas. This is done by ensuring
that the amine is free of contaminants
that would foul the rich/lean heat ex-
changer, increasing the reboiler duty
and generally causing corrosion at the
bottom of the regenerator. More plants
are now adopting rich-amine filtra-
tion in addition to lean-amine filtra-
tion. In fact, both stages are not only
necessary but complement each other.
Removal of contaminants, such as
suspended solids and hydrocarbons,
from the rich-amine stream ensures
a better acid-gas quality with better,
smoother and easier amine regen-
eration. The ingress of contaminants
such as hydrocarbons into the sulfur
recovery unit not only produces soot,
but can also seriously compromise the
catalysts physical integrity. Hydro-
carbons compete with H
2
S in the ini-
tial oxidation stage, resulting in con-
siderable variability and mismatched
oxygen demand in the stoichiometry
of the modified Claus reaction.
Low sweetening efficiency. Filtra-
tion is designed to remove suspended
solids from the amine solution. It is
known that lean amine with a high
solids content is less able to transfer
H
2
S efficiently. This is caused by mul-
tiple layers of solids at the interface of
the gas (or liquid) and the amine solu-
tion, essentially blocking mass trans-
fer. Good-quality amine solutions with
minimal contaminants perform much
better, promote process stability, pre-
vent equipment damage, save energy,
and so lower the overall annual opera-
tional cost of the plant.
The following sections present a
compendium of recommendations and
guidelines for proper filtration and
separation in the sulfur recovery trail.
This is not a definitive recipe, because
every plant is different, but it is a
fairly comprehensive summary of ex-
perience gained in many years of field
tests around the world. Many of the
messages here will have application
beyond the sulfur recovery trail.
CONTAMINATION SOURCES
IN SULFUR RECOVERY
Hydrogenation plants. Inlet con-
tamination, recycled hydrogen con-
tamination and outlet contamination
Amine units. Inlet contamination,
outlet carryover and amine solution
contamination
Sour water plants. Inlet contamina-
tion, outlet contamination, and acid
gas contamination
Sulfur reaction plants (includ-
ing sulfur recovery units). Inlet
contamination
Mercaptan removal plants. Inlet
contamination, outlet contamination
and caustic solution contamination
Filtration and separation
systems considerations
Knowingtheendgoal,andthecon-
straints on plant operation and cost
Protecting equipment from fouling
or degradation
Meetingfluidspecifications
Enhancing equipment reliability
and stabilizing the process
Ensuring environmental compli-
ance, reducing waste and emissions
Lowering maintenance effort and
cost
Reducing overall contamination re-
moval costs
Enabling the unit to increase
throughput
Criteria for selecting filtration
and separation systems
Analyzetheprocessstreamforcon-
taminant types and concentrations
Understand particle sizes and
shapes
Sample over a period of time to de-
tect process variations
Understand the contamination
sources; this may lead to different
solutions
Filter efficiency ratings form a ref-
erence point from which to start
perform adjustments with the
unit operational and with on-line
sampling
Considerfutureexpansions
Carefullychoosethelocationforin-
stalling the system
Considermaintenanceandenviron-
mental aspects
Filtration and separation
systems failure modes
Improper technology for the
application
Incorrect compatibility (chemical,
thermal or mechanical)
Deficientvesseldesign
Inappropriate or deficient sealing
surfaces
Incorrect media and efficiency
Lack of or incorrect maintenance
Instrumentation deficiencies (or
lack of necessary instrumentation)
Change in feed conditions
Concluding remarks
Many years of field experience teach
that a key step in process control is
proper control of contamination. Most
plants that do not take this step strug-
gle with high operational costs and
low reliability, in addition to many
detrimental technical, economic and
environmental aspects.
There is no significant disadvantage
to implementing enhanced separation
and filtration besides a marginal in-
crease in capital cost. One might tend
to believe that cost will be prohibitive,
but experience shows that this is not
the case, and operational costs can
actually be lower. On the other hand,
there are real and serious issues in-
volved with neglecting separation and
filtration systems, using systems with
deficient designs, or simply not giving
the proper attention to contamination
control. Invariably, any capital savings
from low-cost separation and filtration
will ultimately lead to exponentially
higher processing costs, low reliability
and frequent unit upsets.
It is also important to understand
that each plant and process has its
own equilibrium point where the cost
of contamination control is acceptable
and the residual contamination level
is tolerable. Users, engineering firms
and suppliers have the responsibility
to be involved in finding such balance,
with the objective of supplying the
right separation and filtration solu-
tion for each individual plant.
A holistic understanding of the
case, and why a given separation
system is required, is critical in de-
signing, troubleshooting, optimizing,
operating and maintaining systems.
This will provide positive process
and economic benefits, allowing each
plant to take full advantage of the
installed process capabilities and to
maximize throughput.
Edited by Charles Butcher

Author
David Engel is the senior
consultant and co-founder of
Sulphur Experts, Filtration
Division (www.sulphurexperts
.com) and managing director of
Nexo Solutions LLC (21 Water-
way, Suite 300, The Woodlands,
Tex. 77380; Phone: 832-296-
6624; Email: david.engel@nexo-
solutions.com, Website: www.
nexosolutions.com). He has
more than 20 years of indus-
trial experience in many areas ranging from sen-
sors, corrosion-resistant materials to separation
technologies. He is the inventor in more than 15
U.S. patents, and has developed new businesses
and technologies, and executed projects, for East-
man Kodak, Eli Lilly, Pentair, General Electric
and Sulphur Experts. He holds a B.S. in industrial
chemistry and a Ph.D. in organic chemistry, and is
Six-Sigma certified. He is a member of the Ameri-
can Chemical Society (ACS), and the Gas Proces-
sors Association (GPA). He currently is the presi-
dent of the American Filtration and Separations
Society (AFSS), Southwest Region.
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any chemical manufactur-
ing processes require large
amounts of energy, and chem-
ical companies are faced with
the constant challenge of determining
how to use that energy as sustainably
as possible. More and more chemical
companies are prioritizing a range
of energy efficiency measures aimed
at decreasing energy use and costs
while reducing environmental impact.
One of the most promising energy-
efficiency technologies being used in
the chemical process industries (CPI)
today is cogeneration or combined
heat and power (CHP).
Cogeneration offers financial, oper-
ational and environmental benefits by
concurrently producing electricity and
heat from a single energy source. It
has the potential to convert more than
80% of the energy obtained from fossil
fuel into power and steam (Table 1).
Eastman Chemical Co. is one organi-
zation leveraging cogeneration to boost
the efficiency of its manufacturing op-
erations. The company today meets
more than 90% of its global electricity
needs with cogeneration, resulting in
40% less fuel used, and significantly
fewer greenhouse gases (GHGs) emis-
sions than with the conventional uses
of fossil energy. At its Kingsport, Tenn.
facility alone, the company saves the
equivalent GHG emissions of taking
more than 130,000 cars off the road
each year by using cogeneration.
Adding to cogenerations potential
for the CPI and other energy-intensive
manufacturing industries is the fact
that the technology is adaptable, scal-
able and can be seamlessly integrated
into existing manufacturing facilities
with the right planning and expertise.
About cogeneration
The key advantage of the cogeneration
process is its capture and recovery of
waste heat that is normally rejected
in a typical electricity generation cycle
(for example, Rankine or Brayton cy-
cles) to create additional useful en-
ergy. By recovering so-called waste
heat from coal and natural gas cy-
cles that would normally be released
during electricity generation, cogen-
eration reduces the total quantity of
fuel that would otherwise be used to
produce heat or steam (Figure 1). Ac-
cording to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA; Washington,
D.C.), 50% of coals energy is wasted
if it is used conventionally, and more
than 60% is wasted if coal is converted
to electricity in a traditional power
plant. Cogeneration effectively uses
this wasted energy for chemical pro-
duction plants heating requirements,
allowing manufacturers to boost effi-
ciency and reduce the environmental
impact of their operations.
Because many traditional CPI man-
ufacturing plants purchase electricity
and use boilers to make steam, they can
be modified to include cogeneration ca-
pabilities. To implement cogeneration
processes at a traditional chemical
plant, an electricity generation step
in the manufacturing process must be
added prior to the export of steam. In
Feature Report
Feature Report Part 1
Ray Ratheal
Eastman Chemical Co.
Producing electricity
and heat from a
single energy source
offers operational,
environmental
and financial benefits
Boosting Energy Efficiency in Chemical Manufacturing:
A Look at Cogeneration

49% Overall capacity 75% Overall capacity
Conventional
generation
Combined
heat and power
5 MW natural gas
combustion turbine
98 Units fuel
56 Units fuel
Boiler fuel
Boiler
Heat Heat
Combined
heat and
power
(CHP)
154 Units fuel
Power
station fuel
Power plant
Efficiency: 31%
Efficiency: 80%
30 Units
electricity
100 Units fuel
45 Units
steam
FIGURE 1. Generating both electricity and steam is a much more efficient way to
extract energy from a fuel
TABLE 1. POTENTIAL COGENERATION EFFICIENCY
Type Efficiency, % Type Efficiency, %
Steam turbine 80 Gas turbine 75
Diesel engine 75 Fuel cell 73
Natural gas 75 Microturbine 70
Source: U.S. EPA
one common cogeneration configura-
tion (Figure 2), natural gas is burned
in a combustion turbine connected to
an electric generator to produce elec-
tricity. The hot exhaust gases from
the combustion turbine are routed
into a heat recovery steam genera-
tor (HRSG), a steam boiler that uses
the heat in the exhaust gases (some-
times supplemented with additional
natural gas firing) to heat feedwater
into steam. That steam can be used
to power a steam turbine connected
to another load (an electric generator
that makes electricity for the plant, or
to drive a large piece of equipment),
or to supply steam directly for process
heating needs, or both.
Another common example of co-
generation is the use of a traditional
topping boiler to produce high-pres-
sure steam that generates electricity
in a steam turbine-generator, which
then exhausts steam at lower tem-
peratures and pressures to match the
thermal needs of the manufacturing
processes. In general, cogeneration
processes can be configured in a vari-
ety of ways to accommodate the ratio
of thermal-to-electric energy required,
temperatures and pressures of steam
needed by manufacturing or mechani-
cal drive systems, the scale of the sys-
tem, the types of fuels available, and
a variety of site-specific technical and
economic factors.
Adapting and installing cogen
While most CPI plants can be con-
figured to incorporate cogeneration
processes, there are a few common
hurdles that engineers must recognize
and overcome when implementing the
necessary technology.
Energy balance. The primary con-
cern for engineers is to balance the
ratio of thermal energy to electrical en-
ergy. This ratio can shift significantly
depending on the facilitys load profile
and its appetite for exporting electric-
ity to the grid, and is one of the key
variables that will dictate the design
engineers choice of the prime mover.
In general, a project with a high ratio
of thermal-to-electric power (for ex-
ample, 80% thermal to 20% electrical)
will generally favor a topping boiler.
Conversely, a project with a low ratio
of thermal-to-electric power (for in-
stance, 60% thermal to 40% electrical)
will generally favor a combustion tur-
bine with a HRSG with or without
a steam turbine generator.
The largest integrated cogenera-
tion site of the authors company in
Kingsport, Tenn. has operated inde-
pendently from the electricity grid for
decades by carefully matching the sig-
nificant thermal demand growth with
boilers and both turbine generators
and mechanical-drive turbines. The
blend of electric motors and mechani-
cal-drive turbines resulted in a robust
system with a variety of flowpaths to
move steam between different pres-
sure levels while ensuring both reli-
ability and thermal efficiency. The
companys integrated cogeneration
site in Longview, Tex. uses a combus-
tion turbine cogeneration system and
takes advantage of the opportunity to
export electricity to the grid while also
supplying steam to manufacturing as-
sets at the site.
Scale. Another key consideration
for engineers implementing cogen-
eration processes is the scale of the
project. The large capital cost of in-
stalling combustion turbines or top-
ping boilers can be justified if large,
stable energy demands exist (for
example, tens or hundreds of mega-
watts of electric demand). However, a
different kind of prime mover would
be more suited to small energy de-
mands. For example, a reciprocat-
ing internal combustion engine with
heat recovery from the jacket cooling
water may be appropriate for a sys-
Transformer
Natural gas
Electricty
Electricty
sales
to grid
Electricity
sales to host
Heat recovery
steam
generators
High pressure
steam sales
to host
Low-pressure
steam sales
to host
Generator
Station
services
Steam
turbine
Gas
turbine
Gas
turbine
Energy
host
FIGURE 2.
A typical cogeneration
coniguration is shown here
Source: ATCO Power
Feature Report
tem with a 500-kW peak electric load
and a 15 psig steam demand.
Fuel available. The types of fuels
available also influence the choice of
prime movers (Figure 3). The avail-
ability and cost of natural gas, fuel
oil, biomass or coal should be weighed
against the operational, environmen-
tal and capital cost impacts of the
prime-mover selection. For example,
if a facility was co-located with a pulp
mill that had an attractive source
of hog fuel (bark), a topping stoker
or fluidized-bed boiler would be the
most appropriate choice, as opposed
to a combustion turbine. Likewise,
many manufacturing facilities re-
cover useful energy from second-
ary materials generated at the site,
which may be more readily fired in
certain types of engines.
Exporting electricity. An additional
variable for deploying cogeneration
capabilities is the ability to sell power
not needed by the manufacturing fa-
cility. A thorough understanding of
the regional electricity grid (the elec-
tricity market) will help the designer
and operator determine whether sell-
ing power to the grid is worth the
incremental investment in capacity,
and help optimize the configuration
and the best operating rate. For ex-
ample, if external electricity demand
exists and the pricing is attractive,
engineers could design the system
to generate additional electric power
during peak periods to maximize the
economic value of the fuel in addi-
tion to fulfilling the thermal demand
of the manufacturing operations. The
additional capital required to create
electricity for export beyond the sites
electrical and thermal requirements
(for example, combustion-turbine sys-
tems versus Rankine cycles) can be
analyzed to see if the incremental re-
turn on invested capital justifies the
investment. If analysis of the sites
unique economic drivers are favorable,
the designer can configure a cogenera-
tion system that possesses the flex-
ibility to satisfy internal thermal and/
or electric needs while also capturing
value from the electric grid.
It is well understood that it is gen-
erally more expensive and less effi-
cient to move thermal energy than to
move electricity. Most cogeneration
systems are optimized when located
in close proximity to the steam de-
mand. However, if exporting power to
the grid requires a new high-voltage
transmission corridor, the engineer
must weigh the relative costs and ben-
efits of transporting both thermal and
electric energy when choosing a site.
This may require creative reconfigur-
ing or the acquisition of new land or
rights of way, and can be a key consid-
eration for engineers implementing a
cogeneration-powered plant.
It is also well understood that a co-
generation system is rarely the low-
est-capital-cost approach to supplying
energy. However, the additional gains
in efficiency result in lower life-cycle
energy costs to the site, and those sys-
tems that also export power to the grid
can become a profit center. These fac-
tors vary widely depending on a vari-
ety of site-specific technical and finan-
cial considerations, but cogeneration
is often a clear-cut winner when eval-
uated on a life-cycle cost basis. This
can be especially true when a sites
steam generators require expensive
upgrades due to end-of-life consider-
ations or environmental mandates. In
that scenario, evaluating cogeneration
as an alternative technology is similar
to the decision to purchase a new car
versus investing in extensive repairs
to a worn-out older vehicle; while the
new car carries a higher initial cost,
the long-term benefits are realized
and often justify the up-front cost.
Alternatively, when a site needs to
expand its steam-generating capac-
ity, cogeneration offers both higher
efficiency and a smaller footprint com-
pared to installing a steam genera-
tor without the capacity to generate
electricity. Due to environmental con-
straints, cogeneration on a larger scale
may offer the most cost-advantaged
method of site expansion. Whatever
the site-specific conditions, cogenera-
tion often has an advantaged return
on invested capital when evaluated on
a life-cycle basis compared to replac-
ing or upgrading older boilers.
Long-term benefits
Cogeneration provides meaningful
environmental and economic benefits.
With electric power and fuel/raw ma-
terial pricing volatility, cogeneration
is a steady and cost-effective thermal
and electricity source. Many major
environmental groups and policymak-
ers concerned about GHG emissions
strongly support cogeneration due
to its lower GHG footprint compared
to using fossil fuels to generate ther-
Fuel
Heat
Power
Cogeneration
plant
Natural gas
Coal
Biomass
Biogas
Municipal water
Heating oil
Bioethanol
Vegetable oil
Engine/generator
Gas turbine/generator
Fuel cell Steam turbine/generator
FIGURE 3. A wide range of fuels can be used for cogeneration. The availability
and cost of a given fuel will determine the type of boiler required
Source: Cogen Europe
mal energy and purchasing electricity
from relatively inefficient electric util-
ities. The U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) cites cogeneration as one of the
most promising energy-efficient tech-
nologies available, in part because it
combines environmental effectiveness
with economic viability and improved
competitiveness. In fact, the DOE com-
mitted to investing nearly $25 million
annually to improving technology for
cogeneration programs.
Most recently, President Barack
Obama signed an Executive Order on
Aug. 30, 2012 to facilitate investments
in industrial energy, including cogen-
eration systems. The Executive Order
established a new national goal of 40
GW of new cogeneration processes by
2020, a 50% increase from 2012. Ac-
cording to President Obamas Execu-
tive Order, meeting this cogeneration
goal would save energy users $10 bil-
lion per year, result in $4080 billion
in new capital investment in chemi-
cal manufacturing and other facilities
that would create American jobs, and
would reduce emissions equivalent to
25 million cars.
In addition to support from Presi-
dent Obama, the DOE and EPA, many
chemical companies, including the au-
thors, are working with the American
Chemistry Council, Business Round-
table, International Energy Credit As-
sociation and Industrial Energy Con-
sumers of America to promote policies
that support implementing cogenera-
tion processes so manufacturers can
realize its environmental and eco-
nomic benefits.
Now more than ever with unprec-
edented attention paid to sustainabil-
ity, energy use and bottom-line costs
chemical engineers should consider
proven processes, such as cogenera-
tion, to improve efficiency and envi-
ronmental footprints. Moving forward,
the CPI should set the standard for all
energy-intensive industries by deploy-
ing cogeneration technology and un-
covering additional energy-efficiency
methods to complement and expand
upon existing processes.
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
Author
Ray Ratheal has served as
the director of Energy and
Climate Change Policy, Feed-
stock and Energy Procure-
ment for Eastman Chemi-
cal Company (P.O.Box 431,
Kingsport, TN; Phone; 423-
229-8243; Email: ratheal@
eastman.com) for more than
ten years. In this capacity,
his organization manages
the supply chain and market
interfaces for some of Eastmans cogeneration
facilities, which meet 90% of the chemical manu-
facturers global electricity needs. These cogen-
eration facilities are a contributing factor to the
companys designation of the U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agencys 2012 Energy Star Part-
ner of the Year Award, as well as the American
Chemistry Councils Responsible Care Energy
Efficiency Awards for the past 19 consecutive
years. Ratheal received a B.S.Ch.E. from the
University of Arizona and completed the Execu-
tive Development Program at Texas A&M. He
serves on several trade association committees,
including the American Chemistry Council En-
ergy Committee, and is the past chairman of the
Industrial Energy Consumers of America.
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StarterDoor Panel
Raceway Wall
UNIQUE RANGE FINDER SENSOR
WorksonWide-rangeofMotors
SimpliesInstallation
PUMP POWER
PUMPING
VALVE CLOSING
VALVE OPENING
NO FLUID
T
he continuing development of nat-
ural gas extraction from shale de-
posits, known simply as shale gas,
is fueling the growth of simple-
and combined-cycle power plants. Much
coal-fired power is being replaced by
these technologies. In addition, though,
simple- and combined-cycle units are
well suited for power and steam pro-
duction at industrial facilities.
The combustion turbine
Back in the heyday of large power-
plant construction, primarily from
the 1950s through the 1970s, the
most popular technologies were com-
plex coal-fired or nuclear facilities,
with hydro power providing much of
the remainder. Concerns regarding
nuclear safety, global climate change,
and quite frankly, cost, have led to
movement away from large steam
generators to smaller units, and in
many cases decentralized power. This
includes chemical process industries
(CPI) and other manufacturing fa-
cilities that produce process steam
and at least some of their own power,
rather than relying solely on electric-
ity from utilities.
The core of many modern systems
is the combustion turbine (CT), a
simplified outline of which is shown
in Figure 1.
A CT operates similarly to a jet en-
gine via the following steps, which are
part of a fundamental thermodynamic
cycle, the Brayton Cycle (Figure 2).
1. Inlet air is compressed and injected
into the turbine. The compressor is
attached to the turbine shaft, and
thus the compressor and turbine ro-
tate in unison
2. Fuel, typically natural gas but occa-
sionally fuel oil, is injected and ig-
nited in the compressed air stream
3. The expanding gas drives the
turbine
4. Hot exhaust, at 850F or higher,
exits the turbine
Like other energy-producing devices,
most CTs are equipped with auxiliary
features to improve efficiency, and we
will examine some of these later in this
article. For the time being, key points of
a combustion turbine include very fast
start times, low capital cost as com-
pared to coal or nuclear, simplicity of
fuel feed and minimal operations and
maintenance issues. These benefits are
quite important in the power industry,
especially the fast start times dur-
ing peak power periods when demand
skyrockets. However, for industrial
processes with continuous steam and
electrical requirements, steady and ef-
ficient operation is required. Enter the
combined-cycle plant.
The combined-cycle
The downside to simple-cycle op-
eration is that the turbines are only
about 35% efficient. Much energy es-
capes with the turbine exhaust. This
is where the combined-cycle design, of
which many readers are undoubtedly
familiar, shines forth.
With combined-cycle, a heat recov-
ery steam generator (HRSG) is placed
at the exhaust of the combustion tur-
bine or turbines to utilize the exhaust
heat for steam production. While many
HRSG designs are available, the most
common is the multi-pressure, drum-
type unit as depicted in Figure 3.
In this particular design, the con-
densate is split between the circuits,
with a relatively small flow to the low-
pressure (LP) steam network and the
bulk of the flow to the intermediate-
pressure (IP) and high-pressure (HP)
circuits. Steam extraction may be
Feature Report
Feature Report Part 2
Some tips on maximizing the output
from a cogeneration plant,
as well as for maintaining
proper HRSG chemistry
Combined Heat and Power for the CPI:
Modern Concepts
Compressor
Combustor
Turbine
Exhaust
Work
Air
4 1
2 3
T
s
1
2
3
4
Brad Buecker
Kiewit Power Engineers
FIGURE 2. An ideal Brayton cycle is
shown on this temperature versus en-
tropy plot
FIGURE 1. This schematic shows the basics
of a combustion turbine that follow the four
steps of the Brayton cycle (shown in Figure 2)
taken from any of the circuits, or, as is
most efficient, from a non-condensing
turbine. A less complex scenario that
may be better for cogeneration appli-
cations is a combustion turbine with a
single-pressure HRSG perhaps with-
out a steam turbine, where the HRSG
operation is less complex than with
multi-pressure units. For example, a
colleague and I recently prepared the
water balance for a proposed power
project in which one scenario called
for two combined-cycle units, one with
a CT and a three-pressure HRSG, and
the other with a CT and a single-pres-
sure HRSG that partly supplies steam
for power augmentation. This example
illustrates the flexibility that is possi-
ble with combined-cycle generation.
Net efficiencies of combined-cycle
units for power production have closed
in on 60%, while up to 80% efficiency
is possible for co-generation. However,
capacity and efficiency are greatly
influenced by inlet air conditions
temperature foremost but also hu-
midity.
Maximizing capacity output
Figure 4 illustrates what happens to
aeroderivative combustion-turbine
capacity with increasing ambient air
temperatures. Similar effects occur in
larger frame units, albeit without a
subcooling loss of efficiency.
To this point in time, the two most
common methods for turbine
inlet-air cooling have been
mechanical chilling or wa-
ter-fed evaporative cooling.
With the former, parasitic
power load may be in the 1
to 3 MW range. Evaporative
coolers on the other hand, as
their name implies, chill inlet
air by evaporation of water
spread upon an inlet media.
Water requirements for these
coolers may range from 30 to
80 gal/min. Also, evaporative
coolers can only provide chill-
ing down to a fixed approach
to wet-bulb temperature.
A third method is gaining
interest, absorption refrig-
eration turbine inlet air con-
ditioning (ARCTIC), which
mitigates or eliminates both
parasitic power consump-
tion and water requirement
issues, while offering precise
control over inlet air temperatures.
Such control can be quite important
for plants based in hot or humid en-
vironments. ARCTIC technology uses
the extremely well-known process of
closed-cycle, ammonia-based absorp-
tion refrigeration, with turbine ex-
haust heat as the energy source.
Figure 5 outlines the general flow
schematic for ARCTIC technology. The
process relies upon classic thermody-
namic refrigeration. The turbine ex-
haust warms an aqueous ammonia so-
lution in heat exchanger coils (HRVG
on the diagram) located within the ex-
haust-gas path. The ammonia is then
separated in the rectifier to produce a
nearly pure vapor, which is condensed,
reduced in pressure, and then allowed
to expand within turbine inlet air-cool-
ing coils (TIAC) located in the inlet air
stream. The pure ammonia discharge
from the cooling coils is blended with
the aqueous ammonia bottoms prod-
uct from the rectifier (a process that
requires additional heat exchangers
due to the exothermic reaction), and is
re-pressurized for return to the HRVG.
Thus, the process is a closed loop, with
all equipment but the TIAC and HRVG
coils located on a single skid.
A standard skid-mounted cooling
unit can provide over 2,000 tons of
chilling at 220 kW of auxiliary load.

Deaerator (DA)
LP SH
steam
IP SH
steam
HP SH steam
IP SH
steam
IP LP
Steam turbine
HP
LP
drum
LP
drum
LP
drum
Condenser
Reheater
LP
blowdown
IP
blowdown
FW
pump
DA
pump
Preheater Economizer Superheat
or reheat
CT = Combustion
turbine
DA = Deaerator
FW = Feedwater
HP = High pressure
IP = Intermediate
pressure
LP = Low pressure
SH = Superheated
LEGEND
HP
blowdown
Attemperation
water
Condensate
storage
Makeup
system
Condensate
polisher
(if used)
Steam
from IP
(if used)
Condensate
pump
CT
exhaust
Steam injection
to CT
(if used)
Combustion
turbine
-40
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Ambient temperature, F
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
r

o
u
t
p
u
t
,

M
W
FIGURE 3. The most common type of HRSG is the multi-pressure drum type. This schematic is
for a three-pressure HRSG
FIGURE 4. This
graph shows the
degradation of
aeroderivative
combustion-tur-
bine efficiency with
increasing ambient
air temperature
above 48F
Feature Report
The parasitic power load for a
mechanical compressor to pro-
vide similar chilling ranges from
1.6 to 3.2 MW. During one sum-
mer day in 2011 at a plant in the
southwestern U.S., an ARCTIC
system maintained an inlet air
temperature of 48F (5C) when
the ambient temperature was
107F (42C). An added feature
of this process, and one that is
gaining interest in arid climates,
is that cooling coils may be
placed downstream of the HRVG
to recover water from the flu-
egas. As is well known, the com-
bustion process, and particularly
that from gas turbines, produces
a significant quantity of water due to
the reaction of hydrogen in the meth-
ane fuel with oxygen.
CH
4
+ 2O
2
CO
2
+ 2H
2
O
Recovery of fluegas moisture can po-
tentially turn some plants from fresh
water consumers to water producers.
As an example, consider a combustion
turbine fired with natural gas at a fuel
flowrate of 87,000 lb/h. We will use
three simplifying assumptions:
Natural gas composition is 100%
methane (CH
4
)
Completecombustionisachievedin
the turbine
The process recovers 100% of the
water produced by combustion
Stoichiometric calculations show a
water recovery rate of 390 gal/min.
Given that natural gas is typically a
very clean fuel, the recovered water
could easily be returned to the inlet of
the plant makeup-water system or to
other processes. An obviously impor-
tant issue with fluegas water recovery
is the effect that chilling would have
on the buoyancy of the fluegas stream,
and in turn, how this might influence
fan design and air-permitting issues.
In addition to inlet air cooling, other
techniques are available for maximiz-
ing power during peak-load conditions.
One method, whose primary purpose is
to control of oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
formation, is injection of demineralized
water into the turbine. The demineral-
ized water lowers the combustion tem-
perature, which is the driving force for
NOx formation. But, the water adds
mass to the combustion gases and
improves capacity, albeit at a bit of
an efficiency penalty. Another option
that I have seen in a few recent power
applications is steam injection to the
combustion turbine. This process is
primarily utilized for power augmen-
tation (PAG) when an extra few mega-
watts are needed from the plant. One
drawback to PAG and water injection
for NOx control is that extra makeup
water is necessary to produce the fluids
for turbine injection. This requirement
can increase the size of makeup-water
treatment equipment or demineralized
water storage capacity. The reader will
note that I have emphasized deminer-
alized water for these applications, as
anything of lower quality injected into
the combustion turbine would cause
fouling and corrosion.
Dont neglect HRSG chemistry
In 2008, I discussed the importance
of maintaining proper chemistry in
CPI steam generators during regular
operation and times of shutdown [2].
These principles also apply to heat
recovery steam generators. The fol-
lowing list sums up many of the most
important details of steam generator
chemistry that have evolved over the
past decades, and particularly within
the past 20 years:
Evenseeminglyminorcontaminant
in-leakage to condensates can result
in major problems, most notably
steam-generator tube failures that
cause unit shutdowns
For systems with water-cooled
steam condensers, the condenser
can be the most dramatic source of
contaminant in-leakage. Impurity
introduction via a condenser-tube
leak has been known to cause boiler
tube failures within weeks, and
sometimes even days or hours
Too often at CPI or other manufac-
turing plants, insufficient attention
is given to condensate return from
process equipment to the steam gen-
erator. The impurities introduced by
contaminated condensate may be
as harmful as those introduced by
condenser tube leaks. Condensate
recovery can be quite cost effective,
but only if it is properly treated to
prevent boiler contamination. Treat-
ment may include filtration, ion ex-
change, or other techniques
Unless the condensate/feedwater
system of a high-pressure steam
generator contains copper alloys, the
use of oxygen scavengers is highly
discouraged. These are now known
to propagate flow-accelerated cor-
rosion (FAC) in feedwater systems,
economizers, and the low-pressure
evaporator of HRSGs, among other
locations (for more, see Chem. Eng.;
March 2013, pp. 3840). FAC-induced
failures have caused a number of fa-
talities at power plants in the last 25
years. The same phenomenon will
occur in CPI steam generators
The most common treatment for
IP and HP circuits in HRSGs is
the program known as phosphate
continuum, and most commonly at
the low end of a 1 to 10 parts-per-
million (ppm) phosphate range.
This program was developed by
the Electric Power Research Insti-
Refrigerant
Condenser
Heat
exchanger
Absorber
Fuel
Spray
receiver
Solution
heat
exchanger
Rectifier
Air
TIAC
Compressor Turbine
Generator
HRVG
Exhaust
C T
FIGURE 5. This generic low diagram shows the operation of the ARCTIC system
tute in response to problems with
earlier phosphate programs, and
calls for the use of only tri-sodium
phosphate with perhaps a slight
amount of caustic at startup. Al-
ternatives include straight caustic
treatment (at less than 1 ppm free
sodium hydroxide) and all-volatile
treatment, where only the ammonia
or amine utilized for feedwater pH
control provides the treatment for
the steam-generator circuits
For all of the above items, accurate
and reliable online monitoring sys-
tems need to be in place to detect
upsets. Operators of the steam gen-
erator must be properly trained to
recognize off-specification conditions
Improper boiler layup can cause ex-
cessive corrosion that not only dam-
ages components but generates mas-
sive amounts of corrosion products
that travel to the steam generator
and deposit on boiler tube surfaces.
Under-deposit corrosion via several
possible mechanisms is a primary
cause of boiler-tube failures. Ideally,
for short-term shutdowns where
water is left in the steam generator,
nitrogen blanketing can be utilized
to protect the system from air in-
leakage.Ifnitrogenblanketingisnot
an option, then other wet lay-up pro-
cedures should be established. Also,
very reliable technologies now exist
to remove dissolved oxygen from
steam generator fill water. This is
an important issue, particularly for
units that face frequent shutdowns
and layups, and where demineral-
ized water and condensate are stored
in atmospherically vented tanks [3]
Readers who are interested in learning
more about steam-generator makeup-
water treatment, chemistry, and
layup issues are encouraged to attend
the annual Electric Utility Chemistry
Workshop (www.conferences.illinois.
edu/eucw).
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
References
1. Buecker, B., Steam Generation Thermodynam-
ics, Chem.Eng., November 2010, pp. 4447.
2. Buecker, B., CPIWater and Steam Chemis-
try; Chem.Eng.,February2008,pp.3034.
2. Buecker, B., and Dixon, D., Combined-cycle
HRSG Shutdown, Layup and Startup Chem-
istry Control, Power Engineering, August
2012,pp.6468.
Author
Brad Buecker is a process
specialist with Kiewit Power
Engineers (9401 Renner Blvd.,
Lenexa,KS66219;Phone:913-
928-7000; Fax: 913-689-4000;
Email: brad.buecker@kiewit.
com). He has over 30 years
of experience in, or affiliated
with, the power industry, much
of it in chemistry, water treat-
ment, air quality control, and
results engineering positions
with City Water, Light & Power in Springfield,
Ill., and Kansas City Power & Light Companys
La Cygne, Kan., station. He has an A.A. in pre-
engineering from Springfield College in Illinois
andaB.S.inchemistryfromIowaStateUniver-
sity. He has written many articles and three books
on steam generation topics. He is a member of the
ACS,AIChE,ASME,CTI,andNACE.Bueckeris
alsoamemberoftheASMEResearchCommittee
on Power Plant & Environmental Chemistry, the
program planning committee for the Electric Util-
ity Chemistry Workshop, and the program plan-
ning committee for Coal-Gen.
The Chemical Engineering bookstore
offers a variety of industry topics
you will come to rely on.
EnvironmentalManagement:
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EnvironmentalManagement:Wastewater
andGroundwaterTreatment
FluidHandling
Gas-SolidandLiquid-SolidSeparation
Liquid-LiquidandGas-LiquidSeparation
ManagingBulkSolids
For a complete list of products, visit the
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17792
W
hat if someone were to
tell you that there is one
method available for sizing
relief valves that applies
to virtually every situation, includ-
ing two-phase flow and supercritical
fluids? And what if they told you that
method is more accurate and easier
to use than traditional methods or
formulas? As it turns out, both of
these statements are true. The ap-
proach described here the Direct
Integration Method involves nu-
merical integration of the isentropic
nozzle equation [1].
From as early as 2005, the method
of choice for determining the flow
through a relief valve has been the Di-
rect Integration Method [2]. API 520
has also sanctioned this method due
to its general applicability to any situ-
ation where the fluid is homogeneous
[1]. However, because this method is
perceived to be difficult or time con-
suming, many engineers continue to
opt for older, simplified methods, even
though such methods can produce less-
accurate results. For instance, without
careful analysis, using the traditional
gas-phase equation near a fluids
critical point can yield an undersized
valve [3].
Fortunately, thanks to the wide-
spread availability of process simu-
lators and spreadsheet software, nu-
merical integration of the isentropic
nozzle equation is now easier, faster,
and more accurate than other meth-
ods for determining the mass flux
through a relief valve. This article dis-
cusses the use of process simulators
to simplify the numerical integration
method, and describes the advantages
of numerical integration over other
methods that may be used to calculate
the required relief valve area.
Calculation methods
Isentropic Converging Nozzle
Equation. The calculation of the the-
oretical mass flux for homogeneous
fluids through a relief valve is gener-
ally accepted to be modeled based on
the isentropic converging nozzle. The
isentropic nozzle equation is devel-
oped from the Bernoulli equation by
assuming that the flow is adiabatic
and frictionless [4].
(1)
The required nozzle area of the relief
valve is calculated using Equation (2).
(2)
To use Equation (1), the fluid den-
sity must be known as a function of
pressure at constant entropy over the
pressure range encountered in the
nozzle. To solve the integral analyti-
cally, an equation of state needs to be
available for the fluid at constant en-
tropy. However, for many fluids, such
an equation is not available for density
as a function of pressure. To overcome
this limitation, various simplifying as-
sumptions were traditionally made to
allow the integral to be solved analyti-
cally, rather than by performing a nu-
merical integration.
For instance, for non-flashing liq-
uids, the density is assumed to be con-
stant, and the integral is easily solved.
The traditional vapor-sizing equation
is obtained by assuming the vapor
is an ideal gas with a constant heat
capacity [5]. However, the assump-
tions required by these methods may
introduce large errors under some
conditions. In contrast, the Direct In-
tegration Method has been shown to
produce more-accurate results.
Direct Integration Method. The
Direct Integration Method uses a nu-
merical method to evaluate the inte-
gral in the isentropic nozzle equation
[2]. API 520 proposes the use of the
Trapezoidal Rule, shown below, to cal-
culate the integral:
Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Mark Siegal
Consulting Engineer
Silvan Larson
and William Freivald
Valdes Engineering Company
The Direct Integration Method:
A Best Practice for
Relief Valve Sizing
The approach described here is easier to use,
and provides more-accurate results,
compared to leading valve-sizing methodologies
BS&B Safety Systems
FIGURE 1. Today, with the help of
spreadsheet programs and simulators,
the once-cumbersome Direct
Integration Method is easier than
ever to use to size relief valves
(3)
The method is performed by using a
process simulator to generate data
points for the fluid density at various
pressures, utilizing an isentropic flash
routine over a pressure range from the
relieving pressure to the exit pressure.
The simulation data are used to deter-
mine the theoretical mass flux at each
point.
Using Equation (3), the maximum
mass flux is determined by calculat-
ing the mass flux over incrementally
larger pressure ranges, beginning at
the relieving pressure, and observing
where a maximum flux is reached. If
the maximum occurs at the relief-valve
exit pressure (built-up backpressure),
then the flow is not choked. Generally
accurate results can be obtained with
pressure increments as large as 1 psi,
but smaller step sizes can be specified
if desired [2]. Once the mass flux is
determined, the required relief valve
orifice area
*
can be determined from
Equation (2).
The value of the discharge coefficient,
K
d
, depends on the phase of the fluid
and varies by the manufacturer of the
relief valve. The discharge coefficient
corrects for the difference between the
theoretical flow and the actual flow
through the nozzle. This value is deter-
mined empirically for liquid and vapor
and reported by vendors for each make
and model of relief valve. If vendor
data are not available, an initial guess
of 0.975 for gases, or 0.65 for liquids
can be used [1].
For two-phase flow, the liquid-dis-
charge coefficient should be used if
flow in the valve is not choked and the
maximum mass flux will occur at the
relief-valve exit pressure. If the flow is
choked, then the gas-discharge coeffi-
cient should be used and the maximum
mass flux will occur at some pressure
above the relief-valve exit pressure.
This is called the choked pressure [6]
Implementation
It is possible to fully automate the
Direct Integration Method using a
spreadsheet program (such as Micro-
soft Excel 2010) and a process simula-
tor (such as AspenTech HYSYS 7.2) [7].
Users can automate the process to the
point where all they would need to do is
simply hit a button in the spreadsheet
program and the numerical integration
will be performed on an existing stream
in the simulator using a VBA (Visual
Basic for Applications) program.
First, the spreadsheet is set up to
accept the pressure and density data
for the numerical integration points.
The inlet and outlet pressure points,
pressure step size, and name of relief
stream in the simulator are placed
into specific cells in the spreadsheet,
which are referenced in the VBA code.
The VBA code instructs the simulator
to create a new, ideal expander pro-
cess block and associated streams in
the simulator. The code then iterates
across the pressure range and modi-
fies the pressure of the expander prod-
uct stream and automatically exports
the pressure and density data to the
Excel spreadsheet.
For each data point in the spread-
sheet, the summand, cumulative sum,
and mass flux are calculated using
Equation (3) with typical spreadsheet
formulas. When a maximum mass flux
is reached, the spreadsheet uses this
maximum flux value to calculate an
orifice size, given the relieving mass
rate and coefficients. Alternatively,
the data can be collected using the
databook feature in the simulator
and copied into the spreadsheet using
a simple copy-and-paste operation.
Two-phase relief scenarios
The existing single-phase vapor and
non-flashing liquid methods are rela-
tively easy to calculate and the result-
ing predictions are fairly accurate at
conditions well away from the critical
pressure. However, two-phase models
are more difficult to implement. Exist-
ing two-phase flow models approxi-
mate the pressure-density relation-
ship of the fluid in order to calculate
the integral in Equation (3).
One of the simplest models, the
Omega Method, assumes a linear
pressure-density relationship, with
the omega parameter () represent-
ing the slope of the pressure-density
curve. An analytical solution to the
isentropic nozzle equation was devel-
oped using the omega parameter to
solve the integral [8].
The TPHEM Method uses three
pressure-density points to define co-
efficients for an empirical equation
of state model [9]. The empirical
equation is then used to evaluate the
integral numerically. Pressure-den-
sity data for these models are often
provided by a process simulator. If
a simulator is available, then it
is much simpler to use the Direct
Integration Method.
The Direct Integration Method is
fundamentally different from the
other methods described here because
it does not generate an explicit equa-
tion-of-state model to relate pressure
and density. Instead, pressure and
density data are generated using the
full thermodynamic models available
in the selected process simulator, and
these data are then used to solve the
integral numerically. Since there is
no reliance on a curve-fit pressure-
density model, the Direct Integration
Method is more exact and reliable,
assuming the simulators thermody-
namic model is accurate. Specifically,
there is no chance for inaccuracies
associated with the fluid equation of
state model propagating through the
rest of the calculations resulting in
inaccurate mass flux estimations and
ultimately an inappropriate relief-
valve area [8, 9, 10].
Note that the Direct Integration
Method assumes that the two-phase
fluid is homogeneous, and that the
fluid is in mechanical and thermody-
namic phase equilibrium. The homo-
geneous assumption is valid for most
two-phase reliefs due to high velocity
in the nozzle, which promotes mixing
* While relief valves are designed with a nozzle,
the area at the end of the nozzle is commonly
referred to as the orifice area.
NOMENCLATURE
1
G
0
Mass flux,
lb/h
in.
2
Density, lb/ft
3
P
0
Relieving
pressure, psi
P
n
Nozzle exit
pressure, psi
A Orifice area, in.
2
W Relieving mass rate,
lb/h
K
d
Discharge coefficient,
unitless
P
i
Pressure at stage i, psi
i
Density at stage
i, lb/ft
3
1. Unit conversion may be required, depending on the units selected.
[2]. The mechanical equilibrium as-
sumption is valid for flashing flows
[2]. The thermodynamic equilibrium
assumption is valid for nozzles with
a length longer than 10 cm [4]. Most
standard relief valves have a nozzle
that is slightly longer than this [11].
Pros and cons
Advantages of this Method. The Di-
rect Integration Method is not bound
by the same constraints as many
other models or methods. Using this
approach, the same method can be
used whether the flow is choked or not
choked, flashing or not flashing, single
or two-phase, close or far from the
critical point, subcooled or supercriti-
cal. The only assumptions required
for the Direct Integration Method are
that flow through the relief valve is
isentropic, homogeneous, and in ther-
modynamic and mechanical equilib-
rium, although it is possible to adjust
the method to account for mechanical
non-equilibrium or slip [6].
Although most other methods give
unsatisfactory results near the thermo-
dynamic critical point, the Direct Inte-
gration Method continues to function
properly [12]. Additionally, many other
concerns that come up when using
relief-valve model equations, such as
determining the heat capacity ratio or
isentropic expansion coefficients, are
no longer relevant since they are inher-
ent to the simulator itself [3].
Downsides to this Method. The Di-
rect Integration Method can produce
overly conservative results in a cou-
ple of circumstances, which can lead
to under-prediction of the mass flux
and selection of an oversized valve.
This appears to be an issue only when
the fluid is in two-phase frozen flow
(no flashing), or the relief valve has
a short nozzle and there is flashing
flow [2].
This potential limitation can be
compensated for in both situations by
applying a slip factor. However, at this
time, there is insufficient literature
available to provide accurate guidance
on the value of a slip factor. The accu-
racy of the calculation is also limited
by the accuracy of the physical prop-
erty data in the simulator.
Closing remarks
Using a spreadsheet to import data
from a simulator and to calculate the
summation over a range of pressures
is extremely easy and straightfor-
ward. One simply needs to simulate
the relieving stream and perform
a flash operation at each pressure
and capture the required data. Not
only is the Numerical Integration
Method much simpler than the al-
ternatives for two-phase flow, but it
is also more accurate, since it does
not rely on a potentially sensitive
equation-of-state model. There is no
need for a model because physical
property data are generated for each
data point directly from simulation.
In addition, the Numerical Integra-
tion Method can be used for single-
phase flow and choked or not-choked
conditions. This versatility and ease
of calculation makes Numerical In-
tegration the obvious choice for any
relief valve calculation where physi-
cal property data are available in a
process simulator.
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Authors
Mark Siegal (Email: msiegal2
@gmail.com), was, until re-
cently, a process engineer at
Valdes Engineering Company
where he was responsible for
process design, process mod-
eling, and emergency relief
system design. He holds a
B.S.Ch.E. from the University
of Illinois at Urbana-Cham-
paign.
Silvan Larson is a principal
process engineer at Valdes
Engineering Company (100
W 22nd St., Suite 185, Lom-
bard, IL 60148; Phone: 630-
792-1886; Email: slarson@
valdeseng.com),where he is
responsible for process design
and emergency-relief-system
design. He has more than 30
years of experience in manu-
facturing and process design
engineering in the chemicals and petroleum re-
fining industries. He holds a B.S.Ch.E. from Uni-
versity of WisconsinMadison and is a registered
professional engineer in Ill.
William A. Freivald is the
manager of process engineer-
ing at Valdes Engineering
Company (Phone: 630-792-
1886; Email: wfreivald@
valdeseng.com). He has more
than 17 years of international
process design experience in
specialty chemicals, gas pro-
cessing and refining. He holds
a B.S.Ch.E. from Northwest-
ern University and is a regis-
tered professional engineer in Illinois.
References
1. American Petroleum Inst., Sizing, Selection,
and Installation of Pressure-Relieving De-
vices in Refineries, ANSI/API RP 520, 8th
Ed., Part 1: Sizing and Selection, Washing-
ton, D.C., Dec. 2008.
2. Darby, R., Size safety-relief valves for any
conditions, Chem. Eng., pp. 42-50, Sept.
2005.
3. Kim, J.S., H J. Dunsheath and N.R. Singh,
Proper relief-valve sizing requires equation
mastery, Hydrocarbon Proc., pp. 7780, Dec.
2011.
4. Huff, J., Flow through emergency relief de-
vices and reaction forces, J. Loss Prev. Pro-
cess Ind., Vol. 3, pp. 4349, 1990.
5. Bird, R.B., and others, Transport Phenom-
ena, pp. 481, John Wiley, New York, 1960.
6. Darby, R., On two-phase frozen and flashing
flows in safety relief valves: Recommended
calculation method and the proper use of the
discharge coefficient, J. Loss Prev. Process
Ind., Vol. 17, pp. 255259, 2004.
7. AspenTech, Aspen HYSYS Customization
Guide, Version 7.2, July 2010.
8. Leung, J.C., The Omega Method for Dis-
charge Rate Evaluation, in International
Symposium on Runaway Reactions and
Pressure Relief Design, G.A. Melhem and
H.G. Fisher, Eds., pp. 367393, AIChE., New
York, N.Y., 1995.
9. Center for Chemical Process Safety, Guide-
lines for Pressure Relief and Effluent Han-
dling Systems, AIChE, New York, N.Y., 1998.
10. Diener, R., and J. Schmidt, Sizing of throt-
tling device for gas/liquid two-phase flow,
Part 1: Safety valves, Process Safety Prog.,
Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 335344, 2004.
11. Fisher, H.G., and others, Emergency Relief
System Design Using DIERS Technology
The Design Institute for Emergency Relief
Systems (DIERS) Project Manual, pp. 91,
Wiley-AIChE, 1992.
12. Schmidt, J., and S. Egan, Case studies of
sizing pressure relief valves for two-phase
flow, Chem. Eng. Technol., Vol. 32, No. 2, pp.
263272, 2009.
GE/Consolidated and Allied Valve
FIGURE 2. The Direct Integration
Method is not only easy to use, but
provides more accurate results when
sizing pressure relief valves, since this
approach does not rely on a potentially
sensitive equation of state model
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T
his article provides guidance
to the designer and operator of
a safety-instrumented system
(SIS), with an emphasis on con-
ducting measurements. The use of
best practices to ensure the strength
of the overall system design, and the
use of instrument diversity to combat
common causes of failure, are covered
briefly. Greater detail are provided on
the use of new technologies in par-
ticular, new smart-transmitter diag-
nostics and digital protocols, including
wireless options.
Background
Best practice design of SIS has evolved
over the past decade, prompted by the
widespread adoption of the ANSI/
ISA-S84.01-2004 Standard, which is
itself based on IEC 61511. In their
first article on this subject [1], the
authors described how the new stan-
dard encourages a user to change from
purely qualitative risk assessment to
quantitative risk analysis. One benefit
of the qualitative approach is that it
is prescriptive and hence simpler to
apply the user is told what to do to
achieve safety.
One potential downside is that the
qualitative approach is designed to
produce conservative results, which
can result in over-design. The quan-
titative approach is more flexible
the user can use whatever approach
minimizes lifecycle cost while still
achieving the desired risk reduction.
The designer must substitute quanti-
tative data for qualitative descriptors;
for example, a dangerous event previ-
ously described as very likely would
now be assigned a probability of 0.1
events per year. That article guided
users through the process of finding
these numbers. This was found to be
a particular challenge for field devices
such as sensors. What is the risk that a
given transmitter might falsely report
a safe condition? While suppliers can
provide safety statistics that are cer-
tified by third parties, those data are
typically derived from white papers or
laboratory analysis. Is the actual risk
greater in a real world installation?
Might the risk be significantly differ-
ent for two identical devices that are
in different installations? How can the
user quantify these installed risks?
The focus of a follow-up article by
the authors [2] was on strategies for
minimizing, rather than quantify-
ing, identified risks. Since users com-
monly employ redundant sensors in
critical applications, special atten-
tion was paid to identifying common
causes,which can impact both sensors
in a redundant system. For example, if
a user has identified that impulse line
plugging in a given installation might
cause the pressure transmitter to
falsely report a safe condition, rather
than trying to quantify that risk, a
better approach is to make the risk so
small that it no longer has a material
impact. The user was advised to em-
ploy a strategy that aimed to improve
strength, diversity and diagnostics:
Strength Change the installation
by shortening and widening the im-
pulse lines so they dont plug
Diversity Rather than using a
second (redundant) differential
pressure (dP) transmitter on a given
orifice plate, use a vortex flowme-
ter. Choose a vortex design that is
immune to the common cause of
plugging
Diagnostics Select a transmit-
ter that can detect that its lines are
plugged
Best practices
To maximize the strength of an over-
all SIS design users should employ
the same best practices that apply to
any process measurement applica-
tion, whether used for safety or for
basic process control. Note that best
practices tend to be specific to a given
technology, and evolve over time with
technological advances. Some exam-
ples of best practices with particular
relevance to safety applications in-
clude ensuring that:
The measurement uncertainty is
smaller than the safety margin. For
example, if a process is operated
within 5% of where it becomes dan-
gerous, the measurement must be
much better than 5%. This sounds
obvious, but is often not the case.
While tools and methodologies exist
[3] to quantify measurement uncer-
tainty, many users do not routinely
employ these
WirelessHART and other new approaches
help operators to achieve the needed safety
at the lowest lifecycle cost
Safety-Instrumented Systems:
Focus on Measurement Diagnostics
T
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,

V
Output current, mA
4mA 20mA
!
FIGURE 1. The transmitter characterizes
the normal relationship between cur-
rent and voltage at commissioning, then
alerts the user to changes during opera-
tion, which might indicate a problem
Stephen Brown
DuPont Fluoroproducts
Mark Menezes
Emerson Process Management
The thermowell is properly designed
for the application.Poorthermowell
design has been cited in the 1995
failure of the Monju fast-breeder
reactor, which caused a spill of ra-
dioactive sodium [4]. Although no
radiationwasleakedtotheenviron-
ment,thereactorwasnotrestarted
until September 2010 15 years
after the incident. New standards,
such as ASME PTC 19.3-2010, sig-
nificantly improve the reliability of
wake-frequency calculations and
minimize the risk of thermowell
failureduetoflow-inducedvibration
andtransienteffects
The measurement is fast enough to
detect the hazard.Speedofmeasure-
ment response is affected by the
device,theinstallationandapplica-
tion conditions.Again, few users go
through the effort to quantify re-
sponse time in a given application
exceptwhenresponsetimeisknown
to be critical (for instance, for com-
pressor anti-surge [5]). Similar ef-
fects are seen with temperature
measurements, although there the
sensor and thermowell dominate
theoverallresponsetime
Measure mass flow of gas and steam.
Useamultivariableflowmeterthat
compensates for changing density,
ormeasuremassflowdirectlyusing
aCoriolisflowmeter
In a top-down level measurement,
significant changes in the vapor
space are dynamically compensated.
For example, a radar level meter
used for drum level control must
compensate for changing density of
thesteamintheboilerdrum
Proper materials are selected.Thisis
key to avoid effects such as hydro-
gen permeation, or stress corrosion
crackinginenvironmentswithhigh
vibrationorpressurecycling
To the greatest extent possible, the
usershouldmaximizetheconsistency
of devices and practices between the
measurements that are used for the
safety system and the basic control
system. While the use of a new, un-
familiar device or practice solely for
safety applications may yield some
benefit in theory, in practice the user
is more likely to make an error dur-
ingdesignormaintenance,duetolack
of familiarity [6]. In addition, failure
statisticsgatheredfrombasicprocess
controlinstallationscanbeleveraged
for safety system design if those in-
stallationsareconsistent.
Employ diversity
Common causes of failure usually
dominate safety risk in installa-
tions with redundant transmitters.
Consider the case of a pressure or
displacement-style level transmitter
used to ensure that a vessel does not
overflow.Fortheseinstallationsthere
aretwomainrisks:
The transmitter electronics will fail
dangerously and provide the wrong
output. Consider a case in which
thisprobabilityoffailureondemand
(PFD) is 0.05, which means that if
20transmittersarecalledontoshut
the dangerous process down, one
willfailtodoso(Note:Thereareno
unitsforPFDbecauseitrepresents
theprobabilitythatasafetysystem
orcomponentwillfailtorespondto
ademand)
The density of the fluid in the ves-
sel will change, so the output of the
transmitter does not reflect the true
level. It may be reasonable to as-
sumeaPFDof0.04forthisrisk
PFD
Total
=PFD
Transmitter
+PFD
Density
=
0.05+0.04=0.09
Makingthedeviceredundant:
PFD
Total
=(PFD
Transmitter
)
2
+
PFD
Density
=(0.05)
2
+0.040.04
This is of course a simplified calcula-
tion, but it should be apparent that
continuing to add redundancy for
instance, making the transmitter tri-
plyredundantwillyieldlittlebene-
fit,sincethecommoncauseofdensity
variation will continue to dominate
total system risk. Instead, the user
should install a different (diverse)
technologythatisnotaffectedbyden-
sityvariation.
Rather than trying to find a best
practicetoapplytoagiventechnology,
the user should consult a technology
selectionguide,widelyavailablefrom
technical societies such as the Inter-
national Soc. of Automation (ISA). A
trulyobjectiveguideavoidscharacter-
izing any given technology as better
or worse, but, instead it identifies
relative strengths and weaknesses of
different technologies. For example,
a level selection guide [7] should ex-
plainthatradar-basedlevel-measure-
ment devices both contacting and
non-contacting will be immune to
variationinfluiddensity.
Suchadescriptionisnottosuggest
thatradarisnecessarilybetterthan
alevel-monitoringdevicebasedondif-
ferentialpressure(dP).Itjustsuggests
that radar is resistant to the identi-
fied common cause, and thus should
besuitableasabackuptothechosen
primary technology. Similarly, an ad-
vantageofdP-levelmeasurementover
radar-basedoptionsisthattheformer
FIGURE 2. The Statistical Process Monitoring (SPM) screen shows that while the
process mean has not changed, its high frequency variability has increased
Exida
can ignore the effects of vessel inter-
nals that reduce the signal-to-noise
ratio. For instance, reflections from
agitators or baffles can increase noise
and foam, or vapor can absorb radar
energy and reduce signal strength. In
an installation that relies on radar as
the primary measurement technique,
if the user identifies internal vessel
effects as a significant common cause
risk, then dP-level monitoring devices
would be a suitable backup option.
Complementary strengths and
weaknesses can be found in other mea-
surement applications. For instance,
in temperature measurement, RTDs
are accurate and stable, while ther-
mocouples are physically robust. In a
waste-gas flow application, a Coriolis
flowmeter provides higher turndown
and is less affected by changing gas
composition, while a dP-flowmeter is
more stable in low gas pressures and
introduces less permanent pressure
loss. These guidelines evolve over time.
Modern Coriolis meters can be sized to
provide acceptable accuracy at lower
pressure drops compared to older de-
signs, and modern dP-flowmeters now
offer higher overall turndown. For this
reason, the user should use the most
up-to-date technology selection guide.
Diagnostics improve safety
The most direct way for a user to ob-
tain a process diagnostic is to add a
measurement, or upgrade a switch to a
transmitter. While a switch can freeze
in position, a transmitter that fails in
position can be detected by an alert
operator. Even where the new trans-
mitter is not connected to the safety
system, a deviation between the new
transmitter and the existing safety
system transmitter can alert the user
to a problem. Conversely, agreement
between the two transmitters can help
the user to justify extending the proof
test interval.
Internal transmitter diagnostics be-
came available with the earliest smart
transmitters, and have become more
sophisticated over time [8]. They can
detect internal faults for example,
the microprocessor can discover that
its non-volatile memory has become
corrupted by an electrical or magnetic
disturbance, or that an internal to-
talizer or cyclic counter has stopped
updating. The safety benefit of these
internal diagnostics are accounted for
in the Failure Modes and Effects Diag-
nostic Analysis (FMEDA) safety data,
which are provided by the supplier,
and explains why newer transmitters
provide superior safety statistics com-
pared to older devices.
Some diagnostics require user ac-
tivation. For example, diagnostics
are available to detect power supply
problems. A loop might be unable to
reach an output higher than 18 mA
because the power supply is browning
out or cannot keep up with load from
all the devices in the loop. Or, water
might have leaked into the housing,
causing an output shift. As shown in
Figure 1, newer transmitters charac-
terize the relationship between cur-
rent draw and transmitter terminal
voltage at commissioning, and alert
the user during subsequent operation
to changes that would indicate a prob-
lem. As with internal diagnostics, the
safety benefit of power diagnostics are
accounted for in the suppliers safety
data, with further improved trans-
mitter safety statistics. An additional
benefit of this diagnostic is that the
user can eliminate the need for peri-
odic manual proof testing of the loops
high- and low-alarm limits.
Temperature transmitters are con-
figurable to accept either thermocou-
ple or resistance temperature detec-
tion (RTD) inputs. The transmitter
obtains temperature from changes
in voltage of the thermocouple, or
changes in resistance of the RTD.
This means that a transmitter con-
nected to a thermocouple has unused
resistance circuitry, which it can use
to characterize normal resistance of
the thermocouple and associated wir-
ing, and alert the user to changes that
indicate temperature-measurement
errors and impending failure. Again,
this improves safety, and can extend
the schedule for temperature-sensor
proof testing.
The most advanced smart transmit-
ters contain microprocessors that read
the sensor 20 times or more per sec-
ond. While the logic solver or control
system can only handle an average
signal two or three times per second,
the high-speed, unfiltered signal is
useful for characterizing high-fre-
quency process variability within that
average.
The meaning of a given increase or
decrease in variability depends upon
the process. For a pressure transmit-
ter, a decrease in variability could in-
dicate plugging of the sensing line or
coating of the diaphragm seal. In a
flow application, an increase in vari-
ability without a corresponding in-
crease in mean shown in Figure 2
could signal that the liquid flow is
becoming entrained with gas, or that
the steam flow is becoming wet with
liquid water. Either can cause mea-
surement error, and also damage to
mechanical components. In most tem-
FIGURE 3. After an upset or near-miss, the user can review the diagnostic logs of
attached transmitters to see if anything unusual occurred just prior to the upset. In
this case, high variability was observed
Exida
perature and level applications, the
rate of change is limited by the physics
of the process. A large, sudden change
is not physically possible, and usually
reflects some external influence like
electrical noise. Rather than damping
the signal, which slows response time
to a genuine process upset, the smart
transmitter will ignore the spike or
dropout for a scan or two, holding the
last value for the logic solver.
Its not always obvious in advance
how a change in variability should be
interpreted. In practice, the user lets
the diagnostics learn the process. If
the process unit is upset which may
or may not engage the safety system
maintenance can later review the
date-and-time stamped historical logs
(essentially, the transmitters non-vol-
atile black box) to see if any of the
transmitters connected to the unit had
observed a significant change in vari-
ability prior to the upset. As shown
in Figure 3, review of the log might
reveal that several minutes prior to
the furnace flame blowout, pressure
variability increased to x%. Process
engineering would confirm that this
correlation makes sense and is not
just a coincidence so the furnace
pressure variability greater than x%
warning could be used to prevent fu-
ture blowouts.
To take credit for these process di-
agnostics, the user quantifies, in each
application, the likelihood that the fail-
ure will occur, and the likelihood that
the diagnostic will detect it. Values are
derived from operating experience, in
the same or similar applications. Until
the user has gained experience with a
given diagnostic, the user should op-
erate the diagnostic in open loop,
so that a diagnostic alert causes the
operator to investigate further. That
means that the diagnostic coverage
must be de-rated to account for opera-
tor response time.
Once the user gains confidence that
the diagnostic does not cause false
alarms, the diagnostic can be turned
closed loop, so that the transmitter
output goes to the failsafe position
when the condition is detected. Even
then, with redundant transmitters a
single alarm should not cause shut-
down, but should alert the operator
to investigate further. Figure 4 shows
a safety analysis for a transmitter in
an application with a risk of line plug-
ging. The sensor contributes 78% of
the probability of failure on demand
(PFD), limiting risk reduction fac-
tor (RRF) to 868. Figure 5 shows the
same analysis if the user implements
a plugged-line detection diagnostic
and takes credit for 70% coverage.
RRF improves to 2077. Implementa-
tion of the diagnostic therefore signifi-
cantly improves safety from Safety
Integrity Level (SIL) 2 to SIL 3 with
no added hardware or proof testing.
Diagnostics benefits
The most severe diagnostic condition
is a failed status, which means the
transmitter output can no longer be
trusted, even if it remains onscale be-
tween 4 and 20 mA. The device that
detects this type of failure immedi-
ately provides an offscale output
higher than 20 mA or lower than 4
mA, configurable by the user to ad-
vise the logic solver that the process is
operating dangerously.
Properly implemented, measure-
ment diagnostics provide additional
benefits. First, the user can be alerted
to lower levels of severity preceding
failed. A maintenance required
status informs the user that the mea-
surement, while probably correct now,
will eventually become invalid and
cause a failure unless the user per-
forms some remedial action. Many fail-
ures develop gradually, so the user can
be informed of an impulse line start-
ing to plug, a thermowell starting to
coat, or a power supply starting to
brown out. The water in terminals
diagnostic signals small amounts of
condensate that cause a measurement
shift, but if ignored will eventually
in weeks or months cause corro-
sion through the terminals and device
failure. A downward trending signal-
to-noise ratio for a radar level meter
indicates that the antenna of the
meter is gradually becoming coated
by condensing fluids in the process.
If ignored, the signal will eventually
become unusable, and the transmitter
will report a failed condition. The di-
agnostic allows the user to ignore the
antenna until and unless alerted to
the need for cleaning. This predictive
maintenance has dual benefits it
eliminates routine inspections for re-
duced maintenance cost, and prevents
future failures for higher uptime.
Failure diagnostics force a poten-
tially dangerous process to shut down
and so are valuable by themselves.
Predictive maintenance diagnostics
are most useful when promptly and
clearly communicated to maintenance
personnel, and logged in a historical
record. This requires enabling technol-
ogies in addition to the device diagnos-
tics themselves asset management
systems and digital communication
protocols.
A centralized asset-management
system (AMS) is useful for several
FIGURE 4. With a risk of line plugging, the sensor dominates system risk at 78% of
the total PFD, and limits the system to a risk reduction factor of 868 (SIL-2)
Exida
reasons. First, it provides early warn-
ing of impending failures in remote
field devices, so maintenance can rem-
edy the problem before it causes fail-
ure. Second, for devices that do fail, a
detailed description of the failure and
context-sensitive remedial action can
speed trouble-shooting. Finally, regu-
lar use of the AMS helps to ensure
consistency, for routine maintenance
and proof tests and the collection of
failure statistics.
It was explained earlier that a key
challenge in safety system design is
obtaining relevant data. The AMS
automatically collects failure statis-
tics for all connected devices, allowing
the user to quantify the probability of
specific failures under actual operat-
ing applications and conditions. So
the user can better estimate risks of
specific real-world interface failures,
including those previously referenced
(line plugging, RTD breakage, an-
tenna coating and so on) This also ap-
plies to time-based conditions if the
as-found/as-left audit trail shows that
a device did not require any mainte-
nance during the last few proof tests,
the user can better justify extending
proof test intervals.
Digital communications
A digital communications protocol al-
lows the user to communicate addi-
tional information from the transmit-
ter, including diagnostic information,
to the AMS, without additional wiring.
Users tend to prefer open standards,
which ensure access to competitive
pricing and best-in-class technology,
and minimize the risk of obsolescence.
Although all-digital Fieldbus protocols
such as Foundation Fieldbus and Profi-
bus PA are widely used in basic process
control, they have not seen adoption
in process-industry safety systems be-
yond small demonstrations.
This is probably because the key
benefit of the all-digital protocols
multi-drop capability to reduce wiring
cost is not realized in safety applica-
tions [9]. Combining process and safety
applications, fieldbus transmitters ac-
count for a growing, but still small mix
of new device installations. The vast
and growing majority nearly 75% of
new transmitters shipped in 2011
use HART [10].
HART is a hybrid protocol, com-
municating diagnostics and other
information in a digital stream su-
perimposed at 1,200 Hz on a 4-20-mA
analog signal. Newer control systems
and logic solvers can use both signals
at the same time the analog signal
for control and safety, and the two-way
digital HART information for configu-
ration and diagnostics. An older logic
solver can also use a HART transmit-
ter, because it simply filters out and
ignores the high frequency HART
noise while using the analog signal.
To obtain the information in the digi-
tal stream, many users have installed
HART multiplexers, which strip off
the HART information and send it to
a parallel AMS.
Not surprisingly, since it leverages
existing supplier and user experi-
ence, the dominant protocol for wire-
less transmitters is WirelessHART,
also referred to as IEC-62591 [11].
Like wired HART, WirelessHART al-
lows users to add new transmitters
for improved process visibility, plus
provide access to complete diagnos-
tic information from existing or new
transmitters, from any supplier, for
any control system or logic solver.
Better, it minimizes cost and physi-
cal space, in both green and crowded
brownfield installations, by eliminat-
ing the need for new infrastructure
wires, junction boxes, multi-con-
ductor cables, conduit and wire trays,
marshalling cabinets and logic solver
input cards, racks and power supplies.
WirelessHART uses a self-organiz-
ing mesh (Figure 6). Each transmitter
contains a smart radio frequency (RF)
radio. While RF is a line-of-sight tech-
nology, it can work through some walls
and gratings, and around smaller pipes
and motors. In a mesh network, some
devices can communicate directly with
the gateway, and some devices can
only see other devices. A data packet
will multi-hop as necessary until it
gets back to the gateway.
Once the system reaches sufficient
density, the user can usually assume
that any new device will be able to com-
municate with several other devices,
so failure of any one device will not
affect network reliability. The network
is self-organizing, meaning that each
device automatically forms multiple
connections to the gateway, which re-
form dynamically as new devices and
obstacles appear. This ensures high
reliability with minimal engineering,
and avoids costly site surveys.
As shown in Figure 7, the wire-
less signals are not used directly by
the safety system. New or existing
safety system transmitters connect
into the logic solver via traditional
HART/4-20-mA wiring. When the leg-
acy logic solver does not support HART
input, diagnostic information can be
communicated in parallel to the AMS
using smart antennas. Additional pro-
cess visibility transmitters needed to
improve availability, compliance and
FIGURE 5. With a diagnostic that detects line plugging 70% of the time, sensor risk
falls to 48% of the total PFD, allowing the system to achieve a risk reduction factor of
2,077 (SIL-3)
Exida
efficiency communicate wirelessly to
both the basic process control system
and the AMS, and the user can choose
to compare these new wireless trans-
mitters to the wired safety-system
transmitters to improve diagnostic cov-
erage. Installation costs are minimized
when the devices are battery powered,
though the need to install and main-
tain devices in hazardous areas limits
battery capacity. Although devices can
be configured to communicate every
second, with current battery and radio
technology users are achieving 3- to 10-
year battery lives with 4- to 30-second
update rates.
Security is important because wire-
less data and devices can be accessed
from outside the plant fence, bypass-
ing the usual plant security. All data
should be sent with encryption, so
someone listening in will not be able
to decode the message and steal the
data. Related is authentication/veri-
fication only valid devices, and not
hackers, can gain access to the system.
Finally, even the most secure design
can be defeated by poor password/
code management human error.
To add a new device to the network,
the user manually inputs the net-
work name and join key using the
familiar HART handheld, but only the
system-generated, encrypted rotating
key is broadcast over the network.
Wrapping up
The safety system designers first ap-
proach to minimize risk should be to im-
prove strength through best practices.
What cannot be eliminated should be
avoided via a diverse technology that
is resistant to common cause failures.
What remains should be diagnosed,
using a combination of new wired and
wireless measurements, and device
diagnostics. Diagnostics are available
to detect problems in the device, wir-
ing, process connections and in the
process itself. For maximum benefit,
information should reach operators
and maintenance personnel in real-
time, with context-sensitive remedial
action. Logging all diagnostics and
maintenance action from a central
asset management system will ensure
consistency, and simplify collection of
failure statistics. Historically, users
used multiplexers to obtain this di-
agnostic information. Open protocols
such as WirelessHART now provide
the same benefits at a much lower
installed cost.
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Authors
Stephen Brown is a senior
safety and control systems en-
gineer with E.I. du Pont Nem-
ours & Co. (Phone: 304-863-
4727; Email: stephen.r.brown@
dupont.com). He has 23 years
of experience in control and
safety systems and has been
involved with the ISA84 Com-
mittee. Brown holds a degree
in electrical engineering from
Carnegie Mellon University.
Mark Menezes manages Em-
ersons measurement business
in Canada (1421 Samuelson
Circle, Mississauga Ont., Can-
ada L5N 7Z2; Phone: 416-459-
5935; Email: mark.menezes@
Emerson.com.). He holds a
B.S.Ch.E. from the University
of Toronto, and an MBA from
York-Schulich University in
Toronto. Menezes has 22 years
of experience in industrial
automation, specializing in
control systems, loop controllers and flow mea-
surement.
FIGURE 7. Process variables are communicated
using traditional 4-20-mA connections to the logic
solver, while diagnostic information travels via the
WirelessHART to the maintenance terminal
Integration options:
Modbus serial
Native interface
Modbus/OPC
M
o
d
b
u
s
/
O
P
C
4-20
Only
Hart
data
Modbus serial
N
a
t
i
v
e

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
FIGURE 6. WirelessHART uses a self-organizing mesh. Data packets will
take whatever path is necessary to get back to the host, providing reliabil-
ity comparable to wired communications
References
1. Brown, S., Menezes, M., Design Safety Instru-
mented Systems with Relevant Data,Chem.
Eng., pp. 5458, July 2003.
2. Brown, S., Menezes, M., Measurement Best
Practices for Safety Instrumented Systems,
Chem. Eng., pp. 6672, Sept 2006.
3. Menezes, M., When Your Plus and Minus
Doesnt Add Up, Flow Control, January
2005.
4. Pollack, A., Reactor Accident in Japan Imper-
ils Nuclear Program, Feb 24, 1996, New York
Times, p. A-1.
5. Menezes, M., Improve Compressor Safety &
Efficiency with the Right Pressure Transmit-
ters, Control Solutions, November 2001.
6. Fox, A. and Patterson, D., Self-Repairing
Computers, Sci. Am., June 2003.
7. Liptak, B., Process Measurement and Anal-
ysis, CRC Press, 2003.
8. Menezes, M., Improve Plant Safety Through
Advanced Measurement Diagnostics, Chem.
Eng., October 2000.
9. Welander, P., Safety on Fieldbus, Control
Eng., June 2009.
10. 2010 Pressure Transmitter Worldwide Out-
look Study,ARC Advisory Group, USA.
11. Boyes, Walt, All Quiet on the Wireless Front,
Control, August 2011, p. 30.
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R
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program Law and Order, au-
thored a book entitled UFOs,
JFK and Elvis: Conspiracies You
Dont Have to be Crazy to Believe. I
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book. The author contended that there
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mine why the plastic films are easy
to stretch but very difficult to break.)
On Mars, the shoebox dif-
fractometer was capable of
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ine. Some of the minerals on
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lar to those that are found
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NASA issues an annual
publication entitled Spinoff,
which lists NASA inven-
tions that have impacted
daily life. To date, there
have been at least 1,700.
The list is diverse and amaz-
ing and includes the following: infra-
red ear thermometers, freeze drying,
silicon solar-power cells, cochlear im-
plants, grooved highway shoulders,
improved radial tires, baby food nu-
trients, memory foam and the com-
puter mouse. And of course, NASA
satellites track dangerous weather
for us. NASA is, however, falsely cred-
ited with inventing Tang, Velcro and
Teflon. What NASA did achieve is the
popularization of these products. We
need NASA!
Mike Resetarits
Fractionation Column
We need NASA
Mike Resetarits is the technical director at Fraction-
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91-33-4013-3000
Petro Canada 32
Purolator Facet, Inc. 8
1-800-852-4449
Quest Integrity Group 26
1-253-893-7070
Ross, Charles & Son Company 10
1-800-243-ROSS
SoundPLAN International LLC 6
1-360-432-9840
Triple/S Dynamics Inc. 7
1-800-527-2116
Wika Instrument FOURTH
COVER
1-855-651-FAST
Zeeco, Inc. SECOND COVER
1-918-258-8551
Advertiser Page number
Phone number Reader Service #
* International Edition
Amandus Kahl Hamburg 66
Applied e-Simulators
Software 67
HFP Acoustical Consultants 67
1-713-789-9400
Indeck Power Equipment Co. 67
1-847-541-8300
Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc. 66
1-973-256-3000
Classiied Index April 2013
Advertisers
Product Showcase . . . . . . . . .66
Computer Software . . . . . . . . .67
Consulting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Equipment, New & Used . . . .67
Send Advertisements and Box replies to: Diane Hammes
Chemical Engineering, 11000 Richmond Ave, Houston, TX 77042
E-mail: dhammes@che.com Tel: 512-250-9555
See bottom of oposite
page for advertising
sales representatives'
contact information
Ross, Charles & Son Company 67
1-800-243-ROSS
Wabash Power Equipment Co. 67
1-800-704-2002
Xchanger, Inc. 67
1-952-933-2559
People
Ralf Eichentopf is now part of the
management team at GEA Bock
GmbH (Frickenhausen, Germany),
where he will be responsible for man-
ufacturing. Erik Aust is the new
director of sales for the market seg-
ment Mobile Applications (compres-
sors for buses and trains).
Bernhard Nick becomes head of the
Strategic Planning & Controlling
Div. of BASF SE (Ludwigshafen,
Germany). Friedrich Seitz, president
of Process Research & Chemical En-
gineering, will succeed Nick as head
of BASFS Verbund Site Management
Europe Div. Peter Schuhmacher, SVP
of strategic planning, will succeed
Seitz as president of the Process Re-
search & Chemical Engineering Div.
Sarah Sesselmann joins Toray Plas-
tics (America), Inc. (North Kings-
town, R.I.), as an account representa-
tive in the Torayfan Polypropylene
Film Div.
Spectraseis (Houston), a provider of
seismic monitoring, welcomes David
Grenier as sales director, based in
Houston. Richard Marcinew joins the
company as an engineering advisor,
based in the Calgary, Alta. office.
Terry Allen joins Perten Instru-
ments AB (Springfield, Ill.) as vice
president of sales for North America.
Marjan Oudeman is leaving her posi-
tion as executive committee member
responsible for organizational de-
velopment and human resources at
AkzoNobel (Amsterdam) to become
president of Utrecht University.
Suzanne Shelley
Eichentopf Allen Sesselmann Aust
APRIL WHOS WHO
Grenier
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July
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www.che.com
6
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Incorporating Solids Into Liquids
Focus on Gas Detection
New Engineering Materials
Closed Liquid Dispensing
Finding the Right Gloves
To Fit the Application
Facts at Your Fingertips:
Vacuum Pumps Flowmeter News
PAGE 34
August 2008
www.che.com
8
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Sterilization
Reverse Osmosis
Heat Transfer
Fluids
Hydrocarbon Properties
PAGE 34
Focus on Filtration
Facts at Your Fingertips: Valves
Preventing Caking
Lessons-Learned
Systems
Economic Indicators
April 2013; VOL. 120; NO. 4
Chemical Engineering copyright @ 2013 (ISSN 0009-2460) is published monthly, with an additional issue in October, by Access Intelligence, LLC, 4 Choke Cherry Road, 2nd
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PLANT WATCH
AkzoNobel Chemical Island starts supply
to worlds biggest single-line pulp mill
March 7, 2013 AkzoNobels (Amsterdam,
The Netherlands; www.akzonobel.com)
new 90-million Jupi Chemical Island in
Brazil has begun supplying the Eldorado
Brasil Celulose pulp mill, which is the biggest
in the world. The Jupi facility, one of AkzoNo-
bels largest investments in Latin America,
will supply, store and handle all chemicals
for the 1.5-million ton/yr eucalyptus pulp mill
under a 15-yr agreement, and will provide
permanent jobs for around 60 people.
BASF and Markor plan for BDO
and polyTHF in China
March 5, 2013 BASF SE (Ludwigshafen,
Germany; www.basf.com) and Xinjiang
Markor Chemical Industry Co. (Markor; Ko-
rla, China) have signed agreements for two
joint ventures to produce butanediol (BDO)
and polytetrahydrofuran (PolyTHF) in Korla,
Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region, North-
west China. The plants are planned to go on
stream in 2015, with capacities of 100,000
ton/yr of BDO and 50,000 ton/yr of PolyTHF.
Lanxess invests 80 million
in S-SBR production in Brazil
March 4, 2013 Lanxess AG (Leverkusen,
Germany; www.lanxess.com) says it will con-
vert production of emulsion styrene buta-
diene rubber (E-SBR), as used in standard
tires, to solution styrene butadiene rubber
(S-SBR) used in high-performance green
tires at its site in Triunfo (Rio Grande do Sul)
in southern Brazil. Lanxess is the first com-
pany to carry out such a conversion. The
technology switch will cost 80 million and
will leave production capacity unchanged,
at 110,000 m.t./yr.
Toyo awarded ammonia
project in Indonesia
February 27, 2013 Toyo Engineering
Corp. (Toyo; Chiba, Japan; www.toyo-eng.
co.jp) has won a turnkey contract to build
a 2,000-ton/d ammonia plant in Luwuk,
Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The client is LPG
producer PT Panca Amara Utama (PAU),
a subsidiary of PT Surya Esa Perkasa Tbk.
(SEP). The plant will use technology from KBR
(Houston; www.kbr.com), and is scheduled
for completion in the third quarter of 2015.
Toyo will carry out the project together with
local Toyo group subsidiary PT Inti Karya Per-
sada Tehnik (IKPT).
Stamicarbon lands Chinese
urea contract
February 26, 2013 Stamicarbon B.V. (Sit-
tard, The Netherlands; www.stamicarbon.
com), part of the Maire Tecnimont group
(Milan, Italy; www.mairetecnimont.it), has
signed two contracts for a new urea plant
with Jiangsu Linggu Chemical Industry
Co. (Yixing, China). The plant will have a
capacity of 2,700 m.t./d of prilled urea and
will be located in Yixing, Jiangsu Province,
China. Engineering work will be performed
by China Chengda Engineering Co. Startup
is planned for 2015. The plant will use Stami-
carbons Urea2000Plus technology.
Grupo Idesa and CyPlus to build
cyanide plant in Mexico
February 22, 2013 Grupo Idesa S.A. de
C.V. (Mexico City, Mexico; www.grupoidesa.
com) and CyPlus GmbH (Hanau, Germany;
cyplus.com), a subsidiary of Evonik Indus-
tries AG (Essen, Germany; www.evonik.com)
have announced that they are close to sign-
ing a joint venture (JV) agreement for the
construction of a sodium cyanide plant in
Coatzacoalcos, Mexico. The 40,000 m.t./yr
facility is expected to go on stream in the first
quarter of 2015.
UOP technology selected to modernize
refinery in Kazakhstan
February 21, 2013 UOP LLC (Des Plaines,
Ill.; www.uop.com), a Honeywell company,
has won an upgrade contract from the
largest petroleum refiner in Kazakhstan,
KazMunaiGas. The 100,000 bbl/d Pavlodar
Oil Chemical Refinery will use a range of
UOP processes and services to modernize
its facility in north-east Kazakhstan, allowing
it to meet Euro-5 standards aimed at reduc-
ing motor vehicle pollution. Kazakhstan is
expected to produce 1.6 million bbl/d of oil
this year.
New bitumen project awarded
to Prner by Indian Oil
February 20, 2013 In January, Prner Ing-
enieurgesellschaft mbH, (Vienna, Austria;
www.poerner.at) concluded a contract
with Indian Oil Corp. (IOCL; www.iocl.com)
for engineering and construction of a
100,000 m.t./y bitumen plant at Barauni Re-
finery, near Patna in the east of India. Startup
is scheduled for 2014. Feedstocks will be
vacuum resid or heavy vacuum gas oil. This
plant is Prners 46th license for its Biturox bi-
tumen oxidation technology, which provides
50% of Indias bitumen production.
Dow and Davy license LP Oxo
Technology to Sinopec
February 20, 2013 Davy Process Technolo-
gy Ltd. (DPT; London, U.K.; www.davyprotech.
com) and The Dow Chemical Company
(Dow; Midland, Mich.; www.dow.com) have
announced that China Petrochemical
International Co., a subsidiary of China Pe-
troleum & Chemical Corporation (Sinopec),
has selected LP Oxo Technology to produce
2-ethylhexanol, n-butanol and isobutanol
in a plant in Anqing City, Anhui Province,
China. The new LP OxoSM unit will be built by
Sinopec Corp. Anqing Co. with a capacity of
100,000 ton/yr 2-ethylhexanol, 115,000 ton/
yr n-butanol and 23,000 ton/yr isobutanol.
MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
Outotec grows its maintenance services
by acquiring Scanalyse
February 28, 2013 Outotec Oyj (Espoo,
Finland; www.outotec.com) has signed an
agreement to acquire Scanalyse Holdings
Pty Ltd. (Bentley, Australia) for an undis-
closed amount. Scanalyse, which has op-
erations in Australia, Brazil, Chile and the U.S.,
produces software to monitor the condition
and performance of process equipment.
Bilfinger Water Technologies links
Passavant-Geiger and Johnson Screens
February 27, 2013 Passavant-Geiger
GmbH, a wholly owned subsidiary of Bilfin-
ger SE (Aarbergen, Germany; www.bilfinger.
com), has acquired Johnson Screens Inc.
(New Brighton, Minn.), a global leader in
screening products for water infrastructure,
wastewater treatment, hydrocarbon pro-
cessing and general filtration. The resulting
new Bilfinger Water Technologies Group will
have a turnover of more than 300 million,
roughly double the size of both Passavant-
Geiger and Johnson Screens.
Metrohm and FOSS NIRSystems
form analytical alliance
February 19, 2013 Wet-chemistry special-
ist Metrohm AG (Herisau, Switzerland; www.
metrohm.com) and FOSS NIRSystems Inc.
(Laurel, Md.; www.foss-nirsystems.com)
have formed a strategic alliance in which
Metrohm will become the sole global distrib-
utor of FOSS NIR instruments for the chemi-
cal, petrochemical, pharmaceutical and
environmental sectors. FOSS NIRSystems will
become a division of Metrohm USA and will
be renamed Metrohm NIRSystems.
Charles Butcher
BUSINESS NEWS
FOR MORE ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SEE NEXT PAGE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2013 71
Economic Indicators
400
450
500
550
600
650
J F M A M J J A S O N D
DOWNLOAD THE CEPCI TWO WEEKS SOONER AT WWW.CHE.COM/PCI
CURRENT TRENDS
T
he overall CE Plant Cost Index
(CEPCI; top) for 2012 was
0.19% lower than the end-of-year
average from 2011. Preliminary
data from January 2013 CEPCI
(the most recent available) indicate
that capital equipment prices de-
clined from December to January,
by 0.09%. When compared to
year-earlier numbers (from Janu-
ary 2012), the January 2013 pre-
liminary Plant Cost Index stands
at 3.74% lower. Meanwhile, the
Current Business Indicators from
IHS Global Insight (middle),
show that the latest CPI output
index value (Feb. 2013) edged
slightly higher from the previous
month, and producer prices for
industrial chemicals were mod-
estly higher.
2011 2012 2013
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI)
(1957-59 = 100)
Jan. 13
Prelim.
Dec.12
Final
Jan. 12
Final
CE Index
571.4 571.9 593.6
Equipment 692.9 693.6 726.8
Heat exchangers & tanks 630.2 634.7 686.7
Process machinery 657.7 657.6 676.1
Pipe, valves & fittings 890.4 895.8 924.9
Process instruments 416.6 415.7 427.8
Pumps & compressors 913.9 899.6 911.6
Electrical equipment 513.9 511.4 511.6
Structural supports & misc 741.6 734.5 776.1
Construction labor 319.8 321.3 321.1
Buildings 531 526.8 520.4
Engineering & supervision 327.1 326.9 329.9
CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS
LATEST PREVIOUS YEAR AGO
CPI output index (2007 = 100) Feb. 13 = 90.0 Jan. '13 = 89.9 Dec. 12 = 88.3 Feb. 12 = 89.7
CPI value of output, $ billions Jan. 13 = 2,174.2 Dec. '12 = 2,164.3 Nov. 12 = 2,208.7 Jan. 12 = 2,143.7
CPI operating rate, % Feb. 13 = 77.4 Jan. '13 = 77.4 Dec. 12 = 76.2 Feb. 12 = 77.5
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) Feb. 13 = 314.2 Jan. '13 = 299.7 Dec. 12 = 299.7 Feb. 12 = 314.9
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2007=100) Feb. 13 = 96.5 Jan. '13 = 95.7 Dec. 12 = 94.8 Feb. 12 = 94.6
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) Feb. 13 = 155.2 Jan. '13 = 155.0 Dec. 12 = 153.9 Feb. 12 = 157.3
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) Feb. 13 = 106.6 Jan. '13 = 107.1 Dec. 12 = 105.8 Feb. 12 = 108.7
60
65
70
75
80
85
1000
1300
1600
1900
2200
2500
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
70
80
90
100
110
120
CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2007 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)
Current Business Indicators provided by IHS Global Insight, Inc., Lexington, Mass.
are now available at www.equipment-cost-index.com.
Quarterly updates of our industry-leading Equipment Cost Index
Equipment Cost Index Available
Exclusively from Marshall & Swift
Annual
Index:
2005 = 468.2
2006 = 499.6
2007 = 525.4
2008 = 575.4
2009 = 521.9
2010 = 550.8
2011 = 585.7
2012 = 584.6
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you safer and reduce downtime with our FAST Total Care Program.
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www.WIKA-FAST.com/ebook or by calling us at 855-651-FAST (3278).
2013 WIKA Insturment, LP. All Rights Reserved.
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