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CONTENTS
Chemical Processing (ISSN 0009-2630) is published monthly by Putman Media Inc., 555 West Pierce Road, Suite 301, Itasca, IL 60143. Phone (630) 467-1300. Fax (630) 467-1109. Periodicals postage paid at Itasca, IL,
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16 29 33
COVER STORY
16 Prospects Brighten for Chemical Industry
Increasing demand from key end users and the competitive
feedstock advantage of shale gas promise to spur growth for
years and lead to an increasing trade surplus in chemicals.
FEATURES
DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION
23 Rethink Options for Large Drivers
Major developments in high-speed electric motor technology
and improvements in cost and performance of variable speed
drive systems make large electric motor drivers a viable choice.
MAINTENANCE AND OPERATIONS
29 Heat Transfer Fluids Aim For Extremes
Vendors are working to develop new products and support
services to meet the increasing global demand for heat transfer
uids with greater thermal and oxidation stability.
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
33 Properly Handle Abnormal Situations
An analysis of major incident reports identies some key
challenges and ways to improve development of procedure
management systems that lead to better, safer operations.
MAKING IT WORK
38 Biorenery Beckons
Advanced biofuels are moving toward commercialization with
large-scale bioreneries beginning to sprout around the U.S. A
pioneer plant in Iowa will produce ethanol from corn stover.
COLUMNS
7 From the Editor: Book Targets Chemical
Substitution
9 Chemical Processing Online: Weve
Sealed the Deal
10 Field Notes: Ease Packed-Column
Commissioning
14 Energy Saver: Implement Energy
Eciency Measures, III
15 Compliance Advisor: EPA Keeps Close
Eye on Cadmium
42 Plant InSites: Is Mist a Must?
50 End Point: Chemical Engineering Matters
DEPARTMENTS
11 In Process: Milling Breaks Down Barriers
for MOFs | Sieve Layer Enhances Oxide
Catalyst

41 Process Puzzler: Get Rid Of Problems
Not Just O-Gas
44 Equipment & Services
46 Product Spotlight/Classieds
49 Ad Index
JANUARY 2013 | VOLUME 75, ISSUE 1
Responsibility is part of our DNA
Shale formations in North America may help reduce the continents dependence on imported oil. But recovering oil
and gas from tight rock 10,000 feet under ground requires a lot of skill. Even more than skill, it requires responsibility.
Especially when the reserves are in close proximity to prime farmland and local communities. Thats why we remain
committed to developing technologies that measure up to the toughest efficiency and safety standards. Because we
know that whats great today can always be improved tomorrow. Its in our nature. Never being satisfied.
Discover more at neversatisfied.statoil.com
Always improving
Never satisfied
7 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
FROM THE EDITOR
Many companies
agree with these
principles but
dont know how
to implement
them.
THE HAZARDS that certain chemicals may or may
not pose remain a subject of intense debate between
chemical makers, regulators and other interested
parties. Nonetheless, some users of these chemicals
undoubtedly must feel that replacing suspect materi-
als now rather than waiting for an ultimate decision
about their safety is a prudent course of action.
Such rms should take a look at a new 64-page book
called Te Guide to Safer Chemicals, downloadable at
www.bizngo.org/guide.php. It was issued in December
by the Biz-NGO Working Group (www.bizngo.org),
which calls itself a unique collaboration of business and
NGO [nongovernmental organization] leaders who are
creating a roadmap to the widespread use of safer chemi-
cals and sustainable materials in our economy. Some
large manufacturers such as Hewlett-Packard, Dell and
Shaw Industries but no chemical makers as well
as retailers like Staples and Whole Foods are involved.
Previously, Biz-NGO had developed Four Prin-
ciples for Safer Chemicals, namely:
1. Know and disclose chemicals across the lifecycle
of products.
2. Assess and avoid hazards.
3. Commit to continuous improvement.
4. Support public policies and industry standards
that make comprehensive hazards data avail-
able, act to eliminate known risks, and promote
a greener economy.
Te group says that many companies agree with
these principles but dont know how to implement them.
Te Guide is the result of three-plus years
of discussions, pilots and draft versions among
Biz-NGO participants of how to implement the Biz-
NGO Principles for Safer Chemicals, it says.
Te book is not about compliance with laws and
regulations. It assumes companies already comply
and want to move beyond that. Many drivers such
as addressing consumer demands, ensuring product
development stays far ahead of regulations, expand-
ing current markets and capturing new markets, and
guiding innovation can prompt taking a more-pro-
active approach in use of chemicals, notes Biz-NGO.
Te executive summary provides a good overview
of the books purpose and content:
Te Biz-NGO Guide to Safer Chemicals is a
unique resource for downstream users of chemicals.
It is a hands-on guide that charts pathways to safer
chemicals in products and supply chains...
Chemicals are at the core of our materials,
products, and manufacturing systems, and as such
should be at the core of our sustainability programs.
Yet many a downstream business, those organiza-
tions that use chemicals by virtue of the products they
purchase, have avoided starting this journey thinking
that the path to greener and safer chemicals is too
clouded in complexity and uncertainty. Te Guide is
our response to these uncertainties and is intended for
both novices and experts.
Te Guide:
Marks pathways to safer chemicals in products
and supply chains.
Sets relative benchmarks for each of the four Biz-
NGO Principles for Safer Chemicals.
Specines actions for each benchmark.
Presents examples of business practices for each
benchmark.
Illustrates how downstream users are getting
started and advancing on their paths to safer
chemicals.
Users of Te Guide will learn how to:
Measure internal performance, identify areas
of improvement, and track progress to safer
chemicals.
Benchmark performance in comparison to other
organizations.
Communicate to the public their organization's
performance in moving to safer chemicals based
on an independent metric.
Some corporate executives already are applauding
the eort. For instance, Helen Holder, materials man-
ager at Hewlett-Packard, says, Te Guide establishes
clear steps for building a meaningful program for devel-
oping and adopting better materials, and we have found
it to be helpful in communicating across the supply
chain how to implement a green chemistry program.
Te authors admit this initial version has many gaps
in reporting and the benchmarks are imperfect and need
renement. Te Guide is a living resource and will
evolve over time as we learn more about the challenges
and opportunities that organizations face in implement-
ing these benchmarks, they say.
MARK ROSENZWEIG, Editor in Chief
mrosenzweig@putman.net
Book Targets Chemical Substitution
How to guide aims to help companies switch to safer chemicals
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Amanda Joshi,
Managing Editor, x442
ajoshi@putman.net
Traci Purdum,
Senior Digital Editor, x428
tpurdum@putman.net
Sen Ottewell,
Editor at Large
Ireland
sottewell@putman.net
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Andrew Sloley,
Troubleshooting Columnist
Lynn L. Bergeson,
Regulatory Columnist
Ven Venkatesan,
Energy Columnist
Dirk Willard, Columnist
DESIGN & PRODUCTION
Stephen C. Herner,
Vice President of Creative Services, x312
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Brian Hertel,
Associate Art Director, x413
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Rita Fitzgerald,
Production Manager, x468
rtzgerald@putman.net
EDITORIAL BOARD
Vic Edwards, Kvaerner
Tim Frank, Dow Chemical
Ben Paterson, Eli Lilly
Roy Sanders, Consultant
Ellen Turner, Eastman Chemical
Ben Weinstein, Procter & Gamble
Jon Worstell, Consultant
Sheila Yang, Bayer
PUBLISHER
Brian Marz, Publisher, x411
bmarz@putman.net
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John M. Cappelletti, President/CEO
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9 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
CHEMICAL PROCESSING ONLINE
Get answers to
sealing problems
that vex you.
AS YOU probably know, weve
been tweaking our Ask The Experts
section to make it more useful. Late
last year we went to a forum format,
which enables readers to add their
insight or ask follow-up questions to
expert answers. We also incorporated
a subscribe feature so you can fol-
low your favorite topics or threads.
Now weve expanded our panel of
experts with a specialist on sealing
technology.
Welcome Peter Petrunich. He is
technical director of the Fluid Seal-
ing Association and has over 30 years
of functional and administrative
experience with the technology and
marketing of f luid sealing products.
Im sure youll want to take advan-
tage of his knowledge.
Right now, because its new, his
forum needs questions. So, its an ideal
opportunity to get answers to sealing
problems that vex you. Your queries
will get him in the groove and make
him feel at home. You can go directly
to his page www.ChemicalProcessing.
com/experts/sealing and click on the
red button to the right that says Pose a
Question to Te Experts.
If you are wondering how we go
about adding new topics, rst we ask
ourselves if theres a need for a certain
area of expertise. In this case, a reader
suggested we add sealing to our roster.
We agreed that the optimization of
sealing systems oers a signicant op-
portunity to save energy and increase
productivity. Additionally, proper seal
technology can improve plant safety
and environmental compliance, reduce
water consumption, enhance equip-
ment reliability and cut overall mainte-
nance costs.
As a matter of policy we dont
have people from vendors as experts
to avoid any perception that we
favor a particular supplier or that
answers are not impartial. We had
to put our heads together to figure
out who would best fill the expert
shoes. Remembering that Petrunich
wrote an article for us several years
ago (Find the Best Value Seal,
www.ChemicalProcessing.com/arti-
cles/2005/567), Editor Mark Rosenz-
weig asked him to join our team.
We hope you take advantage of
his knowledge in the field of sealing
technology. And remember that we
have nearly 30 experts on call to
answer your questions regarding
everything from combustion and
corrosion to process safety, pumps,
solids processing and everything in
between. Check out all the catego-
ries: www.ChemicalProcessing.com/
experts/. And if you think we are
missing a good topic, let us know.
TRACI PURDUM, Senior Digital Editor
tpurdum@putman.net.
Weve Sealed the Deal
A guru on sealing technology has joined our roster of experts
CHECK OUT SEALING ARTICLES ON
CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM
Specify the Right Slurry Seal www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2012/
specify-the-right-slurry-seal/;
Gas Up Your Sealing Knowledge www.ChemicalProcessing.com/
articles/2006/182/;
New Seals Get Their Turn www.ChemicalProcessing.com/
articles/2007/113/;
Mixer Seal Gets Major Makeover, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/
articles/2011/mixer-seal-gets-major-makeover/.
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 10
FIELD NOTES
Velocity controls
gas absorption
but is hard to
manipulate.
THE ACID absorber made weak acid; our scrubbers
were acting as absorbers. For the next few exhaust-
ing hours we stumbled through an ad hoc checklist.
Eventually, we determined a -in. patch of lter
was plugging the absorbers spray nozzle. It probably
escaped our inspection of the vessel bottoms. Packed
towers demand a feedstock free of debris!
First, consider the basics. Velocity controls
gas absorption but is hard to manipulate. Blower
capabilities limit the inuence of gas velocity,
leaving only liquid velocity to adjust. Another
factor is liquid distribution. Te selection of the
nozzle(s) and pump(s) aects this distribution.
Te eectiveness of the spray nozzle(s) and liquid
re-distributor(s) in spreading the liquid over the
packing impact the distribution. Problems will
become apparent during commissioning.
Flush the tower with the spray nozzle(s)
removed. Before starting the pump(s), inspect
the sump, and disassemble and inspect the spray
nozzle(s). Install a coarse basket strainer in the
suction to avoid pump impeller damage from
broken packing; keep the strainer in for several
weeks. Size the mesh to less than half the spray
nozzle orifice. Typically, the f low goes first
through a coarse mesh then a fine mesh; 2 mesh
for coarse and 12 mesh for fine is common. Filter
area should be at least 2.5 times greater than
the pipe f low area. I recommend a differential
pressure gauge and duplex filters. Also, strain
feedstock to prevent spray nozzle fouling.
After ushing for half a day, re-inspect the
sump, and install and set the spray nozzle(s). Te
nozzle-packing distance is crucial. You likely must
rell the packing level because it shrinks, typically
13 feet, after use. Use the time for ushing to
set the levels, test the tank overow capacity, and
adjust the feed ow loop. Youll observe a sudden
drop in the sump level as the packing lls; 815%
is typical. Take care in setting the level trips. On
one job the level was at 50% and tripped the entire
plant o at 45% when the pumps started. Its
important to determine the cavitation point for the
pump during this period.
Te next step is crucial: test the feed ow to
ensure the scrubber or absorber can operate over its
full range. In one startup we were forced to order
a replacement impeller because the pump couldnt
supply enough ow.
Cooling often is used to improve the capture
efficiency of a scrubber where heat of absorption
is exothermic. If the feedstock is cooled, care-
fully check the temperature loop. Its best to test
the loop under high stress conditions; the heat of
summer works best.
Properly setting the spray nozzle(s) is vital to
maximizing the eectiveness of the liquid transfer
coecient. A viewport helps during startup but an
open manway also works although the nozzle(s) will
behave slightly dierently under vacuum. Adjust
the spray nozzle(s) manually so spray touches the
wall without formation of either large droplets or
atomized spray. Record the pressure versus feed-
stock ow. Separate gauges and valves for multiple
nozzles are best.
A common problem with multiple spray nozzles
is interaction. Collision of sprays from dierent
nozzles can create large droplets. Tis can cause
serious distribution problems and eciency losses
because of dry spots, especially in the center of the
tower where the gas velocity is strongest thats
where you want the water to go.
In crucial applications, consider alternate
spray nozzles to avoid poor distribution at the low
and high range of equipment operation. It may
be desirable to adjust the spray pressure accord-
ing to the tower throughput. Also, be aware of
variations in liquid density, viscosity and surface
tension; the process liquid may differ in these
properties from the water used during the test.
Your vendor can run trials to evaluate droplet
formation. Another concern is pump duty; some
pumps serve many duties and this could affect
spray nozzle pressure.
And, nally, theres gas distribution. Ideally,
gas should enter the bottom of the scrubber and be
evenly distributed although usually it isnt. At
best a distributor can spread out the gas. So, per-
form a visual test by running the tower for several
minutes, so the spray nozzle(s) can wet the packing.
Ten, allowing the gas to ow, turn o the water
ow for a time and touch the packing to see if its
still wet in the middle. If the packing is moist in
the center and wet at the walls, the gas distributor
is working well.
DIRK WILLARD, Contributing Editor
dwillard@putman.net
Ease Packed-Column Commissioning
A few steps can avoid problems when starting up a tower lled with random packing
11 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
IN PROCESS
METAL ORGANIC frameworks (MOFs) are
garnering increasing interest for a variety of appli-
cations including for storing and separating gases
(see, e.g., Chemical Makers Tink Small, www.
ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2012/chemical-
makers-think-small/, Adsorbent Eases Carbon Cap-
ture, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2012/
adsorbent-eases-carbon-capture/, Hydrocarbon
Separation Gets Easier, www.ChemicalProcessing.
com/articles/2012/hydrocarbon-separation-gets-
easier/ and Process Speeds Up Enantiomer Separa-
tion, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2012/
process-speeds-up-enantiomer-separation/). Te
crystalline nanomaterials boast very high surface
area, plus their structure can be tailored for specic
services. However, producing MOFs on a commer-
cial scale in a fast, economical and environmentally
friendly way has posed challenges. Now, researchers
at Queens University, Belfast, U.K., have developed
a manufacturing technique based on milling that
reportedly achieves all three aims (Figure 1).
Now, for the rst time, our patented technology
allows the synthesis of MOFs without using any sol-
vents, even water, and on greatly reduced timescales,
by making use of mechanochemistry, says Stuart
James of the universitys School of Chemistry and
Chemical Engineering. By simply grinding together
two cheap precursors in a basic milling machine, the
MOF material is produced in a matter of minutes, in
a powder form, ready for applications without further
treatment, and without generating solvent waste.
Te approach oers signicant benets even over
techniques that only use water, adds Tom Robinson,
CEO of MOF Technologies, Belfast, a spin-o compa-
ny formed to make MOFs using the milling approach
(www.moftechnologies.com). Water is still a solvent
and needs to be puried for reuse. It also needs to be
removed from the pores of the MOFs after synthesis.
Water-based synthesis can also only be achieved for a
very narrow range of MOFs. Our process is very rapid
compared with these solvent-based techniques and the
process of activation and washing of the MOF after
synthesis (to unlock the pores) is much simpler.
MOF Technologies already has begun small-scale
production and expects to ramp up manufacturing to
commercial scale in a year, he notes.
Start of initial trials at a number of end-users,
for gas storage and separation applications, should
be underway by the end of 2012, Robinson says.
Tailoring of the material properties will be the next
step after initial trials. We will look at dierent MOF
structures as well as functionalization, for example
through postsynthetic modication.
If the trials meet expectations, the materials may
gain industrial use within the next 12 months, he
Milling Breaks Down Barriers for MOFs
Solvent-free approach promises low-cost, environmentally friendly large-scale production
METAL ORGANIC FRAMEWORK
Figure 1. Milling approach enables making MOFs from
precursors that arent soluble. Source: MOF Technologies.
Nov 11 Dec 11 Jan 12 Feb 12 Mar 12 Apr 12 May 12 June 12 July 12 Aug 12 Sep 12 Oct 12
$

M
i
l
l
i
o
n
79.0
78.0
77.0
76.0
75.0
%
Shipments (NAICS S325) Capacity utilization
80.0
Chemical Activity Barometer
61,000
62,000
63,000
64,000
65,000
90.0
89.0
88.0
87.0
86.0
%
91.0
Shipments and the CAB continued to rise but capacity utilization slipped.
Source: American Chemistry Council.
ECONOMIC SNAPSHOT
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 12
IN PROCESS
believes. Te rst commercial applications likely will
be for separations. Te uniformity and tunability of
the pore size and structure of these materials make
them well suited to these applications. Tere are huge
potential energy savings over distillation, for example,
Robinson notes.
A bed of MOF material can be used for adsorp-
tive separations, for example in a pressure-swing
adsorption process. Here, the selective adsorption of
the material is the key property. However, they can
also be used in membranes, where molecular sieving
dominates. Here, the well-dened and tunable pore
size/shape of MOFs is advantageous, he explains.
As an example, acetylene/methane selectivities of
more than 700 have been reported. Pore volume also
is important. MOFs have higher pore volumes and,
therefore, higher capacities than other solid adsorbents
such as zeolites, Robinson adds.
MOF Technologies expects to oer MOFs tuned
for hydrocarbon separations within the next year. It
plans to sell a general line of MOFs for such services
as well as custom versions for particular end-users.
While the rm will produce commercial quanti-
ties of the materials, it also is looking to license the
technology for large-volume applications, he notes.
We believe that mechanochemistry in general is a
scalable, environmentally friendly platform technique
that can replace solvent-based processes for the produc-
tion of a wide range of materials, Robinson stresses.
Sieve Layer Enhances
Oxide Catalyst
A PROCESS that encapsulates particles in a sieve-
like lm to block unwanted reactants could improve
the reactivity and selectivity of oxide catalysts say
researchers from Northwestern University, Evanston,
Ill., and Agronne National Laboratory, Lemont, Ill.
Tey foresee it resulting in greener, more ecient
conversion of biomass and glucose into fuels and
other ne chemicals.
Te ability to conduct these reactions in a selec-
tive way opens doors to new applications in green
chemistry and sustainability, says Justin Notes-
tein, assistant professor of chemical and biological
engineering at Northwesterns McCormick School of
Engineering. Unlike current processes, which may
require enzymes or precious metals, our method relies
only on harmless, inert oxides.
Te researchers focused on photocatalytic oxida-
tions to test their method. Tey deposited a template
on a core particle of titanium dioxide and applied a
nanometer-thick lm of aluminum oxide around but
not on the template using atomic layer deposition.
Removing the template then left the lm with tiny
holes, or nanocavities, less than two nanometers in
diameter (see Figure 2).
Te coating acts like a sieve, allowing only the
smaller reactants in a mixture to slip through the
holes and react with the titanium oxide, while larger
reactants were blocked. Te result was much higher
selectivity (up to 9:1) toward the less hindered reac-
tants. More details can be found in a recent article in
Nature Chemistry.
Research is ongoing and the next step is to expand
the application, in particular, using more traditional
redox-active and acidic oxides, and develop alternate
synthesis methods, including those that do not use
atomic layer deposition, says Notestein.
We expect that within two years we will have
developed a number of targeted versions of this rst,
proof-of-concept catalyst system, he adds.
Te process was conducted at room temperature
and required only a low-power light source. In fact,
temperature limits are likely those of the phase trans-
formations of the oxides composing the catalyst, says
Notestein. Although not discussed in the published
manuscript, these materials are well behaved after
a typical calcination step at 500C. He also notes
that other researchers at Northwestern and Argonne
have developed a related technique that helps stabilize
supported metal catalysts against coking and high-
temperature sintering.
Notestein says that because the sieving layer
Figure 2. A sieve-like surface allows access only to molecules
small enough to penetrate the <2nm-diamater supermicropo-
rous cavities. Source: Christian Canlas, Northwestern University.
NANOCAVITIES
Template grafting
p-tertbutylcalix[4]arene
(CAL)
adamantane
carboxylic acid
(ACA)
ditertbutyl catechol
(TBC)
Atomic layer deposition
of oxide
Template removal by O
3
1-2 mm
IN PROCESS
More than
three-quarters of
respondents say their
companies follow-
through on safety.
41.7%
Always
35.4%
Most of the
time
4.2%
Rarely
10.4%
Some of
the time
8.3%
Never
Responses (%)
Does your company walk the walk not just talk the talk
when it comes to safety?
TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS MONTHS POLL,
GO TO CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM.
is only as thick as a single molecule, they havent
experienced any clogging in the traditional sense, but
like any other catalyst, it can be poisoned by strong
chemisorption.
Optimizing catalyst formulations for specic
applications will remain the primary challenge for
some time. We expect that some of the more reactive
catalyst surfaces will have challenges in template
selection and lm growth.
Notestein believes the chemical compatibility
of the sieving layer with the reactants and solvent is
likely the biggest limitation, but also the greatest op-
portunity. If an oxide used as the parent catalyst or
the sieving layer is incompatible with the solvent, for
example, an additional layer can be added to passivate
most of the surface, he explains.
Te team expects the materials to serve as drop-in
replacements for other oxide catalysts and to oer
comparable service lives for the particular applica-
tion. We hope that by improving selectivity we will
decrease coking, improving catalyst lifetime before
regeneration is needed, says Notestein.
To further control and improve selectivity, the team
is looking into template molecules that are smaller or
have larger aspect ratios. Like a zeolite, we hypothesize
that closer approach to molecular dimensions will im-
prove reactant and product selectivity, says Notestein.
Te researchers have no immediate plans for pilot-
scale testing.
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JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 14
ENERGY SAVER
Implement Energy Efciency Measures, III
Continuous monitoring of energy costs offers added benets
Monitoring
energy cost
shouldnt be a
rst or last step,
but a continuous
action.
IMPLEMENTATION ISNT the nal action in
energy management. With gradually rising energy
costs, eciency becomes a moving scale. When the
scale shifts, the energy management cycle repeats
again with new concepts and new technologies. So,
in a continuously running plant theres no end for
energy eciency measures; they only reach a new
level in the eciency scale.
An interesting example explains this cycle: No
traveler can miss the yellowish mountains around
Johannesburg, the city of gold mines in South Africa.
When the price of gold was $300/ounce, extracting
gold at levels below 7 g from a ton of mined rock was
uneconomical, and so several yellowish mountains
grew. But today, when golds market price is over
$1,500/ounce, the once-dumped mine rocks are
fenced and protected for additional extraction in the
future. So, an energy-savings opportunity ignored
in the past could suddenly become a hot favorite to
top management. Because energy management is a
continuous improvement process, monitoring after
implementation is a very essential step plant engineers
shouldnt ignore.
Many plants dont pay much attention to energy
management projects once implemented unless some-
thing goes wrong. Such a situation rarely happens; so
managers are satised with a one-time performance
assessment of the implemented project. However,
post-implementation monitoring can help:
1. Conrm a good, sustained performance that
gives the plant operating personnel and energy engineer
condence to explore other processes for possible energy
savings. Tis also can motivate other plant personnel
who were hesitant to improve energy cost savings.
2. Verify that problematic issues are corrected. A
below-par performance would force the plant person-
nel, energy engineer and the vendor (if involved) to
nd out what went wrong and apply the necessary
corrective measures.
3. Indicate performance variations due to changes
in processing conditions and the seasons. Once
the performance variation is correlated with these
changes, optimization will be much easier.
4. Establish the nancial performance of the
energy project. Only then would the energy engineers
credibility and requests for future funding be seriously
considered.
Te energy engineer who initiated the project, the
manager who approved the funds and the operating
personnel should be interested in post-implementation
monitoring. Hence, its necessary to dene the monitor-
ing methodology as well as the project scope. Sometimes
the existing metering system may suce; occasionally,
additional metering provisions may be required.
In one renerys successful energy management
project, the rst step was to restart the Energy & Loss
Index calculations and report these data to manage-
ment monthly. Te results were phenomenal and were
sustained month after month with only marginal
improvements. No big capital investments were made
in the rst year, but the monthly monitoring led to
more saleable fuels released to the market.
Current information technology provides several
options for improved monitoring through data
collection, data analysis and better reporting for-
mats. Industries dier in their energy-performance-
monitoring methodologies. Tus, its essential for
an energy engineer to be aware of improvement
processes in other industries. Whatever the method,
internal or external experts should review data peri-
odically to enable global comparison and to include
technological developments.
Te most common key performance indicators
(KPIs) relate to consumption of a specic fuel or elec-
tricity per unit of output. Boiler eciency is a globally
comparable KPI, while Btu/lb of ammonia is specic
to the plant. Tese KPIs also could be extended
or modied to include dierent processing routes.
In addition, it may be worth modifying older data
processing methods with newer, faster methods that
could generate energy-related KPIs directly, as well as
correlate KPIs to cost. Vendors are a good source for
learning about the latest technical developments.
When choosing the data processing method, its
essential that it be capable of:
1. Acquiring data from the plant control database
on a real-time basis.
2. Setting eciency targets and evaluating the
deviation between the actual and target.
3. Incorporating cost elements that are correlated
from KPI.
4. Storing at least three years real-time data.
Tough this column stresses monitoring energy
cost as a post-implementation action, it shouldnt be a
rst or last step, but a continuous action.
VEN V. VENKATESAN, Energy Columnist
vvenkatesan@putman.net
Paul Episcopo
VIP Plumbing
Macedonia, Ohio
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15 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
COMPLIANCE ADVISOR
For many
reasons, this
rule is troubling.
EPA Keeps Close Eye on Cadmium
Precedent-setting rule requires manufacturers to submit health and safety studies
ON DECEMBER 3, 2012, the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) continued its
use of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
to regulate products not just chemicals in
publishing a final rule adding cadmium and
cadmium compounds to the TSCA Section 8(d)
rule. In so doing, manufacturers and importers
of cadmium must submit unpublished health
and safety studies to the EPA (including use in
materials that have been or are reasonably likely
to be incorporated into consumer products). This
article summarizes the rule and its implications.
BACKGROUND
In 2010, several petitioners asked the EPA and
the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
(CPSC) to address their concern with the pres-
ence and safety of cadmium in toy metal jewelry.
They requested the CPSC to restrict the use of
the material to prevent childrens exposure to
cadmium from such products, and the EPA to
seek health and safety data and to limit cadmium
in toy metal jewelry.
Since then, ASTM International has issued a
voluntary standard addressing CPSCs concerns. Te
nal rule reects the EPAs response to the petition-
ers request. TSCA Section 8(d) authorizes the EPA
to issue rules requiring manufacturers (including
importers), processors, or distributors of targeted
chemical substances to submit health and safety stud-
ies pertinent to such substances.
Under the rule, companies that in the ten
years preceding the date a chemical substance is
listed either have proposed to manufacture or im-
port or have manufactured or imported the listed
substance must submit to the EPA a copy of each
health and safety study thats in their possession.
The same requirement applies to manufacturers
or importers that at the time the chemical sub-
stance is listed propose to manufacture or import,
or are manufacturing or importing the listed
chemical substance. The studies must be submit-
ted to the EPA by March 4, 2013.
Manufacturers and importers must submit a
copy of all unpublished health and safety stud-
ies, as well as any studies showing measurable
content of cadmium or cadmium compounds in
consumer products.
WHY THIS RULE IS IMPORTANT
This rule is precedent-setting for several reasons.
First, the scope of the rule is vast. Consumer
products is broadly defined to include items used
in and around homes, schools, recreational areas
and temporary residences. The rule applies to
cadmium at any measurable level. This sweeps
in a huge cross section of consumer products. It
does exclude products where cadmium only ap-
pears as an impurity.
Second, health and safety studies include
any data that bear on the effects of a chemical
substance on health or the environment. . . .
Studies showing any measurable content of cad-
mium or cadmium compounds are reportable.
Third, the requirement applies not just to the
chemical, but to the product in which the chemi-
cal is embedded regardless of whether theres any
potential for the cadmium to be bioavailable or
present an exposure risk.
Finally, its unclear whether the rule imposes
a duty to determine whether a product includes
cadmium or if cadmium is reasonably likely
to be incorporated into a consumer product.
The rule offers no guidance on what this means
or how to assess whether cadmium is reason-
ably likely to be incorporated into a consumer
product.
For all these reasons, this rule is troubling.
Its issuance raises a raft of procedural concerns
beyond the scope of this article. The rule extends
TSCAs reach under Section 8(d) well beyond
chemicals to products. Because cadmium is found
in thousands of consumer products, especially
electronics, many entities subject to the rule may
be unaware of its application. Its all the more
troubling that a rule with so many precedent-
setting implications wasnt subject to standard
notice and comment rulemaking.
LYNN BERGESON, Regulatory Editor
lbergeson@putman.net
Lynn is managing director of Bergeson & Campbell, P.C.,
a Washington, D.C.-based law firm that concentrates on
chemical industry issues. The views expressed herein are
solely those of the author. This column is not intended to
provide, nor should be construed as, legal advice.
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 16
GROWTH WAS eeting in 2012, especially in China and
in other emerging markets. In Europe, a crisis turned into an
outright recession, which at the close of the year still showed
no signs of abating. In the United States, a typical business
cycle recovery has yet to emerge in many sectors. Although
U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) surpassed its pre-reces-
sion peak, growth was painfully slow in 2011 and 2012.
Te atmosphere in Washington about issues such as the
scal cli has undermined business condence, impacting
investments and hiring. Recent regional surveys and other
indicators suggest the strong manufacturing recovery in the
United States has lost momentum and factory activity has
peaked, hopefully temporarily. Moreover, the recession in
Europe and weakness in Asia is hindering export sales, a
pillar of growth during 20092011.
At this point, the consumer bolstered both by
lower debt and the apparently sustainable recovery in
housing is taking over from the business sector in
providing foundational support for the U.S. economy.
One short-term indicator to watch is the Chemical Activ-
ity Barometer (CAB), which is a composite index of eco-
nomic indicators that track the activity of the U.S. chemical
industry (see: How Will Te U.S. Economy Fare?, www.
ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2012/how-will-the-u-s-
economy-fare/). Tis activity generally occurs early in the
supply chain, so the CAB provides a leading indicator for the
overall economy and can reveal potential turning points. Te
CAB is signaling slow, tentative economic growth in early
2013 (see Economic Snapshot, p. 11).
Te consensus forecast (our base case scenario) for U.S.
GDP is for continued but anemic growth in 2013 about
2.0%, which is well below the long-term trend (Table 1).
Tis presumes Washington avoided going over the scal
cli, which it hadnt done at press time. If so, economic
growth should return to long-term trend levels in 2014. If
not, the economy could shrink nearly 0.5% this year.
A variety of signs point to sustained
growth by the U. S. chemical makers
By Thomas Kevin Swift and Martha Gilchrist Moore,
American Chemistry Council
PROSPECTS
BRIGHTEN FOR
CHEMICAL
INDUSTRY
17 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
CHEMICALS OUTLOOK
Many major end-use markets especially those tied to
exports and business investment have recovered in the
United States. However, others remain below their 2007
peaks. Growth in the manufacturing sector, which is the
largest consumer of chemicals, abated in 2012 after gains
from mid-2009 to 2011.
Te two-speed manufacturing sector that emerged in 2011
(What Will 2012 Bring?, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/ar-
ticles/2012/what-will-2012-bring/) continues. Oil and gas, light
vehicles and aircraft, as well as iron and steel remain strong.
Light vehicles represent an important market for chemicals
(nearly $3,650 per vehicle), and production continues to in-
crease. U.S. light vehicle sales are expected to rise in 2013 and
in 2014 as pent-up demand, improving employment (and in-
come) prospects, and better availability of credit foster growth.
Housing, another large consumer of chemicals (over $15,000
per start), shows very encouraging signs, and was perhaps the
major economic news of 2012. Housing activity will start to
stir in 2013 and 2014. Shortages have emerged in some local
markets and prices have begun to rise nationwide. Moreover,
demographic factors are re-emerging as a driving force. Activ-
ity will remain well below the previous peak of 2.07 million
units in 2005 but by mid-decade will approach the long-term
underlying demand of 1.5 million units per year as suggested
by demographics and replacement needs.
Overall, the spotty manufacturing recovery has damp-
ened domestic chemical demand while the recession in
Europe and weakness elsewhere have hindered exports. In
general, inventories along the supply chain have become only
slightly imbalanced and, barring a major recession, a large
correction isnt expected.
Te weakness in exports to Europe and China has been
partially oset by gains in other regions. Meanwhile, imports
declined, as industrial demand weakened. In 2012, exports
rose 1.8% to $190.2 billion while imports slipped 0.8%
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 18
to $189.5 billion. Tus, the U.S. chemical industry en-
joyed a modest trade surplus, a welcome reversal from
2011 when it suered a decit.
Tis year the American Chemistry Council (ACC)
expects trade in chemicals to continue to expand
at moderate rates as global manufacturing activity
remains fragile (Table 2). Exports will grow 4.7%
to $199.7 billion in 2013 and then 6.6% to $212.8
billion in 2014. Imports will rise by 4.1% to $197.3
in 2013 and then 6.2% to $209.6 billion in 2014. As
a result, the trade surplus in chemicals will expand
to $2.4 billion in 2013 and $3.3 billion in 2014. (All
totals in the table, including the 2014 surplus, reect
import and export values before they were rounded.)
Renewed competitiveness due to shale gas (and the
resulting disconnect between U.S. natural gas prices and
global oil prices) is prompting new investments we
count over 50 projects announced in the last two years,
representing aggregate capital spending exceeding $40
billion that will boost exports in the years ahead.
Te large surpluses in basic chemicals will continue to
expand, as will surpluses in specialties and consumer
products. Tese gains will more than oset continuing
trade decits in pharmaceuticals and agricultural chemi-
cals, and result in growing trade surpluses.
Te consensus is that U.S chemical output will
improve during 2013. Volume of chemicals, exclud-
ing pharmaceuticals, will increase 1.9% in 2013 and
2.3% in 2014. Strong growth is expected in plastic
resins as export markets revive. Demand from end-use
markets, most notably light vehicles and housing,
will drive production of specialty chemicals. Gains
in consumer products, which were strong last year,
will moderate in 2013 and 2014. After a weak 2012,
demand for agricultural chemicals will revive. In the
long term, growth in U.S. chemicals will outpace that
of the overall U.S. economy. Pharmaceuticals eventu-
ally will emerge as a growth segment.
Although projected year-on-year growth rates
for most segments during the next few years ap-
pear good, they must be considered in the context
of the exceptionally sharp declines seen in 2008 and
continuing into 2009. It may take years for activity
to recover from these steep declines and exceed past
peaks. Another factor is that these projections reect
the consensus; mainstream forecasters models largely
are demand-driven. Te signicant investment in
shale gas is a supply-side response and suggests a much
higher growth prole, as well discuss later. Tus, the
consensus outlook likely is too low.
Te industry is sensitive to a number of risks. High
and volatile energy costs are paramount in this regard,
as are potential adverse regulatory and other policy ini-
tiatives. Fiscal squabbles in Washington could dampen
domestic industrial activity, while an even weaker world
economy would adversely aect exports.
With a stalling of volumes, overall operating rates
slipped during 2012. Looking forward, modest gains
in chemical industry production volumes and stable
capacity suggest improving operating rates this year;
strengthening production volumes could boost capac-
ity utilization even higher in 2014 and beyond. Te
more than 50 projects already announced will result
in fairly strong gains in capacity through 2017.
INVESTMENT CLIMATE
U.S. investments in chemicals surged 19.8% in 2011.
Tese gains continued into 2012; capital spending
grew 15.5% to about $38.1 billion last year.
Capital spending cycles generally lag cycles of
industry activity prots and operating rates serve
as leading determinants of spending. (Other factors
inuencing the level of investment include the busi-
ness cycle, long-term business expectations, taxation
policies, the cost of capital, the burden of debt, the
supply of credit, and mandated expenditures, e.g.,
% change is year/year unless
noted otherwise
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Gross domestic product -3.1 2.4 1.8 2.1 2.0 3.0 3.2 3.0 2.9
Consumer spending -1.9 1.8 2.5 1.9 2.0 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.5
Business investment -18.1 0.7 8.6 7.3 3.7 6.4 6.8 5.1 4.9
Industrial production -7.0 5.4 4.1 3.8 2.3 3.1 3.5 3.0 2.8
Light vehicle sales, millions 10.4 11.6 12.7 14.4 14.7 15.1 15.7 15.9 15.8
Housing starts, millions 0.55 0.59 0.61 0.79 0.96 1.36 1.51 1.61 1.61
Consumer prices -0.3 1.7 3.1 2.1 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.2
10-year Treasury notes, % 3.26 3.21 2.79 1.84 2.11 2.67 3.46 4.21 4.71
Unemployment rate, % 9.3 9.6 9.0 8.1 7.8 7.6 7.0 6.4 5.9
Exchange rate, $/ 1.39 1.33 1.39 1.28 1.24 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.31
PROSPECTS FOR CHEMICALS
Table 1. Growth will return to long-term levels in 2014.
due to regulations.) In general, improving production
and utilization rates, cost containment from earlier
cost-reduction eorts, low feedstock and other raw
material costs (compared to Europe and Northeast
Asia) and higher selling prices resulted in a strong
recovery of prots from 2010 into 2012. Given the
new dynamics from shale gas, the current upswing in
prots possibly will last longer than in recent cycles.
In addition, utilization rates have risen, although they
remain below the levels of several years ago and the
long-term average.
With improving operating rates and prot margins,
and a low cost of capital, the U.S. chemical industry
will increase investment in new plant and equipment.
Te need to replace worn-out and outdated assets
is apparent and will spur some spending. However,
improved U.S. competitiveness resulting from shale gas
will be the most important driver. Te industrys invest-
ment cycle clearly has re-engaged; capital spending
quickly has surpassed the most recent peak.
Te recovery will strengthen into an expansion by
mid-decade, with greater capital spending for capacity
additions expected during the next ve years. Tanks
to shale gas, the United States is becoming an increas-
ingly preferred location for plants. Substantial new
investments in petrochemicals and derivatives will
arise from shale gas developments. Basic olens capac-
ity will increase by 35% to 40%, various industry
consultants estimate. Double-digit gains are expected
through 2015 with only a minor slowdown in capital
spending after that. By 2017, capital spending by the
U.S. chemical industry will reach $64.5 billion, more
than double the level at the start of this decade.
SHALE GAS DEVELOPMENTS
Te availability of gas from shale is possibly the most
important domestic energy development of the past
50 years. Following a decade of high and volatile
natural gas prices that destroyed industrial demand
and led to the closure of many gas-intensive manu-
facturers, shale gas oers a new era of American
competitiveness that will lead to greater investment,
industry growth and employment.
Increasing domestic shale gas production is help-
ing to reduce U.S. natural gas prices and create a more
stable supply of natural gas for fuel and power. It
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also is leading to more-aordable supplies of natural
gas liquids (NGLs), including ethane, which is a key
petrochemical feedstock.
As weve already noted, U.S. chemical makers
have announced more than 50 projects in the past
two years to capitalize on the competitive advantage
of abundant supplies of natural gas and NGLs. Such
projects include new ethylene crackers as well as units
for derivative products (i.e., polyethylene, ethylene
oxide, etc.), methanol, ammonia and on-purpose
ethylene co-products.
To illustrate the potential of these investments,
Figure 1 shows ACCs estimates of the incremental
production from the 50 projects (in orange) overlaid on
top of our baseline forecast (blue). Including production
from new investments, growth likely will average 4.6%
per year through 2017, more than double the 2.2%
average annual growth of the consensus forecast.
Further development of the nations shale gas and
ethane can drive an even greater expansion in domes-
tic manufacturing capacity that goes well beyond the
chemical industry provided policymakers develop
balanced regulatory policies and permitting practices.
(ACC supports a comprehensive energy policy that
maximizes all domestic energy sources, including re-
newables, alternatives, coal and nuclear as well as oil and
natural gas; places priority on greater energy eciency
in industrial facilities as well as homes and buildings;
and relies on sound economic approaches to encourage
the adoption of diverse energy sources, including energy
recovery from plastics and other materials and renewable
sources. Te United States must ensure its regulatory
policies allow capitalizing on shale gas as a vital energy
source and manufacturing feedstock, while protecting
our water supplies and environment.)
EMPLOYMENT SITUATION
Following a decade of job losses, the chemical
industry added jobs for the second year in a row in
2012. Total employment rose to 798,500, up 1.3%
from 2011. Tis in large part reects increasing
production of comparatively more-labor-intensive
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 20
% change is year/year
unless noted otherwise
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Total Production Volumes -11.3 3.4 0.5 -0.5 1.9 2.8 3.3 3.3 3.3
Pharmaceuticals -6.0 -7.3 -1.5 -3.3 1.8 3.5 4.2 4.4 4.3
Chemicals, excluding pharmaceuticals -12.1 10.3 1.5 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.5
Consumer products -9.1 1.0 12.5 5.0 2.4 1.8 2.1 2.0 1.9
Agricultural chemicals 5.1 4.3 -1.8 -0.9 0.7 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.3
Specialties -14.2 10.7 4.2 6.2 2.9 2.6 2.9 2.8 2.8
Basic chemicals -16.1 17.5 -2.6 0.7 1.6 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.5
Other Indicators:
Exports, $ billions 145.5 171.2 187.3 190.7 199.7 212.8 227.8 242.9 259.7
Imports, $ billions 145.7 166.6 191.1 189.5 197.3 209.6 223.6 237.6 253.3
Trade balance, $ billions -0.1 4.6 -3.7 1.2 2.4 3.3 4.2 5.2 6.4
Capacity, % change -5.9 -6.5 -2.4 0.3 0.8 1.5 2.5 3.0 3.5
Capacity utilization, % 68.0% 75.2% 77.5% 76.9% 77.7% 78.6% 79.2% 79.4% 79.4%
Shipments, $ billions 628.9 697.8 776.8 765.1 794.2 833.1 878.9 927.2 978.2
% change -14.9 14.5 11.3 -1.5 3.8 4.9 5.5 5.5 5.5
Capital spending, $ billions 26.56 27.52 32.96 38.08 43.40 48.75 54.00 59.30 64.50
% change -9.2 8.4 19.8 15.5 14.0 12.3 10.8 9.8 8.8
Employment, thousands 804.1 786.5 788.3 798.5 797.0 803.0 805.0 806.0 807.0
% change -5.1 -2.2 0.2 1.3 -0.2 0.8 0.2 0.1 0.1
PRODUCTION EXCLUDING PHARMACEUTICALS
Table 2. The U.S. chemical industry now enjoys a trade surplus and this should grow. Note: Entries are rounded but totals reect numbers before rounding.
plastic resins, synthetic rubbers and manmade bers.
In 2013, productivity gains, which typically average
around 2.5% per year, will outpace output growth.
Tus, employment will slip by 0.2% this year before
expanding by 0.8% in 2014.
However, the graying manufacturing workforce
and decades of young people turning away from ca-
reers in manufacturing and the trades raise concerns
about the quality and quantity of workers that will
be available. Government and industry likely will
work together to ensure the American workforce is
prepared for the jobs required in an emerging manu-
facturing renaissance.
Moreover, the retirements of baby boomers
the average age of a chemical industry employee
is over 50 present challenges for retaining
institutional knowledge. Today, many companies
are ratcheting up efforts to avoid knowledge and
skill losses (see: Keep Know-how in Place, www.
ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/114/).
They increasingly are using information tech-
nology and other media to capture and store
institutional knowledge, and transferring that
knowledge via project debriefings, mentoring,
communities of practice, etc. In addition, theyre
taking deliberate steps in career development
Call: 800.836.7068 www.materialtransfer.com
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Production volume from Incremental Production (left)
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% change in volume (right)
120
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80
60
40
20
0
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
% change
year/year
Index
(2007=100)
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
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0
1
1
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2
0
1
7
CONSENSUS OUTLOOK
Figure 1. New plants spurred by shale gas will boost production of chemicals excluding
pharmaceuticals.
and succession planning, and employing phased
retirements, etc.
Fortunately, the supply of new chemical engineers
is on the upswing. After declining in the mid-2000s,
chemical engineering enrollments now are increas-
ing, somewhat alleviating what could be a critical
challenge. Greater cooperation between industry and
academia is playing a role.
PROMISING PROSPECTS
Te global recovery stalled in 2012 with Europe
slipping back into recession and manufacturing in
China slowing sharply. In the U.S., uncertainty
about the election, the scal cli, and the overall
pace of recovery curbed growth. More than three
years since the o cial end of the recession, the
majority of manufacturing industries remain below
their pre-recession peak. However, while growth
slowed in developed countries, emerging market
economies continued to expand. Tis year, growth
will accelerate across most regions of the world.
Low-cost shale gas will enable U.S. chemical mak-
ers to emerge as global low-cost suppliers of many
petrochemical and plastic products. As balance
sheets continue to improve and the nations shale
resources are developed further, chemical producers
and other manufacturers are bringing investment
back to the U.S. Tis manufacturing renaissance
oers huge potential, not only to the millions of
American workers it will employ, but also to the
U.S. economy as a whole.
THOMAS KEVIN SWIFT is chief economist and managing
director of the American Chemistry Council, Washington, D.C.
MARTHA GILCHRIST MOORE is senior director, policy analy-
sis and economics, for the American Chemistry Council. E-mail
them at Kevin_Swift@americanchemistry.com and Martha_Moore@
americanchemistry.com.
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RELATED CONTENT ON CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM
How Will The U.S. Economy Fare?, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2012/how-will-the-u-s-economy-fare/
What Will 2012 Bring?, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2012/what-will-2012-bring/
Chemical Industry Bounces Back, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2011/chemical-industry-bounces-back/
Keep Know-how in Place, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/114/
23 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
Variable-speed electric motors can offer signicant advantages
By Amin Almasi, WorleyParsons Services Pty. Ltd.
ADVANCES IN high-speed electric mo-
tor technology along with improvements
in the cost and the performance of vari-
able speed drive (VSD) systems make di-
rect coupling of a gearless electrical mo-
tor to a turbocompressor or pump worth
considering for many services requiring
large drivers. Brushless synchronous mo-
tors with two-pole rotors often suit high
performance duties. Special applications
may benet from other options such as
induction electric motors.
When using an electric motor driver,
full power is available instantly over the
entire site ambient temperature range and
train speed range (including startup). Te
number of successive and cumulative start/
stop and load cycles generally isnt critical.
Variable-speed electric motors in the
upper-megawatt power ranges (say, over
20 MW) usually have energy eciencies
exceeding 97% over the entire useful
speed range (typically 70105% of the
rated speed). In a combined-cycle power
plant, the electric drives eciency gener-
ally is 1525% better than that of typical
heavy-frame gas turbine drivers. In addi-
tion, some of todays electric motors dont
need scheduled maintenance for periods
of up to 6 years of continuous operation
and even after that dont require replace-
ment of costly parts.
Large electric
drives always are
custom engineered
for an application,
allowing, e.g., a
turbocompressor to
be optimized in capacity and
speed for the process, rather
than being limited by a given
gas turbine rating. Te rotor
design and overall features of
the motors closely match those
of electrical generators; design
and manufacturing of large
(over 100 MW) generators is
well established, and numerous
units are operating successfully.
However, motors are variable
speed while generators usually
are constant speed, and motors
suer from oscillating shaft torques
during operation (particularly when
starting).
MOTOR ISSUES
When designing large high-speed elec-
tric motors, mechanical and dynamic
problems must be solved carefully. Me-
chanical stresses, vibration level, losses
and cooling restrictions can limit
the capacity and the maximum
speed of a large electrical motor.
Rethink Options for
LARGE
DRIVERS
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 24
In any high-speed electric motor drive applica-
tion, mechanical excitations, electrical pulsations,
rotor dynamics issues, balance problems and
mechanical-dynamic considerations in general are
of paramount importance in ensuring a smooth-
running rotating train over the entire speed range
and during all normal and transient operations.
Also, prior to ordering, its essential to know the
behavior of the train during any electrical fault
conditions (the most severe probably being a short
circuit at the electric motor terminals). VSD-fed
electric motors continuously produce some small
torque oscillations over the entire speed range. So,
the design phase should include careful analysis
of the eects of such torque pulsations, along with
other excitations, particularly torsional ones.
A large electric motor requires a complex and
heavy rotor assembly. For example, the assem-
bly can weigh 635 tons for 20120-MW units.
Balancing such a rotor assembly is an extremely
di cult job. (Some expensive assemblies actually
have been scraped after many unsuccessful attempts
to balance them.) Coarse balancing of an electric
motor rotor usually gets to within 0.0150.03 mm
of mass center oset; nal balancing for some high-
speed electric motors, for example, may require
getting to within around 0.002 mm of mass center
oset. Advanced systems such as active magnetic
bearings also could be used to further improve the
variable-speed electric motor driver.
LCI TECHNOLOGY
Most variable-speed electric-drive systems rectify
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC)
and invert DC to variable frequency AC. For a
VSD system with a rated output of over 60 MW,
two popular and eld-proven inversion options
are a load commutation inverter (LCI) and a gate
commutated turn-o thyristor (GCT). Other op-
tions, such as a voltage source inverter (VSI), may
not be mature enough for rating above 60 MW. A
grey area where both VSI and LCI technologies are
feasible exists between 30 MW and 60 MW.
Today, LCI technology is the most popular
VSD converter system. Its a mature technology;
disadvantages and solutions to minimize its prob-
lems are well known. It commonly is teamed with
dual-star two-pole synchronous motors with supply
frequencies between 50 and 80 Hz.
If the electric power supply is interrupted (for
example, due to a temporary problem in a generator
or a power transmission malfunction), the turbo-
compressor or other driven equipment will deceler-
ate rapidly and may trip a protection system (e.g.,
for lubrication oil low-pressure or anti-surging).
Tis may prevent the unit from re-accelerating
when power is restored. So, all protection system
issues deserve detailed study.
Te main issues for the VSD converters are:
size (very important);
redundancy of the equipment;
control system details (alarms, diagnostics,
reliability, etc.);
guarantees for disturbance ride through"
capability;
harmonic mitigation, harmonic nlter and
torque oscillation; and
converter cooling-system requirements.
To provide ride through" capabilities - a stan-
dard feature for an LCI converter with synchronous
motor drive - a secure uninterruptible power supply
should back up the power to the control system.
Te arrangement and layout of the converter system
should prevent a domino eect (i.e., the loss of one
part shouldnt disturb other parts as far as practical).
Like any nonlinear system, a frequency con-
verter produces harmonic currents. Terefore, con-
ducting a harmonic study (and usually providing a
harmonic lter package) makes sense. Te analysis
should look at the complete electrical network (in-
cluding VSD converter) over the entire frequency
spectrum, calculating the voltage total harmonic
distortion (THD) under all system operating and
upset conditions. Usually, a network short circuit
when the system is under no-load (or the minimum
load) conditions constitutes the worst case.
A harmonic lter is connected to the network or
to a third secondary winding of the system trans-
former. Te choice mainly hinges on cost and usually
depends on the network voltage level. For 33 kV and
UNDERLYING ADVANCES BOOST MOTORS
Some major developments have made large (>20 MW)
electric motor drivers possible:
6errer undersronding ol roror dynomics, odvonced
6olonce rec|nologies ond, more imporronrly, use ol
advanced bearing options;
progress in moreriols suc| os |ig|-rensile sreels lor
moror |ig|-srressed ond criricol componenrs, ond
odvonced lnire-elemenr onolysis, mer|ods, e.g., lor
odvonced elecrromogneric colculorions, ond improved
onolyricol opprooc|es ro predicr elecrric moror
perlormonce poromerers.
25 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
below, the connection most often is on the network.
For 110 kV and above, a third secondary winding
generally is selected. In between, the decision must
be made on a case-by-case basis. (Te design and
manufacturing of large power transformers with
three secondary windings is a di cult technical
challenge; only a limited number of manufacturers
are capable of implementing such designs.)
To minimize the harmonics eect (particularly
on the electrical network), large LCI systems usu-
ally have 12-pulse topology. Even if an LCI system
has multiple pulse rectier congurations to reduce
the harmonic current level emission, the reactive
power consumption of the LCI rectier may require
use of a power-factor compensation system (usually
a capacitor harmonic lter). In LCI-type converters,
the harmonic excitation generates a constant nomi-
nal ux in the motor air gap, which could result in
train mechanical excitations.
Te main issues related to the harmonic lters are:
sizing (which requires extensive data about the
entire electrical network);
possible running without one harmonic nlter
rank; and
switching a nlter during normal operation and
over-compensation at special operating points.
Harmonic studies should provide drive output
current spectra, harmonic details (order, amplitude
and phase), and how these vary with the compressor
train speed. In multi-drive installations, the super-
imposition of individual harmonics and the sizing
of harmonic lters for an entire installation require
special calculations and simulations. Calculated
harmonic levels must be compared against stan-
dard limits (for example, those in IEEE 519). Te
harmonic study contains two parts: one dedicated
to calculating the electrical natural frequencies,
and the other aimed at minimizing the harmonic
distortion to optimize the design of the harmonic
lters. Te study should determine potential reso-
nances in the entire system. Power generators usu-
ally give rise to some harmonics that could interact
with VSD systems. Restrictions should be imposed
on train torque ripple (usually under 12% peak-to-
peak) to preserve the torsional stability. Te THD
of the line-side voltage should be within certain
limits (most often 23%) to minimize disturbances
to the other electrical loads connected to the same
plant electrical network.
VSI TECHNOLOGY
LCI technology suers from some well-known
drawbacks e.g., high torque ripple, poor power
factor, relatively high losses and harmonic pollution.
Tese disadvantages can make LCI-based variable-
speed drives inadequate to reach the increasingly
demanding performance required in some applica-
tions. In such cases, a VSI may provide the solution
for turbocompressors and pump drivers.
Indeed, quadruple-star four-pole synchronous
motor technology fed by four pulse-width modula-
tion (PWM) multilevel VSIs is getting considerable
attention. Based on todays targets for low torque
ripple and low harmonic distortion (particularly
low grid-side harmonic pollution), the PWM-
VSI-based variable-speed drive design has been
selected for several large turbocompressor projects.
A cascaded multilevel converter topology usually
is chosen. Each converter phase is obtained by
series connecting several transistor cells. Te choice
of this topology makes it possible to attain some
important goals like:
voltage output (converter output to an elec-
tric motor) that approaches the sinusoidal
waveform as the number of cells is increased
providing the possibility of operating the
electric motor at a near-unity power factor;
tolerance to single cell faults by implementing
a faulty-cell bypass function; and
low harmonic injection.
In fact, with LCI-based drives, having more
than two supplying converters may be theoreti-
cally feasible, although this may pose commutation
overlapping issues.
In the PWM-VSI technology four converters
commonly are used. Te decision to supply the
RELATED CONTENT ON CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM
VSD Stands For Very Signicant Dividend, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2011/VSD-stands-for-very-
signicant-dividend/
Understand the New Motor Standards, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2010/107/
Make the Most of Variable Frequency Drives, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/043/
Watch out with Variable Speed Pumping, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2008/069/
Squeeze More From Your Motors, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2007/101/
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electric motor with several (four
or more) three-phase converter
units naturally leads to the split-
ting of the stator winding into
independent three-phase sets,
each to be fed by a converter.
Te stator design needed for this
purpose often is referred to as
split-phase because it results
from splitting the winding into
multiple star-connected three-
phase sets. Te most common
arrangement uses four convert-
ers; the associated electric motor
design is known as quadruple-
star winding. Te phase currents
contain harmonics of orders 5, 7,
11, 13, 17 and 19; all the result-
ing space harmonic elds in the
electric motor air gap are very
low because of the mutual cancel-
lation eects.
Today, turbocompressors and
pumps may benet from a new
electric drive option based on a
VSI-fed quadruple-star 100-Hz
four-pole synchronous electric
motor. Compared to traditional
LCI-based options, it provides
particular advantages:
torque ripple typically lower
than 12% peak to peak;
very low vibrations owing to
the four-pole design;
high fault tolerance due to
the four-star four-converter
topology; and
high electric motor ecien-
cy, usually above 98%.
Because of the large number
of phases (12) and the four-pole
design, even for high power
levels the stator winding can
be done with coil technology
(instead of complex/expensive
Roebel bar construction) with
noticeable manufacturing and
cost benets. Te 100-Hz supply
frequency doesnt give excessive
core losses. Stator phase currents
may show fth and seventh cur-
rent harmonic distortions as a
consequence of the electric mo-
tor internal electromotive force.
However, these harmonic distor-
tions dont negatively impact
torque performance. Te design
also could be scalable to relative-
ly high power levels (above 50
MW) by increasing the number
of supplying converter units and
possibly expanding the electric
motor driver size.
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Transformers play an important
role in any VSD system. Inrush
current limitation requirements
and protection philosophies of
transformers are important.
A VSD electric motor system
employs various cooling water
pumps. A cooling pumps normal
operating point should be as close
as practical to the pumps best
eciency point (BEP). Rated
cooling ows preferably should
be within 20% of the BEP now.
Te cooling-pump characteristic
curve is very important for a
trouble-free, smooth and proper
operation. A cooling pump curve
should exhibit the characteristic
of stable continuously rising head
from the rated capacity to the
shuto (preferably 10% head rise
from the rated to the shuto).
Typically, a VSI systems
footprint is less than 75% of that
of a comparable LCI system. In
addition, it usually weighs less
than 70% of a comparable LCI
system.
AMIN ALMASI is lead rotating equip-
ment engineer at WorleyParsons Services
Pty. Ltd., Brisbane, Australia. E-mail him at
Amin.Almasi@yahoo.com.
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29 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
Makers respond to demands to run processes at lower and higher temperatures
By Sen Ottewell, Editor at Large
THE GLOBAL heat transfer uid (HTF) market
is hot. By 2017 its value will reach $2.56 billion, a
rise of almost $1 billion from 2011. So says market
researcher MarketsandMarkets, Dallas, Tex. in a
new report.
Published on November 24, 2012, Global Heat
Transfer Fluid (Termic Fluid/High Temperature/
Synthetic Heat Transfer Fluids) Market by Prod-
uct Type (Mineral Oils, Silicone & Aromatics, PAG
& Glycol Based Products & Others), Application &
Geography Forecasts to 2017 notes that Dow,
ExxonMobil, Shell and Solutia (now part of East-
man Chemical) accounted for 76% of the market in
2011. It goes on to say that demand in the chemical
industry for HTFs with greater thermal and oxida-
tion stability will increase signicantly over the next
six years.
One such demand is coming from reaction cool-
ing, a trend noted by Air Products, Allentown, Pa.
We are using liquid nitrogen (LIN) to cool HTFs as
low as -90C. Tere is even a trend now to go colder,
even down to -120C. Tis represents a challenge
Heat Transfer Fluids Aim For
EXTREMES
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 30
because its dicult to get many HTFs to operate at
this temperature, notes John Tremblay, technical
manager, cryogenic applications, Basingstoke, U.K.
Such low temperatures cause viscosity problems
with many traditional HTFs and thus require vendors
to adjust their formulations accordingly. However,
vendors often cant easily get down to the required
temperatures in their own laboratories. In response,
Air Products has built a test rig that evaluates the
performance of dierent HTFs in a pilot-scale heat
exchanger.
Its rated at 10 kW at -90C. Weve tested ve or
six dierent uids on it. Tere is a denite move away
from methanol and other solvents to silicone uids
and other lower-ammability-risk uids, says Tim
Boland, research associate, cryogenics, Allentown.
Companies that produce HTFs often want us to
do testing for them. Also, its important for us when
we get a new enquiry from a manufacturer to be able
to show that we can cool their HTFs without freezing
them and causing all the associated process problems,
adds Tremblay.
Although originally constructed in Allentown, the
rig currently is operating at Air Products technology
center in Shanghai, China (Figure 1).
Users wanting a single HTF that can handle many
dierent, often multi-step processes is another trend
Air Products notices. So, the pressure is on us to
deliver LIN cooling that will achieve this and we have
done a lot of testing on it, says Tremblay.
Customers scaling up from bench to pilot to full-
scale production also are turning to Air Products.
Along the way they typically change cooling tech-
nology from ammable-solvent-type solutions, such
as acetone/dry ice, to more production-friendly
HTFs. Tey often need our expertise when it comes
to choosing the best HTF for these scaleups, ex-
plains Boland.
A good example of this, he says, is when custom
ne chemical houses want to extend their product
lines but dont have the knowledge or experience to
operate below their typical -20C lowest temperature.
Here, Air Products can oer support such as showing
how to run reactors at much colder temperatures.
LIN itself oers a very attractive pricing strategy
for many customers because its a variable cost, for
example when used by toll manufacturers, Tremblay
contends. LIN can also get to lower temperatures
than many much more expensive mechanical refrig-
eration processes, he notes. LIN has further appeal,
too. First, its associated plant is simple to operate and
easy to maintain. Second, costs can be further oset
by recycling and using it for other applications, such
as inerting and blanketing.
In terms of the market, Air Products is seeing
more companies who traditionally use refrigerants
moving to HTFs and particularly to the more robust
silicone oils.
Te market is moving from ammable HTFs to
combustible HTFs to non-combustible HTFs. Con-
cerns over health and safety and the environment are
driving this, along with lower temperature processes,
says Boland.
TEST RIG
Figure 1. Unit for evaluating heat transfer uids now is operating at Air Products Shanghai
technology center. Source: Air Products.
31 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
Tremblay believes future developments will
involve smaller, more ecient plants capable of leaner
processing: Te reaction kinetics here could get more
volatile, generate more heat and therefore need more
cooling.
For Boland, growing environmental awareness
in Asia is important. We are already seeing a much
greater use of low temperature condensation technol-
ogy in China, for example.
EXTENDING THE RANGE
Meanwhile, in response to demand for HTFs
suitable for higher temperatures, Paratherm, West
Conshohocken, Pa., has added to its portfolio two
new aromatic-based HTFs for closed-loop liquid-
phase heating: Paratherm GLT for use up to 288C
and Paratherm HR, which is good to 343C in red
heaters and 357C in waste-heat-recovery and full
convection heaters.
Increasing demand from the biomass fuel
industry, which uses even higher temperatures in its
processes, is prompting the company to work on other
new HTF formulations.
At the other end of the temperature scale,
Paratherm also is keeping busy. When Bedoukian
Research, Danbury, Conn., a maker of aroma and
avor ingredients, needed to expand its product line,
lower temperature processing became even more of a
critical issue. We were looking for a long time to nd
a thermal uid that would do what we need it to do,
says general manager Greg Pignone.
Bedoukian uses a range of 50200-gallon reactors
to manufacture its products and needed cooling down
to -60C. Te company chose Paratherm CR HTF.
Many uids used for cooling thicken or even
freeze up below a certain point, usually at -50C to
-60C. Paratherm CR doesnt do that. It allowed us to
use colder temperatures, notes Pignone.
Since the changeover, Bedoukian has achieved
higher yields and cut production time by more than
50% for batches. We are able to run some of our
cooled chemical reactions twice as fast now, and run
at much lower temperatures than before with better
heat transfer. Tis opens the door for us to produce
custom syntheses that we couldnt have attempted
before, he adds.
Customers are asking for more than just uids
suitable for extended temperatures, explains Para-
therms technical director Jim Oetinger. Tere has
been a trend for more after-sales support over the
last eight or nine years and this has really acceler-
ated over the last couple of years mainly because
maintenance has been skinned to the bone. A lot
of expertise has been lost, particularly on the older
equipment. Much of our support today is to do with
planned maintenance; because the in-house experi-
ence has gone, the queries and requests are coming
back to suppliers.
As part of its service package, Paratherm always
has included an annual HTF test for customers. For
many this simply involved sending in a sample of
their HTFs. Today, the company is getting many
more what if? type calls. Te audience is a lot more
receptive to what we have always been saying about
maintenance that its better to have a quarter of a
day of maintenance every year than weeks of outage
through breakdown. Tis equipment should run for
years, not months, notes Oetinger.
At the same time, insurance companies are taking
a tougher stance on re issues. We do hear about res
from time to time and there have been more of them
recently. But the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA), Quincy, Mass., has put out a recommended
practice for uid heaters (NFPA 87), so clearly this
problem is being recognized.
NFPA 87 covers, e.g., thermal uid heaters and
process uid heaters in which the uid is owing,
under pressure, and is indirectly heated.
Up to now there have really been no national
standards for uid heaters, with people relying on
information from the suppliers. Now the insurance
companies are looking at the NFPA guidance and
requiring users to meet the standard, he adds.
LIFECYCLE FOCUS
Service also plays a key role at Solutia, St. Louis,
Mo., now a subsidiary of Eastman Chemical, King-
sport, Tenn. Te companys Total Lifecycle Care
(TLC) program long has been a cornerstone of its
Terminol HTF business.
Te TLC program oers a suite of services to
support the use of Terminol heat transfer uids
throughout their entire lifecycle, from design to
startup to operation and maintenance, says Ravi
Prakash, global business director.
To emphasize the importance of such services,
Prakash points to a recent project success in Brazil at
Resitol Indstria Qumica, Palmeira. Te company is
a major producer of crude sterol from tall oil extracted
from byproducts of pulp and paper production.
Resitol uses a high-vacuum molecular distil-
lation unit to extract sterol from the tall oil. Te
company relies on a secondary coolant uid (SCF)
rather than costlier direct cooling to achieve -70C,
a temperature necessary to maximize separation
e ciency and reduce product degradation.
Following two leaks of SCF from its heat transfer
system and the inability of its uid supplier to replen-
ish the missing material in a timely manner, Resitol
contacted the local Solutia team. After discussions
between the team and Resitol engineers, the existing
silicone-based uid was switched to Terminol LT, a
synthetic aromatic HTF that can be used in both the
liquid and vapor phase between -70C and 315C.
Our local Solutia Terminol engineers provided
us with comprehensive guidance for draining our old
uid, ushing the system and relling with the new
Terminol LT. Tey also provided on-site support
as needed throughout the process until the system
was started up. We have never received this level of
expert support with our previous supplier. Tey also
have local stock in case of emergencies, notes Resitol
maintenance and production manager Charles Souza.
Solutia boasts a 16-strong family of synthetic u-
ids for indirect heating or cooling over a broad range
of temperatures and applications. At one end of the
temperature scale is Terminol VLT, which is aimed
at single-uid heating and cooling systems between
-115C and 175C. At the other end is Terminol
VP-1, a synthetic HTF for vapor phase systems from
257C to 400C, or liquid phase systems from 12C
to 400C.
Our agship products, Terminol 55, Terminol
66 and Terminol VP-1, serve diverse and dynamic
end markets that change from year to year. Two
markets that are strong for us now are the oil and gas
market and the concentrating solar power market,
adds Prakash.
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Benets Beckon in Heat Transfer, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/243/
Keep Heat-Transfer-System Repairs Uneventful, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2005/532/
Take the Heat Off, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2004/172/
33 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
USE OF procedures is an integral part of operat-
ing a large industrial process to achieve consistent,
safe production. Industry regulations, e.g., OSHA
1910, require companies to provide written operating
procedures that contain clear instructions for safely
executing activities for startup and shutdown as well
as normal, temporary and emergency operations.
Tis article discusses some key challenges with pro-
cedural operations identied in an analysis of major
industry incident reports by the Abnormal Situation
Management (ASM) Consortium, www.asmconsor-
tium.org, and recommended practices to mitigate
the associated risks.
In the context of this article, the term pro-
cedure refers to a written document containing
step-by-step work instructions to complete a single
objective such as starting up a process unit. Te
common business drivers for use of procedures are
to avoid safety and environment incidents, establish
ecient and eective operations, and supplement
employee knowledge and experience.
Te ASM Consortium denes an abnormal situ-
ation as an event disturbing a process that requires
the operations team to intervene to supplement the
control system. Tis denition specically is used to
distinguish among normal, abnormal and emergency
situations from the perspective of console operations.
Te objective of abnormal situation management is
to return the process to normal before safety systems
are engaged.
Te consortiums focus on the use of procedures
has been to examine whether enhancements to
the procedure management system might enable
operators to more eectively prevent or respond to
abnormal situations.
PROCEDURE EXECUTION FAILURES
To better understand how to improve use of proce-
dures, the ASM Consortium conducted a study to
investigate procedure execution failure modes associ-
ated with abnormal situations [1]. A team examined
root causes of failures covered in a previous analysis
of 32 process industry incident reports. Tat earlier
analysis [2] indicated that ineective use of proce-
dures signicantly contributed to major incidents
and represented 8% of all root causes.
Te team assessed whether the procedural failure
occurred prior to or during an abnormal situation;
those arising beforehand were deemed irrelevant to
procedure execution during the abnormal situation.
Te analysis showed that 40 of the 70 identied
procedure-related root causes, i.e., 57%, were linked
to procedure execution failures in abnormal situations
(Table 1).
Properly Handle Abnormal Situations
Providing effective operating procedures is crucial to success
By Peter T. Bullemer, Human Centered Solutions, LLC
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 34
How these root causes manifest themselves
provides better insight into how to make improve-
ments in operations practices than the more generic
root cause classications [2]. Examination of the
40 identied root causes showed the most common
manifestation was associated with lack of knowl-
edge about appropriate responses to the occurrence
of an abnormal situation while executing a proce-
dure (Table 2) followed by the failure to detect
the presence of an abnormal equipment or process
mode while executing a procedure, and the lack of
understanding the impact or eect of performing
or not performing a procedural action. In total,
these three accounted for 87.5% (35 out of 40) of
the procedural execution failures under abnormal
situations.
Based on this analysis, the study team identied
the need for eective procedure content in the follow-
ing areas to improve operations performance during
abnormal situations:
Responding appropriately to the occurrence of
an abnormal situation in the execution of the
procedure;
Detecting whether equipment or the process are
in abnormal mode and whether there are any
latent abnormal conditions;
Spotting excursions from normal operating
range and knowing the indications of the occur-
rence of an abnormal situation; and
Understanding the correct impact or eect of a
procedural action and the repercussions of not
following the procedural instruction.
ADDRESSING THE CHALLENGES
Te analysis of common root causes and root cause
manifestations suggests a need for improvements
not only in the content of procedures but also in the
procedure management system itself. Based on this
analysis and plant experiences, the ASM Consortium
member representatives identied three challenges to
reduce the risk of procedure execution failure during
abnormal situations:
1. Organizational culture that fails to enforce an
eective policy on use of procedures. Tis is a symptom
of a failure to establish a policy thats compatible with
the pragmatics of the operations work environment.
Even if a formal policy is in place, it typically just
notes that employees are expected to follow proce-
dures at all times. Often the policy doesnt clearly state
whether following procedures means personnel may
recall the procedure from memory or must have the
written procedure in their hands during its execution.
Most plants adopt a pragmatic practice of letting
individual operators decide how they will use a proce-
dure document. Any given operator may be expected to
know and follow dozens of procedures. Te frequency,
complexity and potential risks may dier quite signi-
cantly among these procedures. However, the typical
policy doesnt distinguish between a simple, routine
procedure with low risk, such as swapping pumps,
versus a complex, non-routine plant startup procedure
with high risk. Moreover, left to the discretion of the
individual, whether a procedure document is used prior
to or during execution can vary substantially.
One of the ASM Consortium's recommended
eective practices is to establish a risk-based meth-
odology to classify procedures in terms of usage. Te
methodology rates procedures based on expected fre-
quency of use, complexity and potential consequences
if the procedure isn't followed. Using the risk rating,
procedures are classied into three categories:
Critical - typically low frequency, high
complexity and serious consequences;
TAKE ADVANTAGE OF KEY LEARNINGS
Since its inception in 1994, the ASM Consortium has studied
the use of procedures in the process industry. The consor-
tium has documented its key learnings over the years in
Effective Procedural Practices [3]. This article draws upon
some of the recommendations detailed in that book.
Basic Cause Root Causes Number of Incidents %
Procedure wrong Situation not covered 20 29
Facts wrong 2 3
Procedure not used or followed Not used 9 13
No procedure 7 10
Procedure used incorrectly Check-off misused 1 1
Format confusing 1 1
Total 40 57
ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS
Table 1. More than half of inadequate responses to abnormal situations stemmed from procedure execution failures.
35 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
Reference - generally moderate frequency,
complexity and consequences; and
Guidelines - usually high frequency, low
complexity and minor consequences.
From a usage perspective, the policy should
state for each classincation level whether the proce-
dure requires:
Reviewing prior to use;
Having the full document or a checklist on
hand during execution;
Initialing each step following completion; and
Signing-o following completion of all steps
or group of steps.
Finally, the plant management team must
monitor and reinforce compliance with the policy
to ensure operations team members adopt the
new practice. Changing organizational culture
isn't simple - it just won't happen automatically
with the reclassification of procedures. However,
a more pragmatic approach to the organization's
expectations on the use of procedures will ease
the task.
2. Lack of eective methods for determining what
abnormal situations procedures should address. is
inherently is about understanding the risks associ-
ated with failing to execute a procedure as written
and what situations might arise that might make
executing the procedure no longer appropriate.
Consequently, addressing the challenge requires the
use of a risk assessment methodology.
e ASM Consortium's recommended practices
[3] use such methodologies to:
Establish risk-based criteria for procedural use
classincation (Guideline 1.5); and
Conduct a procedure-focused process hazard
analysis (PHA) as part of critical review (Guide-
line 1.7).
We've already discussed the role consequence plays
in classifying procedures. Clearly, this requires some
type of assessment of potential hazards associated with
the failure to execute the procedure. Sites that have done
this assessment use their usual PHA or Hazard and
Operability (HAZOP) methodology. e classincation
results can be used to identify the specinc procedures
that require a procedure-focused PHA to determine the
content appropriate for execution during abnormal situ-
ations, i.e., per the second guideline (Guideline 1.7).
Evaluating the risk associated with the process
and operator actions during procedures can identify
ways to manage and control hazards that might
result from failures in execution. In performing this
activity, the procedure developer must be knowledge-
able about past PHA nndings and aware of specinc
engineering controls that improper execution of the
procedure might impact. Furthermore, because the
original PHA nndings might not have considered
LITERATURE CITED
1. Bullemer, P.T., Kiff, L. and Tharanathan, A., Common Procedural Execution Failure Modes During Abnormal
Situations, J. of Loss Prevent. in Proc. Ind., pp. 814818, 24 (6), 2011.
2. Bullemer, P.T. and Laberge, J.C., Common Operations Failure Modes in the Process Industries, J. of Loss Prevent.
in Proc. Ind., pp. 928935, 23 (6), 2010.
3. Bullemer, P. T., Hajdukiewicz, J. and Burns, C., Effective Procedural Practices: ASM Consortium Guidelines,
Abnormal Situation Management Consortium, Minneapolis, MN, 2010.
Common manifestations Denition Number of incidents
Inappropriate action
Failure to know what the appropriate response should be to the
occurrence of an abnormal situation in the execution of the procedure
15
Fail to detect abnormal condition
Failure to detect whether equipment of process is in abnormal mode or
whether there are any latent abnormal conditions
12
Lack understanding of impact
Failure to understand the correct impact or effect of a procedural
action or failure to know the impact of not following procedural
instruction
8
Fail to detect abnormal situations
Failure to know when normal operating range is exceeded or know the
indications of the occurrence of an abnormal situation
4
Unaware of hazard
Failure to know of the existence of a hazard or the potential of a
hazardous situation from not following as specied a step or steps
1
Total 40
PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS
Table 2. Inappropriate action most often compromised procedure execution during abnormal situations.
the procedures in the analysis of risk, the procedure
developer must pinpoint risk specically associated
with procedure execution failure.
Te strategy of using risk-based assessment meth-
ods for procedure development isnt a new concept
to the ASM Consortium members. However, using
a risk-based methodology specically to address the
procedural execution failures associated with abnor-
mal situations is a new emphasis evolving out of the
recent incident analysis study.
Tese best practice guidelines represent a starting
point. However, a gap still seems to exist in addressing
the challenge associated with the procedure develop-
ment strategy for determining what abnormal situa-
tion or condition might arise that impacts continua-
tion of the procedure.
So, to get a more comprehensive grasp of sources
of risk associated with execution failures under abnor-
mal situation management, consider:
Failure to detect abnormal condition;
Failure to detect abnormal situation;
Lack of understanding of impact;
Lack of awareness of hazard; and
Inappropriate response to abnormal situation.
In addition, to better consider the implications
of an abnormal situation, when examining potential
safeguards the reviewers should determine whether
an action or actions would allow the procedure to
continue or whether it should be aborted.
3. Insu cient metrics for understanding the causes
of procedural failures. Tis implies a need to enhance
incident reporting to provide better information on
the weaknesses of the procedure management system.
Any solution must address both metric denitions and
metric reporting.
Metric denitions should include both lagging
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Processing.com/articles/2010/123/
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and leading indicators. For instance, establish a set of
lagging indicators that addresses failures in procedure
scope, content or design that stymie procedure execu-
tion in abnormal situations. Likewise, create a set of
leading indicators that identify failures in manage-
ment system elements.
Leading indicator metrics should measure whether
or not operations teams understand the plant policy
on procedure use and whether personnel comply with
the policy. Tese metrics can help address the chal-
lenges associated with Procedure Not Used.
Incorporate the new lagging metrics into a com-
mon site reporting system that addresses all process
safety incidents and promotes accurate and compre-
hensive reporting.
Moreover, build the leading metrics into a com-
mon site reporting system that encourages accurate
and periodic reporting e.g., use the behavioral
safety protocol for process safety management
interventions on procedures not just behavioral
safety (assessment, feedback and recommendations
for improving; and necessary number of observa-
tions per month). Tis may require adapting the
protocol to align with metric needs. Validate the
eectiveness of the metrics in terms of reductions
in the number of procedure-related incidents (per
lagging indicators) as well as procedural deviation
observations.
Its also crucial to establish an eective method
for analyzing leading and lagging metrics over time to
determine systemic failures in procedure development
practices.
Tis suggested strategic approach to a more-com-
prehensive metrics-based solution for understanding
the nature of procedure execution failures associated
with abnormal situations requires eort to dene
procedure-related leading and lagging indicators and
enhance the common site incident reporting system.
ACHIEVE EFFECTIVE PROCEDURES
In general, the ASM Consortium analysis reinforces
the value of establishing an eective procedure man-
agement system for the development, deployment, and
maintenance of procedure work instructions. Te out-
lined approach to the analysis of incident reports can
provide any organization with a good understanding
of the specic ways to improve the procedural man-
agement system for better operations performance.
PETER T. BULLEMER is senior partner at Human Centered
Solutions, LLC, Independence, MN. E-mail him at pbullemer@
applyhcs.com.
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JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 38
MAKING IT WORK
Biorenery Beckons
Iowa plant will produce ethanol from corn stover
By Jan Koninckx, DuPont Industrial Biosciences
AFTER ALMOST a decade of research, develop-
ment and trials, advanced biofuels are moving to-
ward commercialization. Five established companies
intend to build large-scale bioreneries in the U.S.
over the next 12 to 18 months. When operational,
these facilities will generate nearly 110 million gal-
lons of advanced biofuels annually.
DuPont is in the process of constructing one of
these bioreneries a facility in Nevada, Iowa, that
the company broke ground on in November 2012. Te
plant will be one of the rst and largest commercial
bioreneries in the world making fuel from cellulose.
Te facility will take 18 months to complete and will
produce 30 million gallons a year of cellulosic ethanol
via conversion of corn stover from local farms. Speci-
cally, to supply the corn stover for the plant, DuPont
will contract with more than 500 local farmers to
gather, store and deliver more than 375,000 dry tons of
stover per year to the Nevada facility. Te stover will be
collected from an approximate 30-mile radius around
the new facility and harvested o of 190,000 acres.
How did we get to this point and what will it take
to be successful? DuPont has invested millions of
dollars in advanced biofuels research and development
over many years. In 2011, we purchased Danisco and
its Genencor unit and added their expertise into a new
unit: DuPont Industrial Biosciences. Tis integration
allows us to optimize DuPonts bioscience technology
and commercialization capabilities with Genencors
biofuel enzyme technology.
Genencor has made great progress in developing
enzymes to convert a range of renewable nonfood
feedstocks such as corn stover, switch grass and wheat
straw, as well as municipal waste, to cellulosic ethanol.
Its third-generation enzyme technology, released in
2011, converts glucan (C
6
) and xylan (C
5
) sugars with
a greater ethanol yield per unit of feedstock. Du-
Pont has been trialing these enzymes at its cellulosic
ethanol demonstration plant in Vonore, Tenn. (Figure
1). Te ethanol produced there powers vehicles at the
University of Tennessee.
With the major technical challenges of enzyme
optimization and cellulosic conversion overcome, our
attention has focused on developing a sustainable feed-
stock supply chain for the Iowa plant and a model for
the industry in years to come. Working in collaboration
with Iowa State University and DuPonts Pioneer divi-
sion, we created the Corn Stover Harvest and Collec-
tion Project in 2010. Our rst year, we worked with just
six area farms totaling slightly more than 2,500 acres.
Our harvest test program evaluated equipment options
and congurations for corn stover harvest, collection,
transportation and storage.
Te following year, we increased the pilot program
to 50 corn growers and 7,500 acres. We conducted criti-
cal research and development to advance equipment
productivity, improve feedstock quality and evaluate
cost-eective approaches for minimizing feedstock
losses during storage. A signicant learning from our
overall project in 2011 was that most participating corn
growers see agronomic value in having a portion of the
stover removed from their elds. In addition, the major-
ity reported agronomic advantages were the greatest
overall value they derived from stover harvest.
In 2012, the project expanded to more than 100
corn growers and harvested corn stover from approxi-
mately 25,000 acres. Tis represents approximately
one-seventh of our rst biorenerys annual feedstock
requirement. Te focus in 2012 was on conducting
a commercially representative harvest operation and
DEMONSTRATION PLANT
Figure 1. Unit at Vonore, Tenn., can produce 250,000 gallons/year of ethanol from
agricultural residues.
MAKING IT WORK
proving the business model for corn stover supply.
Tese pilots demonstrate the viability of a custom
third-party harvest model one of several corn-sto-
ver-harvest options DuPont is developing to support
commercialization of cellulosic ethanol production.
We specically selected Nevada, Iowa, for the
facility because Lincolnway Energy operates a corn-
grain ethanol processing plant there. We will be able
to achieve synergies in both energy and logistical
management from this co-location with Lincolnway.
Our ultimate goal is to partner with other companies
and license these technologies to biofuel producers in
the U.S. and other parts of the world.
Under the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS),
Congress has enacted targets for increasing the use of
advanced biofuels as transportation fuels. Tis RFS
calls for the U.S. to produce 36 billion gallons/year of
advanced biofuels by 2022. Beyond cellulosic ethanol,
DuPont is working to commercialize biobutanol via
a joint venture with BP called Butamax Advanced
Biofuels. It was formed in 2009 specically to develop
biobutanol technology. Biobutanol will provide
improved options for expanding energy supplies and
accelerate the move to renewable transportation fuels.
Today, we are on the verge of commercializing
these biofuels. Te next challenge will be to gain even
larger scale and improved economics to ensure ad-
vanced biofuels achieve their full potential for greater
energy security, economic development and environ-
mental benets.
JAN KONINCKX is global business director, bioreneries, for
DuPont Industrial Biosciences, Wilmington, Del. E-mail him at Jan.
Koninckx@dupont.com.
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Biofeedstocks Still Grow, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/articles/2009/094/
DuPont Expands Portfolio of Renewably Sourced Polymers, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/industrynews/2009/063/
BP and DuPont Team Up for Biofuels, www.ChemicalProcessing.com/industrynews/2006/055/
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 40
PROCESS PUZZLER
Get Rid Of Problems Not Just Off-Gas
A variety of factors may compromise performance of a thermal oxidizer
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your combustion (and corrosive)
components, this is what would
be expected. Tis is common with
rental equipment.
Sending the o-gas to the are
while the TOX is out of service
would be of concern to your reli-
ability and environmental people.
Environmental issues depend on
your emissions permit.
Regarding damaging your are,
it would depend on what it was de-
signed for (i.e., gas compositions/
combustion products, corrosives in
gas stream/combustion products).
Flares are designed robust enough
to withstand natural elements
as well as common combustion
products. Depending on the gas
corrosiveness, robust metallurgies
are selected.
A quick calculation using
your 2,500-lb/hr gas and its
composition plus C
1
-C
3
(assum-
ing 26.3% C
1
, 6.23% C
2
, 0.94%
C
2
=, 23.08% C
3
and 3.64% C
3
=)
shows the following mass ows
to are: H
2
4.5 lb/hr; O
2
13.0 lb/
hr; N
2
51.3 lb/hr; CO 114.0 lb/hr;
CO
2
35.8 lb/hr; C
1
320.6 lb/hr;
C
2
152.1 lb/hr; C
2
= 21.5 lb/hr; C
3
829 lb/hr; C
3
= 124.9 lb/hr; and
H
2
S 833.27 lb/hr. Using our are
eciency and NO
X
eciency pro-
gram, we estimated the following
emissions: NO
x
2.42 lb/hr (NO
2.30 lb/hr and NO
2
0.12 lb/hr);
CO emissions would be 1.47 lb/hr
and CO
2
emissions 0.49 lb/hr. Te
amount of SO
2
to the are would
be 1,568.5 lb/hr. Te emission
after destruction will depend on
your are destruction eciency
compare the calculation against
the permit to decide if you would
incur permit violations.
As for the corrosion, some
adjustment may be required. Our
plant has three ares. Teir service
life span is 29 to 36 years. One
services a gas stream that contains
corrosive products. Tis one are
tip was changed 5 times. Te last
tip was re-designed.
Arbues Maymi,
senior process engineer
CITGO Renery,
Corpus Christi, Texas
FIND A LONG-TERM SOLUTION
Lets start with the temporary per-
mit required. Youll need such a
permit when you install an amine
system upstream of the are. Tat
should take care of any corrosion
issues with the are. Teres no
way you should run a stream with
this concentration of H
2
S to are;
its been done, though.
Another option is a stopgap
TOX. As with all interim equip-
ment, it will require a temporary
operating permit. Youll probably
also need to pass a stack test, so
youll want to plan for this during
the repairs of the old TOX.
As for the liquid ring vacuum
pumps, I would surmise the
pumps failed because of contami-
nated seal f luid. Scale buildup
eventually would cause a liquid
ring pump to seize up. If hard
enough, the scale could damage
the bearings, seals and internal
components. Vacuum pumps may
THIS MONTHS
PUZZLER
Our renery uses a thermal oxidizer
(TOX) to dispose of vacuum off-gas.
Currently, a steam jet pulls this off-gas
because weve had reliability trouble
with liquid ring pumps. Weve suffered
severe corrosion in the TOXs burners
and tiles. Startup problems with the
TOX particularly with the re detec-
tors and igniter system have caused
delays. Whats causing the problems
and how can we improve the units reli-
ability? We also have a related concern:
our production manager wants to send
the off-gas to a are while the TOX
is out of service for repair, which will
take a week. The typical composition
of the off-gas by volume is 30% H
2
S,
5% CO, 2.75% H
2
, 2.25% N
2
, 1% CO
2
,
and 0.5% O
2
, with the remainder C
1
C
3
hydrocarbons. The vacuum is 40 torr,
absolute, and the temperature is 120F.
About 2,500 pounds per hour would
go to are while the TOX is ofine. Do
we risk damaging our are? What other
problems might arise? What temporary
measures would you suggest to avoid
environmental issues?
41 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM JANUARY 2013
PROCESS PUZZLER
be less reliable, and therefore, less suitable in this
application.
Could there be a connection between the
startup problems and the corrosion in the furnace?
Perhaps, its the ue gases. Te SO
x
, formed by
burning the H
2
S, could reach saturation in the
brick or on the shell wall of the furnace. Tis
would cause severe corrosion of the brick and
shell periodically necessitating wholesale
replacement of the carbon steel plate. Te eect of
saturated acid gases, such as SO
x
, partially could
be mitigated by selective insulation and even heat
tracing. Te idea is to reduce the penetration of
the acid saturation point into the brick; youd
rather have brick wear away at the hot face than
have acid worm its way to the vessel shell where it
can cause permanent damage.
Likewise, the sulfur-tar residue formed in
burning the gases could be fouling the re detec-
tors, giving false signals the burner pilot is o; the
residue could choke the burner, adversely aecting
the ow dynamics controlling mixing of the fuel
and combustion air inside the burner tunnel. If
the burner tile were severely corroded, enough to
cause tile cracking, it would not act as a heat sink,
allowing the fuel gas and air to heat to ignition
temperature. In this type of situation, where dam-
age may be unavoidable, reliability cost savings
are in avoiding unanticipated catastrophic failures
and by improving ease of repairs. Sometimes, re-
dundant, isolated in-line spares might be a means
to avoid fouling problems with re detectors
controls alone are not the answer.
A search for a better material of construction
should be weighed against the cost and long lead
times of exotic materials, the learning curve of
maintenance with new materials and techniques,
compatibility issues, and cost of retrofitting.
Sometimes, that cheap steel bolt that must be
replaced in six months is a better choice than one
of an expensive hard-to-find nickel alloy with an
unpredictable reliability history. This same logic
can be applied to cladding, which is another ap-
pealing option.
Dirk Willard, consultant
Wooster, Ohio
Our renery, which is located in the upper Midwest, runs into
problems pumping liqueed petroleum gas (LPG) from stor-
age bullets to tanker trucks during the summer. Except for low
tank level, we can pump 600 gpm in the winter without any
issues but have trouble pumping at all by late morning in the
summer. Thats when we divert propane, with some difculty,
to underground pipelines.
The bullet pressure reliefs are set at about 500 psig. The op-
erating pressure starts at about 140 psig when the bullets are full
but is only about 105 psig at about 15% full, which is as low as we
can go. We feed four bullets at a time to the pump. During lling,
pressure can spike at above 200 psig on a hot day.
Suction piping: the bullets have a single 4-in. discharge
through a ball valve; ow is through about 150 ft of above-
ground 8-in./10-in pipe. Discharge piping: two dryer tanks
separate liquids from the LPG; there also are two lters and a
strainer. (We havent kept maintenance records for the dryers
or lters.) A 600-ft above-ground run of 6-in. pipe goes from
the 8-in. pump discharge to the ow control valve; a 2-in. hose
connects the skid to the truck.
Typical loading of the rack, with 600 gpm, is at about 225
psig, immediately upstream of a 4-in. equal-percentage globe
valve (C
V
= 220) with a nal pressure of about 150 psig at the
tanker truck. A turbine meter immediately upstream of the
valve measures ow erratically. During startup, the ow is 100
gpm at 30 psig, with a pressure of 270 psig into the valve.
We need to address vapor lock of the valve during startup
and pump cavitation during low level. Were seeing a one-year
life on the seals in these multistage inline vertical LPG pumps.
During the summer we always have trouble starting a pump
once it has stopped. A manual vent line at the pump bowl
connected to a are is used to bleed off the gas. We always
see a surge when we start the pump, hot or cold. There are
secondary 2-in. lines at the top of each bullet for manually
venting them to are.
What is the cause of our pump problems? Would using a
smaller valve help? What can we do to improve this operation?
Send us your comments, suggestions or solutions for this
question by February 11, 2013. Well include as many of them
as possible in the March 2013 issue and all on ChemicalPro-
cessing.com. Send visuals a sketch is ne. E-mail us at
ProcessPuzzler@putman.net or mail to Process Puzzler, Chemi-
cal Processing, 555 W. Pierce Road, Suite 301, Itasca, IL 60143.
Fax: (630) 467-1120. Please include your name, title, location
and company afliation in the response.
And, of course, if you have a process problem youd like
to pose to our readers, send it along and well be pleased to
consider it for publication.
MARCHS
PUZZLER
JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 42
PLANT INSITES
The goal is
to create
humidication
cooling when the
water evaporates.
Is Mist a Must?
Water sprays may boost performance of air-n exchangers
AN AIR-FIN exchanger is a cross-f low exchanger
on the air side. Even with multiple tube passes,
getting close approach temperatures is difficult.
Air-fin exchangers often pinch out against air
inlet temperature on very hot days (see: Cope
with Condenser Constraints, www.Chemical-
Processing.com/cope-with-condenser-constraints).
Against a pinch, higher air f low rates provide
little benefit the only effective technique to
improve air-fin performance may be to drop the
air temperature. Spraying water into the air can
do this.
The objective isnt to put bulk water on the
exchanger but instead to create a mist in the air
that leads to humidification cooling. So, lets
look at when a mist is useful; how fine a mist is
needed; and how to make the mist.
The goal is to create humidification cooling
when the water evaporates. Psychrometric charts
detail the difference between various relative hu-
midity levels as air becomes more saturated. The
charts include dry bulb and wet bulb tempera-
tures. The dry bulb temperature is the starting
air temperature. The wet bulb temperature is
the achievable cooling by saturating the air. A
quick glance at a psychrometric chart shows very
little temperature drop is possible once air gets
to ~85% relative humidity. To cool air at 115F
to 110F requires starting with 70% humidity
and increasing the humidity to 83%. Consider-
ing a 5 cooling as the minimum performance to
make the expense worth the effort, a site should
have a relative humidity of 70% or less. Check-
ing the required temperature drop against the site
conditions will clarify if mist cooling might make
sense.
The benefit of humidification comes from
evaporating water upstream of the air-fin by
creating a mist immediately underneath the
air-fin. Only a short distance is available for the
water droplets to evaporate before they enter the
exchanger. Based on observation of operating
misting systems, my own rule-of-thumb is to get
a spray pattern that creates a nominal 50- (or
smaller) droplet at 3 ft below the air-fin bundle.
However, rather than just relying on that
rule-of-thumb, lets
delve into the issue a bit
more. Figure 1 shows
expected distance for
a droplet to evaporate
versus droplet size. Its
based on 115F air at 70%
relative humidity with
a face velocity of 10 ft/
sec into the exchanger.
The analysis involves too
many assumptions to list
here but, rest assured, I
took care to ensure the
simplifications arent all
in one direction. The
analysis starts with Beard
and Pruppachers work
on droplet evaporation
(A Wind Tunnel In-
vestigation of the Rate
of Evaporation of Small
Water Drops Falling at
Terminal Velocity in Air,
J. of Atm. Sci., November
1971) and modifies its
Water droplets diameter, microns
40 80 120 160 200
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

t
o

e
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

f
t
40
30
20
10
0
EVAPORATION PLOT
Figure 1. Larger droplets require more distance to evaporate.
PLANT INSITES
assumptions to better fit the conditions of typi-
cal hot (above 100F) air-fin operation.
Figure 1 indicates that droplets 60 and
smaller should evaporate in 3 ft. However, spray
nozzles dont create uniform-size droplets but,
instead, a distribution of droplet sizes. These
droplet sizes most commonly are character-
ized by Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD), which is
the diameter whose ratio of volume to surface
area equals that of the entire droplet distribu-
tion. Other useful parameters include the peak
diameter (PD), which is the droplet size that
matches the peak in the droplet size distribution,
and the mass median diameter (MMD), which
is the diameter that has 50% of the total volume
smaller than this size. For most sprays, the SMD
is 8084% of the PD. The MMD is larger still. A
few small but large particles contain much of the
mass in the spray.
For an SMD of 50 , the PD is 50/0.8 = 62.5
. Figure 1 shows that the distance required for
this diameter is 3 ft. Less than 50% of the mass
evaporates at that point. Achieving the target
air cooling may require a ratio of roughly 3:1
of sprayed water to minimum water. The excess
water enters the exchanger and then rapidly
vaporizes.
How do we create such a fine mist? Either air
atomizing or fine spray nozzles might meet the
requirements. Air atomizing nozzles generally cre-
ate the smallest droplets. They use a gas stream
to physically break a liquid stream into droplets.
This requires adding an air system as well as a
water distribution system. A fine spray nozzle
uses pressure drop to do the job. It comes in two
versions: one forms spray directly while the other
creates the spray by bouncing a jet of liquid on a
surface. In either case, what makes a fine spray
is high pressure drop and a small nozzle. Drop-
let size distributions are extremely difficult to
predict. What you need are data. Work with the
nozzle vendor, explain your objective and circum-
stances, and get a nozzle thats been thoroughly
tested. In any case, expect a high pressure drop.
Some units require pressure drops of up to 400
psi to achieve small droplet sizes.
ANDREW SLOLEY, Contributing Editor
ASloley@putman.net
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EQUIPMENT & SERVICES
Software Monitors
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Te FactoryTalk VantagePoint
Energy bundle helps plant and
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414-382-2000
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Transmitter Scales
as Process Expands
Liquiline CM444 and CM448
multi-channel transmitters take
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JANUARY 2013 CHEMICALPROCESSING.COM 46
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BASF Caralysrs LLC 51
Bere Fo Nozzle 2
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C|eckAll valve Ml. Co. 3
Dynamic Air 32
Federal Equipmenr Company 28
Hapman Conveyors 4,4c
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Load Controls 46
Magnetrol International 26-27
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Material Transfer & Storage 21
Omega Engineering 3,45
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Ross,Charles & Son Co. 22
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Watson-Marlow Pumps Group 13
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Chemical Engineering Matters
U.K. professional society addresses areas where engineers could make an impact
THE INSTITUTION of Chemical Engineers
(IChemE), Rugby, U.K., has published a new report,
Chemical Engineering Matters, which identies four
priority areas where chemical engineers can make a
positive impact: energy, food and nutrition, water, and
health and wellbeing.
Te report is a much-needed update of the Institu-
tions 2007 technical strategy, according to IChemE di-
rector of policy and communications Andrew Furlong.
Te original document was seen as too restricting. Te
20 position statements that it contained are still valid,
and IChemE will still work in order to deliver against
those propositions, but the original roadmap took some
criticism because its didnt focus strongly enough on
wealth creation and it didnt really take into account
external matters, he explains.
Chemical Engineering Matters, Furlong says, is
more about what chemical engineers can actually do.
Te report also describes IChemEs current thinking
in three fundamental underpinning areas: safety and
risk, education and training, and research and develop-
ment. It also discusses external inuences that aect the
way todays chemical engineers operate.
Te document ends with ten specic actions for
IChemEs leadership and sta team to pursue. Tey are:
Safety. IChemE is committed to initiating a new
international qualication for process safety professions.
Talent. IChemE aims to keep talent owing via a
constant review of its course accreditation guidelines.
Research. Te institution will place priority on
encouraging multidisciplinary work and the eective
exchange of knowledge and ideas between the research
base and teaching.
Energy. IChemE says it will argue for robust lifecycle
analysis and promotion of the fullest understanding
of thermodynamics for all proposed solutions from
carbon management to wave power.
Water. Te organization believes the chemical
engineers role in delivering sustainable solutions has
been underplayed. In response, IChemE says it will
provide additional support to chemical engineers in
the water community to explore new ways of promot-
ing process technology.
Food and nutrition. IChemE plans to exert signi-
cant inuence over development of processes and tech-
nologies that reduce waste and optimize food supply.
Health and wellbeing. Te institution says it will do
more to highlight the impact of the discipline in both
the bioscience and pharmaceutical sectors.
Politics. Te politically neutral organization claims
it will work with constituent member groups and lo-
cal leaderships around the world to develop coherent
policy goals that will form the basis of engagement with
opinion-formers and policy-makers.
Economics. Here, the IChemE will continue to
highlight the role of chemical engineers in improving
process eciency and reducing costs for the worldwide,
$3-trillion downstream chemical industry.
Public understanding. Te report notes that over the
last 30 years public mood swings have driven scientists
to retreat into their laboratories. Meanwhile, it says,
engineers of all descriptions have never really excelled at
promoting their eorts and explaining their works value
to laypersons. Chemical engineers are in a particularly
dicult place. Te absence of historical heroes with the
visibility of Brunel, Faraday or Watt has conned the
discipline to relative obscurity: Given the upstream na-
ture that characterizes much of the chemical engineers
work, its hardly surprising that public polling carried
out by IChemE consistently revealed that its generally
unclear, even to the educated observer, exactly what
chemical engineering is all about. IChemE members
frequently express dismay at this state of aairs because,
as this report clearly illustrates, chemical engineering
is fundamental to progress in the key challenge areas
of energy, water, food and nutrition, and health and
wellbeing, notes the report.
Rising to this challenge, IChemE encourages mem-
bers to engage productively in public conversation about
the impact of chemical processes and products. IChemE
also will work with science media centers and other non-
governmental organizations to address the disconnect
between lifestyle commentary and chemical realities.
Tis is not just a document that will sit on our
desks, says IChemE CEO David Brown. It will guide
policy development and how we plan our work for the
future. Chemical engineers have a long history of ac-
tion. Tey are innovators who have brought numerous
benets to society from pharmaceutical developments
such as the scaling up of penicillin to the production of
high-power rechargeable batteries that are used in many
of our devices from mobile phones to laptops.
Te full report can be downloaded from the
IChemEs website at www.icheme.org/media_centre/
chemical-engineering-matters.aspx.
SEN OTTEWELL, Editor at Large
sottewell@putman.net
The absence of
visible historical
heroes has
conned the
discipline to
relative obscurity.
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