Mechanics

Physics 151
Lecture 3
Lagranges Equations
(Goldstein Chapter 1)
Hamiltons Principle
(Chapter 2)
What We Did Last Time
! Discussed multi-particle systems
! Internal and external forces
! Laws of action and reaction
! Introduced constraints
! Generalized coordinates
! Introduced Lagranges Equations
! ... and didnt do the derivation
"Lets pick it up and start from there
Todays Goals
! Derive Lagranges Eqn from Newtons Eqn
! Use DAlemberts principle
! There will be a few assumptions
! Will make them clear as we go
! Introduce Hamiltons Principle
! Equivalent to Lagranges Equations
! Which in turn is equivalent to Newtons Equations
! Does not depend on coordinates by construction
! Derivation in the next lecture
Lagranges Equations
! Express L = T V in terms of generalized coordinates
, their time-derivatives , and time t
! The potential V = V(q, t) must exist
! i.e. all forces must be conservative
0
j j
d L L
dt q q
| |

=
|
|

\ .
!
( , , ) L q q t T V
!
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Lagrangian
Recipe
{ }
j
q { }
j
q
!
Virtual Displacement
! Consider a system with constraints
! Ordinary coordinates r
i
(i = 1...N)
! Generalized coordinates q
j
(j = 1...n)
! Imagine moving all the particles
slightly
! Note that r
i
must satisfy the constraints
1 1 1 2
2 2 1 2
1 2
( , ,..., , )
( , ,..., , )
( , ,..., , )
n
n
N N n
q q q t
q q q t
q q q t
=

r r
r r
r r
"
i i i
+ r r r
Virtual displacement
i
i j
j
j
q
q

r
r
3N coordinates
not independent
n coordinates
independent
j j j
q q q +
! From Newtons Equation of Motion
! Part of the force F
i
must be due to constraints
! Applied force is known
! Constraint force f
i
(usually) does no work
! Movement is perpendicular to the force
! Exception: friction
! Now multiply by r
i
and sum over i
( ) a
i i i
= + F F f
DAlemberts Principle
i i
= F p
!
0
i i
= F p
!
( ) ( )
1 2
( , ,..., ,..., , )
a a
i i i N
t = F F r r r r
applied force constraint force
0
i i
= f r
( )
0
a
i i i
+ = F f p
!
DAlemberts Principle
! Force of constraints dropped out because
! Called DAlemberts Principle (1743)
! Now we switch from r
i
to q
j
! Unit of Q
j
not always [force]
! Q
j
q
j
is always [work]
( )
( ) 0
a
i i i
i
=

F p r
!
0
i i
= f r
1st term
i
i j j j
i j j
j
q Q q
q

= =

r
F
i
j i
i
j
Q
q

r
F
Generalized force
constraint force is out of the game.
You can forget (a)
DAlemberts Principle
! A bit of work can show
! DAlemberts Principle becomes
,
2nd term
i i
i i i j i i j
i i j i j
j j
q m q
q q


= = =


r r
p r p r
! ! !!
2 2
2 2
i i i
i
j j j
v v d
q dt q q
(
| | | |


(
| |

( \ . \ .

r
r
!!
!
j
j
j j
d T T
q
dt q q


| |


=
|
`
|


\ .
)

!
0
j j
j
j j
d T T
Q q
dt q q


(
| |


=
(
|
`
|

(
\ .

)

!
2
2
i
i
mv
T

Lagranges Equations
! Generalized coordinates q
j
are independent
! Assume forces are conservative
0
j j
j
j j
d T T
Q q
dt q q


(
| |


=
(
|
`
|

(
\ .

)

!
These are free
j
j j
d T T
Q
dt q q
| |

=
|
|

\ .
!
Almost there!
i i
V = F
i i
j i i
i i
j j j
V
Q V
q q q

= =


r r
F
Throw this
back in
Lagranges Equations
! Assume that V does not depend on
( )
0
j j
T V
d T
dt q q
| |

=
|
|

\ .
!
j
q
!
0
j
V
q

!
0
j j
d L L
dt q q
| |

=
|
|

\ .
!
Finally
( , , ) ( , )
j j j
L T q q t V q t =
!
Done!
Assumptions We Made
! Constraints are holonomic
! We always assume this
! Constraint forces do no work
! Forget frictions
! Applied forces are conservative
! Lagranges Eqn. itself is OK if V depends explicitly on t
! Potential V does not depend on
1 2
( , ,..., , )
i i n
q q q t = r r
0
i i
= f r
i i
V = F
j
q
! 0
j
V
q

!
Will review the last assumption later
Example: Time-Dependent
! Transformation functions may depend on t
! Generalized coordinate system may move
! E.g. coordinate system fixed to the Earth
! An example
( , )
i i j
q t = r r
mass m on a rail
spring constant K
natural length l
angular velocity
l + r
Example: Time-Dependent
! Transformation functions:
! Kinetic energy
! Potential energy
( ) cos
( ) sin
x l r t
y l r t

= +

= +

{ } { }
2 2 2 2 2
( )
2 2
m m
T x y r l r = + = + +
! ! !
2
2
K
V r =
{ }
2 2 2 2
( )
2 2
m K
L r l r r = + +
!
2
( ) 0
d L L
mr m l r Kr
dt r r


(
= + + =
(


!!
!
Lagranges Equation
Example: Time-Dependent
! If K > m
2
, a harmonic oscillator with
! Center of oscillation is shifted by
! If K < m
2
, moves away exponentially
! If K = m
2
, velocity is constant
! Centripetal force balances with the spring force
2
( ) 0
d L L
mr m l r Kr
dt r r


(
= + + =
(


!!
!
2
2
2
( ) 0
m l
mr K m r
K m

| |
+ =
|

\ .
!!
2
K m
m

=
Note on Arbitrarity
! Lagrangian is not unique for a given system
! If a Lagrangian L describes a system
! One can prove
( , ) dF q t
L L
dt

= +
works as well for any function F
0
d dF dF
dt q dt q dt
| |
| | | |
=
| | |

\ . \ .
\ .
!
dF F F
q
dt q t

= +

!
using
Assumptions We Made
! Constraints are holonomic
! We always assume this
! Constraint forces do no work
! Forget frictions
! Applied forces are conservative
! Lagranges Eqn. itself is OK if V depends explicitly on t
! Potential V does not depend on
1 2
( , ,..., , )
i i n
q q q t = r r
0
i i
= f r
i i
V = F
j
q
! 0
j
V
q

!
Lets review the last assumption
Velocity-Dependent Potential
! We assumed and so that
! We could do the same if we had
0
j
V
q

!
j
j j
d T T
Q
dt q q
| |

=
|
|

\ .
!
( ) ( )
0
j j
d T V T V
dt q q
| |

=
|
|

\ .
!
This had to be 0
j
j j
U d U
Q
q dt q
| |

= +
|
|

\ .
!
( , , )
j j
U U q q t =
!
Generalized,
or velocity-
dependent
potential
( , , ) ( , , )
j j j j
L T q q t U q q t =
! !
j
j
V
Q
q

EM Force on Particle
! Lorentz force on a charged particle
! E and B fields are given by
! Force is v-dependent "Need a v-dependent potential
! Lagrangian is
[ ( )] q = + F E v B
t

A
E
= B A
U q q = A v works
check
2
1
2
L mv q q = + A v
Velocity-dependent.
Cant find a usual
potential V
Physics 15b
Monogenic System
! If all forces in a system are derived from a generalized
potential,
its called a monogenic system
! U is a function of
! Lorentz force is monogenic
! A monogenic system is conservative only if
! Or
! Lagranges Equation works on a monogenic system
j
j j
U d U
Q
q dt q
| |

= +
|
|

\ .
!
, , q q t
!
( ) U U q =
0
U U
q t

= =

!
Hamiltons Principle
! We derived Lagranges Eqn from Newtons Eqn using
a differential principle
! DAlemberts principle uses infinitesimal displacements
! Its possible to do it with an integral principle
Hamiltons Principle
Configuration Space
! Generalized coordinates q
1
,...,q
n
fully describe the
systems configuration at any moment
! Imagine an n-dimensional space
! Each point in this space (q
1
,...,q
n
)
corresponds to one configuration of the system
! Time evolution of the system "A curve in the
configuration space
configuration
space
real space configuration space
Action Integral
! A system is moving as
! Lagrangian is
! Action I depends on the entire path from t
1
to t
2
! Choice of coordinates q
j
does not matter
! Action is invariant under coordinate transformation
( ) 1...
j j
q q t j n = =
( , , ) ( ( ), ( ), ) L q q t L q t q t t =
! !
integrate
2
1
t
t
I Ldt =

Action, or action integral

Hamiltons Principle
! This is equivalent to Lagranges Equations
! We will prove this
! Three equivalent formulations
! Newtons Eqn depends explicitly on x-y-z coordinates
! Lagranges Eqn is same for any generalized coordinates
! Hamiltons Principle refers to no coordinates
! Everything is in the action integral
The action integral of a physical system is stationary
for the actual path
We will also define stationary
Hamiltons Principle is more fundamental
probably...
Stationary
! Consider two paths that are close to each other
! Difference is infinitesimal
! Stationary means that the
difference of the action integrals is
zero to the 1st order of q(t)
! Similar to first derivative = 0
! Almost same as saying minimum
! It could as well be maximum
configuration space
1
t
2
t
( ) q t
( ) ( ) q t q t +
2 2
1 1
( , , ) ( , , ) 0
t t
t t
I L q q q q t dt L q q t dt = + + =

! ! !
1 2
( ) ( ) 0 q t q t = =
Infinitesimal Path Difference
! Whats q(t)?
! Its arbitrary sort of
! It has to be zero at t
1
and t
2
! Its well-behaving
! Have to shrink it to zero
! Trick: write it as
! is a parameter, which well make "0
! (t) is an arbitrary well-behaving function
configuration space
1
t
2
t
( ) q t
( ) ( ) q t q t +
Continuous, non-singular,
continuous 1
st
and 2
nd
derivatives
( ) ( ) q t t =
1 2
( ) ( ) 0 t t = =
Dont worry
too much
Hamilton " Lagrange
! To derive Lagranges Eqns from Hamiltons Principle
! Define
! I is then
! We must show that leads to Lagranges Eqns
2
1
( ) ( ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ), )
t
t
I L q t t q t t t dt + +

! !
2 2
1 1
( , , ) ( , , ) 0
t t
t t
I L q q q q t dt L q q t dt = + + =

! ! !
[ ]
0
lim ( ) (0) I I

0
I
d

| |
|

\ .
0
0
I

| |
=
|

\ .
A bit of work. Will do it on Thursday
Summary
! Derived Lagranges Eqn from Newtons Eqn
! Using DAlemberts Principle Differential approach
! Assumptions we made:
! Constraints are holonomic "Generalized coordinates
! Forces of constraints do no work "No frictions
! Other forces are monogenic "Generalized potential
! Introduced Hamiltons Principle
! Integral approach
! Defined the action integral and stationary
! Derivation in the next lecture
j
j j
U d U
Q
q dt q
| |

= +
|
|

\ .
!