01 The Basics of Sound

The Basics of Sound
Sound is a wave motion that carries energy from one point to another. For the purposes of this introduction, the medium through which the sound wave travels will be air, although sound can also travel through solids and liquids. The "wave" itself consists of small pressure fluctuations in the air about the ambient (atmospheric) pressure. At some points along the sound wave, the air pressure is slightly above the ambient level (the air is compressed), and at others it is below (the air is rarefied). These compressions and rarefactions are generated by the source of the sound wave, usually a vibrating object such as a violin string, a loudspeaker, or a motor in a machine. When the pressure fluctuations in the wave reach the ear, the eardrum vibrates in direct response, and the pressure fluctuations are heard as sound. The amplitude of the pressure fluctuations in the sound wave (how far they are above and below the ambient pressure) determines how loud the sound is, while the frequency of the pressure fluctuations (how rapidly they change from above to below the ambient pressure) determines its pitch.
Amplitude and waveform

This is a graph of the way sound pressure changes over time for a simple sound:
The curve represents both positive and negative swings around the average pressure. The amount the curve deviates from this average is the amplitude. We hear amplitude of sounds as loudness. The average pressure of air is around 15 pounds per square inch. Sound varies this by a thousandth or less. The shape of the curve is very important in establishing the timbre of the sound. The shape of a sound is its waveform
Wavelength, Period and Frequency

A graph of the air pressure at a certain point might look like this:
The arrow indicates one cycle of the sound. The time it takes to complete a cycle is the period. Frequency is the inverse of this, the number of cycles in a second. The distance sound travels during one period is the wavelength.
The Art Of Sound pt. 1
Frequency
The frequency of a sound wave is expressed in hertz (Hz), where one hertz is equal to one cycle per second. The range of frequencies that give rise to the sensation of pitch in humans extends roughly from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, with much individual variation. If the diaphragm of a loudspeaker were to move back and forth at 262 Hz (262 oscillations per second), a listener would perceive a tone having the pitch of middle C.
The range of hearing (Stevens, 1951). In practice, sounds are seldom composed of only a single frequency. They are instead a combination of many frequencies. The distribution of acoustical energy as a function of frequency is generally referred to as a spectrum. The spectrum of the sound from a modern orchestra, for instance, will show energy concentrated from about 25 Hz to 5,000 Hz. Human listeners perceive the spectrum of a sound as its quality or timbre. A violin playing middle C and a trumpet playing middle C have different qualities because their spectra are different.
The Ear
The human ear is a marvel of natural engineering. Its structure is too complex to discuss in detail here, but its most essential properties are the following. Sound enters the ear canal of the outer ear and causes the eardrum to vibrate in response. These vibrations are coupled through three tiny bones in the middle ear to the main sensory organ in the inner ear, or cochlea. Hair cells in the cochlea transmit nerve impulses along the auditory nerve to the brain, where they are interpreted as sound. Although there are several types of hearing loss, it is damage to the hair cells of the cochlea that is usually associated with prolonged exposure to loud noises. The human ear does not respond to the pressure and frequency of a sound wave in the same way that an electronic measuring instrument does. A sound level meter might indicate the sound pressure level of a 60Hz tone to be 50 dB and the level of a 1000Hz tone to be 25 dB, yet to a listener the tones would be perceived as equally loud. This is because the sensitivity of the ear is not uniform. It varies with frequency, as well as with level. At low sound pressure levels, we tend to hear mid frequencies somewhat better than higher frequencies, and much better than lower frequencies. At high sound pressure levels, the variation is not as pronounced and we tend to hear low, mid, and high frequencies about the same. (This is why, when listening to a musical recording, we "lose the bass" when the volume is turned down low.)
The Art Of Sound pt. 1

01 The Basics of Sound

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The Basics of Sound

Amplitude and waveform

Wavelength, Period and Frequency

The Art Of Sound pt. 1

The Art Of Sound pt. 1

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