A Tutorial on

Acoustical Transducers:
Microphones and Loudspeakers

Robert C. Maher
Montana State University

Test Sound
 Outline
• Introduction: What is sound?
• Microphones
– Principles
– General types
– Sensitivity versus Frequency and Direction
• Loudspeakers
– Principles
– Enclosures
• Conclusion

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 Transduction
• Transduction means converting energy
from one form to another
• Acoustic transduction generally means
converting sound energy into an
electrical signal, or an electrical signal
into sound
• Microphones and loudspeakers are
acoustic transducers

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 Acoustics and
Psychoacoustics

Mechanical Electrical
to to
Acoustical Acoustical Psychological
Acoustical Mechanical
propagation to
(reflection, to
diffraction, Mechanical Electrical
absorption, etc.) (nerve signals)

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 What is Sound?
• Vibration of air particles
• A rapid fluctuation in air pressure above
and below the normal atmospheric
pressure
• A wave phenomenon: we can observe
the fluctuation as a function of time and
as a function of spatial position

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 Sound (cont.)
• Sound waves propagate through the air at
approximately 343 meters per second
– Or 1125 feet per second
– Or 4.7 seconds per mile ≈ 5 seconds per mile
– Or 13.5 inches per millisecond ≈ 1 foot per ms
• The speed of sound (c) varies as the square
root of absolute temperature
– Slower when cold, faster when hot
– Ex: 331 m/s at 32ºF, 353 m/s at 100ºF

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 Sound (cont.)
• Sound waves have alternating high and
low pressure phases
• Pure tones (sine waves) go from
maximum pressure to minimum pressure
and back to maximum pressure. This is
one cycle or one waveform period (T).

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Wavelength and Frequency
• If we know the waveform period and the
speed of sound, we can compute how far
the sound wave travels during one cycle.
This is the wavelength (λ).
• Another way to describe a pure tone is its
frequency (f): how many cycles occur in
one second.

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 Wave Relationships
• c = f · λ [m/s = /s · m]
• T = 1/f
• λ=T·c
– c = speed of sound [m/s]
– f = frequency [ /s]
– λ = wavelength [ m ]
– T = period [ s ]
– Note: high frequency implies short wavelength, low
frequency implies long wavelength

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Sound Amplitude and Intensity
• The amount of pressure change due to
the sound wave is the sound amplitude
• The motion of the air particles due to the
sound wave can transfer energy
• The rate at which energy is delivered by
the wave is the sound power [ W (watts)]
• The power delivered per unit area is the
sound intensity [ W/m2 ]

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 Microphone Principles
• Concepts:
– Since sound is a pressure disturbance, we
need a pressure gauge of some sort
– Since sound exerts a pressure, we can use
it to drive an electrical generator
– Since sound is a wave, we can measure
simultaneously at two (or more) different
positions to figure out the direction the wave
is going

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 Microphone: Diaphragm and
Generating Element
• Diaphragm: a membrane that can be set into
motion by sound waves
– Sensitivity: how much motion from a given sound
intensity
• Generating Element: an electromechanical
device that converts motion of the diaphragm
into an electrical current and voltage
– Sensitivity: how much electrical signal power is
obtained from a given sound intensity

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 Electrical Generators
• Variable Resistor
• Variable Inductor
• Electromagnetic
• Variable Capacitor
• Piezoelectric
• Other exotic methods…

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 The First Microphones…
• Alexander Graham Bell (variable resistor)
+ -

Battery
Acid water

• Carbon granules (variable resistor)

+ -

Battery

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Ribbon Microphone
Diaphragm
(metallic foil)

N S

Electrical Circuit

Magnet

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 Dynamic Microphone
• Diaphragm moves a coil of wire through
a fixed magnetic field: Faraday’s Law
indicates that a voltage is produced

N S

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 Piezoelectric Microphone
• Piezoelectric generating element: certain
crystals produce a voltage when distorted
(piezo means “squeeze” in Greek)
• Diaphragm attached to piezo element
• Rugged, reasonably sensitive, not
particularly linear

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 Capacitor (Condenser) Mic
• Variable electrical capacitance
– British use the word “condenser”
• Currently the best for ultra sensitivity, low
noise, and low distortion (precision sound
level meters use condenser mics
• Difficult to manufacture, delicate, and can
be too sensitive for some applications

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 Condenser Mic (cont.)
• Capacitance = charge / voltage
• Capacitance ≈ ε A / d
A = area, d=distance between plates
ε = permittivity
• signal voltage ≈ d · (charge / (ε · A))
Diaphragm

Backplate
constant

High impedance
preamp

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 Microphone Patterns
• A single diaphragm acts like a pressure
detector
• Two diaphragms can give a directional
preference
• Placing the diaphragm in a tube or cavity
can also give a directional preference

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Microphone Patterns (cont.)
• Omnidirectional: all directions
• Unidirectional or Cardioid: one direction
• Bi-directional or ‘figure 8’: front and back
pickup, side rejection

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 Microphone Coloration
• Most microphones are not equally
sensitive at all frequencies
– The human ear is not equally sensitive at all
frequencies either!
• The frequency (and directional)
irregularity of a microphone is called
coloration
• Example:

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Loudspeakers
 Loudspeakers
• Diaphragm attached to a motor element
• Diaphragm motion is proportional to the
electrical signal (audio signal)
• Efficiency: how much acoustical power is
produced from a given amount of input
electrical power

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 Moving Coil Driver
Speaker Frame

Cone
Magnet

Voice Coil

Current through coil

creates a magnetic
force relative to the
fixed magnet

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 Mechanical Challenges
• Large diameter diaphragm can produce
more acoustic power, but has large mass
and directional effects
• Diaphragm displacement (in and out)
controls sound intensity, but large
displacement causes distortion
• Result: low frequencies require large
diameter and large displacement

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Unbaffled Driver

Air has time to “slosh”

between front and
back at low
frequencies: poor
bass response

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Baffled Driver (flush mount)

Baffle prevents front-back

interaction: improved low
frequency performance

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 Loudspeaker Enclosure
• Enclosure is a key part of the acoustical
system design
• Sealed box or acoustic suspension
– enclosed air acts like a spring
• Vented box or bass-reflex
– enclosed air acts like a resonator
• Horns and baffles

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 Acoustic Suspension
Sealed box acts as a
stiff “air spring”

Enclosed volume Relatively weak

chosen for optimum (compliant) cone
restoring force suspension

Greatly reduced
nonlinear distortion!

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 Ported (Resonant) Enclosure
Ported box is a
Helmholtz resonator.

Enclosed volume and

port size chosen to Driver acts as a direct
boost acoustic radiator at frequencies
efficiency at low above box resonance.
frequencies: reduces
required cone motion
for a given output,
allowing lower
distortion. Port (hole): radiates only
at frequencies near box
resonant frequency, but
reduces cone motion.

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 Other Loudspeaker Issues
• Multi-way loudspeakers: separate driver
elements optimized for low, mid, and high
frequencies (woofer, squawker, tweeter)
• Horns: improve acoustical coupling
between driver and the air
• Transmission line enclosures
• Electrostatic driver elements
• ‘Powered’ speakers

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 Conclusions
• Microphone: a means to sense the
motion of air particles and create a
proportional electrical signal
• Loudspeaker: a means to convert an
electrical signal into proportional motion
of air particles
• Engineering tradeoffs exist: there is
not a single best solution for all
situations

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