Urdu in Deccan

Political, Social and Cultural Background of Bahmani Period

Urdu language originated in northern India. After being nurtured there for two or three centuries, it headed towards Deccan because of political circumstances and events. Due to political wisdom of Alaauddin Khilji, Urdu language got an opportunity in Deccan to grow and flourish. After triumph over Gujarat in 1207, Allauddin Khilji made a part of his empire. For about one and a quarter century Gujarat remained a part of Delhi Sultanate. After his triumph in Gujarat, Alauddin attacked Deccan and Malwah and annexed them after his victory over them in 1310. Since these areas were far distant from Delhi, therefore, Alauddin divided the areas included in Deccan and Malwah into regions covering hundred Mauzas each. In order to ensure effective governance, and appointed one officer in each Mauzah who was called Ameer-e-Saddah. Emirs of Saddah used to be uncrowned kings of these regions. Management of all tasks big or small right from collecting land revenue rested with them. Since they had to stay there permanently for discharging administrative tasks, they had brought their kith and kin and acquaintances and took Deccan and Gujarat as their motherland. Before coming here, Emirs of Saddah inhabited in northern India where their ancestors lived for centuries, and therefore, they made use of Urdu or Hindi in contrast with the Court OR the government. When they permanently settled in Gujarat and Deccan, they started deploying the same language in their daily affairs, and thus, the same language became the means of contact. Later developments strengthened this situation further. After Khilji, Muhammad Tughlaq not only sustained this system of Emirs of Saddah but issued orders to reinforce it. Jameel Jalibi writes about the advantages that Urdu language reaped on account of this system:
Because of this system, pathways of Deccan and Gujarat remained open and along with it the circle of influence of Urdu language also kept increasing and developing. This language kept flourishing in these regions in the capacity of an international language. Wit the passage of time, when it came to be used at literary level, after passing fro the status of the means of communication, and Sufis and poets made it an instrument of expressing their purpose, this literary form was named in Gujarat as Gurjaree and it was called Daccanee in Deccan. (Tareekh-e-Adab-e-Urdu p 13)

One more step taken by Mohammad Tughlaq played a significant role in stabilizing it in Deccan. Although Khilji also cared for Deccans distance from Delhi, and for this reason he had appointed Emirs of Saddah, but Mohammad Tughlaq was an extremist king. He guessed that Emirs of Saddah themselves may run out of his control. In order to further reinforce his grip over Deccan, he himself had transferred the capital to Daulatabad from Delhi and showed such extremism in this translocation that he did not left even a single soul in Delhi. In this way, entire population of Delhi got transferred to Daulatabad in 1327. This whole exercise gave an opportunity to Daccanee language to develop and flourish with more vigour. But later on, when Tughlaq made Delhi as the capital, numerous people remained in Deccan itself who came under the patronage of Emirs of Saddah as a result of which those Emirs became more powerful. In the later period of the same Mohammad Tughlaq, all Emirs of Saddah jointly revolted and announced their independence by taking one of them as their king. In this way the grand Bahmani Sultanate was founded in 1347. Jameel Jalibi writes about promotion of Daccanee language and inception of Daccanee culture under Bahmani government:
Now the Sultanate of Deccan came in the hands of those Turk families coming from the north who felt pride in calling themselves as Daccanee. Their language was Daccanee on the basis of which they founded Daccanee nationality and culture. It reveals from the statement of Khafi Khan that the language of Bahmani Sultanate was Hindawee (Tareekh-e-Adab-e-Urdu p 14) Alauddin Hasan Shah Bahmani was first ruler of Bahmani Dynasty. Starting from 1350 Bahmani period ends at 1525.

Reasons behind Development of Urdu During Bahmani Period

There were many reasons behind development of Urdu language and literature during Bahmani period. The biggest and most important reason behind old Urdu or Daccanee becoming the language of common usage was that there were many languages of Dravidian family e.g. Telgu, Kannad, Malyalam and Tamil. These languages were so much separate and different from Aryan languages that none of these languages could

become a basic language. Therefore, old Urdu whose speakers were appointed governors of Deccan in the periods of Khilj and Tughlaq, they took it as the language of communication. Besides, an important reason behind old Urdu i.e. Daccanee becoming the language of the court or government was political. More attention was paid to old Urdu or Daccanee during Bahmani period and many important poets of Deccan are found in this period. Prof. Abdul Qadir Sarwari writes with regard to the new culture and new linguistic traditions established in Bahmani period:
Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah established an autonomous government in 1347. Initially, Daulatabad was his capital but soon he took Gulbarga as the capital and named it as Hasanabad. There were total eighteen rulers of Bahmani Dynasty. Many of them were very able and knowledge loving kings who promoted new cultural traditions and founded new literary and linguistic traditions in Deccan. (Urdu ki Adabi Tareekh p 68)

Even before Alauddin Khiljis conquest in Deccan, there were many respected men who silently played very significant role in promoting new culture and new linguistic traditions. Worth mention among them are Haji Romi, Syed Shah Momin, Baba Syed Mazhar Alam, Shah Jalaluddin Ganj-e-Rawan, Syed Ahmad Kabeer Hayat Qalandar, Baba Sharafuddin and Baba Shahabuddin. Regarding the respected men who came after the conquest of Alauddin Khilji and who discharged an important service in popularizing a new language here, Jameel Jalibi writes:
This sequence of spiritual leadership developed more after Alauddins conquest of Deccan and here too, Peir Maqsood, Peir Jamna, Shaah Muntakhabuddin Zarzaree Bakhsh, Mir Mutthe, father of Hazrat Gaisoo Daraz, Syed Yusuf Shah Rajoo Qattal, Shah Burhanuddin Ghareeb, Sheikh Zziauddin and many other distinguished Sufis unfolded their prayer mats in different areas of Deccan. They appear busy in correcting morals and preaching of Deen. These respected men erected such a structure by mixing the words of local tongues with the language of the north that solved the problem of expression. Hitherto unknown efforts of these people for early development of Urdu language are unforgettable. Tareekhe-Adab-e-Urdu p 151)

It appears from the sayings of the religious sacred men that have reached to us that different Indian languages had influenced their language. Their language can not be limited to any one language. Jameel Jalibi has said about the sayings of Shah Burhanuddin Ghareeb, Zainuddin Khuldabadi and Ahmad Kochak Walee:
These sentences are neither pure Punjabi nor pure Sindhi or Saraiki or Urdu. Influences of different languages seem mingled in Urdu.

Early Period
Early period of Bahmani occupancy (i.e. the tenure of Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah) mostly passed on in stabilizing the government. But in spite of it, several Ulamaa and Fuzalaa were invited to the capital. After Alauddin, his son, Mohammad Shah I was brought to the throne. He exerted greatly in turning the Bahmani Sultanate into a magnificent kingdom. Grandeur of Bahmani court was established in his period. Many spiritual leaders, Sufis and sacred men lived in Gulbarga in the period of Mohammad Shah. As they used to reform the public, they also guided the king on the right path and propagated Urdu language. Prof. Abdul Qadir Sarwari writes in this regard:
Common men used to watch even kings morals and whenever need arose, they tried to reform. Mohammad Shah abandoned drinking on the advice of Hazrat Zainuddin and he prevailed in getting the liquor shops closed within the limits of the capital. Hazrat Zainuddins job was to guide and instruct the masses and he educated people in religious injunctions in old Urdu itself. Urdu ki Adabi Tareekh p 70)

Hazrat Ainuddin Ganjul Ilm passed on in the reign of Mohammad. He had gone to Bijapur. He wrote a few pamphlets for guidance and reform of Deccans public. After Mohammad Shah, his second son Mujahid Shah came to the throne. At that time the peace in the Sultanate was disturbed due to Emirs internal struggle but when Mohammad Shah II was crowned these struggles calmed down. And peace was restored. Mohammad Shah II also invited Ulamaa and poets to his court. He had also invited universally acclaimed Persian poet but he did not come. Mohammad Shah II himself was a poet of Persian language. After his death, unrest broke out in the Sultanate and struggle for power started because of which two rulers were crowned as well as dethroned within a yea. However, these conflicts subsided after the coronation of Firoz Shah. Firoz Shah was eighth king of Bahmani Dynasty. The Sultanate climaxed in his period with respect to its culture, knowledge and arts, and grandeur. As Firoz Shah valued science and art by heart, Sufis and Ulamaa thronged in his court. This was a distinction of his period that Mohammad Husaini Gaisoo Daraz graced Gulbarga by his presence. He continued the sequence of guidance and reformation here

too. Occasionally, he taught in Urdu along with Persian. Several writings are attributed to him, including Meraajul Aashiqeen but recent researches have shown that it was not his work. Besides it, Shikaar Naamah, Tamtheel Naamah, Khulaasah-e-Tauheed and Tilaawatul Wajood are also attributed to him. He had also written a small poem, Chakki Naamah, for women. His eldest son, who died in his life itself, was a poet of Daccanee. His name was Mohammad Akbar Husaini. Gaisoo Daraz had also written a short pamphlet in Daccanee which contains preaching and advice. Ahmad Shah came to the throne after Firoz Shah. He also had faithful conviction in religious sacred men and used to respect and honor them extremely. He transferred his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. The magnificent palaces and buildings that he built in Bidar were fine examples of architecture. Several Iranian poets came to the court in Bidar during his period.. Ahmad Shah had elevated Persian poet Azari as his poet laureate. Azari also wrote poems in Daccanee and he had written the history of Bahmani Sultans in verse under the title of Bahman Naamah. Successor to Ahmad Shah was Alauddin II. Hazrat Gaisoo Daraz expired in his period. Scientific and artistic progress continued in his period. He had prohibited gambling and drinking. Humayoon Shah, who was titled as tyrant, came to the throne after Alauddin. He combed the Ulamaa who opposed his coronation and murdered them. Still a number of Ulamaa and poets were present in his court. Shah Taqi Astarabadi and Mulla Mohammad Taqi Nazeeri were famous Persian poets of this period. Nazeeri also wrote verse in Daccanee. Being impressed by his abilities, Humayoon appointed him as chief commander of his armies. After Humayoon came to the throne his eight years old son Ahmad Shah III. But his able mother took over the business of court affairs and ruled the Sultanate very ably. This was the time when Mahmood Gawan came to Bidar with business purpose. When Mohammad Shah Lashkaree took over the reins of the government after Ahmad, Mahmood Gawan took big strides in his period. He patronized Ulamaa and Fuzalaa and established a big madrasa which is present in Bidar. There was also a big library in the

madrasa. In the meantime, Mohammad Shah appointed Asil Shah as his army commander who established Asil Shahi government later on. Then peoples coming from outside the state were called Afaqi. When violent confrontation started between Afaqis and Deccanese, Mahmood Gawan was murdered. There after, Mohammad Shah Lashkaree passed on. Last magnificent king of Bahmani Sultanate was Mohammad Shah. The long narrative poem of old Urdu, Kadam Rao Padam Rao was written in the period of Mohammad Shah. Among the successors of Mohammad Shah, the periods of Mahmood Shah, Ahmad Shah IV, Waliullah and Kaleemullah were very turbulent. Although Mahmood Shah ruled for twenty-six years but mutual exacerbation and tussle between Afaqis and Deccanese had vandalized the Sultanate as a result of which the Subedars of Bahmani period started declaring independence one after the other, and Bahmani Sultanate got divided into five sultanates. Thus this great Sultanate that was established in 1350 came to an end in 1525.

Academic and Literary Works of Bahmani Period

According to researches under taken so far, Kadam Rao Padam Rao is oldest long narrative poem of Daccanee Urdu. For a time, Merajul Ashiqeen was supposed to be first work in Urdu and it was attributed to Khwaja Banda Nawaz Gaisoo Daraz. But the book written by Dr. Hafeez Qateel under the title of Merajul Ashiqeen ka Musannif proves with strong arguments that neither Merajul Ashiqeen is a work by Hazrat Gaisoo Daraz nor it was written in his age. Instead Makhdoom Shah Husaini wrote it about two hundred years later. In this light, Merajul Ashiqeen can not be said to be first work in old Urdu or Daccanee. After the said research, Fakhr-e-Deen Nizamis long narrative poem Kadam Rao Padam Rao gets the stats of old Urdus oldest work. Internal evidence of this poem being a work of Ahmad Shah period (1421-1434/ 825-838 H) is found in the poem itself. The language of the long narrative poem Kadam Rao Padam Rao is very difficult and understanding it is also very difficult. With respect to the beauties found in this poem in spite of its being so old, Jameel Jalibi writes:

The long narrative poem Kadam Rao Padam Rao is more than fife hundred and fifty years ld and represents earliest tradition of Urdu literature. Abundance of adage and proverbs used in it prove that this language is centuries old that became usable at literary level after passing through the remoteness of many centuries and having crossed over various stages of its development. Apart from the use of Sanskrit words, so far as the smartness of expression and construction is concerned, it is present in Kadam Rao Padam Rao One does not feel unnecessary expanse of descriptive here, instead the process of describing shortly is found in it. It shall be only by accident that any of the words used in his long narrative poem is not found in todays capital of Urdu language. (Tareekh-eAdab-e-Urdu p 166)

Meeran Ji Shamsul Ushshaq

Abdicating all worldly relations amidst his youth, Meeran Ji proceeded to Allahs path He stayed at Medinah Munawwarah for about twelve years after his stay in Allahs House. He was the founder of such a family who discharged the duties of guidance and reform in the land of Deccan for many centuries. Meeran Jis period falls around 1490. This was the time when Bahmani Sultanate had become a political handmaid. It was declining. In 1490, Asil Shahi government had declared its autonomy and independence. Bidars Bareed Shahi Sultanate had already has already declared its independence in 1487. Even Ahmad Shahi government had been formed in Barar and Ahmad Nagars Nizam Shahi Sultanate had separated. However, Qutb Shahi Sultanate declared its autonomy in 1512. In such circumstances, there was unrest all around. Meeran Jis works came to the fore in this very period and continues teaching the method of achieving poise by going back to Allah. For this reason the subject matter of his entire authorship converges on Tasawwuf and moral teachings. His four books are still available: (1) Khush Naamah, (2) Khush Naghz, (3) Shahadatut Tahqeeq, and (4) Naghz-e-Marghoob. Meeran Jis language is difficult and hard to understand. Explaining the way through which Meeran Ji and predecessors and successors served Urdu language, Jameel Jalibi writes:
It appears as if a mountain is being dug and a way is being carved after thousands of difficulties. They are the men who brought the river of language on the pat of expression through their labor and abilities. Today they appear to us difficult and senseless---Had these men not conducted ever new experiments of language and expression (and actually, all of them are experiments) in that age, the river of this language would also dry up in the mid way like Saraswati. These are two models of Urdu language which not only shed light on ninth centurys language

but have got the status of direction indicators on the way. We study different cultural streams and their impact in their light and see which effects have affected our thinking and expression and which were the effects that arose, progressed and became dominant. As we have to watch constantly in order to see the flight of a plane over a long distance, in the same way, we need to continuously see and understand the flight of these mens language and expression in order to see and understand the tradition of Urdu. (Tareekh-eAdab-e-Urdu p 174)

Syed Ashraf Shah Biyabani Syed Ashraf Shah Biyabani (1450-1528) belonged to Rifaayee family. He had written a long narrative poem under the title of Nau Sirhar in 1503. It was named so because it contains nine chapters that have the status of a garland, as if each garland is made out of diamonds. This poem has got great literary importance. Ashraf has said proudly that he has bejeweled this poem with diamonds and woven them in golden wire, so its nine chapters are but Nau Sir Har whose price comes to thousands and lacs. The language of this poem is Hindawee. Jameel Jalibi has written:
Like Meeran Ji, Ashraf also calls his language as Hindawee Shah Bajan also called his language to be Hindi or Dehlavi. Gujri or Daccanee was yet not used for it. (Tareekh-e-Adab-e-Urdi p 178)

The biggest service that Bahmani period rendered for Urdu is that it spread this language in each nook and corner of Deccan. Bahmani Sultanate was a great sultanate. When it split up, nine big sultanates came into existence. Bahmnis gave a new language and a new culture to the new comers, out of which they could establish their identity. Language and expression was so much refined and bedecked in Bahmani period itself that it could be used for literary purposes. And all types of subjects could be discussed in it. The way the authors of Bahmani period served Urdu language, Jameel Jalibi highlights in this manner:
These are the men who advanced Urdu language by mixing their talents in its temperament and blood. Had these men not done so and not used it in their style and according to their need, this language would have been interred in its grave long before. Writing long poems, and in such a period when language and expression were crawling at each level, was not an easy job by introducing new topics in the language, these men took it from a lower to a higher plinth. This is a debt of old Urdu writers on us. (Tareekh-e-Adab-e-Urdu vol. V p179)

Bahmani period ended and it was divided into five sultanates but the period had established such strong linguistic and cultural traditions on which all these states 8

continued treading their path. Adil Shahi and Qutb Shahi period was full of grandeur and majesty at literary level too. In as much as Urdu language and literature feels proud of it, it will run short. This was also the golden era of Urdu literature and culture. Other Poets Among other poets of Bahmani period, the names of Firoz, Lutfi and Mushtaq are important ones. Firoz Bidari Full name of Firoz was Qutb Deen Qadiri and Firoz was his poetic title. He was a native of Bidar. Besides Prit Naamah (also known under another title of Tauseef Naamamah Meeran Muhyiddin), Firoz has left a few ghazals as his memorial. After compiling Prit Naamah, Dr. Masood Husain Khan published it in the document of Jamia Usmanis Urdu Department, Qadeem Urdu (vol. I) in 1965. Firoz had written Prit Naamah as a eulogy for his teacher and spiritual guide, Makhdoom Ji who was a famous poet of his age. He himself did not come to Golkunda but sent his disciple, Firoz, who earned uncommon popularity there. Golkunda poets, Wajhi, Mohammad Quli and Ibn Nishatee, have described him with respect and honor in their works. His arrival in Golkunda had the same effect as Walis journey to Delhi. Dr. Mohammad Ali Athar writes:
Firoz enjoyed great popularity in Golkunda as an accomplished poet and a master of words. Teen-aged poets folded their knees in respect of Firoz. This is Firoz who has the honor of torching the lamp of Urdu poetry in Golkunda. (In the Growth of Daccanee Ghazal p 54)

Dr. Mohammad Ali Athar has collected nine ghazals of Firoz in his book In Growth of Daccanee Ghazal. Mentioning the special features of the style of writing ghazal by Firoz, he has written:
The most remarkable quality of ghazals written by Firoz is the simplicity and flow of expression. He supposed ghazals to be a means of conversing with and about women. The gender of his lover is clear. He remembers his lover by the names of nar, sodhan, istree, shahpari, sanwalee and sakhi (Growth of Daccanee Ghazal p 560)

Mushtaq Bidari His complete name and the life events are hither to unknown. Some of his ghazals and one eulogy has come to the light. Dr. Zor writes:
Mushtaq was a poet of last period of Mohammad Shah Lashkaree Bahmani (d. 1482), who rose to fame perhaps during the period of Sultan Shah Bahmani (d. 1518). The eulogy he had written in honor of Syed Burhanuddin Shah Khaleelullah Butshikan is still preserved. (Daccanee Adab ki Tareekh p 15)

Cr Zor has presented few couplets from two ghazals of Mushtaq in his Daccanee Adab ki Tareekh, as an example. Molvi Naseeruddin Hashimi has also reported selected couplets from Mushtaqs ghazals in his book Daccan mein Urdu. Besides, Molvi Sakhawat Mirza has published a eulogy and some ghazals written by Mushtaq in his dissertation Qadeem Urdu ki ek Nayab Biyadh (included in the monthly Urdu, Karachi October 1950). It is not difficult to deduce from the study of this literature that Mushtaq was an accomplished ghazal writer and an unmatched eulogizer. Lutfi Like Mushtaq, the full name and life history of Lutfi is also unknown.
Lutfi was also a poet of the same (Bahmani) period. Like Mushtaq, he has also praised Shah Mohammad who was a progeny of Khaleelullah Butshikan. Daccanee Adab ki Tareekh p 16)

Only a few couplets of a ghazal of Lutfis could be found so far, which Dr. Zor and Naseeruddin Hashimi have noted in their above mentioned books. Actually this ghazal is a :Rekhtah in which Lutfi has interpreted womens emotion in their own language, imagining that he himself is a woman.. Describing the characteristics of ghazal writing by Mushtaq and Lutfi, Dr. Mohammad Ali Athar writes:
It is not difficult to deduce from the examples of the works of Mushtaq and Lutfi made available that they must have been master of words in their time they cannot be earliest examples of old Urdu ghazals. As their predecessors must also have tried their hands at writing in the genre of ghazal. Otherwise so much fructification and flow could not be created in earliest imprints of ghazal. (Growth of Daccanee Ghazal p 51)

Earliest Poets of Qutb Shahi Period

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The names of Firoz, Syed Mahmood and Mulla Khayali are found among the names of earliest poets of Qutb Shahi period. All these three poets belong to the era of the fourth Qutb Shahi ruler, Ibraheem Qutb Shah (1550-1580). Firoz: His name was Qutbuddin Qadiri. Actually, he was a native of Bidar who had come to Golkunda in the reign of Ibraheem Qutb Shah. Among his works, some ghazals have come to light beside a short mathnawee, as discussed earlier. Syed Mahmood: Like Firoz, Syed Mahmood is also reckoned among earliest poets of Qutb Shahi era. Later poets like Wajhi, Mohammad Quli and Ibn Nishati have recalled Mahmood as a high ranking poet of Qutb Shahi period. A manuscript of Mahmoods verses is preserved in the library of Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu, Karachi, which shows that he was a sound and potent verse-writer. Besides Daccanee Urdu, he also wrote verses in Punjabi and Afghani. But he earned popularity only because of his Urdu poetry. Basically, Mahmood is a ghazal writer. Simplicity, flow, spontaneity, lyrics and musical beauty are most prominent qualities of his verses. Dr. Jameel Jalibi has published a few ghazals and selected couplets of some other ghazal in his Urdu Adab ki Tareekh (vol. I) Mulla Khayali: Khayali is distinguished poet of Ibraheem Qutb Shahs reign. Perhaps he was associated with the royal court. For this reason, he got a double storey mosque constructed in his name in 1665. This beautiful mosque and its founding stone situated near hathyan tree adjacent to north-eastern rampart of Golkunda Fort is intact till date. It appears from the way Ibn Nishati and Syed Azam have mentioned Khayal in their works that he was poet of high stature. But alas! Only one ghazal of Khayali has cone to light. Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah (b.973 Hcoronation 988 Hd. 1020) was fifth ruler of the Kingdom of Golkunda. Although there had been masters of words like Firoz, Syed

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Mahmood and Mulla Khayali before Mohammad Quli but any compiled deewan of any of them could be available. In the light of present information, this Mohammad Quli who is first Sahib-e-Deewan poet of Urdu whose deewan had been compiled in old period itself. Mohammad Qulis complete works were compiled by his nephew and son in law, Sultan Mohammad Qutb Shah who had written its preface in verse. According to the information of Sultan Mohammad, Mohammad Qulis voluminous complete works contains fifty thousand couplets in which ghazals, eulogies, mathnawees, elegies, poems and quadruplets---all literary genres are present. But basically, he is a poet of ghazals. Even those creation which he has titled as poems because of their subject continuity, are actually Mohammad Qulis ghazals. One finds comprehensive interpretation of his age and atmosphere in Mohammad Qulis poetry. Much matter about the social life of that age can be extracted by studying his verses. Interesting portraits of marital customs, life-style, different seasons, Id and other festivals, and games etc. are spread in his poetry here and there. Mohammad Qulis poetry is not only his biography in verse but san authentic history of his age in which the picture of the four hundred years earlier can be seen. Along with the topics of love, Mohammad Quli has also adopted religious hue in his verses. He has demonstrated his fervent attachment with his beliefs in it. No doubt that Mohammad Quli had complete faith in his religion and adhered to religious rituals. But both his personality and poetry were devoid of the spirit of religion. He was interested only in cultural aspect of religion. Ironically, he calls his luxurious-spiritedness also a charity from the Prophet and the favour of twelve Imams. Some critics have termed Mohammad Qulis poetry as a Godly inspiration. But neither the subject matter came to him from the Unseen nor has he talked about anything beyond the sky. He is only a worshipper of this world of color and smell. In the capacity of the sole ruler of a vast and wide and grand kingdom, he never waited for any darling lover; instead several lovers always waited for his glimpse. Remaining amidst his darlings group, he appreciated beauty, bodily appearance and movement and walking style. He is a good writer and earliest Sahib-e-Deewan poet of Urdu.

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Asadullah Wajhi Poet laureate Asadullah Wajhi was not only a high standing poet and a consummated prose write of Qutb Shahi period but also a high standing scholar, philosopher and hakeem of his age. Like other poets of Daccanee Urdu, the dates of birth and death of Wajhi are also unknown. Perhaps he was born in the reign of the fourth ruler of Golkunda, Ibraheem Qutb Shah (1550-1580) and afterwards he also witnessed the reigns of three more Qutb Shahi Sultans, Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580-1611), Mohammad Qutb Shah (1611-1626), and Abdullah Qutb Shah (1626-1674). Wajhi was an outstanding poet and litterateur of his age. Therefore, naturally, the poets of his age and later ages admitted his perfection in arts. During the authoring of his mathnawee Bahram wa Gul Andam, Tabyee sees Wajhi in his dream in the same way as Wajhi himself had seen Firoz in his dream and had heard the admiration of his mathnawee by him. During the adulation of Abdullah Qutb Shah, Shah Afzal Qadiri (author of Muhyiddin Naamah) has appreciated artistic abilities of Wajhi in one of the eulogies and has recalled him with the words of Gyani (scholar), Gun Bhar (master of virtues), and Kamil (perfect). Sultan Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah had appointed Wajhi as poet laureate of his court. Wajhi commanded great popularity in that age. He became right hand to the king. In the same period, he wrote his master-piece mathnawee Qutb Mushtaree which completed in only twelve days. Wajhis this mathnawee is original. Like other mathnawees of that age, this mathnawee also begins with hamd and munajaat and eulogy of the Prophet. Then comes the king and thereafter Wajhi has shortly presented his views about poetry under the title of dar sharh-e-sher-e-khud goyam (I speak about my own poetry). Wajhi was not only san accomplished poet of his age but also a high-ranking prose writer. He has also left significant books in prose like Tajul Haqaiq and Sab-Ras as

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his memorial. Tajul Haqaiq is a pamphlet in prose on the subject of Tasawwuf. It was first mention by Molvi Abdul Haq in his foreword to Sab-Ras. The issues of Sulook and Marifat have been presented in this book in a common-sense but touching and effective style. Dr. Javed Vashisht writes about Tajul Haqaiq: This pamphlet in prose on the topic of Tasawwuf is first imprint of Wajhi and Sab-Ras is the second. This was necessary for Wajhi to pass through the stage of Tajul Haqaiq in order to reach the climax of Sab-Ras. Sab-Ras is an old style novel in which human emotions and feelings and capabilities and powers like love, intellect, beauty, amorous glance , playfulness, pride, reputation, courage, heart, sight, thought, fancy imagination, patience, greed etc. are presented in the form of characters. The story of Sab-Ras has the status of an allegorical narrative (daastan) and all of its characters are allegorical. Its story develops at two levels. At one level, the style of apparent story has taken the style of story and it is related to esoteric knowledge at the other level, as if both real love and metaphoric love have been described side by side in the story of Sab-Ras. Poet Laureate Ghawwasi Ghawwasi is a Qutb Shahi poet of high status and high stature. The events of his date of birth, education and training, and date of death are in the dark. It reveals from internal evidence of his works that he was born in the reign of Ibraheem Qutb Shah. He stared writing verse in the reign of Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah, and then he also saw the reigns of Mohammad Qutb Shah and Abdullah Qutb Shah. The reign of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah is golden age of Ghawwasis poetic career. That king not only patronized Ghawwasi made him the poet laureate of his court but sent him to Bijapur as a Qutb Shahi ambassador. Spiritually, Ghawwasi was a disciple of Meeran Syed Shah Haidar Waliullah (d. 1033 H) in whose adulation he has written several couplets. Apart from four mathnawees of Ghawwasi, Meena Satwanti, Saiful Mulook wa Badeeul Jamal, Tootee Naamah and Mathnawee-e-Tareeqat, his one deewan

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comprising ghazals, poems, eulogies, elegies and quadruplets has also come in public. So far as ghazal writing is concerned, Ghawwasi is biggest poet of Deccan school. Unnecessary or such couplets are rarely found in his verses in which deep impression is not found. Simplicity of narrative expression is most obvious quality of Ghawwasis ghazals. From the point of view of abundance of impressions, lyrics and musical beauty, burning sensation and depiction of reality, his ghazals have got a unique place in the history of Urdu ghazals. Ghawwasi was not only a skilled writer of ghazals and mathnawees but a high standing eulogy writer, an unmatched quadruplet writer and a successful elegy writer. Addition to this are his poems. In the field of writing poem, he is the second important poet of Daccanee Urdu after Mohammad Quli. Ibn Nishatee One more name among high ranking poets of Qutb Shahi reign is Ibn Nishatee whose mathnawee Phool Ban is reckoned among the few selected mathnawees of Daccanee Urdu. Full name of Ibn Nishati is Mohammad Mazharuddin Sheikh Fakhruddin Ibn Nishati. He was basically an essayist but no sample of his essay-writing came in the public. Phool Ban was written in the period of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah in 1066 H in just three months. Ibn Nishatee was an excellent scholar of Persian and Daccanee and an expert of metrics and rhetoric. He had perfect mastery in the art of poetry, especially in using artistic devices and novelties dexterously. The language of Phool Ban is simple and fluent. One can judge his poetic power artistic perfection by studying this mathnawee. Although this mathnawee is based on the Persian story of Basareenul Uns but Ibn Nishati has made significant changes in original story. He has divided it into several chapters and has started each chapter with a couplet that recapitulates whole chapter, and if only these topical couplets are collected at one place, it becomes the summary of the mathnawee. The story of Phool Ban progresses tale by tale. Three tales and related stories are included in it. In this mathnawee containing 1744 couplets, Ibn Nishatee has demonstrated the perfection of emotional depiction, character writing and writing the scenario.

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Other Poets and Prose Writers of Qutb Shahi Period So far we studied a few important poets and prose writers of Qutb Shahi period. But this does not mean that only these were the poets and prose writer in this period. Instead, few other poets and litterateurs also discharge the responsibilities of compilation and authoring in the reigns of Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah, Abdul Qutb Shah and Abul Hasan Tana Shah. They are being described in the following lines: Ahmad Gujarati: Sheikh Ahmad was actually a native of Gujarat. Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah had invited him to come to Golkunda. He was a contemporary of Wajhi and Ghawwasi. His two mathnawees, Laila Majnoon and Museebat-e-Ahl-e-Bait have come to knowledge. A few dispersed pages of the former had come in possession of Prof. Mahmood Shirani which he has described in detail in his book Punjab mein Urdu. Recently, Dr. Jameel Jalibi traced Ahmads one more mathnawee, Zulekha, in the library of Amjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu, Karachi. Dr. Syyidah Jafar has published it after compiling it. In the light of present information, Zulekha is first mathnawee of Golkunda school. Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah: Sixth ruler of the Kingdom of Golkunda, was an accomplished poet of Daccanee Urdu. Collection of his complete works has not been found yet. However, 97 ghazals are included in his incomplete deewan till the accompanying rhyme starting with the alphabet th. Their study gives a clue to poets power in words. Sultan Abdullah has also left a dew elegies and a song in his memorial. But basically, he is a ghazal writing poet. Simplicity of narrative, lyrics and musical beauty are most important qualities of the verses of Abdul Qutb Shah. His deewan has been published twice. Ahmad Junaidi: He is a Mehdawi poet of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah reign. He had authored a mathnawee under the title of Maah Paikar in 1064 H. Maah is the name of the heroine of this mathnawee and Paikar is its hero. After compiling this mathnawee

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comprising 2,735 couplets, Dr. Sayyidah Jafar has published it in research journal of Jamia Usmania, Qadeem Urdu, in 1986. Qutb Razi: In the same period, Qutb Razi translated the world famous Persian book, Tuhfatun Nasaaih, a work by the father of Khwajah Bandah Nawaz, Hazrat Yusuf Shah Rajoo on the demand of his spiritual guru, Shah Abul Hasan in Daccanee Urdu in verse. This Daccanee Tuhfatun Nasaaih is a long poem in the form of a eulogy containing 785 couplets. Meeran Ji Hasan Khudanuma: He was reckoned among authoring Sufis of Abdullah Qutb Shah reign. He belongs to chain of grace of Hazrat Khwaja Banda Nawaz. For the education and understanding of his disciples and devotees, Khudanuma had authored a few pamphlets in Daccanee verse and prose, whose details are given below: Prose section: (1) Sharh-e-Sharh-e-Tamheedat-e-Ainul Qudhat (2) Risalah-e-Wajoodiyyah, and (3) Sharh-e-Marghoobul Quloob Poetry section: (1) Basharatul Anwar (2) two short mathnawees, and (3) two ghazals So far as prose writing by Meraan Ji Khudanuma is concerned, issues of Tasawwuf have been discussed in his all three books. Tamheedat-e-Hamdaani is actually a Persian writing of Abdullah bin Mohammad Ainul Qudhat whose commentary has been written by Khwaja Bandanawaz in Persian. Khudanuma had translated this commentary in Daccanee prose under the title of Sharh-e-Sharh-e-Tamheedat-e- Ainul Qudhat. Commentary and explanation of the issues of Sulook and Marifat has been written in this book in the light of the Quran and hadith. Risalah-e-Wajoodiyyah and Marghoobul Quloob are two short writings in prose whose subject is Tasawwuf. Meeran Yaqoob: He was a Mureed and successor of Hazrat Meeran Ji Khudanuma. He was a poet and a prose writer at the same time. He has translated Persian book,

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Shamailul Atqiyaa, of the successor of Hazrat Burhanuddin Ghareeb, Hazrat Ruknuddin Imaad, in Daccanee prose by the same name which is spread over 1200 pages. Issues of Tasawwuf have been presented in Shamailul Atqiyaa in direct and simple language in an interesting manner. In connection with the explanation of the issues of Tasawwuf, Meeran Yaqoob has utilized allegories and similes too. Hazrat Shah Rajoo Husaini: He was a charismatic and well-known Sufi of Qutb Shahi reign. His pedigree reaches to Hazrat Khwaja Banda Nawaz. Besides Suhagan Naamah and Chakki Naamah has also written a few other poems in Daccanee Urdu in connection with advice and guidance of his mureeds and devotees, especially females. Shah Rajoo has presented the issues of Tasawwuf and religious injunctions in plain and simple language in common sense style in Suhagan Naamah and Chakki Naamah for education and understanding ladies busy in domestic work. the purpose of these works is to teach religion and morals and train them in avoiding evils and adopting the path of goodness. Abid Shah: He was an authoring Sufi of the last period of Qutb Shahi reign. His name was Nawabuddin and Abid his pen name. He was a mureed of Shah Rajoo. Abid Shah was simultaneously a prose writer and a poet. He has left three books, Miratus Salikeen, Gulzarus Salikeen, and Kanzul Momineen as his memorial. First two of these are in prose whose subject is Tasawwuf. Kanzul Momineen is a pamphlet in verse whose topic is Hanafi fiqh. Tabyee and Faaiz are two poets worth mention in the last period of Qutb Shahi reign. Former has written a mathnawee in 1084 H under the title of Bahram wa Gul Andoz which Dr. Noorus Sayeed Akhtar has published after compiling it. Te latter one authored an interesting mathnawee under the title of Rizwan Shah Rooh Afza in 1094 H, which Syed Mohammad Sahib has brought in public after compiling it. The names of Syed Bulaqis Meraaj Naamah (1056 H), Abdul Lateefs Wafaat Naamah (1074 H), Mukhtars Meraaj Naamah (1094 H), Dhayeefis Hidaayyat-e-Hindi, Khawas Qissah-e-Husaini,. Qudratis Qasasul Ambiyaa, Sewaks Jang Naamah (1092 H)

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and Awliyaas Qissa Abu Shahamah (1090 H) are worth mention among the other mathnawees of this period. All these mathnawees are still unpublished.

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