101 Chap8 MetamorphicRocks
101 Chap8 MetamorphicRocks
101 Chap8 MetamorphicRocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism: to change from one form to another Metamorphic rock: any rock that has undergone solid state changes in texture, mineralogy, and/or chemical composition
Metamorphism
Three Principal Factors that Drive Metamorphism
Temperature
Temperature (heat) is the most important of the three factors in metamorphism Temperature drives the chemical changes that result in the recrystallization of existing minerals or the creating of new minerals
Temperature
Earths internal heat comes from energy being released by radioactive decay and thermal energy left over from the formation of the planet
Temperature
The rate at which the temperature increases as you go deeper into the Earths crust is called the geothermal gradient
Temperature
The geothermal gradient averages 30oC per kilometer increase with depth (but it can vary from 20oC to 50oC per kilometer of depth)
Temperature
Note that the geothermal gradient is lowered by the subduction of the cooler oceanic plate
Temperature
In contrast, the rising magma increases the geothermal gradient
Effects of Temperature
Heat, by itself, can greatly affect a rocks texture and mineralogy Heat breaks chemical bonds and alters the crystal structure Atoms and ions re-crystallize into new mineral assemblages Many new crystals will grow larger than they were in the parent rock
Effects of Temperature
Given the initial mineral composition of the rock, the metamorphic changes that occur with a change in temperature follows a predictable and repeatable path Minerals crystallize (and remain stable) at different temperatures in a predictable manner Therefore, given a specific set of minerals in a metamorphic rock, you can infer the temperature at which the metamorphic rock formed
Temperature
Metamorphic changes can occur with increasing or decreasing temperature Prograde refers to mineral changes that take place during an increase in temperature Retrograde refers to mineral changes that take place during an decrease in temperature
Pressure
Pressure, like temperature, changes a rocks mineralogy and texture in a predictable manner Pressure, like temperature, also increases with depth Increases 1 kbar per 4.4 kilometers
Pressure
There are two major types of pressure:
Confining pressure applies pressure from all directions Differential stress is pressure comes from a particular direction (such as from the collision of two tectonic plates)
Confining Pressure
Buried rocks are subject to confining pressure, where the pressure is applied equally in all directions
Confining Pressure
Confining Pressure
Confining pressure causes the spaces between mineral grains to close, producing a more compact rock with a greater density
Confining Pressure
Confining Pressure
Confining pressure does not fold or deform rocks
Differential Stress
Differential stress is a pressure that is applied from a direction (rather than all directions)
Differential Stress
Rocks subject to differential stress are preferentially shortened in the direction that pressure is applied ...
Differential Stress
... and lengthened in the direction perpendicular to that pressure
Effects of Pressure
Directed pressure guides the shape and orientation of the new metamorphic minerals Metamorphic minerals can be compressed, elongated and/or rotated by being forced into preferred orientations
Effects of Pressure
At low pressures, rocks are brittle and tend to fracture when subjected to differential stress At high pressures, rocks are ductile and flow like plastic Under ductile conditions, mineral grains tend to flatten and elongate when subject to differential stress
Fluids
Fluids composed of water and other volatile components, such as carbon dioxide, play an important roll in metamorphism Metamorphism can add or remove chemical components that dissolve in water Water acts as a catalyst during metamorphism Water aids in the exchange of ions between growing crystals
Fluids
Clays minerals can contained up to 60% water Water is part of the crystal structure in many minerals, such as mica and amphibole When subject to low to medium temperatures, water molecules can be removed from minerals Once expelled, the water moves along the individual mineral grains and is available to transport ions At higher metamorphic temperatures, the water and fluids are driven from the rock
Parent Rocks
The initial composition of the parents rocks is a fourth major factor Most metamorphic rocks have the same overall composition as the parent rock from which they formed Except for the possible loss or accumulation of volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide
Metamorphic Grade
Metamorphic rocks are classified by how much metamorphic changes they have undergone High-grade: Formed in deeper crustal regions, perhaps as deep as the upper mantle, under high temperature and/or high pressure Low-grade: Formed in shallower crustal regions under low temperature and/or low pressure
Metamorphic Grade
The grade is related to both temperature and pressure, which is related to depth
Low grade
Metamorphic Texture
Metamorphism creates new textures on the rock it alters In general the grain size of crystals increase as the grade of metamorphism increases Four main criteria: The size of their crystals How the mineral grain shape is changed The degree to which minerals are segregated into light and dark bands Metamorphic grade
Metamorphic Textures
There are three major types of metamorphic rock textures: Foliation Granoblastic Large-crystal When we look at foliation, we will also discuss: Schistosity Gneissic texture
Foliation
A fundamental and prominent textural feature of regional metamorphosed rock A set of flat or wavy parallel planes produced by directed stress deformation Presence of platy or elongated minerals (chiefly micas and chlorite) help create the foliation
Foliation
Stress deformation causes mineral grains in preexisting rocks to develop parallel, or nearly parallel, alignment
Foliation
(Left) Existing minerals keep their random orientation if force is uniformly applied by confining pressure
Foliation
(Right) Differential stress causes rocks to flatten, and the mineral grains to rotate toward the plane of flattening
Foliation
A. Ductile deformation (flattening) of mineral grains can occur in one of two ways
Foliation
B. The first mechanism is a solid-state plastic flow by intracrystalline movement within each grain
Foliation
C. The second mechanism involves the dissolving of ions from areas of high stress and the moving and deposition of the ions in low stress areas
Foliation
D. Both mechanisms change the shape of the mineral grains (but the volume and overall composition remains essentially unchanged)
Foliated Rocks
Slate Phyllite Schist Gneiss Migmatite
Slate
Slate can be used for roofing, but weight is a problem
Slate
The very best pool tables are made of slate
Banding in Gneiss
Granoblastic Rocks
Not all metamorphic rocks have foliated texture Many metamorphic rocks have a massive or coarse granular appearance and exhibit no deformation They are composed mainly of crystals that grow in equidimensional shapes Therefore they are catalogued by mineral composition, and not texture These are referred to as granoblastic rock
Granoblastic Rocks
Some of the more common granoblastic rocks are: Quartzite Marble (Hornfels) (Greenstones) (Amphibolite) We will look at quartzite and especially marble
Quartzite
Quartzite is a very hard metamorphic rock formed from quartz sandstone Pure quartzite is white, but reddish/pinkish and grayish colors caused by impurities are common The recrystillization is so complete that when broken, quartzite will split through the quartz grains rather than along their boundaries
Marble
Marble is a metamorphic rock resulting from the metamorphism of limestone or dolostone This metamorphic process causes a complete recrystallization of the original rock into an interlocking mosaic of calcite, aragonite and/or dolomite crystals The temperatures and pressures necessary to form marble usually destroy any fossils and sedimentary textures present in the original rock
Marble
White in its pure form, marble is available in a beautiful variety of colors, which are caused by mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert
Marble
Quarries in the mountains of Carrara, Italy have been yielding quality marble for thousands of years You can even see the quarries from outer space
Marble
Marble is commonly used as a building material For example, as faades, flooring and countertops
Taj Mahal
Located in Agra, India, the Taj Majal is a huge mausoleum built by Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtaj Mahal, and both are interred in it in a simple crypt
Taj Mahal
It was built between 1631 and 1648 in the Mughal architectural style, which combines elements of Islamic, Indian, Persian and Turkish design The Taj Mahal is considered to be the greatest masterpiece of Islamic architectural art in India
Taj Mahal
The picture on the left was taken a half century ago and shows the natural, brilliant white of the marble used in the construction The picture on the right shows how acid rain, generated from local foundries and an oil refinery, is turning the white marble into a sickly light tan color
Marble
Pure white marbles, from Italy and China, have been prized for sculpture since classical times These white marbles are soft which facilitates carving, have the ability to take a fine polish and are relative resistance to shattering Most of the greatest statues in the world, such as the Venus de Milo and David, were carved by hand out of marble by the old masters
Marble
The low index of refraction of calcite in white marble allows light to penetrate several millimeters into the stone, resulting in the characteristic "waxy" look which gives "life" to marble sculptures of the human body
Marble
Antonio Canova (1 November 1757 to 13 October 1822) was from the Republic of Venice and many consider him to be the greatest Italian sculptor
Large-crystal Textures
Metamorphic rocks can exhibit a great variation in crystal size During the recrystallization process, certain metamorphic minerals, including garnet, Staurolite and andalusite, tend to develop a few very large crystals In contrast, minerals such as muscovite, biotite and quartz typically form a large number of small crystals
Porphyroblasts
Garnet
Porphyroblasts are metamorphic rocks having a matrix of fine-grained minerals with large crystals The garnets grew much faster than the matrix in this schist
Speaking of Garnets
Garnets are only found in metamorphic rock and can be used to judge the grade of the metamorphism Most garnet is not of gem quality In fact, the most common use of garnet is as an abrasive, such as in garnet sandpaper
Speaking of Garnets
When of gem quality, garnets are typically red, but they occur in a wide variety of other colors The rarest color is blue Uvarovite is a calcium chromium garnet which is green in color It is found in crystalline marbles and schists in Russia and Finland
Texture
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks on Texture
Texture
Texture
1. Metamorphism causes sedimentary rocks, like shale, to form slaty cleavage planes perpendicular to their bedding planes 2. Original bedding was thin clay layers 3. Metamorphism changes the shale to slate
Texture
4. Folliation is the result of directed compression 5. Mineral crystals become elongated perpendicular to the compression 6. Platy minerals develop a preferred orientation
Texture
7. As intensity of metamorphism increases, so does crystal size and coarseness of folliation
Texture
8. Foliated rocks are classified by the degree of cleavage, shistosity and banding, which corresponds to the intensity of metamorphism
Metamorphic Environments
Contact (or thermal) Hydrothermal Burial Regional Shock (impact) Fault Zone
Contact Metamorphism
Contact or thermal metamorphism occurs when an intrusive magma heats the surrounding country (or host) rock and changes the mineralogy and texture
Contact Metamorphism
The zone where the rocks are subject to metamorphism is called the metamorphic aureole
Contact Metamorphism
The sedimentary rocks are turned into metamorphic rock by contact metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
Even small dykes can form aureole of metamorphic rock a few centimeters thick
Contact Metamorphism
The metamorphic aureole is the darker rock that once roofed over the igneous pluton
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
Hydrothermal fluids can carry dissolved calcium dioxide, sodium, silica, copper and zinc Ascending hydrothermal fluids can react with overlying rock, creating new minerals (which may have great economic value)
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
The most widespread occurrence of hydrothermal metamorphism is along the mid-oceanic ridges As seawater percolates through the newly created crust, it is heated and chemically reacts with the mafic (Fe and Mg rich) basalt
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
The ferromagnesian igneous minerals, such as olivine and pyroxene, are changed into metamorphic minerals such as serpentine, chlorite and talc Calcium-rich plagioclase feldspars become more sodiumrich as the sea salt (NaCl) exchanges calcium for sodium
Black Smokers
Large amounts of metals, such as iron, cobalt, nickel, silver, gold and copper, are dissolved from the newly formed crust These hot (~350oC), metal-rich fluids rise along fractures, generating particle-filled clouds called black smokers
Black Smokers
Black smokers were first discovered in 1977 around the Galpagos Islands by the small submersible vehicle called Alvin Smokers have now been found in all oceans
Black Smokers
Although life is very sparse at these depths, black smokers are the center of entire ecosystems Sunlight is nonexistent, so many organisms must convert the heat, methane, and sulfur compounds provided by black smokers into energy through a process called chemosynthesis
Black Smokers
Hydrothermal vents support a large population of chemosynthetic bacteria The bacteria then grow into a thick mat which attracts other organisms such as amphipods and copepods which graze upon the bacteria directly Larger organisms such as snails, shrimp, crabs, tube worms, fish, and octopuses form a food chain of predator and prey
Burial Metamorphism
Burial metamorphism occurs when thick accumulations of sedimentary strata on the ocean floor are subducted beneath another plate
Burial Metamorphism
This is a low grade metamorphism that typically begins when the subducted sediments reach a depth of 6-10 kilometers (3-6 miles) or when the temperature reaches about 200oC
Regional Metamorphism
Most metamorphic rocks are created during the process of regional metamorphism associated with mountain building During these dynamic events, large segments of the Earths crust are intensely deformed along convergent plate boundaries
Regional Metamorphism
The mountain building applies differential stress literally over a wide regional area Sediments and crustal rock lifted up from the ocean floor are folded and faulted Metamorphism of all grades, from low to high occurs
Regional Metamorphism
The Andes Mountains and the Himalaya Mountains (below) are prime examples where regional metamorphism has occurred along thousands of miles of mountain range
Regional Metamorphism
The Swiss and Austrian Alps in Europe are other famous examples where extensive regional metamorphism has occurred
Impact Metamorphism
Impact metamorphism occurs when an asteroid or comet impacts the Earths surface These objects can be moving as fast as 100,000 miles per hour (~28 miles per second)
Impact Metamorphism
In a fraction of a second, the energy of the rapidly moving object is transferred into heat energy and shock waves as it smashes into the Earth
Impact Metamorphism
The impacting asteroid or comet is vaporized The impacted rock is shattered, pulverized and sometimes even melted Minerals in the rock are instantly subjected to both high temperature and high pressure
Impact Metamorphism
Rare and unusual metamorphic minerals such as coesite, which are normally never found on the Earths surface, are nearly instantly formed Staggering quantities of matter are blown into the atmosphere Fortunately for life on Earth, this is a rare event, but these impacts have repeatedly caused mass extinctions
Impact Metamorphism
A crater one mile in diameter and 500 feet deep is formed in only 30 seconds A crater ten miles in diameter and a mile deep is formed in 90 seconds The largest known crater on the Earth in located in South Africa and is 180 miles in diameter
In contrast, at depth under higher heat and pressure, rock is ductile and flows like plastic At depth along a fault zone, the mineral structures are deformed by the ductile flow, giving the metamorphic rock a foliated or lineated appearance
Metamorphic Grade
Metamorphic grade tells us the maximum temperature and pressure to which a rock was subject However, metamorphism is a dynamic process and a metamorphosed rock may have a very complex history Most minerals are stable over a relatively narrow range of pressure and temperature The stability range of different minerals sometimes overlap and provide insights into the metamorphic history of rocks
Metamorphic Grade
1. During metamorphism, a garnet crystal grows and its composition changes as the temperature and pressure around it changes
Metamorphic Grade
2. We can plot the growth of the garnet on the P-T chart from where it started growing at its center [1] to its edge at [2]
Metamorphic Grade
3. The garnet started growing in a schist [1] and continued growing in a gneiss [2] as the grade of metamorphism increased along the prograde path
Metamorphic Grade
4. Note that the garnet survived the progression along the retrograde path as it headed to the surface
Metamorphic Facies
About a century ago, it was realized that there are groups of associated metamorphic minerals that were formed under similar temperatures and pressures Different metamorphic rocks containing the same assemblage of minerals are said to belong to the same metamorphic facies
Metamorphic Facies
Each facies is characteristic of particular tectonic environments and will have certain index minerals that are indicative of those conditions Therefore the minerals in a rock can be clues to the (pressure and temperature) history of the rock
Metamorphic Facies
Metamorphic Facies
This color plot shows the change in the grade of six common index metamorphic minerals across New England Note the regional progression from low- to high- grade
Metamorphic Facies
Metamorphic Facies
With increasing metamorphic grade, mineral compositions change and these minerals define the metamorphic facies for the metamorphic environment
Metamorphic Facies
Metamorphic facies are determined by the temperature and pressure In turn, these temperatures and pressures define the metamorphic environment Therefore we can plot the metamorphic environments
Chapter 9
Geologic Time