September 2001

Issue Paper
Language Teaching Methodology
Theodore S. Rodgers, Professor Emeritus, University of Hawaii
Background
Language teaching came into its own as a profession in the last century. Central to this
phenomenon was the emergence of the concept of "methods" of language teaching. The
method concept in language teaching—the notion of a systematic set of teaching practices
based on a particular theory of language and language learning—is a powerful one, and the
quest for better methods was a preoccupation of teachers and applied linguists throughout the
20th century. Howatt's (1984) overview documents the history of changes of practice in
language teaching throughout history, bringing the chronology up through the Direct Method
in the 20th century. One of the most lasting legacies of the Direct Method has been the notion
of "method" itself.
Language Teaching Methodology Defined
Methodology in language teaching has been characterized in a variety of ways. A more or less
classical formulation suggests that methodology is that which links theory and practice.
Theory statements would include theories of what language is and how language is learned
or, more specifically, theories of second language acquisition (SLA). Such theories are linked
to various design features of language instruction. These design features might include stated
objectives, syllabus specifications, types of activities, roles of teachers, learners, materials,
and so forth. Design features in turn are linked to actual teaching and learning practices as
observed in the environments where language teaching and learning take place. This whole
complex of elements defines language teaching methodology.

Schools of Language Teaching Methodology

Within methodology a distinction is often made between methods and approaches, in which
methods are held to be fixed teaching systems with prescribed techniques and practices,
whereas approaches represent language teaching philosophies that can be interpreted and
applied in a variety of different ways in the classroom. This distinction is probably most
usefully seen as defining a continuum of entities ranging from highly prescribed methods to
loosely described approaches.
The period from the 1950s to the 1980s has often been referred to as "The Age of Methods,"
during which a number of quite detailed prescriptions for language teaching were proposed.
Situational Language Teaching evolved in the United Kingdom while a parallel method,
Audio-Lingualism, emerged in the United States. In the middle-methods period, a variety of
methods were proclaimed as successors to the then prevailing Situational Language Teaching
and Audio-Lingual methods. These alternatives were promoted under such titles as Silent
Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning, and Total Physical Response. In the
1980s, these methods in turn came to be overshadowed by more interactive views of
language teaching, which collectively came to be known as Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT). Communicative Language Teaching advocates subscribed to a broad set of
principles such as these:
• Learners learn a language through using it to communicate.
• Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities.
• Fluency is an important dimension of communication.
• Communication involves the integration of different language skills.
• Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error.
However, CLT advocates avoided prescribing the set of practices through which these
principles could best be realized, thus putting CLT clearly on the approach rather than the
method end of the spectrum.
Communicative Language Teaching has spawned a number of off-shoots that share the same
basic set of principles, but which spell out philosophical details or envision instructional
practices in somewhat diverse ways. These CLT spin-off approaches include The Natural
Approach, Cooperative Language Learning, Content-Based Teaching, and Task-Based
Teaching.
It is difficult to describe these various methods briefly and yet fairly, and such a task is well
beyond the scope of this paper. However, several up-to-date texts are available that do detail
differences and similarities among the many different approaches and methods that have been
proposed. (See, e.g., Larsen-Freeman, 2000, and Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Perhaps it is
possible to get a sense of the range of method proposals by looking at a synoptic view of the
roles defined for teachers and learners within various methods. Such a synoptic (perhaps
scanty) view can be seen in the following chart.
TEACHING METHODS AND TEACHER & LEARNER ROLES
Method Teacher Roles Learner Roles
Context Setter Imitator
Situational Language Teaching
Error Corrector Memorizer
Language Pattern Practicer
Audio-lingualism Modeler Accuracy
Drill Leader Enthusiast
Communicative Language Needs Analyst Improvisor
Teaching Task Designer Negotiator
Commander Order Taker
Total Physical Response
Action Monitor Performer
Counselor Collaborator
Community Language Learning
Paraphraser Whole Person
Actor Guesser
The Natural Approach
Props User Immerser
Auto-hypnotist Relaxer
Suggestopedia
Authority Figure True-Believer
Figure 2. Methods and Teacher and Learner Roles

As suggested in the chart, some schools of methodology see the teacher as ideal language
model and commander of classroom activity (e.g., Audio-Lingual Method, Natural Approach,
Suggestopedia, Total Physical Response) whereas others see the teacher as background
facilitator and classroom colleague to the learners (e.g., Communicative Language Teaching,
Cooperative Language Learning).
There are other global issues to which spokespersons for the various methods and approaches
respond in alternative ways. For example, should second language learning by adults be
modeled on first language learning by children? One set of schools (e.g., Total Physical
Response, Natural Approach) notes that first language acquisition is the only universally
successful model of language learning we have, and thus that second language pedagogy
must necessarily model itself on first language acquisition. An opposed view (e.g., Silent
Way, Suggestopedia) observes that adults have different brains, interests, timing constraints,
and learning environments than do children, and that adult classroom learning therefore has
to be fashioned in a way quite dissimilar to the way in which nature fashions how first
languages are learned by children.
Another key distinction turns on the role of perception versus production in early stages of
language learning. One school of thought proposes that learners should begin to
communicate, to use a new language actively, on first contact (e.g., Audio-Lingual Method,
Silent Way, Community Language Learning), while the other school of thought states that an
initial and prolonged period of reception (listening, reading) should precede any attempts at
production (e.g., Natural Approach).
What's Now, What's Next?
The future is always uncertain, and this is no less true in anticipating methodological
directions in second language teaching than in any other field. Some current predictions
assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends; others appear a bit more science-
fiction-like in their vision. Outlined below are 10 scenarios that are likely to shape the
teaching of second languages in the next decades of the new millenium. These
methodological candidates are given identifying labels in a somewhat tongue-in-cheek style,
perhaps a bit reminiscent of yesteryear's method labels.
1. Teacher/Learner Collaborates
Matchmaking techniques will be developed which will link learners and teachers with
similar styles and approaches to language learning. Looking at the Teacher and
Learner roles sketched in Figure 2, one can anticipate development of a system in
which the preferential ways in which teachers teach and learners learn can be matched
in instructional settings, perhaps via on-line computer networks or other technological
resources.
2. Method Synergistics
Crossbreeding elements from various methods into a common program of instruction
seems an appropriate way to find those practices which best support effective
learning. Methods and approaches have usually been proposed as idiosyncratic and
unique, yet it appears reasonable to combine practices from different approaches
where the philosophical foundations are similar. One might call such an approach
"Disciplined Eclecticism."
3. Curriculum Developmentalism
Language teaching has not profited much from more general views of educational
design. The curriculum perspective comes from general education and views
successful instruction as an interweaving of Knowledge, Instructional, Learner, and
Administrative considerations. From this perspective, methodology is viewed as only
one of several instructional considerations that are necessarily thought out and
realized in conjunction with all other curricular considerations.
4. Content-Basics
Content-based instruction assumes that language learning is a by-product of focus on
meaning--on acquiring some specific topical content--and that content topics to
support language learning should be chosen to best match learner needs and interests
and to promote optimal development of second language competence. A critical
question for language educators is "what content" and "how much content" best
supports language learning. The natural content for language educators is literature
and language itself, and we are beginning to see a resurgence of interest in literature
and in the topic of "language: the basic human technology" as sources of content in
language teaching.
5. Multintelligencia
The notion here is adapted from the Multiple Intelligences view of human talents
proposed by Howard Gardner (1983). This model is one of a variety of learning style
models that have been proposed in general education with follow-up inquiry by
language educators. The chart below shows Gardner's proposed eight native
intelligences and indicates classroom language-rich task types that play to each of
these particular intelligences. The challenge here is to identify these intelligences in
individuallearners and then to determine appropriate and realistic instructional tasks in
response.
6. Total Functional Response
Communicative Language Teaching was founded (and floundered) on earlier
notional/functional proposals for the description of languages. Now new leads in
discourse and genre analysis, schema theory, pragmatics, and systemic/functional
grammar are rekindling an interest in functionally based approaches to language
teaching. One pedagogical proposal has led to a widespread reconsideration of the
first and second language program in Australian schools where instruction turns on
five basic text genres identified as Report, Procedure, Explanation, Exposition, and
Recount. Refinement of functional models will lead to increased attention to genre
and text types in both first and second language instruction.
7. Strategopedia
"Learning to Learn" is the key theme in an instructional focus on language learning
strategies. Such strategies include, at the most basic level, memory tricks, and at
higher levels, cognitive and metacognitive strategies for learning, thinking, planning,
and self-monitoring. Research findings suggest that strategies can indeed be taught to
language learners, that learners will apply these strategies in language learning tasks,
and that such application does produce significant gains in language learning. Simple
and yet highly effective strategies, such as those that help learners remember and
access new second language vocabulary items, will attract considerable instructional
interest in Strategopedia.
8. Lexical Phraseology
The lexical phraseology view holds that only "a minority of spoken clauses are
entirely novel creations" and that "memorized clauses and clause-sequences form a
high proportion of the fluent stretches of speech heard in every day conversation."
One estimate is that "the number of memorized complete clauses and sentences
known to the mature English speaker probably amounts, at least, to several hundreds
of thousands" (Pawley & Syder, 1983). Understanding of the use of lexical phrases
has been immensely aided by large-scale computer studies of language corpora, which
have provided hard data to support the speculative inquiries into lexical phraseology
of second language acquisition researchers. For language teachers, the results of such
inquiries have led to conclusions that language teaching should center on these
 memorized lexical patterns and the ways they can be pieced together, along with the
ways they vary and the situations in which they occur.
9. O-zone Whole Language
Renewed interest in some type of "Focus on Form" has provided a major impetus for
recent second language acquisition (SLA) research. "Focus on Form" proposals,
variously labeled as consciousness-raising, noticing, attending, and enhancing input,
are founded on the assumption that students will learn only what they are aware of.
Whole Language proponents have claimed that one way to increase learner awareness
of how language works is through a course of study that incorporates broader
engagement with language, including literary study, process writing, authentic
content, and learner collaboration.
10. Full-Frontal Communicativity
We know that the linguistic part of human communication represents only a small
fraction of total meaning. At least one applied linguist has gone so far as to claim that,
"We communicate so much information non-verbally in conversations that often the
verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible." Despite these cautions, language
teaching has chosen to restrict its attention to the linguistic component of human
communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The
methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-linguistic aspects
of communication, including rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation, tone, and hesitation
phenomena in speech and gesture, facial expression, posture, and distance in non-
verbal messaging.
INTELLIGENCE TYPES AND
APPROPRIATE EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES
Intellegence Type Educational Activities
Linguistic lectures, worksheets, word games, journals, debates
Logical puzzles, estimations, problem solving
Spatial charts, diagrams, graphic organizers, drawing, films
Bodily hands-on, mime, craft, demonstrations
Musical singing, poetry, Jazz Chants, mood music
Interpersonal group work, peer tutoring, class projects
Intrapersonal reflection, interest centers, personal values tasks
Naturalist field trips, show and tell, plant and animal projects
Figure 3. (Adapted from Christison, 1998)
11. Total Functional Response
Communicative Language Teaching was founded (and floundered) on earlier
notional/functional proposals for the description of languages. Now new leads in
discourse and genre analysis, schema theory, pragmatics, and systemic/functional
grammar are rekindling an interest in functionally based approaches to language
teaching. One pedagogical proposal has led to a widespread reconsideration of the
first and second language program in Australian schools where instruction turns on
five basic text genres identified as Report, Procedure, Explanation, Exposition, and
Recount. Refinement of functional models will lead to increased attention to genre
and text types in both first and second language instruction.
12. Strategopedia
"Learning to Learn" is the key theme in an instructional focus on language learning
strategies. Such strategies include, at the most basic level, memory tricks, and at
higher levels, cognitive and metacognitive strategies for learning, thinking, planning,
 and self-monitoring. Research findings suggest that strategies can indeed be taught to
language learners, that learners will apply these strategies in language learning tasks,
and that such application does produce significant gains in language learning. Simple
and yet highly effective strategies, such as those that help learners remember and
access new second language vocabulary items, will attract considerable instructional
interest in Strategopedia.
13. Lexical Phraseology
The lexical phraseology view holds that only "a minority of spoken clauses are
entirely novel creations" and that "memorized clauses and clause-sequences form a
high proportion of the fluent stretches of speech heard in every day conversation."
One estimate is that "the number of memorized complete clauses and sentences
known to the mature English speaker probably amounts, at least, to several hundreds
of thousands" (Pawley & Syder, 1983). Understanding of the use of lexical phrases
has been immensely aided by large-scale computer studies of language corpora, which
have provided hard data to support the speculative inquiries into lexical phraseology
of second language acquisition researchers. For language teachers, the results of such
inquiries have led to conclusions that language teaching should center on these
memorized lexical patterns and the ways they can be pieced together, along with the
ways they vary and the situations in which they occur.
14. O-zone Whole Language
Renewed interest in some type of "Focus on Form" has provided a major impetus for
recent second language acquisition (SLA) research. "Focus on Form" proposals,
variously labeled as consciousness-raising, noticing, attending, and enhancing input,
are founded on the assumption that students will learn only what they are aware of.
Whole Language proponents have claimed that one way to increase learner awareness
of how language works is through a course of study that incorporates broader
engagement with language, including literary study, process writing, authentic
content, and learner collaboration.
15. Full-Frontal Communicativity
We know that the linguistic part of human communication represents only a small
fraction of total meaning. At least one applied linguist has gone so far as to claim that,
"We communicate so much information non-verbally in conversations that often the
verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible." Despite these cautions, language
teaching has chosen to restrict its attention to the linguistic component of human
communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The
methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-linguistic aspects
of communication, including rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation, tone, and hesitation
phenomena in speech and gesture, facial expression, posture, and distance in non-
verbal messaging.
References
Christison, M. (1998). Applying multiple intelligences theory in preservice and inservice
TEFL education programs. English Teaching Forum, 36 (2), 2-13.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books.
Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Pawley, A., & Syder, F. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: Native-like selection and
native-like fluency. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication.
London: Longman.
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language Teaching (2nd ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This digest was prepared with funding from the U.S. Dept. of Education,
Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Library of
Education, under contract no. ED-99-CO-0008. The opinions expressed do not
necessarily reflect the positions or policies