ECONOMIC

AND THE

GEOLOGY
OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS

BULLETIN

OF THE

SOCIETY

VOL. 81

DECEMBER,

1986

NO. 8

Genesis of Kupferschiefer Cu-Ag Depositsby ConvectiveFlow of RotliegendeBrinesduring TriassicRifting

E. CRAIG JOWETT*
Department of Geology, University of Toronto, ErindaleCampus, Mississauga, Ontario,Canada L5L 1C6
Abstract

Extensive andrichCu-Agsulfide mineralization occurs in Poland across thecontact between theUpperPermian Zechstein restricted marine sequence andtheLowerPermian Rotliegende continental volcanic andclastic sequence. Geologic evidence suggests thatthe mineralization wasformed during latediagenesis whenmetalliferous brines migrated through theRotliegende, leaching metals fromthevolcanic detritus, andup theflanks ofbasement highs, possibly along fracture porosity, to thepyritic Kupferschiefer andZechstein limestone above. Thickevaporites in the lower Zechstein preclude a verticalflow-through model,but metalzoningattitudes suggest thatthe brines overturned wherethe Rotliegende pinched out against the highs and moved laterally along the base of the Zechstein toward thebasin centers, presumably to sink back down intotheRotliegende, completing a convection cell.A MiddleTriassic palcomagnetic agefor themetalzoning andKimmerian attitudes of dilatant sulfide veinlets indicate thatthe mineralizing eventcoincided with continental rifting associated with the opening of the
Tethys ocean.

Slowunicellular convection maybe commonplace in sandstone basins where smalllateral temperature gradients, AT, exist, butgreater velocities arenecessary to formlargeorebodies.
An anomalous tensional andthermalevent,suchasrifting,canincrease velocities by increasing

permeability, slopeangle,or AT. The palcothermal structure of southwestern Poland was determined by modeling the conductive heat flow in 14 one-dimensional geologic sections which described the evolutionof the basinarchitecturefor 10 m.y. in the Early Triassic. Riftingwassimulated by increasing the lowerboundary condition from500 to 1,000Cat 25 km. Thisthermalpulseproduced a surprisingly highAT of 25C across the Lubinore district solely fromdifferences in thermal conductivities between thebasement high(4.2 W/ mC), the sandstone (2.5 W/mC), and the shalebasincenter (1.25 W/mC). Unicellular convection patterns wouldbe induced by the lateralboundary conditions of warmbasement highsandcoldshalecenters andby the greaterhorizontal permeability. Thesecellswere 15
to 20 km long, 400 m high, and subhorizontal.

A slope angleof 2 anda permeability of i D produces a convection velocity of 13 cm/yr which,with a copper solubility of 1,000 mg/kgin 20 to 30 percent Ca-Na-C1 brines in equilibriumwithhematite, canformtheLubindeposit in less than6 m.y.Using a fracture permeability of 2 D anda solubility of 300 mg/kg,the time neededis lessthan 10 m.y. The Konradmine canbe formed in similar timeperiods. Withoutthe continuous recycling of the brineinherent in convective flow(20 times or more),themetalsolubilities needed to formtheLubindeposits by a flow-through modelwouldbe unreasonably high. Naturalgases likely migratedalongwith the metalliferous brinesandhelpedconvection by creating secondary porosity andincreasing the buoyancy of the fluids. Because the fluids are recirculated and not expelled,convection provides a way in which secondary migration of methaneandpetroleumcanoccureffectivelyin solutionaswell asin separate phases.

EXTENSIVE Cu-Ag-(Pb~Zn) sulfidemineralization ex-

Rotliegende continental volcanic rocks andrift-filling red beds and the Upper PermianZechsteinmarine carbonate-evaporite-red bed sequence in centralEuists across the contact between the Lower Permian rope, with the largestand richestdeposits beingin Poland (Fig.1). Although theKupferschiePresent address: Department of Geological Sciences, University southwest of Michigan, AnnArbor,Michigan 48109. fer deposits are usually thoughtto be syngenetic or
0361-0128/86/618/1823-1552.50 1823

Introduction

1824
15'E , 16 17'E 16

E. CRAIG JOWETT

1'. ....

.L
:":::: /

ered by Rydzewski (1965, 1978), Lisiakiewicz (1969), andOszczepalski (1980) to be the centers of /% ( basement highs upwellingof ore-forming fluids.Mostworkers believe RF Role F,ule thatthe source of the metals wastheRotliegende (e.g., '", Zechstein basin edgeRentzsch et al., 1976), althoughsome(e.g., Wede,,-'-, , ,. , pohl, 1971) consider that they were broughtin by rivers.(For detailedandcomprehensive syntheses of the historyof geneticideasand their geologic basis, the reader is directed to Gregory (1930), Dunham (1964), Oberc and Serkies (1968), Lisiakiewicz (1969), JungandKnitzschke (1976), andRentzsch et al. (1976).) The mineralization occurs asthin,but laterally very
extensive,blanketsof sulfidesin distinct metal zones
above and lateral to the barren rote fiule. The rote fiule-ore contacts and other metal zone contacts

'

transgress lithologic bedding from the Zechstein limestone throughthe Kupferschiefer shaledown to the Weissliegende sandstone of the uppermost Rotliegende (Fig. 2). The rote fiule-copper zonesare associated with underlying basement highs andlower Rotliegende volcanics (Fig. 1); the metalzoninggentowardthe basincenincludes the Malomice,Lubin, Polkowice, Rudna,andSieroszow- erallydipsawayfromthe highs icemines, eachabout 50 km;(2) the Konrad mine;and(3) the ters(Fig.2). Coppersulfides commonly replace pyrite Nowy Koscioland Lena mines.Line A-A' represents locationof and other coppersulfides, quartz grains,lithic fragsection in Figure 2. (Palcogeography after Pokorski (1978); metal ments, and diageneticcalcite cement (Haranczyk, zoningafter Rydzewski(1978).) 1972). (Detailed accounts of the metal zoningand sulfide mineralogy canbe foundin Haranczyk (1972), Rentzsch (1974), and Jungand Knitzschke (1976).) early diagenetic(Gregory, 1930; Dunham, 1964; Dilatant sulfide veinlets were formed after lithification Rentzsch, 1974), thispaperwill showevidence which (Salski, 1977) andat the same time asthe replacement
FIG.1. Thehematite (RF),copper, lead,zinc,andpyritemetal zoningin the basalZechstein and uppermost Rotliegende of southwestern Poland.The rote fiule (RF) copperzonesare associated with underlying basement highs andlowerRotliegende volcanics and are considered to represent the foci of upwelling Rotliegende fluids. Miningareas are: (1) the Lubindistrict which

suggests that the ore deposits were formedduring late diagenesis in the Triassic by metalliferous fluids convecting in a unicellularmannerwithin the Rotliegende(Jowett,1983, 1984).
The criteria for convection in clastic basins will be

SSW

tubiu District

NNE

discussed, and it will be shownthat vertical andlateral

/
,

Zechstein i Evaperite
' ,,. ., ..,. , ' '

temperature gradients, AT, caused by the difference in thermalconductivities betweenthebasement highs

and the shale basin centers can initiate unicellular

Fore-Sudetic block,Fore-Sudetic monocline, andWolsztyn highlands, showingthe closedRotliegendebasinsand mineralized Evidencefor Late DiageneticConvection Kupferschiefer (Ks)and Zechstein limestone (Ca 1) coveredby Severallarge and irregularzonesof rote fiule, 1 gypsumand anhydrite(A 1) androck salt(Na 1) of the Zechstein within whichpyrite hasbeen replaced by hematite, first cycle. In general,the rote fiule and metal zones(RF, Cu, occurin the mineralizingsystem in Poland(Fig. 1). Pb, Zn, pyrite) dip away from the basementhighstoward the basin centers, suggesting thatthe oreswereformed by Rotliegende Thesezoneshavelow domalshapes and are consid- brines which migratedup along the flanksof the highs,turned over below the Zechstein, and presumably sankback downinto ] An old miner's term which means "red-colored waste rock." the clastic basins, forminga simpleconvection cell.

convection. The palcothermal structure of southwest Poland will be reproduced by simulating the Triassic rifting event and modelingthe conductionof the thermal pulse through the crust and sediments. In orderto form the ore deposits in a geologically reasonable timeperiod,a sufficiently largeAT is needed to create adequateconvectionvelocities.It will be shown that a specific regional thermalevent,suchas rifting, is able to producethis AT.

?, ,, ,.

il

//

FIG. 2. Geologicreconstruction across the North Sudeticbasin,

GENESIS OFKUPFERSCHIEFER Cu-Ag DEPOSITS

1825

sulfides (Jowett,1985). Thesecharacteristics suggest that the rote fSuleandore-grade sulfides are late diagenetic(Lisiakiewicz,1969; Niskiewicz,1980; Jowett et al., 1982, 1987).
The dilatant veinlet orientations are similar to

the permeability of the medium,AT is the temperature difference across the layer,H is the thickness of the porouslayer, v is the kinematicviscosity of the fluid, and h* is the effectivethermal conductivity of
the fluid-filled medium.

Kimmerian-age directions(Middle Triassicto Late Jurassic) (Salski, 1977; pers.commun.1983), andthe

rote f'iule hematite carries a stable chemical remanent

For layers with isothermal upper and lower boundaries, andsloping at an angle,0, simpleunicellular convection will always occuruntil:

magnetization acquired in Middle Triassic time (Jowett et al., 1986), suggesting that the mineralizing
event occurred in the Triassic.

Ra. cos0k 4r 2 40.

(2)

Most hydrologicmodelsfor secondary migration of metalliferous oil field brinesinvokemovement up alongflanks of basement highs or along fracturezones and then througha chemicaltrap where metalsare precipitated(White, 1971; Anderson,1983; Cathies andSmith,1983; Goldhaberet al., 1983). Thick beds of saltandanhydritein the lower Zechstein preclude such a flow-through model.The geologic evidence is compatible, however,with a modelwherebyRotliegendebrines,carryingmetalsleachedfrom the volcanicdetritus,migrated throughthe red bedsandup the flanksof the basement highsto mineralizethe overlyingpyritic Kupferschiefer and Zechsteinlimestone.The brinesappeared to haveoverturned along the Zechstein-Rotliegende contacttoward the basin centers,presumablyto sink down into the Rotliegende,completing a simpleconvection cell (Fig. 2).
Criteria for Convection in Porous Media

Abovethisvalue,the convection cellswill be polyhedralif the slopeislessthan 15, or counterrotating rollsif above15 (BoriesandCombarnous, 1973). In basins with irregularboundaries, the shapes of the cellsare affectedby the basingeometry.
In unicellular convection, fluid velocities are

greatest nearthe upperandlowerboundaries, though in differentdirections; they decrease towardthe center of the cell, as in:
. -,

where z is the distancefrom the lower boundary (Boriesand Combarnous,1973). It is unlikely that world-class orebodies like the Lubin districtwere createdduringnormaldiagenetic fluid flow ascommoncementswere; otherwise,they
would be more common. Rather, an unusual event at

Theoreticalandpracticalaspects of hydrothermal convection in porousmediahave been fully treated by BoriesandCombarnous (1973) andCombarnous and Bories (1975) and summarizedby Wood and Hewett (1982, 1984) in their model of sandstone cementation. Theseauthors assumed box-shaped basins andhomogeneous, isotropic permeabilities, whereas the Rotliegende basins are wedgeshaped (thickening towardthe centers) andhaveanisotropic permeabilities causedby interbedsof shale toward the basin a thermal event. An anomalous thermal or tensional centers. Because of the lack of theoretical work which eventisprobably necessary to increase thesevariable canbe adapted to irregular,anisotropic basins in gen- parameters enough to initiateadequate convection to eral, formulasfor homogeneous boxeswill be used: form Lubin, and this event shouldbe reflected in the however, the calculated values must be considered geologic record. only rough approximations of the real values. General GeologicHistory The criteria for the onset of convection is the dimensionless Rayleigh number, Ra, which through The Carboniferous Hercynianorogenyin central theoryandphysical modeling has beenshown to con- Europe culminatedin the depositionof the Westtrol the onsetand shapeof convection cellsin hori- phaliancoal-bearing continental clastics in late Carzontal and slopinglayers(Boriesand Combarnous, boniferous timesin broadregional basins in the fore1973). This numberis expressed as: land of the youngmountainchain(Ziegler, 1978). At the beginningof the Lower Permian(ca. 280 m.y.), g. a. (t)C)e'K- AT. H strongextensional tectonismwith associated contiRa= , (1) nental floodbasaltsand rhyolitesproduceda series where g is the gravitational acceleration, a is the vol- of linear and isolated closed basins into which Rotlieumetric thermal expansion coefficientof the fluid, gende clastics were rapidly deposited(Jowett and (pC)fisthe volumetric heatcapacity of the fluid,K is Jarvis, 1984). The basin-filling sediments of the lower

a specific time is probably necessary. The parameters, whichcanvary significantly with time and affectthe velocity, are the temperature difference, AT, the slope,0, andthe permeability, K. Permeability could be increased by tensional fracturingduringtectonism or duringrapid unroofing (Narr andCurrie, 1982) or throughsecondary porosity(Schmidt andMcDonald, 1979). The slopeanglecouldbe increased by differential subsidence between basin margin and basin center, andtemperaturegradients across the Rotliegendemightbe increased by differential burialor by

1826

E. CRAIG IOWETT

monocline (Dadlez andKopik, 1975). The Late Cretaceousto CenozoicAlpine orogenywhich accompaniedthe closing of the Tethysoceancaused inversionof thesebasins andregionaluplift in the foreland (Ziegler, 1982). Alpine tectonism disturbedthe ore depositswithout remobilizingthe sulfides(Salski, results in a basin architecture of coarse clastics ad1977) anduplifted the Fore-Sudetic block to expose jacent to the interbasinbasementhighs and basin the basement (Fig. 1). edges,and of siltstoneand shale toward the basin of the geologic record centers.Rapid lateral facies changesindicate that Aspects relevant to convection syndepositional tectonics were importantin the basin history, especially in the lower section (Tomasik, This geologic historyindicates severalaspects im1980; Nemec, 1981; Roniewicz et al., 1981). portantto convection ofRotliegendeformational waThe Zechsteinwas depositedon a peneplainas a ters.First,in the basin-and-range geomorphology and seriesof four to five sedimentary cycles(Z1, Z2, Z3, semidesert environment, concentrated interstitial etc.) in a tectonically quiescent periodrelativeto the brinescanformduringsedimentation andthen evolve Rotliegende (Peryt,1978). The cycles typicallycon- into Na-Ca-C1brines (Hardie and Eugster, 1970; sist of coaly carbonate-rich shale(like the Kupfer- Eugsterand Hardie, 1978). This evolutioncan occur schiefer),normal to restrictedshallowmarine car- simplyby precipitationof carbonate,gypsum,and bonate, and thick beds of sulfate, red shale, and sand- anhydrite(Lerman, 1970), which are common Rotstone,oftenwith rock saltandpotash(Wagneret al., liegendecements(Brunstrom and Walmsley, 1969; 1981). The Z1 andZ3 cycles completely covered the Glennieet al., 1978; Pokorski, 1981). The extremely Polish Rotliegende basins andthe Fore-Sudetic block salinebrines in the Rotliegendebasins(Bojarskaet (Peryt, 1981), whereas the Z2 had a narrowerextent. al., 1981; Laszcz-Filakowa, 1981) are contaminated The Z4a and Z4b cycleswere depositedin narrow by surface wateronlyaround Cretaceous Alpinefaults basins in northwestern Poland(Wagneret al., 1981), (Bojarska et al., 1981; SolakandZolnierczuk,1981), before the Triassic Buntsandstein covered the whole suggesting that thesebrinesare originalandthat the Zechstein basin (Senkowiczowa and Szyperko- basins were isolateduntil the Alpine orogeny. Sliwczynska, 1975). In general,the Zechsteinis thinSecond,the completecoveringof the closedRotner overbasement highsandis thickeroverthe Rot- liegende basins by thickZ1 evaporites woulddisallow liegende basins(Peryt, 1978, 1981; Oszczepalski, anybasindewatering after Z1 time, resulting in over1980). Over the Fore-Sudetic blockthe Zechstein was pressuring of the Rotliegendeand basalZechstein likely only 150 m thick (Peryt, 1981); in the Lubin sediments.This precludes a flow-through genetic and Fore-Sudetic monocline areas, about 250 to 500 model after Z1 time. The resultingundercompaction m (Tomaszewski, 1981; Wagner et al., 1981); and it would keep porosityand permeabilityopen during reaches a maximum of 1,500 m in the Polonian basin diagenesis, allowingmoreinternalfluid flow.Rotliein northwestern Poland(Wagneret al., 1981). gende brines are often overpressured (Van Wijhe Followingthe regularZechstein sedimentation, a et al., 1980; Bojarskaet al., 1981) and the Polish furtherperiodof extension andriftingoccurred (this brinesare characteristically uniform in composition timewithlittle igneous activity) across central Europe throughoutthe basin and have stable pressuregraduring theTriassic andEarlyJurassic (Ziegler,1982), dients, unlike the highly variable Zechsteinbrines likelyassociated withthe opening of theTethys ocean (Bojarska et al., 1981). This uniformitypossibly reto the south. Day (1984) foundevidence to suggest flectsthe opennatureof the porosityandflow within thatextension occurred by reactivation of Hercynian the Rotliegende basins. thrust faults. Deposition of the continental to reIn addition,the Lower PermianRotliegendeand stricted marineBuntsandstein red beds,openmarine the Lower Triassic Buntsandstein record two contiMuschelkalk carbonates,and restricted marine Keu- nental rifting events. Continental extensionis genper shales wasverywidespread andrapid,with up to erallythought to be caused by stretching andthinning (Jarvis andMcKenzie,1980), which 2,500 m ofTriassic sediments deposited in longlinear of the lithosphere raisesthe asthenosphere higher in the section,probasins(Senkowiczowa and Szyperko-Sliwczynska, 1968). ducing a regional thermal anomaly (Turcotte and Continental andshallow marineJurassic sediments Emerman,1983). This anomalyis dissipated by conreached a similar thickness in Poland (Dadlez,1968) duction through the lithospherewhen there is no but were restricted to narrower basins throughthe magmatichydrothermalconvection(Turcotte and centerof Poland, with uplift anderosion alternating Ahern, 1977; Beaumontet al., 1982). with sedimentation in the area of the Fore-Sudetic The organic chemistry of the Fore-Sudetic mono-

andupperRotliegende consist of a lateralandupwardchangingsequenceof alluvial fan, braided river, meanderingstream, and eolian and saline lake depositionalenvironments laid down in a succession of sedimentarycycles in a semidesertenvironment (Glennie et al., 1978; Pokorski,1978, 1981). This

GENESIS OF KUPFERSCHIEFER Cu-Ag DEPOSITS

1827
Jurassic
L M U

cline sediments (Gondek,1980) indicates maximum palcotemperatures of 110 to 140C for the ZechsteinandTriassic rocks, whereas temperatures for the

Permian
L U L

Triassic
M U

Cretaceous
L U

Tertiary

below90C,respectively. Thesepalcotemperatures were corroborated by vitrinite reflectancestudies performed in Poland (Gondek, 1980;Majorowicz et al., 1983) This indicates that a thermal anomaly, probablyrelated to thinningof the lithosphere, oc-

Lower andMiddle Jurassic sediments were100and

::

:-:--:-:_-::-== :___:

:-=%---:--_ _5--_E--__-.:_%::_
............

Subsidence

curred in theTriassic and was dissipated during the

Jurassic. Therefore,the Triassic rifting eventrepresents the thermal and tensional event which can form
-25

the Kupferschiefer deposits by convection. Sedimentation Rates duringthe Triassic Rifting Event
Continental shales and sandstones were formed to-

280

251 23J25 213 195 176161 141

Age (My)
Sedimentation

100

65
monocline

FIG. 3.

rates in the Fore-Sudetic

In the Fore-Sudetic monocline, 600 to 740 m was depositedand a maximumof 800 m occursin the

ward the end of the Zechstein and are gradational into the Lower TriassicBuntsandstein (Milewicz, 1968). The uplift and accompanying erosion of the Variscan highlands to the south(Milewicz, 1968) caused the deposition of the Buntsandstein intorapidlysubsiding basins overmost ofPoland. It developed rectly compared with the otherTriassic rocks,which to 600 m maximum in the North Sudetic basin and at arecontinental andlagoonal clastics. Rapidsubsidence least 90 m survives in the Sudeten basin to the south. duringMuschelkalk timewouldproduce a basin filled
with water, and the sediment-starvedbasin would not

fromthe Permian to the present, showing the effects of the Triassic continental rifting associated with the opening of the Tethysocean to the south. The rapid, fault-controlled subsidence of the Triassic givesway to the thermally controlled subsidence of the latest Triassic andJurassic. (Sources: Dadlez andKopik (1975), Pokorski and Wagner (1975), Senkowiczowa and Szyperko-Sliwczynska (1975), Sokolowski et al. (1976), Wagner et al. (1981).)

CentralPolish basin(Sokolowski et al., 1976), indicating fairlyconsistent subsidence overa largearea. The westerly to northwesterly depositional strikeof the Zechstein andTriassic sediments (Sokolowski et
ferential subsidence occurred in the North Sudetic

recordrapid subsidence in the rockrecord.For these reasons the averagerate hasbeen drawn abovethe

al., 1976) suggests that the Fore-Sudetic block was in the Fore-Sudetic monocline, and from 120 to 80 alsocovered beforethe Cretaceous uplift.Somedif- m/m.y. in the North Sudeticbasinarea.
Comparisonof SouthwestPoland
with the Anadarko Basin

Middle Triassic rate and below the Upper Triassic rate.The rateschosen for the first10 m.y. of computer simulation variedwith time from 130 to 90 m/m.y.

basin (Milewicz,1968),but the consistent 600 to 800 mdeposited in only6 m.y.,using VanEysinga's (1975)
time scale, suggests that the continental crust had completelyfounderedover the whole area between

Thereisa similarity in the geologic histories of the Anadarko basin in Texas and Oklahoma and the Forethe Variscans andthe present-day Balticcoast. The MiddleTriassic Muschelkalk wasalsofairly Sudeticmonoclineregion. The SouthernOklahoma consistent in thickness, with 217 to 291 m deposited aulacogen wasformedby riftingwith muchigneous
in the monocline and 112 m in the Central Polish

activityduringthe Proterozoic to Cambrian (Hoffman

basin (Sokolowski et al., 1976).Although onlythe et al., 1974), followedby 20 m.y. of rapid,fault-controlled subsidence and 70 m.y. of slower,thermal sin,its thickness (145-167 m) is similarto the maxi- subsidence in theOrdovician (Feinstein, 1981).Durmum 169 m of lower Muschelkalk in the monocline. ing the Pennsylvanian, a second rifting eventcreated The rangesof sedimentation ratesfor the Permian fault-controlled subsidence for 20 to 25 m.y.followed to Cretaceous (Fig. 3) show thatthe ratejumpsto a by thermally controlled subsidence for 70 m.y. (Garmaximum in the Early Triassic but decreases expo- ner andTurcotte, 1984), but there waslittle igneous nentiallyto zero by the Middle to Upper Jurassic. activity. Thisissucceeded by upliftanderosion in theUpper In Poland, the LowerPermian riftingevent(Jowett Jurassic and slow sedimentation duringthe Creta- andJarvis, 1984) wasmarked by the intense bimodal ceous. igneous activity(Ryka,1981) andrapid,tectonically The Muschelkalk rateis anomalously low,but the controlled differential subsidence of the Rotliegende ratesof theseopen marinecarbonates cannotbe di- (Tomasik, 1980),followed by theregular, presumably
lower Muschelkalk survives in the North Sudetic ba-

1828

E. CRAIGJOWETT

thermal, subsidence of the Zechstein.Similarly,the a rifting event wassimulated by instantaneously insecond rifting event in the Triassic lackssignificant creasing the temperatureat 25 km depthto 1,000C igneous activity. The rapid subsidence (100-120 m/ from the assumed prerift temperatureof 500C and m.y.) duringBuntsandstein deposition (Fig. 3) is sim- by allowing the thermal pulse to conductupward ilar to the fault-controlled, synextensional subsidence throughthe crustwith time. of the Anadarko(Garner and Turcotte, 1984). The The simulated riftingperiodis a 10-m.y.eventbelower rates from the latest Triassic(30 m/m.y.) to ginning at the Zechstein-Buntsandstein boundary and latestJurassic (0 m/m.y.) are like thoseof their period ending4 m.y. into Muschelkalk deposition, a period of thermal subsidence. ofrapid,presumably fault-controlled, subsidence. The The similargeologichistoriesof these two areas computerprogrammaintainedthe lower boundary and the similarsubsidence ratesover similartime pe- temperatureat 1,000C throughoutthe time studied riodsof the second rifting eventsimply that certain after rifting (10 m.y.); an artificialcondition unless of the thermal and mechanical assumptions usedand the stretchingmechanism were alsomaintained.The confirmed by GarnerandTurcotte (1984) canbe ap- lack of igneousactivity imposesslow lithospheric plied to the Fore-Sudeticmonocline in modelingthe coolingby conduction alone,and the thermal structhermalstructureof the lithosphere duringa rifting ture of onlythe upperfew kilometers are of interest event.They showed thatisostatic subsidence occurred in this study.Thus this lower boundaryconditionis earlyin the riftingeventasa resultof tensional normal a reasonable approximation for the 10-m.y. period. faulting,producing a lithosphere with low flexuralrigidity. This was accompanied by differentiallitho- Computermodeland physicalparameters A computerprogram which modelsthe thermal spheric thinning(thinning of the crustfrom 45 to 32 geologicsectionby km andraising of the 1,200C isotherm of the litho- structure of a one-dimensional sphere-asthenosphere boundary from100 to 35 km), using a finite difference model of time-dependent heat flow was supplied by RossBoutilier and a subsequent increase in heat flow. (This early conductive verand differentialthinning of the lithospherewill be of the Universityof Toronto. (A more extensive usedin the followingmodeling.)After the fault-con- sion was used by Beaumontet al. (1982) in their trolled subsidence, thermal contraction and subsi- thermo-mechanical modeling.)In this studya series representing one-dimensional geologic denceoccurred asthe lithosphere returnedto thermal of 14 columns, sections, were usedto definethe palcothermal strucequilibrium. ture of southwest Poland(Fig. 4). The columns were spaced across the North Sudetic basin in the south, ConductiveHeat Flow Modeling of the through the Fore-Sudeticblock and Fore-Sudetic TriassicRifting Event monoclineto the Wolsztyn Highlandsin the north, Thermaland mechanical assumptions to reflect the architectureof the Rotliegende basins. Only about 50 m.y. separated the startingpoints Alluvial fan and braided river sandstone occurs next of the riftingperiods (280 and230 m.y.), sothe litho- to the basement highsandin the entire North Sudetic spherewould still have been anomalously hot and basin: meandering stream andsaline lakeshale occurs thin, assuming 90 to 95 m.y. for thermalequilibrium. in the basin centers in the monocline. The Zechstein For this reason and because the Fore-Sudetic monoand Triassicsedimenttypeswere made the sameas clinepresentlyhasa thermalgradientof 20 to over the Rotliegende sediments because of computer pro30C/km (Znosko, 1981; Downorowicz,1983) with gramlimitations. After including the Rotliegendeand Zechstein a palcothermal gradientof over 40C/km (Majorothe columnswere allowed to wiczet al., 1983), anaverage 20C/kmgradient over sediment thicknesses, 25 km waschosen asthe prerift condition.The sim- "equilibrate"for 10 m.y. using0.1 m.y. time steps ulations and calculations of Beaumont et al. (1982) to approximatethe thermal structure at the end of andGarnerandTurcotte (1984) showthat depth-de- the 20 m.y. Zechstein deposition period.The prerift pendentthinningof the lithosphere moreclosely ap- upper and lower boundaryconditions (20C at the proximated the geologic andgeophysical observations surface and 500C at 25 km) were then changed to in these rifting eventsthan if the crust and lower 20 and 1,000C to simulatethe thinning of the lithospherewere uniformly thinned. Therefore, a lithosphereat the beginningof the fault-controlled temperatureof 1,000C at 25 km, asa resultof dif- Buntstandstein sedimentation. The thermal structure ferentialthinning,is reasonable. Observed heat flow wascalculated for each1-m.y.interval,using 0.1 m.y. patternsare better predicted by rapid, rather than time steps anda 0.1-km grid size,asthe thermalpulse slow,thinningmodels (Morgan,1983), andJarvis and migrated through the section.Horizontal heat flux McKenzie (1980) concludedthat an instantaneous was assumed to be zero. Triassic sediments at 20C thinning model is a goodapproximation of an event were addedat various rateseach 1-m.y. intervalfor ofless than20 m.y.duration. Therefore, in thisstudy, the 10-m.y. period.

GENESIS OF KUPFERSCHIEFER Cu-Ag DEPOSITS

18 2 9

Physicalparametersused for basement(crust), sandstone, and shalewere: specificheatsof 1,375, 1,088, and837 J/kgCandradioactive heat productionsof 6.276, 12.552, and 12.552 tW/m a over a 7.5-kmdepth.The latter are relativelyhighbecause of the intruded granites andlocally derivedsediments. The thermal conductivity of the basement (4.2 W/ mC)represents a composition of 40 percentschist, 40 percent quartzite, and 20 percent granite (from Znoskoand Pajchlowa,1968) with conductivities of 3.6, 5.2, and 3.2 W/mC, respectively (Clark, 1966; Kristiansen et al., 1982). The conductivityof the sandstone (2.5 W/mC) represents a composition of 45 percent quartz sandstone, 30 percent conglomerate, and 25 percent water with conductivities of 4.0, 2.0, and0.7 W/mC, respectively (Clark, 1966; Downorowicz, 1983; Andrews-Speed et al., 1984); that of the shale(1.25 W/reC) represents shale(1.5 W/mC) with 25 percent water (Clark, 1966; Kristiansenet al., 1982; Andrews-Speed et al., 1984).
Triassic Palcothermal Structure of Southwest Poland

shale centerisat a highertemperature thanthe sandstone basins andthe same asthe basement highs. One rather surprising effect is the large, lateral temperature gradient (12-14Cacross about 20 km) whichexists in the prerift,quasiequilibrium condition betweenthe baseof the Rotliegende in column 8 and its top in column11. This suggests that slowconvection of interstitial fluids,possibly causing quartzand
calcitecementation (Wood andHewett, 1982, 1984; Rabinowicz et al., 1985), mightbe commonplace. Duringrift simulation, Triassic sediments at 20C were addedat the surfaceand the thermalpulserose throughthe section.No effect of the pulsewas apparentin the upper3 km until after 2 m.y. (Fig. 4C). Betweeni and 5 m.y. (Fig. 4B-E), the temperature at 3-km depth consistently rose 10C/m.y. After 5 m.y. (Fig. 4E) the temperaturesbelow the Triassic sediments approachedan approximateequilibrium condition, andbetween8 and 10 m.y. (Fig. 4F), they were essentially at equilibrium,possibly because the coolingfrom abovetended to balancethe heating frombelow.The overalleffectwasoneof decreasing the verticalthermalgradient betweenthe surface and the top of the Rotliegende, and of increasing it from
there down.

The prerift temperature array(Fig. 4A) shows that the isotherms are depressed somewhat within the sediments but that in generalthey cut throughthe basins. In the shalebasincenter (column11) a low thermalgradientcharacterizes the structure fromthe
surface down to the base of the shale, below which

During this heatingperiod,the blanketing effect increased to producea very coolbasincenterabove and within the shale,and a high thermal gradientat
the base of and below the shale. More dramatic is the

there is a buildupof heat and a high gradient.Sedi- change in the basement highs(columns 1 and6). Almentsof low thermal conductivityact as a thermal thoughthe thinly coveredhighs(columns 1 and 6) blanket;the heat cannotrise easilyand is trapped. were cooler than the adjacentbasins before rifting Sandstone is not as effective a thermal blanket as is and at 1 m.y. after, the thermalpulserosethrough shale. The basement highswith little sediment cover the conductive basement more quickly and caused (columns 1 and 6) are slightlylower in temperature the highsto becomethe hottestregionsat 5 m.y., thanthe adjacent basins; however,thisdoesnot apply bothabove the Rotliegende (500 m) andbelow(2,000 to basementhighs with significantsedimentcover m). The mostdeeplyburiedbasement high (column (column14 is hotter than 13). In a horizontalsection 14) always remaineda thermalhigh compared to the at 500-m depth, the overalleffectin the prerift con- adjacent basin. dition is one of a cold shalebasin, a warm sandstone The horizontal temperature gradient betweencolbasin,and either a cooleror warmerbasement high umns8 and11, a distance of only 20 km, almost douregion. (The cold shalebasinis caused presumably bled, from 12 to 14C (at a 700-m depth)to 22 to by the trapping of heatbelowthe shale; the coolhighs 24C (at 1,700 m), by 8 to 10 m.y. afterrifting(Fig. areprobably the resultof no sediment cover,whereas 4F). The verticalgradientacross the 400-m average the warmer highshave the thermalblanket of sedi- Rotliegende thickness similarlyincreased. The high ment cover.) At greater depths(e.g., 1,500 m) the lateral temperaturegradient could be further in-

FIG. 4. Palcothermalstructureof the surficial3-km crust in southwest Polanddemonstrating the changing isotherms dueto differential thermalconductivities duringa simulated rift (detailed explanations in text). Stippledpattern = sandstone, dashed pattern -- shale.Top stippledpattern (B-F) denotes cold Triassic sediments deposited on the surface at each 1-m.y. time step.A. Quasiequilibrium stageat the endof Zechstein sedimentation with upperboundary condition of 20Cat surface andlowerboundary condition of 500C at 25 km. B. One millionyearsafter rift simulation with new boundary condition of 1,000Cat 25 km. C. Two millionyearsafter rifting;thermalpulseis nowbeginning to heatthe upper3 km. D. Three millionyearsafterrifting.E. Five millionyearsafterrifting.A quasiequilibrium stagehas been reachedin which rate of coolingfrom aboveby sedimentation matchesthe rate of heatingfrom below. F. Ten million yearsafter rifting, the end of the rift simulation.

1830
SSW

E. CRAIG JOWETT
NNE

NORTH SUDETIC
BASIN
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FORESUDETIC FORESUDETIC MONOCLINE

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6 5 20 7 e 9 tO 11 12

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Depth(m)
0 1 2 4

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2000

2500

3000

Distance

k m

Depth (m)

10

11

12

13

14

B 0

2500

Distance

m )

Depth (m)

10

11

12

13

14

C o

1 ooo

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GENESIS OF KUPFERSCHIEFER Cu-Ag DEPOSITS

ssw
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12 13 14

1831

NORTH SUDETIC
BASIN
3

FORESUDETIC
BLOCK
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FORESUDETIC MONOCLINE
8 9 10 11

Depth (m)

D o
500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Distance

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Epth

E
500 1 ooo

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1500

2000

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0

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2000

2500

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160

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1832

E. CRAIG ]OWETT

creased by imposing differential sedimentation during the Triassic, or by keepingin mindthat poorlyconducting Paleozoic sediments underlietheRotliegende basins (Znosko andPajchlowa, 1968). Both of these changes wouldadd to the thermalblanketing effect
in the basins.Also, fluid convectionitself would in-

m2 (forfractured rock); 0 = 2'0 slope (forLubinat 10 m.y. after rifting);0 -- 1.3 slope(for Konradat
10 m.y. after rifting). Using theLubinparameters, theRayleigh number,
Ra, is 157 and Ra. cos 0 at 0 = 1.3 is well above the

crease the lateraltemperature gradient by increasing heatflowin areas of upwelling, thus heating the flanks of the highs,and of decreasing it where fluidsare descending, thuscooling the basincenters (Sass and Sammel,1976; Andrews-Speed et al., 1984). Assuming, therefore,that the temperature gradients calculated in thisstudy areminimum values, thena thermal gradientof 25C is reasonable andwill be used
in the convection calculations to follow. The vertical

temperaturedifferences in columns 8, 9, 10, and 11 betweenthe top andbottomof the Rotliegende are viewed as a combination of a Bories and Combarnous 12 , 20 , 30 , and 45C over 00, 350, 500, and (1973) boxat 0 slope(in whichpolyhedral flow oc600 m of sediment. This represents a constant gra- curs)and one at 90 slope(in which unicellularcondientof 60C/kmfor the sandstone andabout75C/ vection alwaysoccurs).The convectionvaluescalkm for the shale. culated here mustbe assumed to be onlyroughapThe maximum temperature attained by the Kup- proximations. ferschiefer was50C in columns 1, 5, and7 andclose The velocity along the 2 slope at Lubin,5 m above to 60C in column14, all near the basement highs. thelowercontact, is0.132 m/yr.Thusthebrinewould Thisis far belowthe temperatures of 110 to 140C take 303,000 yr to complete a full 40-km convection notedabove for the Fore-Sudetic monocline Kupfer- cell,equivalent to 3.3 cycles/m.y. For the Konrad baschiefer. That the maximum temperature wasnot at- sinedge,with a slope of 1.3, thevelocity is 0.05 m/ tainedin thisconduction study suggests thatthe max- yr, equivalent to 600,000 yr for a 30-km cell, or 1.67 imum came later when the rate of cold sedimentation cycles/m.y. decreased andthe Kupferschiefer hadtime to equilibrate at a greaterdepth of burial (2,500 m in the Time neededfor mineralization monocline at the beginning of the Lower, and3,000 m by the Upper Jurassic). As the thermal structure The time needed for the migrating fluidto forman determined by calapproached thermalequilibrium after rifting,likely orebodycan be approximately neartheJurassic-Cretaceous boundary, the isotherms culatinga massbalancebetween the metalliferous in eachcolumnwouldbecomemore equidistant and brine anda sliceof oreparallelto the flow.The Lubin a temperatureof 110 to 130C at 2,500 to 3,000 m depositcanbe approximated by a sliceof 2 percent wouldnotbe unreasonable (seeFig. 4F). In addition, Cu ore whichis m high, 1 m wide, and6 km long, fluid convection wouldincrease the overallheat flux, andwhichtransects thelithology overa 10-mvertical contains 2.15 millionkg Cu possibly in a heterogeneous pattern(Andrews-Speed height(Fig.5). Thisslice a density of 8,950 kg/m 3 for copper metal.In et al., 1984) and thusraise the temperatureof the using basal Zechstein, at leastlocally,above thatpredicted the 10 m by 1 m by 40 km volumeof rock in one by this conduction model. Otherwise,the difference convection cycle,with 25 percentporosity, there are
could be the result of additional factors not considered

criticalvalueof 40, indicating that polyhedral convectionshapes shouldprevail (Boriesand Combarnous, 1973). However, greater horizontalpermeabilitywouldtendto forcethe flow alongthe flanks of thebasement highs to produce a unicellular shape, andthe geologic evidence supports this.Aswell, the boundary conditions of a warming effecton oneside (basement high) and a coolingeffect on the other (shalecenter)will tend to direct the convective flow up the highsanddowntowardthe basincenters in a unicellular pattern. In this case, the basin can be

1 X 105m3 of brine,or 1.15X l0 s kg at 1,150kg/

For a very concentrated, chloride-rich in this study;e.g., the existence of deep tensional ma density. fractures whichpermittedthe advection of heatfrom brine in equilibriumwith hematite,a solubilityof below. 1,000 mg Cu per kg solutionis reasonable(Rose, 1976; Barnes, 1979; Roedder, 1979), which works Brine Convection Calculations
A concentrated brine closeto equilibriumwith heTo calculate the Rayleighnumberand velocities, matite would have very low sulfide activitiesand the followingvaluesfor brinesandundercompacted would carry metalsas chloride complexes (Barnes, clastics wouldbe reasonable: a = 4.0 X ]0-4C-1; oCf 1979). The efficiency of sulfideprecipitationis close = 4.0 X 106W secm-aC-; H = 400 m; AT = 25C to 100 percentin a situationsuchasthiswhere metal (forLubin);AT = 15C(forKonrad); v = 4.0 X 10-7 chlorides in solutionare broughtinto contactwith m2sec-;)* = 2.5 W m-C-; K = 1D = 1 X 10-12 reduced sulfur(pyritein the Kupferschiefer) (Barnes, m2(for25%porosity in undercompacted siliciclastics1979). Assuming this,the brinewouldneedto comwhichare 40-70 m.y. in age);K = D-- X 10-2 plete about19 convection cycles in orderto carryall
Stylesand velocitiesof convection

outto 1.15 X 105kg Cu in onecycleof solution.

GENESIS OF KUPFERSCHIEFER Cu-AgDEPOSITS

1833

the metal throughthe slice of ore. Therefore, the convection cell would have to endure for 5.75 m.y. to formthe orebody. Usingthe fracturepermeability of 2 D, and a more conservative 300 mg/kg copper solubility, the orebodycouldbe formedin 9.6 m.y. If intensefracturingoccurred,increasing permeabilitiesto 10 D, the mineralizing process, using the lower solubility,couldbe completed in lessthan 2 m.y. Similarly,the Konraddepositcanbe represented FIG. 5. Sectional, 1-m-thicksliceof rock,parallelto presumed by a sliceof 1.1 percentCu ore whichis 1.2 m high, the Lubin ore district.Fluid flow was 1 m wide, and4 km long,but whichtransects 5 m of fluid flow, representing

, HOle

section instead of 10 m. The time needed for min-

probablygreaterin the more porous Weissliegende, tilting the

oxidation-reduction front to near horizontal. Both the Konrad and

eralizationis 6.6 m.y. using 1-D permeabilityand 1,000-mg/kgsolubility, or 11 m.y. using2 D and300 mg/kg. In thesecalculations, the brine is recycledwithin the Rotliegende basins a minimumof about20 times (at 1,000 mg/kg solubility)in order to bring enough metal throughthe ore deposits. In a flow-through model,where the brine is constantly being expelled from the basin,metal solubilities might have to be tensof thousands of mg/kgin order to form the deposits--a difficultvalueto justify. Thesesimplemass balance approximations indicate
that convection of brines in this environment can

Lubindeposits couldbe formedin 5 to 10 m.y.by fluidconvection.

denceoccurring to the northin the basincenter(Peryt et al., 1978) anda subsequent increase in slopeangle, the velocityfluidmotiononthe northernflanks of the basement highs(includingthe Lubin district)could actuallyincreasewith time if other factorsremained constant.Similarly, the velocities on the southern

flanks of the basement highs(including the Konrad

district) shoulddecreasewith time.

Movement through Kupferschiefer shales

Speculation on the Effectsof readily producean orebodywithin geologically reaNatural Gas Generation sonable time but that the metal solubilities necessary and permeability for a flow-through modelmaybe unreasonably high. Additionalporosity Secondaryporosity is created during the early

stages of hydrocarbon generation whenorganic maturation producescarbon dioxide which in solution

carbonate cements (Schmidt andMcDonald, basal Zechstein indicates thatmineralizing fluids mi- leaches 1979). Some of the porosity in the North SeaRotliegratedinto the shales from the Rotliegende basins,

The presenceof ore severalmetersthick in the

in origin (Schmidt althoughthe 6-km lateral extent of the Lubin district gendeis thoughtto be secondary 1985). The source suggests that the flow wasmore horizontalthan ver- andMcDonald,1979; Shanmugam,

tical.Thismigration intorelatively impermeable sediment need not presenta problemif the shales were geopressured relatively soonafter deposition asdiscussed earlier. The resultingdelayin sediment dewatering duringburialwouldpreserve porosity and permeability to a greaterextentthan if dewatering
were allowed. As well, the mineralized dilatant vein-

letsin the Kupferschiefer (discussed earlier)indicate

that a system of horizontalandverticalfractures was opento mineralizing fluids afterthe shale waslithified.

TheZechstein mineralization (oralteration) isthickest in areas wherethe rote fiuleis developed, andthins away fromthese zones untilthemineralization ispreCertainrote fiule-copper zones areassociated with dominantly in the sandstone below,suggesting that west-northwest-trending fault zones which may have the vertical component of fluidflowwasgreatest in oxidizing andmetalliferous areas nearthe rote fiulezones, the presumed sites of beenthefocifor ascending
upwelling.

of the naturalgases at the top of the Rotliegende is considered to be the Westphaliancoalswhich generated gases during the Triassic(Calikowskiet al., 1971; Calikowski andGlogoczowski, 1976) or Jurassic (Van Wijhe et al., 1980). The rate at which hydrocarbons are generated fromkerogen accelerates rapidly above80C (Laplante,1974). This temperature couldeasilybe obtainedin the basement duringthe Triassic riftingevent(see80C isotherm in the basement 3 m.y. after rifting in Fig. 4D). Migrationof hydrocarbons throughthe Rotliegende during the Triassicand Jurassic indicates that permeabilitywas quite high at that time.

solutions (Lisiakiewicz,1969; Oszczepalski, 1980). Since the convectionprobably occurredduring the Triassic, a periodof extensional tectonism, andsince Increase in velocity these faults were active evenduringZ 1 sedimentation This modeling shows that adequate velocities for (Oszczepalski, 1980), it seems reasonable to assume mineralization couldbe maintained in the Early to thatfracture porosity, caused by rejuvenation of fault Middle Triassic. However,with more rapid subsi- zones,playeda role in the internalmigrationof Rot-

1834

E. CRAIG JOWETT

liegendebrines.Fault rejuvenation by crustalfailure diageneticcementation,probably occurred during during extension is implied by the fault-controlled periodsof normalheat flow, but the Triassicrifting event,associated with the opening of the Tethysocean subsidence of the Buntsandstein (Fig. 3). and indicatedby rapid Buntsandstein sedimentation, Additional buoyancy providedthe tensionaland thermal event necessary Organicmatter derivedfrom terrestrialsources (as for unusually high convection velocitiesandthe forin theWestphalian coals andthe Kupferschiefer) pro- mationof the Lubin districtore deposits. duces carbondioxide,water, methane,andnitrogen Natural gas,generated in the Carboniferous baseduringthermalmetamorphism (Rohrback andKaplan, ment,probablymigratedwith the mineralizing fluids 1978; Rohrbacket al., 1984; Shanmugam, 1985). up the flanksof the basement highsand helpedconHydrocarbons in the Rotliegendeare almostcom- vectionby providingsecondary porosityand buoypletely methane,and the high nitrogencontentin- ancyto the fluids.Convection mayalsoprovidea way dicatesboth a high temperatureat the source(De- in whichsecondary migrationof naturalgases canocpowski,1981) anda terrestrial source (Barker,1979). cur in solution aswell asin separate phases. Abnormal tensional and thermal events, such as In the sourcerock, as hydrocarbons are produced, the pore water is likely to be saturated with CO2, and rifting, can providethe drivingforce for the genermethane solubilityalsoincreases with the increase in ationof hydrocarbons, the migration of metalliferous CO2 (BrayandFoster,1980). When the methaneand oilfieldbrines,and the formationof kupferschieferCO2 are expelledinto the Rotliegende, the methane type ore deposits. can exsolveinto a separatephasebecauseof the inAcknowledgments creasein salinity(McAuliffe,1980) from 7 percent or lessin the sourcerock (Schmidt,1973) to the 20 The supportof Z. Dembowski, President,Central to 30 percentsalinity(Bojarska et al., 1981) andbe- Boardof Geologyof Poland, W. Ryka,Director, and causeof the lossof CO usedin leachingcarbonate A. Rydzewski of the Instytut Geologiczny, K. Dubincement (Schmidt and McDonald, 1979). This gas ski,Lubin District Chief Geologist,andtheir permisphaseshouldincreasethe overallbuoyancyand in- sionto undertakethis and related studiesare gratecreasethe velocity of the metalliferous brine. As the fully acknowledged. As well, thanksgo to T. Kowal fluid convects up the basement high flank, the de- of Lubin, H. Flak andJ. Zankoof Polkowice,and A. creasing temperatureandpressure will exsolve more Cholesiak and T. Klos of Konrad, for their aid in visgas(McAuliffe,1980). iting the mines,andspecial thanksto C. Skowronek McAuliffe (1980) concludedthat the principal for discussions concerning the Konrad,NowyKosciol, mechanism for secondary migration of naturalgas was and Lena mines. Discussions with J. Bojarska,Z. by buoyant flowasa separate phase, because the vol- Cwierz, S. Downorowicz, I. Grotek, B. Laszcz-Filaumes of waternecessary for migration in solution were kowa,S. Oszczepalski, T. Peryt,W. Salski, andE. Zuunreasonable. Thiswatersupply restriction isavoided, rawek in Poland and G. T. Jarvis,P.-Y. F. Robin, however, if convectionoccurs, and methane should A. J. Naldrett,andJ. B. Curriein Canada provedusebe able to migrateeffectivelyin solution, aswell as ful in the formulationof these ideas.In particular, I by buoyant flow,andcollect in the upperRotliegende wouldlike to thankR. Boutilierfor providing the heat by exsolution aslongasthe convection cell wasmain- flowmodeling program andfollow-upadviceon spetained. Wood and Hewett (1984) and Rabinowiczet cific problems.I appreciatethe financialsupport al. (1985) suggest that convection playsa role in hy- throughthe Natural Sciences and Engineering Redrocarbonmigration. searchCouncilgrantsto A. J. Naldrett and G. W. Pearceof the Departmentof Geologyat Toronto. Conclusions Geologicevidencesuggests that unicellularconvectionof fluidsup alongthe flanks of basement highs anddowntowardthe shalecenters of the Rotliegende basins formedthe Kupferschiefer Cu-Ag deposits in Poland andthatthismigration occurred in the Triassic. Heat flow modelingof a simulated rift supports this evidenceand shows that, given reasonable geologic conditions, the Lubin deposits could have been formedwithin 5 to 10 m.y. The difference in thermalconductivity betweenthe basementhighsand the shalebasincenterscreated the lateral temperature gradients which initiated convection. Low velocity convection, possibly with
August 1, 1985; January 16, 1986
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