Notes of Lesson Surveying Ii

NOTES OF LESSON SURVEYING II
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NOTES OF LESSON

CE2254 SURVEYING II

Prepared by
M.UMAMAGUESVARI M.Tech
Sr. Lecturer
Department of Civil Engineering
RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE


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Tacheometry

It is a method of surveying in which horizontal distances and (relative) vertical elevations
are determined from subtended intervals and vertical angles observed with an instrument

Uses of Tacheometry

Tacheometry is used for
1. preparation of topographic map where both horizontal and vertical distances are required
to be measured;
2. survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods of measurements are inconvenient;
3. reconnaissance survey for highways and railways etc;
4. establishment of secondary control points.
Instrument
The instruments employed in tacheometry are the engineer's transit and the leveling rod or stadia
rod, the theodolite and the subtense bar, the self-reducing theodolite and the leveling rod, the
distance wedge and the horizontal distance rod, and the reduction tacheometer and the horizontal
distance rod

Systems of Tachometric Measurement
Depending on the type of instrument and methods/types of observations, tacheometric
measurement systems can be divided into two basic types:
(i) Stadia systems and
(ii) Non-stadia systems
Stadia Systems

In there system's, staff intercepts at a pair of stadia hairs present at diaphragm, are considered.
The stadia system consists of two methods:
Fixed-hair method and
Movable-hair method
Fixed - Hair method


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In this method, stadia hairs are kept at fixed interval and the staff interval or intercept
(corresponding to the stadia hairs) on the leveling staff varies. Staff intercept depends upon the
distance between the instrument station and the staff.
Movable - Hair method

In this method, the staff interval is kept constant by changing the distance between the stadia
hairs. Targets on the staff are fixed at a known interval and the stadia hairs are adjusted to bisect
the upper target at the upper hair and the lower target at the lower hair. Instruments used in this
method are required to have provision for the measurement of the variable interval between the
stadia hairs. As it is inconvenient to measure the stadia interval accurately, the movable hair
method is rarely used

Non - stadia systems
This method of surveying is primarily based on principles of trigonometry and thus telescopes
without stadia diaphragm are used. This system comprises of two methods:
(i) Tangential method and
(ii) Subtense bar method.
Tangential Method

In this method, readings at two different points on a staff are taken against the horizontal
cross hair and corresponding vertical angles are noted.

Subtense bar method
In this method, a bar of fixed length, called a subtense bar is placed in horizontal position. The
angle subtended by two target points, corresponding to a fixed distance on the subtense bar, at the
instrument station is measured. The horizontal distance between the subtense bar and the
instrument is computed from the known distance between the targets and the measured horizontal
angle.
Fixed-hair method or Stadia method

It is the most prevalent method for tacheometric surveying. In this method, the telescope of the
theodolite is equipped with two additional cross hairs, one above and the other below the main
horizontal hair at equal distance. These additional cross hairs are known as stadia hairs. This is
also known as tacheometer.
Principle of Stadia method


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A tacheometer is temporarily adjusted on the station P with horizontal line of sight. Let a and b be
the lower and the upper stadia hairs of the instrument and their actual vertical separation be
designated as i. Let f be the focal length of the objective lens of the tacheometer and c be
horizontal distance between the optical centre of the objective lens and the vertical axis of the
instrument. Let the objective lens is focused to a staff held vertically at Q, say at horizontal
distance D from the instrument station.

.

By the laws of optics, the images of readings at A and B of the staff will appear along the stadia
hairs at a and b respectively. Let the staff interval i.e., the difference between the readings at A
and B be designated by s. Similar triangle between the object and image will form with vertex at
the focus of the objective lens (F). Let the horizontal distance of the staff from F be d. Then, from
the similar s ABF and a' b' F,


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as a' b' =ab =i. The ratio (f / i) is a constant for a particular instrument and is known as stadia
interval factor, also instrument constant. It is denoted by K and thus
d =K.s --------------------- Equation (23.1)
The horizontal distance (D) between the center of the instrument and the station point (Q) at
which the staff is held is d +f +c. If C is substituted for (f +c), then the horizontal distance D
from the center of the instrument to the staff is given by the equation
D =Ks +C ---------------------- Equation (23.2)
The distance C is called the stadia constant. Equation (23.2) is known as the stadia equation for a
line of sight perpendicular to the staff intercept.

Determination of Tacheometric Constants
The stadia interval factor (K) and the stadia constant (C) are known as tacheometric constants.
Before using a tacheometer for surveying work, it is reqired to determine these constants. These
can be computed from field observation by adopting following procedure.
Step 1 : Set up the tacheometer at any station say P on a flat ground.
Step 2 : Select another point say Q about 200 m away. Measure the distance between P and Q
accurately with a precise tape. Then, drive pegs at a uniform interval, say 50 m, along PQ. Mark
the peg points as 1, 2, 3 and last peg -4 at station Q.
Step 3 : Keep the staff on the peg-1, and obtain the staff intercept say s
1
.
Step 4 : Likewise, obtain the staff intercepts say s
2
, when the staff is kept at the peg-2,
Step 5 : Form the simultaneous equations, using Equation (23-2)
D
1
=K. s
1
+C --------------(i)
and D
2
=K. s
2
+C -------------(ii)
Solving Equations (i) and (ii), determine the values of K and C say K
1
and C
1
.
Step 6 : Form another set of observations to the pegs 3 & 4, Simultaneous equations can be
obtained from the staff intercepts s
3
and s
4
at the peg-3 and point Q respectively. Solving those
equations, determine the values of K and C again say K
2
and C
2
.


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Step 7 : The average of the values obtained in steps (5) and (6), provide the tacheometric
constants K and C of the instrument.
Anallactic Lens
It is a special convex lens, fitted in between the object glass and eyepiece, at a fixed distance from
the object glass, inside the telescope of a tacheometer. The function of the anallactic lens is to
reduce the stadia constant to zero. Thus, when tacheometer is fitted with anallactic lens, the
distance measured between instrument station and staff position (for line of sight perpendicular to
the staff intercept) becomes directly proportional to the staff intercept. Anallactic lens is provided
in external focusing type telescopes only.

Inclined Stadia Measurements
It is usual that the line of sight of the tacheometer is inclined to the horizontal. Thus, it is
frequently required to reduce the inclined observations into horizontal distance and difference in
elevation.

Let us consider a tacheometer (having constants K and C) is temporarily adjusted on a station, say
P (Figure 23.2). The instrument is sighted to a staff held vertically, say at Q. Thus, it is required
to find the horizontal distance PP
1
(=H) and the difference in elevation P
1
Q. Let A, R and B be
the staff points whose images are formed respectively at the upper, middle and lower cross hairs
of the tacheometer. The line of sight, corresponding to the middle cross hair, is inclined at
an angle of elevation and thus, the staff with a line perpendicular to the line of sight.
Therefore A'B' = AB cos = s cos where s is the staff intercept AB. The distance D (=


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OR) is C + K. scos (from Equation 23.2). But the distance OO
1
is the horizontal
distance H, which equals OR cos . Therefore the horizontal distance H is given by the
equation.
H = (Ks cos + C) cos
Or H = Ks cos
2
+ C cos ----------------- Equation (23.3)
in which K is the stadia interval factor (f / i), s is the stadia interval, C is the stadia
constant (f + c), and is the vertical angle of the line of sight read on the vertical circle of
the transit.
The distance RO
1
, which equals OR sin , is the vertical distance between the telescope
axis and the middle cross-hair reading. Thus V is given by the equation
V = (K s cos + c) sin
V = Ks sin cos + C sin ----------------- Equation (23.4)
----------------- Equation (23.5)
Thus, the difference in elevation between P and Q is (h + V - r), where h is the height of
the instrument at P and r is the staff reading corresponding to the middle hair.

Ex23-1 In order to carry out tacheometric surveying, following observations were taken
through a tacheometer set up at station P at a height 1.235m.
Staff
held
Vertical
at
Horizontal
distance
from P
(m)
Staff
Reading
(m)
Angle of
Elevation
Q 100 1.01 0
R 200 2.03 0
S ?
3.465,
2.275, 1.280
5 24' 40"
Compute the horizontal distance of S from P and reduced level of station at S if R.L. of
station P is 262.575m


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Solution :
Since the staff station P and Q are at known distances and observations are taken at
horizontal line of sight, from equation 23.2
i.e. from D = K.s + C, we get
100 = K. 1.01 + C --------------- Equation 1
200 = K. 2.03 + C --------------- Equation 2
where K and C are the stadia interval factor and stadia constant of the instrument.
Therefore Solving equation 1 and 2 ,
Substituting, value of K in Equation 1, we get
C = 100 - 1.01 x 98.04 = 0.98


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Now, for the observation at staff station S, the staff intercept
s = 3.465 - 1.280 = 2.185 m;
Given, the angle of elevation (of a observation at S), = 5 24' 40"
Using equation 23.3 i.e., D = K s cos
2
+ C.cos , the horizontal distance of S from P is
D = 98.04 x 2.185 x cos
2
5 24' 40" + 0.98 cos 5 24' 40"
= 212.312 + 0.9756 = 213.288 m

= (20.11 + 0.0924)m = 20.203 m
Thus R.L. of station S = R.L. of P + h + V - r
= 262.575 + 1.235 + 20.203 - 2.275
= 281.738 m
Uses of Stadia Method
The stadia method of surveying is particularly useful for following cases:
1. In differential leveling, the backsight and foresight distances are balanced conveniently if
the level is equipped with stadia hairs.
2. In profile leveling and cross sectioning, stadia is a convenient means of finding distances
from level to points on which rod readings are taken.
3. In rough trigonometric, or indirect, leveling with the transit, the stadia method is more
rapid than any other method.
4. For traverse surveying of low relative accuracy, where only horizontal angles and
distances are required, the stadia method is a useful rapid method.
5. On surveys of low relative accuracy - particularly topographic surveys-where both the
relative location of points in a horizontal plane and the elevation of these points are
desired, stadia is useful. The horizontal angles, vertical angles, and the stadia interval are
observed, as each point is sighted; these three observations define the location of the
point sighted.


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Errors in Stadia Measurement
Most of the errors associated with stadia measurement are those that occur during
observations for horizontal angles and differences in elevation .Specific sources of errors
in horizontal and vertical distances computed from observed stadia intervals are as
follows:
1. Error in Stadia Interval factor
This produces a systematic error in distances proportional to the amount of error in the
stadia interval factor.
2. Error in staff graduations
If the spaces on the rod are uniformly too long or too short, a systematic error
proportional to the stadia interval is produced in each distance.
3. Incorrect stadia Interval
The stadia interval varies randomly owing to the inability of the instrument operator to
observe the stadia interval exactly. In a series of connected observations (as a traverse)
the error may be expected to vary as the square root of the number of sights. This is the
principal error affecting the precision of distances. It can be kept to a minimum by proper
focusing to eliminate parallax, by taking observations at favorable times, and by care in
observing.
4. Error in verticality of staff
This condition produces a perceptible error in measurement of large vertical angles than
for small angles. It also produces an appreciable error in the observed stadia interval and
hence in computed distances. It can be eliminated by using a staff level.
5. Error due to refraction
This causes random error in staff reading.
6. Error in vertical angle
Error in vertical angle is relatively unimportant in their effect upon horizontal distance if
the angle is small but it is perceptible if the vertical angle is large.


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non-stadia systems of tacheometric surveying

Tangential Method

The tangential method of tacheometry is being used when stadia hairs are not present in the
diaphragm of the instrument or when the staff is too far to read.
In this method, the staff sighted is fitted with two big targets (or vanes) spaced at a fixed vertical
distances. Vertical angles corresponding to the vanes, say
1
and
2
are measured. The
horizontal distance, say D and vertical intercept, say V are computed from the values s (pre-
defined / known)
1
and
2
. This method is less accurate than the stadia method.
Depending on the nature of vertical angles i.e, elevation or depression, three cases of tangential
methods are there
When Both vertical Angles are Angles of Elevation

From Figure 24.1,
V = D tan
1

and V+s = D tan 2
Thus, s = D ( tan 2 - tan 1 )


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-------------------- Equation (24.1)
-------------------- Equation (24.2)
Therefore R.L. of Q = (R.L. of P + h) + V r -------------------- Equation (24.3)
where, h is the height of the instrument, r is the staff reading corresponding to lower vane
When Both Vertical Angles are Depression Angles

From Figure 24.2,
V = D tan
1

and V-s = D tan 2
Thus, s = D ( tan
1
- tan
2
)


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-------------------- Equation (24.4)
-------------------- Equation (24.5)
Therefore R.L. of Q = (R.L. of P + h) - V r -------------------- Equation (24.6)
where, h is the height of the instrument, r is the staff reading corresponding to lower vane.
When one of the Vertical Angles is Elevation Angle and the other is Depression Angle

From Figure 24.3,
V = D tan
1

and s - V = D tan 2
Thus, s = D ( tan
2
+ tan
1
)
-------------------- Equation (24.7)
-------------------- Equation (24.8)


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Therefore R.L. of Q = (R.L. of P + h) - V r -------------------- Equation (24.9)
where, h is the height of the instrument, r is the staff reading corresponding to lower vane
Ex24-1 In a tangential method of tacheometry two vanes were fixed 2 m apart, the lower vane being 0.5 m
above the foot of the staff held vertical at station A. The vertical angles measured are +1 12' and -1 30'.
find the horizontal distance of A and reduced level of A, if the R.L. of the observation station is 101.365 m
and height of instrument is 1.230 m.

Figure Ex24-1
Solution :
Let D be the horizontal distance between the observation station P and staff point A. Then, from Figure
Ex24.1,
V = D tan
1

s - V = D tan1
Or, s = D tan2 + D tan1

Given, s = 2 m;
1
= 1 30' &
2
= 1 12'


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Therefore R.L. of A = 101.365 + 1.230 -1.11 - 0.5 = 100.985 m
Subtense Bar Method

Instrument
Subtense bar is a graduated bar of fixed length mounted horizontally on a tripod stand
(Figure 24.4). The bar is centrally supported on a leveling head and is fitted with a
sighting device at the centre. At its ends, there are targets and these are at fixed distance
apart. The bar can rotate about the vertical axis in a horizontal plane. It can be fixed at
any position using a clamping and its tangent screw. It is used to measure horizontal
distance and difference in elevation indirectly where the terrain is rough and requirement
of accuracy is not high.

Method


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shows a schematic diagram of a subtense bar having centre at C fitted with targets at A and B.
Let the separation between targets be s. A theodolite is set up at O. The bar is kept perpendicular
to the line of sight OC by means of a sighting device at the centre of the bar. The horizontal angle
between the two targets at the ends of the bar is measured, let it be . The horizontal distance
----------------- Equation (24.10)
If the vertical angle of the centre of the subtence bar is , then the difference in elevation (V)
between the centre of the bar and the centre of the telescope is
V = D tan ---------------- Equation (24.11)
Effect of Angular Error

The effect of an error in the measurement of the angle on the computed length D is as follows
(Figure 24.5):
---------------- Equation (24.12)


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where D is t
he error in the distance D; is the error in the angle . The angle is in radians.
It may be noted that the nature of error in computation of distance is opposite to the nature of
error in measurement of horizontal angle ie., a positive error in produces a negative error in D
and vice versa.
Ex24-2 The horizontal angle observed at a theodolite station by a subtense bar with vanes 2.0 m
apart, is 0 30'. Find the horizontal distance between the theodolite station and subtense bar.If
the bar is 1 out from the normal direction to the line of sight, determine the error in the
measurement of horizontal distance.


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Figure Ex24-2
Solution :
Referring from Figure 24.5, given s = 2.0 m; = 30', Then from

The horizontal distance between the subtense bar and the theodolite,

Referring figure Ex 24.2,


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Therefore Error in horizontal distance = D - D'
= 229 .18 - 229.145 = 0.035 m

Introduce the basic definitions and fundamental relations used in field astronomy.

Introduction
In a clear night, the sky appears as a vast hollow hemisphere with its interior studded
with innumerable stars. On observing the sky for some duration it appears that the
celestial bodies are revolving around the earth with its centre at the position of the
observer. The stars move in a regular manner and maintain same position relative to each
other. Consequently, terrestrial position or direction defined with reference to celestial
body remains absolute for all practical purposes in plane surveying. Thus, the absolute
direction of a line can be determined from the position / direction of a celestial body

Astronomical Terms and Definitions

To observe the positions / direction and movement of the celestial bodies, an imaginary
sphere of infinite radius is conceptualized having its centre at the centre of the earth. The
stars are studded over the inner surface of the sphere and the earth is represented as a
point at the centre. Figure 25.1 shows a celestial sphere and some principal parameters
necessary to understand astronomical observation and calculations for determination of
absolute direction of a line. The important terms and definitions related to field
astronomy are as follows:


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Celestial sphere : An imaginary sphere of infinite radius with the earth at its centre and
other celestial bodies studded on its inside surface is known as celestial sphere.
Great Circle (G.C) : The imaginary line of intersection of an infinite plane, passing
through the centre of the earth and the circumference of the celestial sphere is known as
great circle.
Zenith (Z) : If a plumb line through an observer is extended upward, the imaginary point
at which it appears to intersect the celestial sphere is known as Zenith. The imaginary


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point at which it appears to intersect downward in the celestial sphere is known as Nadir
(N).
Vertical circle : Great circle passing through zenith and nadir is known as vertical circle.
Horizon: Great circle perpendicular to the line joining the Zenith and Nadir is known as horizon.
Poles : If the axis of rotation of the earth is imagined to be extended infinitely in both directions,
the points at which it meets the celestial sphere are known as poles. The point of intersection in
the northern hemisphere is known as north celestial pole and that in the southern hemisphere as
south celestial pole.
Equator : The line of intersection of an infinite plane passing through the centre of the earth and
perpendicular to the line joining celestial poles with the celestial sphere.
Hour circle : Great circle passing through celestial poles is known as hour circle, also known as
declination circle.
Meridian : The hour circle passing through observer's zenith and nadir is known as (observer's)
meridian. It represents the North-South direction at observer station.
Altitude (h) : The altitude of a celestial body is the angular distance measured along a vertical
circle passing through the body. It is considered positive if the angle measured is above horizon
and below horizon, it is considered as negative.
Azimuth (A) : The azimuth of a celestial body is the angular distance measured along the horizon
from the observer's meridian to the foot of the vertical circle passing through the celestial body
(Figure 25.2).


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Declination () : The declination of a celestial body is the angular distance measured from the
equator to the celestial body along the arc of an hour circle. It is considered positive in North
direction and negative in South.
Ecliptic : The great circle along which the sun appears to move round the earth in a
year is called the ecliptic.
Equinoctial points : The points of intersection of the ecliptic circle with the equatorial
circle are known as equinoctial points. The point at which the sun transits from Southern
to Northern hemisphere is known as First point of Aeries () and from Northern to
Southern hemisphere as First point of Libra ().
Right ascension : The right ascension of a celestial body is the angular distance along
the arc of celestial equator measured from the First point of Aeries () to the foot of the
hour circle. It is measured from East to West direction i.e., anti-clockwise in Northern
hemisphere.
Prime meridian : Reference meridian that passes through the Royal Naval Observatory
in Greenwich, England is known as prime meridian; it is also known as Greenwich
meridian.
Longitude () : The longitude of an observer's station is the angular distance measured
along the equator from the prime meridian to the observer's meridian. It varies from zero
degrees to 180 E and 0 to 180 W.


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Latitude (): The latitude of an observer's station is the angular distance measured
along the observer's meridian from the equator to the zenith point. It varies from zero
degree to 90 N and 0 to 90 S.

Figure 25.3 Hour angles


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Hour angle (HA) : The hour angle of a celestial body is the angle at the equatorial plane
measured westward from meridian to the hour circle passing through the celestial body
(Figure 25.3).
Local hour angle (LHA): The angular distance of a celestial body measured westward
from the point of intersection of the equator and the meridian of the observer to the foot
of the hour circle passing through the celestial body.
Greenwich hour angle (GHA) : Angle at the equatorial plane measured westward from
the prime (Greenwich) meridian to the hour circle through the celestial body.
Spherical triangle: Triangle formed by the intersection of three arcs of great circles (on
the surface of the celestial sphere) is known as spherical triangle.
Note :
The dimension of the celestial sphere is so large that the position of the observer and
the centre of the earth appears to be the same point

Astronomical Triangle

The spherical triangle formed by arcs of observer's meridian, vertical circle as well as
hour circle through the same celestial body is known as an astronomical triangle. The
vertices of an astronomical triangle are Zenith point (Z), celestial pole (P) and the
celestial body (S) and thus termed as ZPS triangle (Figure 25.4a). In each astronomical
triangle, there are six important elements. Three of them are the three sides and other
three are the three angles of the triangle. It is important to know these elements as some
of these will be required to be observed in the field and others are to be computed to find
the position / direction of celestial body.


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Polar distance (PS or p) : The angular distance from the celestial pole (P) to the celestial body (S) along
the hour circle is known as polar distance. It is also known as co-declination and is designated by p (= 90-
), where is the declination of the celestial body, S.
Zenith distance (ZS or z) : The angular distance from observer's zenith (Z) to the celestial body (S) along
the vertical circle is known as zenith distance. It is also known as co-altitude and is designated by z (= 90-
h), where h is the altitude of the celestial body, S.
Co-latitude, ZP : The angular distance from observer's zenith (Z) to the celestial pole (P) along the
observer's meridian is known as co-latitude and is given by (90- ), where is the latitude of the observer.
Angle Z : The angle at the zenith (A) is measured from the observer's meridian to the vertical circle passing
through the celestial body in a plane parallel to the observer's horizon. It is nothing but the azimuth of the
celestial body (Figure 25.2). It is measured clockwise from the observer's meridian and its value ranges from
zero to 360.
Angle P : The angle at the pole (P) is measured from the observer's meridian to the hour circle passing
through the celestial body in a plane parallel to the equatorial plane. It is nothing but (360 H, hour angle of
the celestial body) (Figure 25.4b). Hour angle is measured clockwise from the upper branch of the
observer's meridian.
Angle S : angle at a celestial body between the hour circle and the vertical circle passing through the
celestial body. It is known as the parallactic angle.


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If any of the three elements are known, the remaining three can be computed from
formulae of spherical trigonometry
Figure 25A shows a spherical triangle ZSP. In all there are six quantities in a spherical
triangle, namely, three angles Z, S and P and three sides z, s and p. If any three
quantities are known, the remaining three can be computed from different formulae of
the spherical trignometry given below.

Figure 25A


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1. Sine formula
--------------- Eq 25A.1
2. Cosine formula
(i) cos Z = sin S sin P - cos S cos P --------------- Eq 25A.2
(ii) cos z = cos s cos p + sin s sin p cos Z --------------- Eq 25A.3
or --------------- Eq 25A.3a
(iii) cos z cos s = sin z cot P - sin S sin P cos z --------------- Eq 25A.4
3. Half the angles formula
(i ) --------------- Eq 25A.5
(ii ) --------------- Eq 25A.6
(iii) --------------- Eq 25A.7
Where
Equation 25A.5 to 25A.7 should be used when there is some confusion about the signs of the angles.
Because the value of the angle A / 2 is always less than 90, there is no ambiguity. As far as possible, Eq.
25A.5 should be used when A < 90. Eq. 25A.7 can be used for any value of the angle.
4. Half the sides Formula


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(i) --------------- Eq 25A.8
(ii ) --------------- Eq 25A.9
(iii ) --------------- Eq 25A.10
where
5. Tangent of angles formulae
(i) --------------- Eq 25A.11a
(ii) --------------- Eq 25A.11b

6. Tangent of sides formula
(i) --------------- Eq 25A.12a


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(ii) --------------- Eq 25A.12b
7. Combined formula
(i) sin z cos s = cos s sin p - sin s cos p cos Z --------------- Eq 25A.13
(ii) sin z sin s = sin s sin z --------------- Eq 25A.14

Ex25-1 Find the shortest distance between a station (29 52' N, 77 54' E) at Roorkee and to a station (28
34' N, 77 06' E) at Delhi. Determine the azimuth of the line along which the direction of the shortest
distance to be set out starting from Roorkee.

Figure Example 25-1
Solution :
The shortest distance between two stations on the surface of the earth lies along the circumfrence of the
great circle passing through the stations.


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Refering Figure Example 25-1, let us consider a great arc RD passing through the Roorkee and Delhi
respectively. Thus, arc RD is the shortest distance between the stations. Let P be the pole of the earth. and
PD and PR are arcs of meredians passing through Delhi and Roorkee stations respectively.
Then, PDR is a astronomical triangle, where
P = 77 54' - 77 06' = 48'
Distance PD, r =90 - 28 34' =61 26
Distance PR, d =90 - 29 52' =60 08'
Using equation (25A.3a),
Or, cos p =cos d . cos r +cos P . sin d . sin r
=cos 60 08' . cos 61 26' +cos 48' . sin 60 08' . sin 61 26'
=0.23826 +0.76154 =0.99966837
Thereforep = 1 28' 33".48
Assuming, rdius of the earth, R =6370 km.
Arc distance, RD =
For the determination of the direction from R to D, the angle R of the spherical triangle is
required to be determined.
Using equation 25A.11a,


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Therefore R +D =179 36' 34".12 ------------------------Equation 1
Again, using equation 25A.11b
=3 43' 24".07
Or, R - D =123 31' 05".20 ------------------------Equation 2
Solving Equation 1 & 2,
R =151 33' 49".66
Thus, the azimuth of the line to be set out at station R to proceed along shortest path to
the station at Delhi is =360 - R =208 26' 10".34
Ex25-2 Determine the azimuth of the sun having declination 8 24' S during sunset at Roorkee (latitude 29
52' N).


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Figure Example 25-2 (a)
Solution :
Given, latitude of observer, = 29 52'
declinationof the sun, = 8 24' S
The Sun at sunset, thus altitude = 0
Therefore = 90
z = 90 + = 98 24'
s = 90 - = 60 08'
Figure Example 25-2 (b)
The triangle ZPS is a right angled astronomical triangle, where RZ (in ZPS) is in western
hemisphere.
Now, using equation 25A.3a, we get


Page 33 of 74

= - 0.168
Z = 99 41' 53".07 (W)
Thus, azimuth of the sun, A = 360 - Z = 261 59' 32".26

To define azimuth and to explain hour angle method for determination of azimuth

Azimuth of a Line

Azimuth of a line is its horizontal angle measured clockwise from geographic or true
meridian.
For field observation, the most stable and retraceable reference is geographic north.
Geographic north is based on the direction of gravity (vertical) and axis of rotation of the
earth. A direction determined from celestial observations results in astronomic
(Geographic) north reference meridian and is known as geographic or true meridian.
The azimuth of a line is determined from the azimuth of a celestial body. For this, the
horizontal angle between the line and the line of sight to the celestial body is required to
be observed during astronomic observation along with other celestial observation


Page 34 of 74

Let AB be the line whose azimuth (A
AB
) is required to be determined (Figure 26.1). Let O
be the station for celestial observations. Let S be the celestial body whose azimuth (A
s
)
is determined from the astronomical observation taken at O. The horizontal angle from
the line AB to the line of sight to celestial body (at the station O) is observed to be
clockwise. The azimuth of the line, AB can be computed from
A
AB
= A
S
- (clockwise).
If A
AB
computes to be negative, 360 is added to normalize the azimuth.


Page 35 of 74

In order to compute the azimuth of a line with proper sign, it is better to draw the known
parameters. The diagram itself provides the azimuth of the line with proper sign. For
example, in Figure 26.2, first a line of sight to celestial body, OS is drawn. Then, the
azimuth of the celestial body, A
S
is considered in counter-clockwise from the line OS and
obtained the true north direction i.e, the line ON. Similarly, the horizontal angle is
represented in counter clockwise (since the angle from the line to the celestial body is
measured clockwise) direction from OS to obtain the relative position of the line. The
angle NOB represents the azimuth of the line AB.
Determination of Azimuth of Celestial body
In field astronomy, a celestial body provides the reference direction. So, from the
geographic location (latitude and longitude) of the station, ephemeris data of celestial
body and either time or altitude of the same celestial body, the azimuth of the celestial
body is computed by solving astronomical triangle. If time is used, the procedure is
known as the hour-angle method. Likewise, if altitude is measured, the procedure is
termed as the altitude method. The basic difference between these two methods is that


Page 36 of 74
the altitude method requires observation of approximate time and an accurate vertical
angle of the celestial body, whereas the hour angle method requires observation of
accurate time. Recent developments of time receivers and accurate timepieces,
particularly digital watches with split-time features, and time modules for calculators, the
hour-angle method is more accurate, faster. It requires shorter training for proficiency. It
has fewer restrictions on time of day and geographic location and thus is more versatile.
The method is applicable to the sun, Polaris, and other stars. Consequently, the hour-
angle method is emphasized, and its use by surveyors is encouraged.
Hour Angle Method
In this method, precise time is being noted when the considered celestial body is being
bisected. The observed time is used to derive the hour angle and declination of the
celestial body at the instant of observation.The geographic position (latitude and
longitude) of the observation station is required to be known a priori for the hour angle
method. Usually, these values are readily obtained from available maps. However, to
achieve better accuracy, latitude and longitude must be more accurately determined
specially during observations for celestial bodies close to the equator--e.g., the sun-than
for bodies near the pole--e.g., Polaris.

Figure 26.3 Astronomical Triangle


Page 37 of 74
The declination of the celestial bodies at the instant of observation is required to be
known for computation of azimuth of the celestial body. It is available in star almanac at
the 0, 6, 12 and 18 hours of UTI of each day ( Greenwich date). Thus, the declination at
the instant of observation (of celestial body) is determined by linear interpolation for
corresponding the UT1 time of observation. However, since the declination of the sun
varies rapidly, its interpolation is done using the relation:
Declination, d = Decl 0
h
+ (Decl 24
h
- Decl 0
h
) ( ) + (0.0000395) (Decl 0
h
) sin (7.5
UT1) -------------(Equation 26.2)
The hour-angle of the celestial body is being derived using the GHA (available in star
almanac with reference to Greenwich date) and the longitude of the observation station.
For observations in the Western Hemisphere, if UTI is greater than local time, the
Greenwich date is the same as local date and if UTI is less than local time, Greenwich
date is the local date plus one day. For the Eastern Hemisphere, if UTI is less than local
time (24-hr basis), Greenwich date is the same as local date and if UTI is greater than
local time, Greenwich date is local date minus one day. The hour angle of the celestial
body at the observation station is the LHA. Thus, it is the LHA at UTI time of observation
which is necessary to compute the azimuth of a celestial body. Hence, as can be seen
from Figure 26.3, the equation for the LHA is
LHA = GHA - W (west longitude) ----------------- (Equation 26.3)
Or LHA = GHA + E (east longitude) -------------------(Equation 26.4)
LHA should be normalized to between 0 and 360 by adding or subtracting 360, if
necessary.
The Greenwich hour angle (GHA) of celestial bodies-the sun, Polaris, and selected
stars-is tabulated in star almanac from 0 hr to 24 hr at an interval of 6 hours of UTI time
of each day (Greenwich date). Thus, to find GHA at the time of observation linear
interpolation is required to be performed.
The GHA can also be derived by making use of the equation of time E (apparent time
minus mean time) by using the relation:
GHA = 180 + 15 E ---------------------------Equation (26.5)
where E is in decimal hours. In those cases where E is listed as mean time minus
apparent time, the algebraic sign of E should be reversed.
Once the parameters (declination and Hour angle of the celestial body, latitude of the
observation station) required to compute the azimuth of the celestial body are available,


Page 38 of 74
the computation of azimuth of the celestial body is carried out using the relations of
astronomical triangle (Appendix- 25A).
Ex26-1 A celestial body is observed at a station (latitude 36 04' 00" N and longitude 94
10' 08" N). The UTI at the instant of observation was (15
h
16
m
41
s
.57).The GHA at 0hr
(UT1) was found to be 177 04 ' 44".1 on the day of observation and 177 08' 06".3 on
the next day. The declination of the selected body at 0hr (UT1) was + 6 15' 05".9 S and
+ 5 5' 54".7 S on the day of observation and next day respectively. Determine the
azimuth of the celestial body.

Figure Example 26.1
Soluton : Given, GHA at 0
hr
= 177 04 ' 44".1
GHA at 24
hr
= 177 08' 06".3
Instant of observation of the celestial body = 15
h
16
m
41
s
.57
Using linear interpolation method,
the GHA at the instant of observaton =
= 177 04' 44".1 + (177 08' 06".3 - 177 04' 44".1 + 360) x
= 406.28788 - 360 = 46.28788
Thus,


Page 39 of 74
Local Hour angle at the instant of observation, LHA = GHA - W (The station is at west to Greenwich)
= (46.28788 - 94 10' 08") = - 47.88101 = -47.88101 + 360
= 312.11899
Declination ()of the celestial body at the instant of observation (Implementing linear interpolation)
= - 6 15' 05".9 + ( - 5 51' 54".7 + 6 15' 05".9) x = - 6.00563
Now, using the relation (Equation 26.3), azimuth of the celestial body
Z =
=
= - 57.10487745
Since, LHA is between 180 and 360 and A is negative (Figure Ex 26.1), thus
Azimuth of the body, A = Z + 180 = - 57.10487745 + 180
= 122.8951226 = 122 53' 42 ".44
To explain the field method for sun observation and subsequent computation of
azimuth
Sun Observations (Hour- Angle Method)
Among all the celestial bodies, the sun is the most prominent body that can be observed easily
and accurately. Thus, the sun observation provides surveyors a convenient method for
determination of astronomic azimuth. In the hour-angle method, a horizontal angle from a line to
the sun is measured. Knowing accurate time of the observation and geographic position of the
observation station, the sun's azimuth is computed using the relations of astronomical triangle.
This azimuth and horizontal angle are combined to yield the line's azimuth.
The sun is observed through the telescope fitted with either an eyepiece sun glass or an objective
lens filter. For total stations, an objective lens filter is mandatory (to protect EDMI components).
It is to be noted that the sun's image is large in diameter-approximately 32 min of arc-making


Page 40 of 74
accurate pointing on the center impractical. Thus, in lieu of pointing the centre, observation to the
sun are usually taken with the edges tangential to both the horizontal and vertical cross hairs. It is
usually achieved by allowing sun's trailing edge to move onto the vertical cross hair or the
leading edge is pointed by moving the vertical cross hair forward, until it becomes tangent to the
sun's image.

The field work involved in the determination of azimuth of a line from sun observation consists
of following steps:
1. Carry out temporary adjustment of a theodolite at the observation station with face left
condition.


Page 41 of 74
2. Open the lower plate main screw and swing the telescope to bisect the reference object. Fix the
lower plate main screw and bisect accurately using the lower plate tangent screw. Note down the
horizontal circle reading.
3. Swing the telescope by opening the upper plate main screw. Bring the image of the sun into the
upper left quadrant of the diaphragm (Figure 27.1a). Close the upper plate main screw and then
bring the vertical hair tangent to right limb of the sun using the upper plate tangent screw. As
soon as the lower limb of the sun makes contact with the horizontal hair, the chronometer time is
recorded. Note down the horizontal (as well as vertical, if altitude of the sun is required to be
observed) circle readings.
4. Next, bring the image of the sun into lower right quadrant using the upper and vertical plate
tangent screws. The vertical hair is kept in tangent to left limb of the sun using by the upper plate
tangent screw. As soon as the upper limb of the sun makes contact with the horizontal hair, the
chronometer time is recorded (Figure 27.1b). Note down the horizontal (as well as vertical, if
altitude of the sun is required to be observed) circle readings.
5. Open the upper plate main screw and swing back the telescope to the reference object. Close
the upper plate main screw and bisect the reference object. Note down the horizontal circle
reading.
6. Change the face left of the instrument into the face right condition and repeat step 2 with the
instrument in face right condition.
7. Swing the telescope by opening the upper plate main screw. Bring the image of the sun into the
upper right quadrant of the diaphragm (Figure 27.1c). Close the upper plate main screw and then
bring the vertical hair tangent to left limb of the sun using the upper plate tangent screw. As soon
as the lower limb of the sun makes contact with the horizontal hair, the chronometer time is
recorded. Note down the horizontal (as well as vertical, if altitude of the sun is required to be
observed) circle readings.

Figure 27.1 (c) Position of the sun during celestial observation


Page 42 of 74
8. Next, bring the image of the sun into lower left quadrant using the upper and vertical plate
tangent screws. The vertical hair is kept in tangent to right limb of the sun using the upper plate
tangent screw. As soon as the upper limb of the sun makes contact with the horizontal hair, the
chronometer time is recorded (Figure 27.1d). Note down the horizontal (as well as vertical, if
altitude of the sun is required to be observed) circle readings.
9. Repeat step 5.
Thus, a set of observation is to be taken. It consists of four instants of time and four horizontal
circle readings (and four vertical circle readings). An azimuth of the line AZL should be
computed for each pointing on the sun.
For any field observation, it may consist of one or more sets, but a minimum of three sets is
recommended.

Figure 27.1 (d) Position of the sun during celestial observation
Errors and Correction
The errors involved in determining a line's azimuth can be divided into two categories: (I)
measuring horizontal angles from a line to the sun and (2) errors in determining the sun's azimuth.
Except when pointing on the sun, errors in horizontal angles are similar to any other field angle.
Since, the observations are taken at the edges of the sun, a correction for semi-diameter is
required. The correction (C) to be applied to the measured horizontal angles is:
C = sec


Page 43 of 74
where is the (correct) altitude of the sun and is the semi-diameter of the sun (can be
obtained from star almanac).
The width of a theodolite cross hair is approximately 2 or 3 arc-sec. With practice, the sun's edge,
particularly the trailing one, can be pointed to within this width. In many instances, pointing the
sun may introduce a smaller error than pointing the backsight mark.
Total error in the sun's azimuth is a function of errors in obtaining UTI time, and scaling latitude
and longitude. The magnitude these errors contribute to total error which is a function of the
observer's latitude, declination of the sun, and time from local noon .
Since errors in scaling latitude and longitude are constant for all data sets of an observation, each
computed azimuth of the sun contains a constant error. Errors in time affect azimuth in a similar
manner. Consequently, increasing the number of data sets does not appreciably reduce the sun's
azimuth error. The increase can, however, improve horizontal angle accuracy and therefore have
a desirable effect.
After azimuths of the line have been computed, they are compared and, if found within
acceptable limits, averaged. Azimuths computed with telescope direct and telescope reversed
should be compared independently. Systematic instrument errors and use of an objective lens
filter can cause a significant difference between the two. An equal number of direct and reverse
azimuths should be averaged.
An alternate calculation procedure averages times and angles, or points on opposite edges of the
sun and averages to eliminate semi-diameter corrections. Due to the sun traveling on an apparent
curved path and its changing semi-diameter correction with altitude, this procedure usually
introduces a significant error in azimuth. Also, it does not provide a good check on the final
azimuth.
Determination of the altitude of the sun
The altitude of the sun can be computed from astronomical triangle (Figure 26.3) using the
relation


Page 44 of 74

h = sin
-1
(sin sin + cos cos cos LHA) --------------------- Equation (27.1)
The altitude of the sun can also be obtained from the observation of the sun by taking
the vertical angle measurement along with horizontal angle. In this case, the
observations need to be updated with the following corrections:
(a) Correction for refraction: Mean value of refraction (r
0
) based on observed altitude is
available from star almanac. A table for modification factor (f), depending on the
temperature and pressure during observation, is also available in star almanac. Thus,
Correction for refraction from star almanac is C
r
= r
o
. Other wise, can be computed
using C
r
= -58
"
cos . It is always subtractive from the observed altitude.
(b) Correction for parallax: A correction strictly needs to be applied for the Sun's parallax,
which will suffice to be considered as 0.1 for all altitudes less than 70. Otherwise, it
may be computed using
C
p
= +8.8
2
cos
The correction for parallax is to be added always to the observed altitude.
(c) Correction for semi-diameter
=


Page 45 of 74
The correction is + for the lower limb and - for the upper limb.
Ex27-1 On September 29, 2003 the sun was observed on the rooftop of Geomatics Engineering section of
I.I.T. Roorkee having geographical location (Latitude 29 50' 44'.83 and Longitude 77 54' 00.39). The
observation was recorded as follows: Temp 14 C and pressure = 969 millibars.
Horizontal Angle
Time
Vernier A Vernier B
Vernier C and D
Observation
to
Face
Hr ' " ' "

' " ' "
R.O L
99 17 40 17 40

L 10 04 36 59 05 40 05 20 22 37 00 37 20

L 10 05 58 58 50 40 50 40 22 33 20 33 20

R 10 07 49 238 10 20 10 20 22 30 20 30 40

R 10 08 32 237 10 40 10 20 22 25 20 25 40
R.O R 279 18 20 18 20
Find out the azimuth of the line joining the station and reference object.

Figure Example 27.1


Page 46 of 74
Solution : Refer figure 26.3
The latitude () of the station = 29 51' 44. 83
The longitude () of the station =77 54' 00. 39
The date of observation September 29, 2003.
To determine the azimuth of the line joining the observation station and the reference object, say AZ.
Let as consider observation with face left condition of the instrument.
The time of observation, UTI = 10
h
04
m
36
s

Then, GHA = UTI+ R (Exess)
From star almanac, R on September 29 (2003) at 10
h
04
m
36
s

= 0
h
30
m
21.7
s
+ 41.3
s
= 0
h
31
m
3.01
s

GHA = 0
h
31
m
3.01
s
+ 10
h
04
m
3.01
s

=10
h
35
m
39.01
s

Thus, LHA = GHA +
= 10
h
35
m
39.01
s
+77 54' 00.39 = 236 48' 45".54
From star almanac, apparent declination of the sum, (at the instant of observation) = S 2 15' 30" + 3' 54"
= S 2 19' 24"
Now, from equation 26.3

Since the sun was observed in the afternoon, it was observed in western hemisphere.
Thus, azimuth of the sun = 360 - 74 09' 54.34


Page 47 of 74
= 285 50' 05.65
From, the observation of vertical angle, the apparent altitude (' )of the sun = 22 37' 10
Parallax corection = + 8.8" cos '
= + 8.8" cos 22 37' 10" = + 8".123
Semi diameter = + = + 16'.0 (from star almanac)
The mean refraction error (r
o
) = 139"
As temperature and pressure during observation are 14 C and 969 millibar, the factor for refraction
correction, f = 0.95 (From star almanac).
Thus refraction correction = - 139" x 0.95
= - 132".05 = -2' 12"
Therefore, The altitude of the sun
= 22 37' 10" + 0 16'.0 + 0 0' 8".123 - 0 2' 12"
= 22 51' 06".123
Thus, horizontal angle of the sun = observed horizontal angle of the sun - Semi diameter correction
= 59 05' 40" - sec
= 59 05' 40" - 17' 21".4589 = 58 48' 18".54
Therefore, The horizontal angle between the sun and the R.O.
HA = 99 17' 40" - 58 48' 10".54 = 40 29' 29".46 (Left)
The azimuth of the line joining the station and the reference object = Azimuth of the sun + HA
= 285 50' 05".65 + 40 29' 29".46 = 326 19' 35".11
Ex.27-1 At a place having geographic location (Latitude () = 37 57' 23" N and Longitude () = 91 46' 35"
W) the polaris has been observed to find the azimuth of a R.O (Reference object) as follows:


Page 48 of 74
Time Horizonatal Angle
Points Face
Hr ' " ' " Set
R.O. L 0 0 08.2
Remarks
Polaris L 2 16 21.5 94 35 02.3 GHA =163 05' 46".1
Polaris R 2 19 36.1 274 35 18.5 24
h
=164 04' 58".6 I
R.O R 180 00 03.4
R.O L 60 03 20.7 Declination at
P L 2 28 10.0 154 39 11.9 0
h
=89 12' 14".98
P R 2 30 14.4 334 39 24.7 24
h
=89 12' 14".63
II
R.O R 240 03 16.4
R.O L 120 06 44.5
P L 2 41 57.6 214 43 52.2
P R 2 44 18.9 394 44 08.1
III
R.O R 300 06 39.6
Compute the azimuth of the R.O
ANS
Direct Reverse
Set

' "

' "
Average
I 264 26 55 264 26 48.7
II 264 26 54.7 264 26 48.3
III 264 26 55 264 26 48.7
264 26' 51".4

Introduction
The photogrammetry has been derived from three Greek words:
o Photos: means light
o Gramma: means something drawn or written
o Metron: means to measure
This definition, over the years, has been enhanced to include interpretation as well as
measurement with photographs
Definition

The art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the
environment through process of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images and
patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and phenomenon (American Society of
Photogrammetry, Slama).


Page 49 of 74
Originally photogrammetry was considered as the science of analysing only photographs.
But now it also includes analysis of other records as well, such as radiated acoustical
energy patterns and magnetic phenomenon.
Definition of photogrammetry includes two areas:

1) Metric
It involves making precise measurements from photos and other information source to determine,
in general, relative location of points. Most common application: preparation of plannimetric and
topographic maps.

Interpretative:
It involves recognition and identification of objects and judging their significance through careful
and systematic analysis. It includes photographic interpretation which is the study of
photographic images. It also includes interpretation of images acquired in Remote Sensing using
photographic images, MSS, Infrared, TIR, SLAR etc.
Definitions
Aerial Photogrammetry
Photographs of terrain in an area are taken by a precision photogrammetric camera mounted in an
aircraft flying over an area

Terrestrial Photogrammetry
Photographs of terrain in an area are taken from fixed and usually known position or near the
ground and with the camera axis horizontal or nearly so.

Photo-interpretation
Aerial/terrestrial photographs are used to evaluate, analyse, and classify and interpret images of
objects which can be seen on the photographs

Applications of photogrammetry
Photogrammetry has been used in several areas. The following description give an overview of
various applications areas of photogrammetry (Rampal, 1982)
(1) Geology:
Structural geology, investigation of water resources, analysis of thermal patterns on earth's
surface, geomorphological studies including investigations of shore features

engineering geology
stratigraphics studies
general geologic applications
study of luminescence phenomenon
recording and analysis of catastrophic events
earthquakes, floods, and eruption.


Page 50 of 74
Forestry
Timber inventories, cover maps, acreage studies
Agriculture
Soil type, soil conservation, crop planting, crop disease, crop-acreage.
Design and construction
Data needed for site and route studies specifically for alternate schemes for photogrammetry.
Used in design and construction of dams, bridges, transmission lines
Planning of cities and highways
New highway locations, detailed design of construction contracts, planning of civic
improvements
Cadastre
Cadastral problems such as determination of land lines for assessment of taxes. Large scale
cadastral maps are prepared for reapportionment of land.
Environmental Studies
Land-use studies
Exploration
To identify and zero down to areas for various exploratory jobs such as oil or mineral exploration.

Military intelligence
Reconnaissance for deployment of forces, planning manoeuvres, assessing effects of operation,
initiating problems related to topography, terrain conditions or works.

Medicine and surgery
Stereoscopic measurements on human body, X-ray photogrammetry in location of foreign
material in body and location and examinations of fractures and grooves, biostereometrics.

Miscellaneous
Crime detection, traffic studies, oceanography, meteorological observation, Architectural and
archaeological surveys, contouring beef cattle for animal husbandry etc
Categories of photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is divided into different categories according to the types of
photographs or sensing system used or the manner of their use as given below:
On the basis of orientation of camera axis

Terrestrial or ground photogrammetry
When the photographs are obtained from the ground station with camera axis horizontal or nearly
horizontal

Aerial photogrammetry
If the photographs are obtained from an airborne vehicle. The photographs are called vertical if
the camera axis is truly vertical or if the tilt of the camera axis is less than 3
o
. If tilt is more than
(often given intentionally), the photographs are called oblique photographs

On the basis of sensor system used:


Page 51 of 74
Following names are popularly used to indicate type of sensor system used in recording imagery.
Radargrammetry: Radar sensor
X-ray photogrammetry: X-ray sensor
Hologrammetry: Holographs
Cine photogrammetry: motion pictures
Infrared or colour photogrammetry: infrared or colour photographs
On the basis of principle of recreating geometry

When single photographs are used with the stereoscopic effect, if any, it is called monoscopic
photogrammetry. If two overlapping photographs are used to generate three dimensional view to
create relief model, it is called stereophotogrammetry. It is the most popular and widely used
form of photogrammetry

On the basis of procedure involved for reducing the data from photographs

Three types of photogrammetry are possible under this classification
Instrumental or analogue photogrammetry
It involves photogrammetric instruments to carry out tasks.
Semi-analytical or analytical
Analytical photogrammetry solves problems by establishing mathematical relationship between
coordinates on photographic image and real world objects. Semi-analytical approach is hybrid
approach using instrumental as well analytical principles
Digital Photogrammetry or softcopy photogrammetry
It uses digital image processing principle and analytical photogrammetry tools to carry out
photogrammetric operation on digital imagery

On the basis of platforms on which the sensor is mounted

If the sensing system is spaceborne, it is called space photogrammetry, satellite photogrammetry
or extra-terrestrial photogrammetry

Out of various types of the photogrammetry, the most commonly used forms are
stereophotogrammetry utilizing a pair of vertical aerial photographs (stereopair) or terrestrial
photogrammetry using a terrestrial stereopair.

Classification of Photographs
The following paragraphs give details of classification of photographs used in different
applications

) On the basis of the alignment of optical axis

A) Vertical : If optical axis of the camera is held in a vertical or nearly vertical position.


Page 52 of 74

(b) Tilted : An unintentional and unavoidable inclination of the optical axis from vertical
produces a tilted photograph.
(c) Oblique : Photograph taken with the optical axis intentionally inclined to the vertical.
Following are different types of oblique photographs

(i) High oblique: Oblique which contains the apparent horizon of the earth.
(ii) Low oblique: Apparent horizon does not appear.
(iii) Trimetrogon: Combination of a vertical and two oblique photographs in which the central
photo is vertical and side ones are oblique. Mainly used for reconnaissance.
(iv) Convergent: A pair of low obliques taken in sequence along a flight line in such a manner
that both the photographs cover essentially the same area with their axes tilted at a fixed
inclination from the vertical in opposite directions in the direction of flight line so that the
forward exposure of the first station forms a stereo-pair with the backward exposure of the next
station.

1.Comparison of photographs

2). On the basis of the scale

(a) Small scale - 1 : 30000 to 1 : 250000, used for rigorous mapping of undeveloped terrain and
reconnaissance of vast areas.
(b) Medium scale - 1 : 5000 to 1 : 30000, used for reconnaissance, preliminary survey and
intelligence purpose.
(c) Large scale - 1 : 1000 to 1 : 5000, used for engineering survey, exploring mines.

3). On the basis of angle of coverage
The angle of coverage is defined as the angle, the diagonal of the negative format subtends at the
real node of the lens of the apex angle of the cone of rays passing through the front nodal point of
the lens

Name Coverage angle Format size
(cm)
Focal length
(cm)
Standard or normal angle 60
o
(i) 18
(ii) 23
(i) 21
(ii) 30
Wide angle 90
o
(i) 18
(ii) 23
(i) 11.5
(ii) 15
Super wide or ultra wide angle 120
o
(i) 18
(ii) 23
(i) 7
(ii) 8.8
Type of photo Vertical
Low oblique
High oblique
Characteristics Tilt < 3
o
Horizon does not appear Horizon appears
Coverage Least Less Greatest
Area Rectangular Trapezoidal Trapezoidal
Scale Uniform if flat Decreases from foreground
to background
Decreases from foreground
to background
Difference with map Least Less Greatest
Advantage Easiest to map - Economical and illustrative


Page 53 of 74
Narrow angle < 60
o

Information recorded on photographs

The following information is recorded on a typical aerial photograph

1. Fiducial marks for determination of principal points.
2. Altimeter recording to find flying height at the moment of exposure.
3. Watch recording giving the time of exposure.
4. Level bubble recording indicating tilt of camera axis.
5. Principal distance for determining the scale of photograph.
6. Number of photograph, the strip and specification no. for easy handling and indexing.
7. Number of camera to obtain camera calibration report.
Date of photograph

Figure 1: Typical aerial photograph

Types of projections


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1. Parallel : The projecting rays are parallel.
2. Orthogonal : Projecting rays are perpendicular to plane of projection. This is a special
case of parallel projection. Maps are orthogonal projection. The advantage of this
projection is that the distances, angles, and areas in plane are independent of elevation
differences of objects.
Central : Central projection is the starting point for all photogrammetry. In this projection rays
pass through a point called the projection center or perspective center. The image projected by a
lens system is treated as central projection although in strictest senses it is not so.

Introductory definitions for photographs
Vertical photograph
A photograph taken with the optical axis coinciding with direction of gravity.

Tilted or near vertical
Photograph taken with optical axis unintentionally tilted from vertical by a small amount (usually
<3)
Focal length (f)
Distance from front nodal point to the plane of the photograph (from near nodal point to image
plane).
Exposure station (point L)
Position of frontal nodal point at the instant of exposure (L)
Flying height (H)
Elevation of exposure station above sea level or above selected datum

Figure 3: Aerial photographs showing various elements as defined
(a) Elements of vertical photograph (b) Section of imaging geometry showing various elements


Page 55 of 74

X-axis of photo
Line on photo between opposite collimation marks, which most nearly parallels the flight
direction

Y-axis
Line normal to x-axis and join opposite collimation marks

Principal point (o)
The point where the perpendicular dropped from the front nodal point strikes the photograph or
the point in which camera axis pierces the image plane.

Camera axis
It is a ray of light incident at front nodal point in the object space and at right angles to the image
plane.
Fiducial marks or collimation marks
Index marks usually four in number, rigidly connected with the camera lens through the camera
body and forming images on the photographs to which the position on the photograph can be
referred

Photographs center
The geometrical center of the photograph as defined by the intersection of the lines joining the
fiducial marks.
Format
It is the planar dimension of photograph (9" x 9", 7" x 7", 23 cm x 23 cm, 18 cm x 18 cm, 15 cm
x 15 cm).
Photogram
Photograph taken with a photogrammetric camera having fixed distance between negative plane
and lens and equipped with fiducial or collimating marks. For photograms the bundle of rays on
the object side at the moment of exposure can be reproduced. To achieve this the following data
known as the elements of interior orientation must be known:
Calibrated focal length
Lens distortion data
Location of the principal point with reference to the photograph center (normally these two
coincide)

Hence, a photogram is a photograph with known interior orientation
Difference between near vertical photographs and map

1. Production : Quickest possible and most economical method of obtaining information
about areas of interest. Boon for difficult areas. Enlarging and reducing easier in case of
photographs than maps.


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2. Content : Map gives an abstract representation of surface with a selection from nearly
infinite number of features on ground. Photograph shows images of surface itself. Maps
often represent non-visible phenomenon (like text) This may make interpretation difficult
for photograph. Special films like color and infrared films can bring about special
features of terrain.
3. Metric accuracy: Map is geometrically correct representation, photos are generally not.
Maps are orthogonal projections, photo is central projection. Map has same scale
throughout photo has variable scale. Bearing on photographs may not be true.
Training requirement: A little training and familiarity with the particular legend used in the map
enables proper use of map. Photo-interpretation requires special training although initially it may
appear quite simple as it gives a faithful representation of ground.

Stereoscopic vision

Method of judging depth may be classified as stereoscopic or monoscopic.
Persons with normal vision are said to have binocular vision. They can view with both
eyes simultaneously. These persons are said to have stereoscopic viewing
The term monocular vision is applied to viewing with one eye only.

Depth perception
Monoscopic viewing provides only rough depth impression which is based on the
following clues:
o Relative size of objects
o Hidden objects
o Shadows
o Differences in focussing of eye required for viewing objects at varying distances.
For stereoscopic depth perception usually two clues are involved
o Double image phenomenon.
o Relative convergence of optical axis of two eyes.
The human eye functions in a similar manner to a camera. The lens of the eye is biconvex
in shape and is composed of refractive transparent medium. The separation between eyes
is fixed (called eye base). Therefore, in order to satisfy the lens formula for varying
object distance, the focal length of eye lens changes. For example, when a distant object
is seen, the lens muscle relax, causing the spherical surface of the lens to become flatter.
This increases the focal length to satisfy the lens formula and accommodate the long
object distance. When close objects are viewed, a reverse phenomenon happens. The
eye's ability to focus varying object distance is called accommodation.
The figure shows two situations where eyes separated by eye base (b) are focussing on
two objects A and B located at two distances d
A
and d
B
respectively.
In binocular vision, there is convergence of axes of eyes when focusing at point A and B.
The corresponding angles are1 and 2. Angle1 tells the mind that object A is distance
d
A
. Similarly for point B. These angle are called parallactic angles for points. The nearer


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the object, the greater the parallactic angle and vice versa. Difference ( 1 - 2 ) tells the
mind that the distance (depth) between two points ise = d
B
- d
A
.
For average separation of eye and distinct vision of about 10 inch, the limiting upper value of
16. Lower limiting value of ranges from 10 to 20 seconds and represents a distance of
about 1700 to 1500 ft for average eye separation. It is called stereoscopic acuity of the person.

Figure 1: Binocular vision (Wolf and Dewitt, 2000)
To understand the stereoscopic vision by viewing photographs, let us replace the eyes by two
cameras and take photographs as shown in figure 2 assuming that the photographic plates are
between the objects and lenses. If these photographs could be placed in the same position and
seen with both eyes, one would get the same depth. Since it is not possible to keep eyes at such a
wide separation (called air base B), a scaled version is shown in figure (ii) where camera position
are replaced by a scaled down geometrical arrangement (eyes separated by eye base-b
e
), the two
images are fused and the brain perceives the scaled down depth between objects.


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Figure 2: Stereoscopic vision (i) object imaged with cameras (ii) scaled down version with eyes

Stereoscope
If two photographs taken from two exposure stations L1 and L2 are laid on table so that
left photograph is seen by left eye and the right photo is seen with right eye, a 3D-model
is obtained. However, viewing in this arrangement is quite difficult due to following
reasons:
o Eye strain and focusing difficulty due to close range.
o There is disparity in viewing. The eyes are focused at short range on photos lying
on table where as the brain perceives parallactic angles which tends to form the
stereoscopic model at some depth below the table.
By using stereoscope, these problems can be alleviated. Different types of stereoscopes are
available for different purposes - from pocket (inexpensive) for viewing small area to mirror
(expensive) for viewing larger area.

Figure 3: Photograph showing mirror stereoscope (Wolf and Dewitt, 2000)


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Figure 4: Principle of stereoscope (Wolf and Dewitt, 2000) (a) pocket (b) mirror

Conditions of good stereo viewing

1. The two images must be obtained from two different positions of the camera.
2. The left photo and right photo should be presented to the left and right eye in the same
order.
3. Photographs of the object should be obtained from nearly the same distance, i.e. scales of
the two adjacent photographs should be nearly same. Normal eye can accommodate 5 to
15% variations in scale of photograph.
4. During stereovision, keep the area under vision in near vertical epipolar planes as far as
possible. The plane containing optical centers for eyes (S
1
S
2
), object point A and
corresponding images a and a' on left and right photographs respectively is called the
epipolar plane. Thus camera axes should be approximately in one plane, though the eyes
can accommodate the differences to a limited degree. The term epipolar planes is used if
it refers to eyes; the term basal planes is used if it refers to cameras.
5. For a good stereovision, the pair of photos should be in the same orientation with each
other as they were at the time of photography.
6. The brightness of both the photographs should be similar.


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The ratio B/H should be appropriate. If this ratio is too small say smaller than 0.02, we can obtain
the fusion of two pictures, but the depth impression will not be stronger than if only one
photograph was used. The ideal value of B/H is not known, but is probably not far from 0.25. In
photogrammetry values up to 2.0 are used.

Geometry of overlapping vertical photos

Figure 5 shows two photographs taken from two exposure stations L
1
(left) and L
2

(right). Ground point A appears in these two photos at a and a' in left and right photos.
The image coordinates of these photo points a and a' are (x
a
, y
a
) and (x'
a
, y'
a
)
respectively.
A pair of vertical photographs which have some common area imaged is known as a stereopair.
This stereopair can be used for estimation of depth by measurement of parallax which will
explained next.

Figure 5: Geometry of overlapping vertical photos

Figure 6: A stereopair

Parallax


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It is the central concept to the geometry of overlapping photographs and is defined as the
apparent shift in the position of a body with respect to a reference point caused by a shift
in the point of observation
In photogrammetry, it refers to the relative difference in position of an image point that appears in
each of the overlapping photo
Absolute Parallax:
Absolute X parallax (P
X
) is given by (x
l
- x
r
), where x
l
and x
r
are x coordinates on left and
right photographs respectively

P
x
= x
l
- x
r

Other names:

X-parallax, horizontal parallax, linear parallax, absolute stereo parallax, or just parallax
For the following photograph pair, the parallax is given as follows.

P
x
= x
b
- (-x
b
' )

It can be noted that the value of parallax has been used with sign

Figure 7: Parallax in photograph pair

Parallax and its relation to height

From figure 5, the absolute parallax P
A
at point A is given as follows where B is air base.

Similarly for another point B, we can write


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Height differences between two points ( dh BA = h B - h A ) is given by:

dP
BA
= P
B
- P
A
is the difference in absolute parallaxes between two points. Above equation can be
modified to give

where dp
BA
= p
B
- p
A
is the difference in parallax bar readings between two points. Thus the
above equation says that dPBA = dpBA under the assumption that flying height for both photographs
is same (i.e. H1 = H2 = H) and photograph is truly vertical.
It may, however, be noted that for a given point, there may be parallax in both directions
X and Y. The Y-parallax is caused due to the following reasons:
o Unequal flying height
o Photographic tilt
o Misalignment of flight line
o Misalignment of stereoscope
Great difference in parallax between adjacent images (in highly mountainous/rugged terrain)

Other forms of parallax equation

If the principal point are assumed to have same elevation as known point A, then the parallax of
principal point is the same as the parallax of point A i.e. P
A
= b
m
, the mean principal base. Using
this assumption

d
p
= absolute parallax of unknown point - absolute parallax of known point

If dp is small then

Some other forms of parallax equation are given in adjacent formats


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Sources of errors in using parallax equation

Locating and marking the flight line on photo.
Orientation of stereopair for parallax measurement.
Parallax and photo co-ordinate measurements.
Shrinkage and expansion of photographs.
Unequal flying height.
Tilted photo.
Error in ground control.
Camera lens distortion, atmospheric refraction etc

Measurement with Parallax bar and floating marks

From the parallax equation, we note that
o parallax of any point is directly related to its elevation
o parallax is greater for point which are higher in elevation
If we could measure the parallax of the point, its height could be measured easily.
Unfortunately there is no device for this. However, difference in absolute parallaxes
which can be related to height differences. Therefore, if the elevation of one point is
known, the elevation of other point can be measured.
Parallax bar (figure 8) or stereometer is used to measure the difference in parallaxes between
corresponding points on stereopair which have been oriented as they were at the time of
photography


Page 64 of 74

Figure 8: Parallax bar (Wolf and Dewitt, 2000
If the two photographs are placed in a properly oriented position (this process is known
as base lining) on a table and viewed through stereoscope, the distances between
corresponding (conjugate) points on left and right photos can be measured by parallax bar
in terms of parallax bar reading. The difference between two measured distances will
provide parallax differences between two points. The measurement by stereometer is
called parallax bar reading.
While measuring the parallax, the stereometer uses the principle of floating mark.
Floating mark is used to carry out quantitative measurements on stereo photographs. It is
made up of two identical half marks or dots which are placed over conjugate images on
the two overlapping photographs
The dots may be black circular spots or crosses (etched on two clear glass plates), for
example parallax bars used with stereoscopes or many stereoplotters. The dots may also
be luminous circular spots, crosses or annuli which are used in stereoplotters,
stereocomparators and particularly the digital image display.
The floating marks are placed on the photographs such that the right mark is on the right
photo and the left mark is on the left photo.
Within a stereomodel, the floating mark will appear to lie on the surface of the terrain
(fused form) when the dots are placed exactly on conjugate or corresponding images.
If the dots are moved slightly closer together, the floating mark will appear to rise or float
off the surface.


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If the mark floats too far above the surface then stereofusion will be broken because the
eyes can not accommodate the range in convergence, and a double image of the terrain
will result
If the dots are moved slightly apart the floating mark will split into two separate dots as
the brain of the observer can not imagine seeing the floating mark beneath the surface
Again if the dots are moved too far apart a double image of the terrain will result.

Figure 9: Floating mark

Base lining
In order to get fused 3D images, the orientation relationship between the two photographs
and stereoscopic lenses should be same as that between the photographed ground and the
camera lenses at the time of photography. Base lining is the process to achieve such
orientation. The step by step procedure to achieve base lining is as follows:
o Find out the photographic center of the first photograph by joining the opposite
fiducial marks and getting the intersecting lines. Let it be A. Mark a
corresponding point A' on the other photo of the stereopair.
o Find the photograph center of the second photo B and locate corresponding point
B' on the first photograph of the stereopair.
o J oin A, B' to get AB' and B and A' to get BA'.
o Fix a white sheet (called the base sheet) on table and draw a straight line on this
sheet in the middle.
o Set up stereoscope on this sheet such that the line is midway between stereoscope
legs.
o Put the first photograph in such a way that the line AB' coincides with the line on
the base sheet.


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o Now by trial and error, and viewing through the stereoscope, put the second
photograph (right photograph) in such a way that the image of point A coincides
with A' and B coincides with B' i.e line AB' coincides with A'B.
o This arrangement will give 3D view of stereopair.
o Now with the help of stereometer, the floating mark of left plate is put over a
well defined point on the left photograph. Now by giving lateral and longitudinal
motion to the other plate (with the help of stereometer drum), we try to bring the
floating mark of other glass plate on the corresponding point of second
photograph. When the images of left and right floating marks are fused, the
reading on the parallax bar can be recorded as the parallax bar reading for that
point.
Operations with EDMI Measurement with EDMI involves four basic steps:
(a)Setup
(b)Aim
(c)Measure
(d) Record
Setting up: The instrument is centered over a station by means of tribrach or by mounting
over a compatible theodolite. Reflector prisms are set over the remote station either on
tribrach or on a prism pole. Observations related to height or instrument and prism are
recorded. These are usually kept the same to avoid any additional corrections.
Aiming: The instrument is aimed at prisms by using sighting devices or theodolite
telescope. Slow motion screws are used to intersect the prism centre. Some kind of
electronic sound or beeping signal helps the user to indicate the status of centering.
Measurement: The operator presses the measure button to record the slope distance which
is displayed on LCD panel.
Recording: The information on LCD panel can be recored manually or automatically. All
meteorological parameters are also recorded.
Error sources in EDMI
The fundamental distance measured by EDMI can be put into the following generalized form:

M integerambiguity
wavelengthofmodulationwave
measuredphasedifference
n
g
grouprefractiveindex
V
0
velocityofEMRinvacuum
K
1
scaleerror
K
2
zeroerror
K
3
cyclic error


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Measurement with EDMI has the following error sources which have to be accounted for while
reporting the distance (Kennie and Petrie, 1990):
i)Instrumentoperationerrors
One has to be careful for
precise centering at the master and slave station
pointing/sighting of reflector
entry of correct values of prevailing atmospheric conditions
(ii)AtmosphericerrorsMeteorological conditions (temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.) have to be
taken into account to correct for the systematic error arising due to this. These errors can be
removed by applying an appropriate atmospheric correction model that takes care of different
meteorological parameters from the standard (nominal) one.
(iii)Instrumenterror:
Consists of three components - scale error, zero error and cyclic error. These are systematic in
nature.

Control
A control network is the framework of survey stations whose coordinates have been precisely
determined and are often considered definitive. The stations are the reference monuments, to
which other survey work of a lesser quality is related. By its nature, a control survey needs to be
precise, complete and reliable and it must be possible to show that these qualities have been
achieved. This is done by using equipment of proven precision, with methods that satisfy the
principles and data processing that not only computes the correct values but gives numerical
measures of their precision and reliability.
Since care needs to be taken over the provision of control, then it must be planned to ensure that it
achieves the numerically stated objectives of precision and reliability. It must also be complete as
it will be needed for all related and dependent survey work. Other survey works that may use the
control will usually be less precise but of greater quantity. Examples are setting out for
earthworks on a construction site, detail surveys of a greenfield site or of an as-built development
and monitoring many points on a structure suspected of undergoing deformation.


Page 68 of 74
The practice of using a control framework as a basis for further survey operations is often called
working from the whole to the part. If it becomes necessary to work outside the control
framework then it must be extended to cover the increased area of operations. Failure to do so
will degrade the accuracy of later survey work even if the quality of survey observations is
maintained.
For operations other than setting out, it is not strictly necessary to observe the control before other
survey work. The observations may be concurrent or even consecutive. However, the control
survey must be fully computed before any other work is made to depend upon it.

BASIC MEASUREMENTS

Surveying is concerned with the fixing of position whether it be control points or points of
topographic detail and, as such, requires some form of reference system.
The physical surface of the Earth, on which the actual survey measurements are carried out, is not
mathematically definable. It cannot therefore be used as a reference datum on which to compute
position. Alternatively, consider a level surface at all points normal to the direction of gravity.
Such a surface would be closed and could be formed to fit the mean position of the oceans,
assuming them to be free from all external forces, such as tides, currents, winds, etc. This surface
is called the geoid and is defined as the equipotential surface that most closely approximates to
mean sea level in the open oceans.An equipotential surface is one from which it would require the
same amount of work to move a given mass to infinity no matter from which point on the surface
one started. Equipotential surfaces are surfaces of equal potential; they are not surfaces of equal
gravity. The most significant aspect of an equipotential surface going through an observer is that
survey instruments are set up relative to it. That is, their vertical axes are in the direction of the
force of gravity at that point. A level or equipotential surface through a point is normal, i.e. at
right angles, to the direction of gravity. Indeed, the points surveyed on the physical surface of the
Earth are frequently reduced, initially, to their equivalent position on the geoid by projection
along their gravity vectors.
The reduced level or elevation of a point is its height above or below the geoid as measured in the
direction of its gravity vector, or plumb line, and is most commonly referred to as its height above
or below mean sea level (MSL). This assumes that the geoid passes through local MSL, which is
acceptable for most practical purposes. However, due to variations in the mass distribution within


Page 69 of 74
the Earth, the geoid, which although very smooth is still an irregular surface and so cannot be
used to locate position mathematically.
The simplest mathematically definable figure which fits the shape of the geoid best is an ellipsoid
formed by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis. Where this shape is used by a country as the
surface for its mapping system, it is termed the reference ellipsoid. Figure 1.1 illustrates the
relationship between these surfaces.
The majority of engineering surveys are carried out in areas of limited extent, in which case the
reference surface may be taken as a tangent plane to the geoid and the principles of plane
surveying applied. In other words, the curvature of the Earth is ignored and all points on the
physical surface are orthogonally projected onto a flat plane as illustrated in Figure 1.2. For areas
less than 10 km square the assumption of a flat Earth is perfectly acceptable when one considers
that in a triangle of approximately 200km2, the difference between the sum of the spherical
angles and the plane angles would be 1 second of arc, or that the difference in length
of an arc of approximately 20 km on the Earths surface and its equivalent chord length is a mere
8 mm.
The above assumptions of a flat Earth, while acceptable for some positional applications, are not
acceptable for finding elevations, as the geoid deviates from the tangent plane by about 80 mm at
1 km or 8 m at 10 km from the point of contact. Elevations are therefore referred to the geoid, at
least theoretically, but usually to MSL practically.

Fig. 1.3 Basic measurements
to several kilometres with millimetre precision, depending on the distance measured; lasers and
northseeking gyroscopes are virtually standard equipment for tunnel surveys; orbiting satellites
are being used for position fixing offshore as well as on; continued improvement in aerial and
terrestrial photogrammetric and scanning equipment makes mass data capture technology an
invaluable surveying tool; finally, data loggers and computers enable the most sophisticated
procedures to be adopted in the processing and automatic plotting of field data.


Page 70 of 74

CONTROL NETWORKS

The establishment of two- or three-dimensional control networks is the most fundamental
operation in the surveying of large or small areas of land. Control networks comprise a series of
points or positions which are spatially located for the purpose of topographic surveying, for the
control of supplementary points, or dimensional control on site.
The process involved in carrying out the surveying of an area, the capture and processing of the
field data, and the subsequent production of a plan or map, will now be outlined briefly.
The first and obvious step is to know the purpose and nature of the project for which the surveys
are required in order to assess the accuracy specifications, the type of equipment required and the
surveying processes involved.
For example, a major construction project may require structures, etc., to be set out to
subcentimetre accuracy, in which case the control surveys will be required to an even greater
accuracy. Earthwork volumes may be estimated from the final plans, hence contours made need
to be plotted at 2 m intervals or less.
If a plan scale of 1/500 is adopted, then a plotting accuracy of 0.5 mm would represent 0.25 m on
the ground, thus indicating the accuracy of the final process of topographic surveying from the
supplementary control and implying major control to a greater accuracy. The location of
topographic data may be done using total stations, GPS satellites, or, depending on the extent of
the area, aerial photogrammetry. The cost of a photogrammetric survey is closely linked to the
contour interval required and the extent of the area. Thus, the accuracy of the control network
would define the quality of the equipment and the number of observations required.
The duration of the project will affect the design of survey stations required for the control points.
A project of limited duration may only require a long, stout wooden peg, driven well into solid,
reliable ground and surrounded by a small amount of concrete. A fine nail in the top defines the
geometrical position to be located.
The next stage of the process is a detailed reconnaissance of the area in order to establish the best
positions for the control points.
Initially, data from all possible sources should be studied before venturing into the field. Such
data would comprise existing maps and plans, aerial photographs and any previous surveying data
of that area.


Page 71 of 74
Longitudinal sections may be drawn from the map contours to ensure that lines of sight between
control points are well above ground level and so free of shimmer or refraction effects. If the
surveys are to be connected into the national surveys of the country (Ordnance Survey National
Grid in the UK), then the position of as many national survey points as possible, such as (in the
UK) those on the GPS Active or Passive Network, should be located. These studies, very often
referred to as the paper survey, should then be followed up with a detailed field reconnaissance.
This latter process locates all existing control in the area of interest, both local and national, and
establishes the final positions for all the new control required. These final positions should be
chosen to ensure clear, uninterrupted lines of sight and the best observing positions. The location
of these points, and the type of terrain involved, would then influence the method of survey to be
used to locate their spatial position.

Fig. 1.4 Control points

Figure 1.4 indicates control points A, B, , F, in the area to be surveyed. It is required to obtain
the coordinate positions of each point. This could be done using any of the following methods:
(a) Intersection or resection
(b) Traversing
(c) Networks
(d) GPS satellites


Page 72 of 74

Fig. 1.5 A network
Figure 1.5 illustrates possible lines of sight. All the horizontal angles shown would be measured
to the required accuracy to give the shape of the network. At least one side would need to be
measured, say AB, to give the scale or size of the network. By measuring a check baseline, say
ED, and comparing it with its value, computed through the network, the scale error could be
assessed. This form of survey is classical triangulation and although forming the basis of the
national maps of many countries, is now regarded as obsolete because of the need for lines of
sight between adjacent points. Such control would now be done with GPS.
If the lengths of all the sides were measured in the same triangular configuration without the
angles, this technique would be called trilateration. Although giving excellent control over scale
error, swing errors may occur. For local precise control surveys the modern practice therefore is
to use a combination of angles and distance. Measuring every angle and every distance, including
check sights wherever possible, would give a very strong network indeed. Using sophisticated
least squares software it is now possible to optimize the observation process to achieve the
accuracies required.
Probably the most favoured simple method of locating the relative coordinate positions of control
points in engineering and construction is traversing. Figure 1.6 illustrates the method of
traversing to locate the same control points A to F. All the adjacent horizontal angles and
distances are measured to the accuracies required, resulting in much less data needed to obtain
coordinate accuracies comparable with the previous methods. Also illustrated are minor or
supplementary control points a, b, c, d, located with lesser accuracy by means of a link traverse.
The field data comprises all the angles as shown plus the horizontal distances Aa, ab, bc, cd, and
dB. The rectangular coordinates of all these points would, of course, be relative to the major
control.


Page 73 of 74
Whilst the methods illustrated above would largely supply a two-dimensional coordinate position,
GPS satellites could be used to provide a three-dimensional position.
All these methods, including the computational processes, are dealt with in later chapters of
this book.

Fig. 1.6 Major traverse A to F. Minor link traverse A to B

LOCATING POSITION

Establishing control networks and their subsequent computation leads to an implied rectangular
coordinate system over the area surveyed. The minor control points in particular can now be used
to position topographic data and control the setting out of a construction design.

The methods of topographic survey and dimensional control will most probably be:
(a) by polar coordinates (distance and bearing) using a total station; or
(b) by GPS using kinematic methods.

Considering method (a), a total station would be set up over a control point whose coordinates are
known as a, and back-sighted to another control point b whose coordinates are also known.
Depending on the software on board, the coordinates may be keyed into the total station.
Alternatively, the bearing of the line ab, computed from the coordinates, may be keyed in.
Assuming the topographic position of a road is required, the total station would be sighted to a
corner cube prism fixed to a detail pole held vertically at (P1), the edge of the road as shown in


Page 74 of 74
Figures 1.7 and 1.8. The field data would comprise the horizontal angle baP1(1) and the
horizontal distance D1 (Figure 1.8). Depending on the software being used, the angle 1 would
be used to compute the bearing aP1 relative to ab and, with the horizontal distance D1, compute
the rectangular coordinates of P1 in the established coordinate system. This process is repeated
for the remaining points defining the road edge and any other topographic data within range
of the total station. The whole area would be surveyed in this way by occupying pairs of control
points situated throughout the area.

A further development is the integration of a total station with GPS. This instrument, produced by
Leica Geo systems and called Smart Station, provides the advantages of both the systems (a) and
(b). If using existing control, the local coordinate data is copied into the Smart Station and used in
the usual manner on existing pairs of control points. Where the GPS cannot be used because of
excessive tree cover for instance, then the total station may be used in the usual way.

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