Tacheometric Surveying

STUDY NOTES

Unit - II

Tacheometric is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances

are determined by taking angular observation with an instrument known as a tachometer.
Tacheometric surveying is adopted in rough in rough and difficult terrain where direct
leveling and chaining are either not possible or very tedious. The accuracy attained is
such that under favorable conditions the error will not exceed 1/100. and if the purpose of
a survey does not require accuracy, the method is unexcelled. Tacheometric survey also
can be used for Railways, Roadways, and reservoirs etc. Though not very accurate.
Tacheometric surveying is very rapid, and a reasonable contour map can be prepared for
investigation works within a short time on the basis of such survey.
Uses of Tachometry
Tachometry is used for
preparation of topographic map where both horizontal and vertical distances are
required to be measured;
survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods of measurements are
inconvenient;
reconnaissance survey for highways and railways etc;
Establishment of secondary control points.
Instruments used in tachometric surveying
An ordinary transits theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally used for
tacheometric surveying. The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair
above and the other an equal distance below the horizontal cross hair, the stadia hair
being mounted in the same ring and in the same vertical plane as the horizontal and
vertical cross-hair.
The telescope used in stadia surveying are three kinds,
The Simple external focusing telescope.
The external focusing anal lactic telescope (porro’s telescope).
The internal focusing telescope.
 The first type is known as stadia theodolite, while the second type is known as
tacheometer. The tacheometer has the advantage over the first and third type due to fact
that the additive constant of the instrument is zero.

The instruments employed in tachometry are the engineer's transit and the leveling
rod or stadia rod, the theodolite and the subtense bar, the self- reducing theodolite and the
leveling rod, the distance wedge and the horizontal distance rod, and the reduction
tacheometer and the horizontal distance rod.
Features of tacheometer or Characte ristic of tacheometer

The multiple constant (f/i) should have a normal value of 100 and the error
contained in this value should not exceed 1 in 1000.
The axial horizontal lines should be exactly midway between the other two lines.
The telescope should be fitted with an anallatic lens to make the additive
constant (f + d) exactly to zero.
The telescope should be truly analectic.
The telescope should be powerful having a magnification of 20 to 30
diameters. The Aperture of the object should be 35 to 45 mm in diameter.
Levelling and Stadia Staff Rod
For short distances, ordinary leveling staves are used. The leveling staff normally
4m long, and it can be folded with here parts. The graduations are so marked that a
minimum reading of 0.005 or 0.001m can be taken.
Different systems of Tacheometric Measurement
The various systems of tacheometric survey may be classified as
follows, The Stadia Method
i. Fixed Hair Method and
ii. Movable Hair Method

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 The Tangential System
Measurements by means of special instruments.
The principle is common to all system is to calculate the horizontal distance
between two points A and B their deference in elevation, by observing 1) the
angle at the instrument at A subtended by known short distance a long a staff kept
at B and 2) the vertical angle to B from A
Stadia systems
In this systems staff intercepts, at a pair of stadia hairs present at diaphragm,
are considered. The stadia system consists of two methods:
a) Fixed- hair method and
b) Movable-hair method
Fixed-hair method
In this method, stadia hairs are kept at fixed interval and the staff interval or
intercept (corresponding to the stadia hairs) on the leveling staff varies. Staff intercept
depends upon the distance between the instrument station and the staff.
Movable- hair method
In this method, the staff interval is kept constant by changing the distance
between the stadia hairs. Targets on the staff are fixed at a known interval and the stadia
hairs are adjusted to bisect the upper target at the upper hair and the lower target at the
lower hair. Instruments used in this method are required to have provision for the
measurement of the variable interval between the stadia hairs. As it is inconvenient to
measure the stadia interval accurately, the movable hair method is rarely used.
Non-stadia systems
This method of surveying is primarily based on principles of trigonometry and
thus telescopes without stadia diaphragm are used. This system comprises of two
methods:
(i) Tangential method and
(ii) Subtense bar method.
Tangential method
In this method, readings at two different points on a staff are taken
against the horizontal cross hair and corresponding vertical angles are noted.

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 Subtense bar method.
In this method, a bar of fixed length, called a subtense bar is placed in horizontal
position. The angle subtended by two target points, corresponding to a fixed distance on
the subtense bar, at the instrument station is measured. The horizontal distance between
the subtense bar and the instrument is computed from the known distance between the
targets and the measured horizontal angle.

Principles of Stadia Method

(Figure 23.1) A tacheometer is temporarily adjusted on the station P with
horizontal line of sight. Let a and b be the lower and the upper stadia hairs of the
instrument and their actual vertical separation be designated as i. Let f be the focal length
of the objective lens of the tacheometer and c be horizontal distance between the optical
centre of the objective lens and the vertical axis of the instrument. Let the objective lens
is focused to a staff held vertically at Q, say at horizontal distance D from the instrument
station.

By the laws of optics, the images of readings at A and B of the staff will appear
along the stadia hairs at a and b respectively. Let the staff interval i.e., the difference
between the readings at A and B be designated by s. Similar triangle between the object
and image will form with vertex at the focus of the objective lens (F). Let the ho rizontal
distance of the staff from F be d. Then, from the similar Ds ABF and a' b' F,

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 as a' b' = ab = i. The ratio (f / i) is a constant orf a particular instrument and is

known as stadia interval factor, also instrument constant. It is denoted by K and thus

d = K.s --------------------- Equation (23.1)

The horizontal distance (D) between the center of the instrument and the
station point (Q) at which the staff is held is d + f + c. If C is substituted for (f + c),
then the horizontal distance D from the center of the instrument to the staff is given
by the equation

D = Ks + C ---------------------- Equation (23.2)

The distance C is called the stadia constant. Equation (23.2) is known as the stadia
equation for a line of sight perpendicular to the staff intercept.
Theory of Stadia Tacheometry
The following is the notation used in stadia tacheometry
O = Optical centre of object glass.
A 1, A 2, C = Readings on staff cut by three hairs
a 1, a 2, C = Bottom T op, a nd Central Hair of dia phra gm
a 1 a 2, = i = length of image
A 1, A 2, = S = Staff Intercept
V = Vertical axis of instrument

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 A1

a2
O
i c1 V C S

a1
d A2

v u
D

f =Focal length of a object glass

d =distance between optical centre and vertical axis of instrument
u=distance between optical centre and staff
v=distance between optical centre and image.
For s imilar tria ngles a 1, Oa 2 and A 1 , OA 2,

i v iu
— = — or v= — -----------------------------
(1)
s u s

From the properties of length,

1 1 1
— + — = —
v u f
Putting the value of v in Eq. (2) --------------------
(2)

1 1 1
— +— = —
iu/s u f
Or
s 1 1
— +— = —
iu u f
Or

1 s 1
— {— + 1 } = —

u i f

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 Or
s
u = {— + 1}
fi

But, D = u + d ----------------------------- (3)

s
D = {— + 1} f +
di
s f
— x f + f + d = {— }x s + (f +
d) i i

The quanta ties (f/i) and (f + d) are known as techeometric constants. (f/i) is called
the multiplying constant, as already stated, and (f + d) the additive constant. by adopting
an anal latic lens in the telescope of a tacheometric, the multiplying constant is made 100,
and the additive constant zero. However, in some tacheometers the additive constants are
not exactly zero, but vary from 30 cm to 60 cm
Inclined Stadia Measure ments
It is usual that the line of sight of the tacheometer is inclined to the horizontal.
Thus, it is frequently required to reduce the inclined observations into horizontal distance
and difference in elevation.

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 Let us consider a tacheometer (having constants K and C) is temporarily adjusted
on a station, say P (Figure 23.2). The instrument is sighted to a staff held vertically, say
at Q. Thus, it is required to find the horizontal distance PP1 (= H) and the difference in
elevation P1Q. Let A, R and B be the staff points whose images are formed respectively
at the upper, middle and lower cross hairs of the tacheometer. The line of sight,
corresponding to the middle cross hair, is inclined at an angle of elevation q and thus, the
staff with a line perpendicular to the line of sight. Therefore A'B' = AB cos q = s cos q
where s is the staff intercept AB. The distance D (= OR) is C + K. scos q (from Equation
23.2). But the distance OO1 is the horizontal distance H, which equals OR cos q.
Therefore the horizontal distance H is given by the equation.

H = (Ks cos q + C) cos q

Or H = Ks cos2 q + C cos q ----------------- Equation (23.3)

in which K is the stadia interval factor (f / i), s is the stadia interval, C is the stadia
constant (f + c), and q is the vertical angle of the line of sight read on the vertical circle of
the transit.

The distance RO1, which equals OR sin q, is the vertical distance between the
telescope axis and the middle cross- hair reading. Thus V is given by the equation

V = (K s c os q + c) s in q

V = Ks sin q cos q + C sin q ----------------- Equa tion (23. 4)

-----------------

Equation (23.5)

Thus, the difference in elevation between P and Q is (h + V - r), where h is the

height of the instrument at P and r is the staff reading corresponding to the middle hair.

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Uses of Stadia
The stadia method of surveying is particularly useful for following cases:
1. In differential leveling, the back sight and foresight distances are balanced conveniently
if the level is equipped with stadia hairs.
2. In profile leveling and cross sectioning, stadia is a convenient means of finding distances
from level to points on which rod readings are taken.
3. In rough trigonometric, or indirect, leveling with the transit, the stadia method is more
rapid than any other method.
4. For traverse surveying of low relative accuracy, where only horizontal angles and
distances are required, the stadia method is a useful rapid method.
5. On surveys of low relative accuracy - particularly topographic surveys-where both the
relative location of points in a horizontal plane and the elevation of t hese points are
desired, stadia is useful. The horizontal angles, vertical angles, and the stadia interval are
observed, as each point is sighted; these three observations define the location of the
point sighted.
Errors in Stadia Measurement
Most of the errors associated with stadia measurement are those occur during
observations for horizontal angles (Lesson 22) and differences in elevation (Lesson 16).
Specific sources of errors in horizontal and vertical distances computed from observed
stadia intervals are as follows:
1. Error in Stadia Inte rval factor
This produces a systematic error in distances proportional to the amount of error
in the stadia interval factor.
2. Error in staff graduations
If the spaces on the rod are uniformly too long or too short, a systematic error
proportional to the stadia interval is produced in each distance.
3. Incorrect stadia Inte rval
The stadia interval varies randomly owing to the inability of the instrument
operator to observe the stadia interval exactly. In a series of co nnected observations (as
a traverse) the error may be expected to vary as the square root of the number of sights.
This is the principal error affecting the precisio