Series dc Circuits

EEE 3
A. Nerves

OBJECTIVES
Become familiar with the characteristics of a series circuit and how to solve for the voltage, current, and power to each of the elements. Develop a clear understanding of Kirchhoffs voltage law and how important it is to the analysis of electric circuits. Become aware of how an applied voltage will divide among series components and how to properly apply the voltage divider rule.
2

OBJECTIVES
Understand the use of single- and doublesubscript notation to define the voltage levels of a network. Learn how to use a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter to measure the important quantities of a network.

INTRODUCTION
Two types of current are readily available to the consumer today.
One is direct current (dc), in which ideally the flow of charge (current) does not change in magnitude (or direction) with time. The other is sinusoidal alternating current (ac), in which the flow of charge is continually changing in magnitude (and direction) with time.
4

INTRODUCTION

FIG. 5.1 Introducing the basic components of an electric circuit.

INTRODUCTION

FIG. 5.2 Defining the direction of conventional flow for single-source dc circuits.

FIG. 5.3 Defining the polarity resulting from a conventional current I through a resistive element.

SERIES RESISTORS
Before the series connection is described, first recognize that every fixed resistor has only two terminals to connect in a configurationit is therefore referred to as a two-terminal device.

FIG. 5.4 Series connection of resistors.

SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.5 Configuration in which none of the resistors are in series.

Series Circuits
A series circuit has only one current path.
The current produced by the voltage source has only one path, and that path is through all the components in the circuit.

Series Circuit Resistance Characteristics

The resistance of a series circuit is the sum of all the individual resistances. By formula, RT = R1 + R2 + Rn where RT = the total circuit resistance Rn = the highest numbered resistance in the circuit
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Series Circuit Resistance Characteristics

For the series circuit shown, total circuit resistance is solved as

RT = 10 + 2.2 + 3.3 + 30 = 45.5

11

SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.6 Series connection of resistors for Example 5.1.

FIG. 5.7 Series connection of four resistors of the same value (Example 5.2).

RT 20 230 1200 5600 7.04 k

RT 4 3.3 k 13.2 k
12

SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.8 Two series combinations of the same elements with the same total resistance.

RT 122
13

SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.9 Series combination of resistors for Example 5.3.

FIG. 5.10 Series circuit of Fig. 5.9 redrawn to permit the use of Eq. (5.2): RT = NR.

RT 4.7 k 2.2 k 3 1 k 9.9 k

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SERIES RESISTORS
Analogies One analogy that works well for the series combination of elements is connecting different lengths of rope together to make the rope longer. Adjoining pieces of rope are connected at only one point, satisfying the definition of series elements. Connecting a third rope to the common point would mean that the sections of rope are no longer in a series.
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SERIES RESISTORS
Instrumentation

The total resistance of any configuration can be measured by simply connecting an ohmmeter across the access terminals. Since there is no polarity associated with resistance, either lead can be connected to point a, with the other lead connected to point b.
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SERIES RESISTORS
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.11 Using an ohmmeter to measure the total resistance of a series circuit.

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SERIES CIRCUITS
If we now take an 8.4 V dc supply and connect it in series with the series resistors in Fig. 5.4, we have the series circuit in Fig. 5.12.

FIG. 5.12 Schematic representation for a dc series circuit.

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SERIES CIRCUITS
A circuit is any combination of elements that will result in a continuous flow of charge, or current, through the configuration.

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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.13 Resistance seen at the terminals of a series circuit.

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Finding an Unknown Resistance

By rearranging the RT equation, you can solve for an unknown resistance value. The unknown resistance must equal the difference between total circuit resistance and the sum of the known resistance values.

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Finding an Unknown Resistance

The value of R3 that sets RT to 85 is found as R3 = RT (R1 + R2) = 85 (12 + 33 ) = 40

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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.14 Inserting the polarities across a resistor as determined by the direction of the current.

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Series Circuit Current Characteristics

Since there is only one current path, current at any point in a series circuit is the same as at any other point.

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Solving for Series Circuit Current

The current is a series circuit is determined by two factors:
The total circuit resistance, found as

RT = R1 + R2 + Rn
The total applied voltage (E).

Once these values are known, Ohms law is used to calculate IT. 25

Solving For IT
First solve for RT. RT = 120 + 100 + 30 = 250 Then use RT and Ohms law to solve for IT.

E 120 V IT 480 mA RT 250

26

Setting a Specific Current Value

A variable resistance can be used to set circuit current to specific value. First use Ohms law to solve for the total resistance that will result in the desired circuit current. Then solve for the value of the variable resistance that results in the desired value of RT.
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Setting a Specific Current Value

To adjust IT to 2 A, first solve for RT as
E 120 V RT 60 IT 2A Then solve for R3 as R3 = 60 50 = 10

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Series Circuit Voltage Characteristics

Whenever current passes through any resistance, a voltage is developed. This relationship is expressed as

V IR
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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.15 Series circuit to be investigated in Example 5.4.

FIG. 5.16 Series circuit to be analyzed in Example 5.5.

RT 2 1 5 8 I S 20 V 8 2.5 A V1 2.5 A 2 5 V V2 2.5 A 1 2.5 V V3 2.5 A 5 12.5 V

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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.17 Circuit in Fig. 5.16 redrawn to permit the use of Eq. (5.2).

RT 4 3 (7 ) 25 I S 50 V 25 2 A V2 2A 4 8 V
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SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.18 Series circuit to be analyzed in Example 5.6.

12 k R1 4 k 6 k R1 2 k E 6 mA 12 k 72 V
32

SERIES CIRCUITS
Analogies The analogies used earlier to define the series connection are also excellent for the current of a series circuit. For instance, for the seriesconnected ropes, the stress on each rope is the same as they try to hold the heavy weight. For the water analogy, the flow of water is the same through each section of hose as the water is carried to its destination.
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Series Circuit Voltage Characteristics

The sum of all the component voltages is always equal to the applied voltage in any series circuit. This relationship is expressed as

E VR1 VR 2 .... VRn

Where E = the source voltage VRn = the voltage across the highest numbered component.
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Solving for Applied Voltage

The value of E for this circuit is found as E = 5 V + 12 V + 24 V = 41 V

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SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation Another important concept to remember is:
The insertion of any meter in a circuit will affect the circuit.

Furthermore, it is particularly helpful in the laboratory to realize that the voltages of a circuit can be measured without disturbing (breaking the connections in) the circuit.

36

SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.19 Using voltmeters to measure the voltages across the resistors in Fig. 5.12.

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SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

In general, when using a voltmeter, start with a scale that will ensure that the reading is less than the maximum value of the scale. Then work your way down in scales until the reading with the highest level of precision is obtained.

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SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

Turning our attention to the current of the circuit, we find that using an ammeter to measure the current of a circuit requires that the circuit be broken at some point and the meter inserted in series with the branch in which the current is to be determined.
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SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.20 Measuring the current throughout the series circuit in Fig. 5.12.

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POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT In any electrical system, the power applied will equal the power dissipated or absorbed. For any series circuit, such as that in Fig. 5.21, the power applied by the dc supply must equal that dissipated by the resistive elements.
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POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

FIG. 5.21 Power distribution in a series circuit.

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Series Circuit Power Characteristics

Watts law tells us that P = I2R. The power dissipated by individual resistances in a series circuit is found as PR1 = I2R1, PR2 = I2R2, PR3 = I2R3 etc. And the total power supplied by the source is the sum of the individual power dissipation values. This is expressed as PS = PR1 + PR2 + + PRn
where PS = the total supplied power
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Solving for Total Circuit Power

To solve for PS, first we solve for IT.

E 120 V IT 1.85 A RT 65

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Solving for Total Circuit Power

Now we solve for individual power values
2

PR1 1.85 A 22 75.3 W PR 2 1.85 A 33 113 W PR 3 1.85 A 2 10 34.2 W

And PS is found as PR1 + PR2 + PR3 = 75.3 W + 113 W + 34.2 W = 222.5 W
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POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

RT 1 k 3 k 2 k 6 k I S 36 V 6 k 6 mA V1 6 mA 1 k 6 V V2 6 mA 3 k 18 V V3 6 mA 2 k 12 V PE 36 V 6 mA 216 mW P 1 6 V 6 mA 36 mW P2 6 mA 3 k 108 mW
2

FIG. 5.22 Series circuit to be investigated in Example 5.7.

P3 12 V 2 k 72 mW
2

PE 36 mW 108 mW 72 mW 216 mW (check)

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Series Circuit Analysis

A complete analysis of a series circuit involves the following:
Solve for RT: RT = R1 + R2 + Rn. Solve for IT using E/RT. Solve for individual voltage drops using I R. Solve for individual power values using I2 R Solve for PS using PS = PR1 + PR2 + + PRn.
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48

VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

Voltage sources can be connected in series, to increase or decrease the total voltage applied to a system. The net voltage is determined by summing the sources with the same polarity and subtracting the total of the sources with the opposite polarity. The net polarity is the polarity of the larger sum.
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VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

FIG. 5.23 Reducing series dc voltage sources to a single source. 50

VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

Instrumentation

The connection of batteries in series to obtain a higher voltage is common in much of todays portable electronic equipment.

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VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

Instrumentation

FIG. 5.24 Series connection of dc supplies: (a) four 1.5 V batteries in series to establish a terminal voltage of 6 V; (b) incorrect connections for two series dc supplies; (c) correct connection of two series 52 supplies to establish 60 V at the output terminals.

KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

The law, called Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL), was developed by Gustav Kirchhoff in the mid-1800s. It is a cornerstone of the entire field and, in fact, will never be outdated or replaced.

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KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.26 Applying Kirchhoff s voltage law to a series dc circuit.

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KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

The law specifies that the algebraic sum of the potential rises and drops around a closed path (or closed loop) is zero.

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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

KVL is another way of saying that the sum of the voltage drops equals the applied voltage. The voltage across R1 is found as E VRL = 24 V 6 V = 18 V

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KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.27 Series circuit to be examined in Example 5.8.

FIG. 5.28 Series dc circuit to be analyzed in Example 5.9.

E1 V1 V2 E2 0 V1 16 V 4.2 V 9 V 2.8 V

E V1 V X 0 VX 32 V 12 V 20 V VX V2 V3 0 VX 6 V 14 V 20 V
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KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.29 Combination of voltage sources to be examined in Example 5.10.

25 V V1 15 V 0 V1 40 V V2 20 V 0 V2 20 V

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KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.31 Applying Kirchhoff s voltage law to a circuit in which the polarities have not been provided for one of the voltages (Example 5.12). FIG. 5.30 Series configuration to be examined in Example 5.11.

6 V 14 V VX 2 V 0 VX 18 V

60 V 40V VX 30 V 0 VX 50 V
59

KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

E V3 V2 V1 0 V2 54 V - 18 V - 15 V 21 V I 2 21 V/7 A 3 A R1 18 V/ 3 A 6 R3 15 V/3 A 5

FIG. 5.32 Series configuration to be examined in Example 5.13. 60

Voltage References
The polarity of a voltage must have a reference. Ground is considered to be the zero volt reference for any circuit.

61

Ground as a Common Connection

The ground symbol can also be used in a schematic to show common connections between different points in the circuit. Note that the voltages at A and B are referenced to ground.

62

The Voltage-Divider Relationship

Series circuits are often referred to as voltage dividers. This is because the source voltage is divided among the various components in the form of voltage drops. As you have learned, the sum of the individual component voltage drops equals the source voltage in any series circuit.
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The Voltage-Divider Relationship

Voltage division is illustrated below.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

The previous section demonstrated that the sum of the voltages across the resistors of a series circuit will always equal the applied voltage. It cannot be more or less than that value. The next question is, how will a resistors value affect the voltage across the resistor?
It turns out that the voltage across series resistive elements will divide as the magnitude of the resistance levels.
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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT In other words, in a series resistive circuit, the larger the resistance, the more of the applied voltage it will capture. In addition, the ratio of the voltages across series resistors will be the same as the ratio of their resistance levels.
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Voltage Division Ratio

Voltage is divided among the components in a series circuit based upon the ratio of individual resistance to total resistance. This can be stated mathematically as

VRn R n E RT
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The Voltage-Divider Equation

By rearranging the ratio, we can solve for a given voltage drop if the source voltage, the total resistance, and the value of the individual resistor is know. This equation is known as the voltage divider equation.

Rn VRn E RT

68

Using the Voltage-Divider Equation

VR2 is solved by first solving for RT as RT = 10 + 15 = 25 Now the voltage-divider equation is used

15 VR 2 24 V 14.4V 25
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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

FIG. 5.33 Revealing how the voltage will divide across series resistive elements. 70

VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

FIG. 5.34 The ratio of the resistive values determines the voltage division of a series dc circuit.

FIG. 5.35 The largest of the series resistive elements will capture the major share of the applied voltage.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) The voltage divider rule (VDR) permits the determination of the voltage across a series resistor without first having to determine the current of the circuit. The rule itself can be derived by analyzing the simple series circuit in Fig. 5.36.

FIG. 5.36 Developing the voltage divider rule. 72

VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

The voltage divider rule states that the voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the value of that resistor times the total applied voltage divided by the total resistance of the series configuration.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

FIG. 5.37 Series circuit to be examined using the voltage divider rule in Example 5.15.

R2 3 R1 V2 3V1 64 V V1 20 16 V 20 60 V2 3 (16 V ) 48 V V2 R2 ( E / RT ) 60 (64 V / 80 ) 48 V E 16 V 48 V 64 V (check)

FIG. 5.38 Series circuit to be investigated in Examples 5.16 and 5.17.

RT 2 k 5 k 8 k 15 k V1 2 k 45 V 15 k 6 V V2 8 k 45 V 15 k 24 V R 2 k 5 k 7 k V 7 k 45 V 15 k 21 V

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES CIRCUIT

Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

FIG. 5.40 Designing a voltage divider circuit (Example 5.19).

Given VR1 4VR 2 R1 4 R2 RT R1 R2 5 R2 RT 20 V 4 mA 5 k R2 5 k 5 1 k

FIG. 5.39 Voltage divider action for Example 5.18.

R1 41 k 4 k
75

Vmeter 5.6 V V3 R3 3 k 4V R3 R2 3 k 1.2 k

INTERCHANGING SERIES ELEMENTS

The elements of a series circuit can be interchanged without affecting the total resistance, current, or power to each element.

FIG. 5.41 Series dc circuit with elements to be interchanged.

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INTERCHANGING SERIES ELEMENTS

FIG. 5.42 Circuit in Fig. 5.41 with R2 and R3 interchanged.

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INTERCHANGING SERIES ELEMENTS

FIG. 5.43 Example 5.20.

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INTERCHANGING SERIES ELEMENTS

FIG. 5.44 Redrawing the circuit in Fig. 5.43.

RT 2 (4 ) 7 15 I 37.5 V 15 2.5 A V7 2.5 A 7 17.5 V

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Common Series Circuit Elements

Most practical series circuits contain a source, a load, a switch, and circuit protection (fuse or circuit breaker).

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Measuring Source Voltage

Source voltage is measured by connecting a voltmeter across the source.

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Measuring Load Voltage

Load voltage is measured by connecting a voltmeter across the load.

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Measuring Circuit Current

In order to measure current, the ammeter must be in the current path. One way to do this is to connect the ammeter across an open switch.
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Measuring Circuit Resistance

To measure resistance, the ohmmeter is connected across the component. The power must be disconnected from the component.

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Open Circuit Fault Analysis

When a component opens in a series circuit:
Circuit resistance increases to near infinite ohms. Circuit current drops to zero amps.

This means that the voltage drop across all other components drops to zero volts since VRn = I X Rn.
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Voltage Across an Open

When a component opens, all the source voltage is dropped across the open component.
Since the meter completes the circuit, a small voltage drops across the other components.
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Short-Circuit Fault Symptoms

If a component in a series circuit shorts:
Circuit resistance decreases. Circuit current increases since RT decreases. The fuse or circuit breaker will usually open.

87

Component Aging
Opens and shorts are referred to as catastrophic failures. A stressed or older component may partially fail and affect circuit performance. Circuit measurements may be outside expected values. The circuit may behave erratically. Stressed components may be discolored, cracked, or may have a burned smell.
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Earth versus Chassis Ground

Earth ground makes an electrical connection to the earth. Chassis ground is a common connection between components in a circuit and is the 0 V reference, but is not returned to earth.

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NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground
Except for a few special cases, electrical and electronic systems are grounded for reference and safety purposes. The symbol for the ground connection appears in Fig. 5.45 with its defined potential levelzero volts.

FIG. 5.45 Ground potential.

90

NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground

FIG. 5.46 Three ways to sketch the same series dc circuit.

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NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground

FIG. 5.48 Replacing the notation for a negative dc supply with the standard notation. FIG. 5.47 Replacing the special notation for a dc voltage source with the standard symbol.

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NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground

FIG. 5.49 The expected voltage level at a particular point in a network if the system is functioning properly.

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NOTATION
Double-Subscript Notation The fact that voltage is an across variable and exists between two points has resulted in a double-subscript notation that defines the first subscript as the higher potential.

FIG. 5.50 Defining the sign for double-subscript notation. 94

NOTATION
Double-Subscript Notation

The double-subscript notation Vab specifies point a as the higher potential. If this is not the case, a negative sign must be associated with the magnitude of Vab. In other words, the voltage Vab is the voltage at point a with respect to (w.r.t.) point b.
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NOTATION
Single-Subscript Notation If point b of the notation Vab is specified as ground potential (zero volts), then a singlesubscript notation can be used that provides the voltage at a point with respect to ground.

FIG. 5.51 Defining the use of single-subscript notation for voltage levels.

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NOTATION
General Comments
A particularly useful relationship can now be established that has extensive applications in the analysis of electronic circuits. For the above notational standards, the following relationship exists:

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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.52 Example 5.21.

FIG. 5.53 Example 5.22.

Vab Va Vb 16 V 20 V 4 V

Vab Va Vb Va Vab Vb Va 5 V 4 V 9 V

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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.55 The impact of positive and negative voltages on the total voltage drop. FIG. 5.54 Example 5.23.

Vab Va Vb 20 V (15 V) 35 V
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NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.57 Determining Vb using the defined voltage levels. FIG. 5.56 Example 5.24.

100

NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.58 Review of the potential levels for the circuit in Fig. 5.56.

101

NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.59 Example 5.25.

I 54 V 45 1.2 A Vab (1.2 A )(25 ) 30 V Vcb (1.2 A )( 20 ) 24 V Vc E1 19 V

FIG. 5.60 Determining the total voltage drop across the resistive elements in Fig 5.59.

102

NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.61 Redrawing the circuit in Fig. 5.59 using standard dc voltage supply symbols.

FIG. 5.62 Example 5.26.

E1 E2 19 V 35 V 1.2 A RT 45 Vcb 24 V Vc 19 V

103

Vab 30 V

NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.64 Example 5.27.

FIG. 5.63 Circuit of Fig. 5.62 redrawn.

Vab

2 10 V

V1

42 2 24 V V2 8V 42

4 24 V 16 V

2 35 3 5 10 V 8 V Vb VR 2 VR 3 10 Vb Va Vab E Vab 10 V 2 V 8 V
104

2 V

VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES

When you use a dc supply such as the generator, battery, or supply in Fig. 5.65, you initially assume that it will provide the desired voltage for any resistive load you may hook up to the supply.

FIG. 5.65 (a) Sources of dc voltage; (b) equivalent circuit. 105

VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.66 Demonstrating the effect of changing a load on the terminal voltage of a supply.

106

VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.67 Plotting VL versus IL for the supply in Fig. 5.66.

107

VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.68 Defining the properties of importance for a power supply.

108

VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.69 Ideal supply and its terminal characteristics.

109

VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES

To help us anticipate the expected response of a supply, a defining quantity called voltage regulation (abbreviated VR; often called load regulation on specification sheets) was established. The basic equation in terms of the quantities in Fig. 5.68(a) is the following:

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES

VR

120 V 118 V 100% 1.7% 118 V 120 V 118 V Rint 0.2 10 A 0 A

FIG. 5.70 Terminal characteristics for the supply of Example 5.28.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.71 dc supply with the terminal characteristics of Fig. 5.70. 112

VOLTAGE REGULATION AND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES

FIG. 5.72 Characteristics and equivalent circuit for the supply of Example 5.29.

Given a 60 V supply with VR 2%. 60 V VFL 2% 100% VFL 58.82 V VFL If I FL 10 A, 60 V 58.82 V Rint 0.12 10 A 0A

113

LOADING EFFECTS OF INSTRUMENTS

In the previous section, we learned that power supplies are not the ideal instruments we may have thought they were. The applied load can have an effect on the terminal voltage. Fortunately, since todays supplies have such small load regulation factors, the change in terminal voltage with load can usually be ignored for most applications.
114

LOADING EFFECTS OF INSTRUMENTS

If we now turn our attention to the various meters we use in the lab, we again find that they are not totally ideal:
Whenever you apply a meter to a circuit, you change the circuit and the response of the system. Fortunately, however, for most applications, considering the meters to be ideal is a valid approximation as long as certain factors are considered.

115

LOADING EFFECTS OF INSTRUMENTS

For instance, any ammeter connected in a series circuit will introduce resistance to the series combination that will affect the current and voltages of the configuration. The resistance between the terminals of an ammeter is determined by the chosen scale of the ammeter.
In general, for ammeters, the higher the maximum value of the current for a particular scale, the smaller will the internal resistance be.
116

LOADING EFFECTS OF INSTRUMENTS

FIG. 5.73 Including the effects of the internal resistance of an ammeter: (a) 2 mA scale; (b) 2 A scale. 117

LOADING EFFECTS OF INSTRUMENTS

FIG. 5.74 Applying an ammeter set on the 2 mA scale to a circuit with resistors in the kilohm range: (a) ideal; (b) practical.

118

PROTOBOARDS (BREADBOARDS) At some point in the design of any electrical/electronic system, a prototype must be built and tested. One of the most effective ways to build a testing model is to use the protoboard (in the past most commonly called a breadboard) in Fig. 5.75.
119

PROTOBOARDS (BREADBOARDS)

FIG. 5.75 Protoboard with areas of conductivity defined using two different approaches.

120

PROTOBOARDS (BREADBOARDS)

FIG. 5.76 Two setups for the network in Fig. 5.12 on a protoboard with yellow leads added to each configuration to measure voltage V3 with a voltmeter. 121

APPLICATIONS
Before looking at a few applications, we need to consider a few general characteristics of the series configuration that you should always keep in mind when designing a system. First, and probably the most important, is that if one element of a series combination of elements should fail, it will disrupt the response of all the series elements. If an open circuit occurs, the current will be zero. If a short circuit results, the voltage will increase across the other elements, and the current will increase in magnitude.
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APPLICATIONS
Second, and a thought you should always keep in mind, is that for the same source voltage, the more elements you place in series, the less is the current and the less is the voltage across all the elements of the series combination. Last, and a result discussed in detail in this chapter, is that the current is the same for each element of a series combination, but the voltage across each element is a function of its terminal resistance.
123

APPLICATIONS
Series Control One common use of the series configuration is in setting up a system that ensures that everything is in place before full power is applied.

FIG. 5.77 Series control over an operating system. 124

APPLICATIONS
Holiday Lights In recent years, the small blinking holiday lights with 50 to 100 bulbs on a string have become very popular.

FIG. 5.78 Holiday lights: (a) 50-unit set; (b) bulb construction. 125

APPLICATIONS
Holiday Lights

FIG. 5.79 (a) Single-set wiring diagram; (b) special wiring arrangement; (c) redrawn schematic; (d) special plug and flasher unit. 126

APPLICATIONS
Microwave Oven

FIG. 5.80 Series safety switches in a microwave oven. 127

APPLICATIONS
Series Alarm Circuit

FIG. 5.81 Series alarm circuit.

128