Organizational Behaviour
Organizational Behaviour
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Q. Discuss the meaning and scope of Organizational Behaviour. What
are the contemporary challenges to organizational behavior?
Or
Q. Bring out the meaning of Organizational Behaviour and discuss, in
brief the major challenges to be faced in the field of OB?
Or
Q. Clearly identify and discuss the major contemporary challenged
encountered in the field of Organizational Behaviour?
Ans. Definition : OB is concerned with study of the structure, functioning
and performance of the organizations and the behavior of the groups and
individual within them.
Study of human behaviour, attitude and performance within an
organizational settings, drawing on theory, methods and principles from such
disciplines as psychology, sociology and cultural anthropology to learn about
individual perception, values, learning capabilities and actions while working
with groups and within the total organization; analyzing the external
environment affect on the organization and its human resources, missions,
objectives and strategies
From these definitions we view of OB as :
1. A way of thinking
2. An inter-disciplinary field
3. Having a distinctly humanistic outlook
4. Performance Oriented
5. Seeing the external environment as critical
6. Using scientific method
7. Having an application orientation
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Meaning : Organizational Behaviour is concerned with the understanding
prediction and control of human behaviour in organisations. In other words
organizational behavior is a subset of management activities concerned with
understanding, predicting and influencing individual behaviour in
organizational settings. Organizational behavior attempts to understand
individuals in an organization as a basis of meeting individual need and
achieving organizational objectives.
Organizational behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about
how people as individuals and groups-act within organizations. In other
words, the understanding of organizational behaviour can be used by the
managers in performing their jobs effectively.
Levels of analysis :
1. Individual
2. Team
3. Inter-group
4. Organizational
5. Inter-organizational
6. Societal
7. International
8. Global
Features of Organizational Behaviour
The essential characteristics of organizational behaviour are as follows :
i) An integral part of Management : OB is a part of general management
and not the whole of management. It represents behavioral approach to
management. It is significant to note that because of the importance of
human behaviour in organizations, OB has assumed the status of a
distinct field of study.
ii) A field of study : OB is a field of study backed by a body of theory,
research and application associated with a growing concern for people at
the workplace. Its study helps in understanding the human behaviour in
work organizations.
iii) Inter-disciplinary approach : The field of organizational behaviour is
heavily influenced by several other behavioral sciences and social
sciences.
iv) Levels of Analysis : OB involves three levels of analysis of behaviour-
individual behaviour, group behaviour and behaviour of the organization
itself. It provides a rational thinking about people.
v) Goal-oriented : OB is an action-oriented and goal-directed discipline.
The major goals of organizational behaviour are to understand, explain
and predict human behaviour in the organization.
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vi) Human Tool : OB is a human tool for human benefit. It helps in
understanding and predicting the behaviour of individuals.
vii) Science and Art : OB is both a science as well as an art. The systematic
knowledge about human behaviour is a science and the application of
behavioral knowledge and skills is an Art.
viii) Satisfaction of Employees Needs : OB seeks to fulfill employees needs
and aspirations. Every employee in the organization wants to fulfill his
needs through organizational activities.
Challenges for Organizational Behaviour :
The field of Organizational Behaviour is dynamic and not static.
Behavioral scientists are continuously engaged in updating behavioral skills to
cope up with the emerging changes in the external environment of the
organizations. The major challenges of organizational behaviour are as follows
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Functions: :
The following are the important functions of JMCs :
a. To be consulted on matters like standing orders, retrenchment,
retionalisation, closure, reduction of operations etc.
b. To receive information to discuss and offer suggestions.
c. To shoulder administrative responsibilities like maintaining welfare
measures, safety measures, training schemes, working hours, payment of
rewards etc.
(3) Worker Directors (1970) :
After the nationalisation of banks, the Government advised all
nationalised banks to appoint employee directors to their Boards one
representing employees and the other representing officers having tenure of 3
years.
The scheme required verification of Trade Union Membership,
identification of the representative union and the selection of a worker director
who is chosen out of a panel of three names furnished to the Govt. by the
representative union within a prescribed period.
(4) Shop and Joint Councils (1975 and 1977) :
The 1975 scheme has come into existence after the emergency has
declared in June 1975.It has envisaged the setting up of shops councils at the
shop/departmental level and joint councils at the enterprise level.
These were to be introduced in manufacturing and mining units
employing 500 or more workers whether in public, private or co-operative
sector.
It was decided that the Council shall function for two years and will meet
regularly to discuss matters relating to the following factors:
Safety
Discipline
Physical working conditions
Welfare measures
Productivity norms and targets
Absenteeism
Flow of communications etc.
It was also decided that the joint Council having a tenure of 2 years shall
be constituted for an enterprise consisting of representatives of both the
management and the labour.
The Chief Executive shall be the Chairman of the Council and the
representatives of workers shall nominate the Vice Chairman.
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The Council will meet once in a quarter to discuss matter that remains
unsolved by shop councils including:
Schedules of working hours,
Holidays,
Optimum use of material,
Productivity standards,
Training facilities to develop skills of workers,
Awards to workers for creative suggestions,
General health,
Safety and welfare of workers, etc.
(5) Quality Circles (QC) :
Quality circle is made up of a small group of people belonging to the same
department of an organization, who after receiving training take up solving
quality and productiv ity related problems of their units. In Japan, a QC is a
group of about ten employees within a Single company department. QC is a
good example of group work and WPM to increase the per-capita productivity
and for making better quality and human relations in any work environment.
Q. What do you mean by group? Why people join the groups? What are
the different stages of group formation?
Ans. Meaning : A group consists of two or more persons who interact with
each other, consciously for the achievement of certain common objectives. The
members of group are inter-dependent and are aware that they are part of a
group. They influence and influenced by each other.
Types of Groups : Two types of groups coexist in every organization.
These are:
i) Formal groups
ii) Informal groups.
i) Formal Groups : Such groups are a part of the organizational structure.
They are created by the management to perform the assigned duties. These
groups are characterised by clear-cut-authority-responsibility-relationships.
For eg. Work groups, task force, committee and quality teams etc.
ii) Informal Groups : Informal groups arise spontaneously in the
organization because of social interaction between the people. They are
created by individuals rather than by management. They are based on
common interest, language, taste, caste, religion etc. For eg. Command &
task groups and interest groups and friendship groups etc.
Reasons for formation of groups :
Workers join informal groups for the following reasons :
i) Companionship : The need for relationship with other people is one of
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the strongest and most constant of human drives. One can express his
feelings only through companionship.
ii) Sense of Identification : Workers are more identified in small groups
and so small groups tend to enjoy high morale.
iii) Source of Information : Informal group is a source of information to its
members. Informal communication is very fast Psychological barriers to
communication are also overcome by the group.
iv) Job Satisfaction : The groups solution to a problem may be different
from what management expects and it may even be more efficient. Many
jobs which appear superficially dull and routine are made interesting by
the group.
v) Protection of Members : Groups help to protect their members from
outside pressures. Groups often resist managements demand for
additional output, increased working hours, and higher quality.
vi) Outlet for frustration : An individual may be faced with several
problems relating to his family life and work life. If he shares his feelings
and anscieties with someone, his tension is released to a great extent. The
social relations provide an important outlet for frustration.
vii) Perpetuation of Cultural Values : Sometimes, groups are formed by
individuals belonging to a common cultural background. Such people
can preserve their cultural identity. Maintenance of cultural values will
also provide them psychological satisfaction.
viii) Generation of new ideas : Informal groups are a breeding ground for
new ideas as they provide a supportive environment in which the
members can engage themselves in creative thinking.
Q. What is group cohesiveness? What measures would you suggest to
encourage group cohesiveness?
Or
Q. What do you understand by group cohesiveness? Highlights the
various factors that determine the degree of group cohesiveness?
Ans. Meaning : Group cohesiveness means the degree of attachment of
members of a group. The greater the degree of attachments, the greater is the
likelihood that all the members will conform strictly to the group standards and
greater the likelihood that its leaders will represent the feeling of all members.
Cohesive group are more powerful and are more likely to act in unioson when
their expectation do not come to be realized.
Factors of the group cohesiveness :
1. Nature of Group : Groups are of two types
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a) Heterogeneous group : Whose members have different interest and
background are often less effective in promoting their own interest.
b) Homogeneous group : Whose members are alike on such factor as
age, education, status, experience, background etc. are better when
the task or goal requires mutual co-operation and conflict free
behaviour.
2. Location of group : Location of the group plays an important role in
determining cohesiveness. The member of group are located close together
and are in isolation from other groups they will develop greater
cohesiveness because of constant face-to-face interaction.
3. Size of the group : The effective group is relatively small. Small group
are more closely knitted than large ones. Its members have constant face-
to-face contacts.
4. Status of the group : Status of a group determines major role. A high
status group receives greater loyalty from its members which in turn
makes the group more strong.
5. Autonomy : A group may be dependent or independent of other groups
and thus will have a different structure.
6. Communication : Groups whose members are located close together
and can interact frequently and easily are likely to be more cohesive and
effective than those whose members are scattered. Such group tend to
develop their own language and symbol and codes to communicate with
the group members.
7. Leadership style : The different styles of leadership influence group
cohesiveness differently. An effective leader keeps the members of the
group close together by helping them satisfy their social needs.
8. Outside pressure : Group provide security for the individual member
from pressures from other groups. It may also happen that the group is
unable to bear the excessive pressure and cohesiveness can not be created
to withstand the pressure from outside.
9. Management behaviour : The behaviour of management also has an
influence on the degree of cohesion that exists with in a group. A manager
can build solidarity by rewarding cooperative behaviour. He can utilize
group cohesiveness for achieving the goals of the enterprise if he can
provide good leadership to the group.
Q. Bring out the meaning of Emotional Intelligence and discuss its
essential components and applications?
Or
Q. Explain the concept of Emotional Intelligence and discuss its various
dimensions and importance in the organizational context.
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Ans. Emotional Intelligence is an aggregate of individuals cognition of own
and others emotions, feeling, interpretation and action as per environmental
demand to manipulate the consequence which in turn result in superior
performance and better human relationship.
Emotional Intelligence is a measure of the degree to which a person makes
use of his/her reasoning is the process of emotional responses (both positive &
negative) in a given situation. So having high emotional intelligence does not
mean that the person never panics or loses his/her temper. It does not mean
that he/she brings own feelings under control and channels them into
productive behaviours. The ability to bring out-of-control emotions back into
line results in what earlier generations called emotional maturity.
The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is
the one proposed by Goleman (1995). He viewed emotional intelligence as a
total of personal and social competences. Personal competence determines
how we manage ourselves, whereas social competence determines how we
handle our interpersonal relationships.
Components of Emotional Intelligence :
a) Personal Competence : It comprises of three dimensions of emotional
intelligence such as self-awareness is the ability of an individual to
observe himself and to recognize a feeling as it happens. The hallmarks
of this ability are self-confidence, self-assessment and openness to
positive criticism. Self-regulation is the ability to control emotions and to
redirect those emotions that can have negative impact. Motivation is the
ability to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through self-control and by
modering impulses as per the requirement of the situation. The people
who have this ability are optimistic and committed towards organizational
as well as individual goals.
b) Social Comptence : It comprises of two dimensions namely empathy
and social skills. Empathy is the ability to feel and get concerned for
others, take their perspective and to treat people according to their
emotional reactions. People with this ability are experts in generating and
motivating others. Social skills are the ability to build rapport and to
manage relationships with people. People having this skill are very
effective in team management. Social Skill is the culmination of all other
components of emotional intelligence assuming that people can effectively
manage social and work relationships only when they can understand
and control their own emotion and can emphasize with the feelings of
other
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Golemans emotional intelligence model (1995)
Q. Examine the pros & cons of committee/groups system of decision
making and suggest measures for strengthening they system of
decision-making?
Or
Q. Familarise with some of the modern techniques of group decision-
making?
Ans. Decision-making is an act of choice wherein an individual or a group
selects a particular course of action from the available alternatives in a given
situation. Groups such as committees or task force often play a key role in the
decision making process. Including groups in the decision-making process
has both pros and cons. Manager need to determine the extent to which the
advantage or disadvantage apply to the decision situation. The three guideline
may then be applied to help decide whether group should be included in the
decision-making process.
1. If additional information would increase the quality of the decision,
managers should involve those people who can provide the needed
information.
2. If acceptance is important, managers need to involve those individuals
whose acceptance and commitment are important.
3. If people can be develop through their participation managers may want to
involve those whose development is most important.
Pros/Advantage of group decision-making :
1. Greater pool of knowledge : A group can bring much more information
and experience to bear on a decision then can an individual acting alone or
we can say that the knowledge base of the group is greater which can help
in making better-decisions.
Emotional Intelligence
Personal
Competence
Social
Competence
Self-awareness
Self-regulation
motivation
Empathy
Social Skills
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2. Different perspectives : Individuals with varied experience and
interests helps the group in taking better decisions.
3. Group comprehension : Those who personally experience the give and
task of group discussion about alternative courses of action tend to
understand the rationale behind the final decision.
4. Increase acceptance : Those who play an active role in group decision
making and problem solving tend to view the outcomes as owns rather
than theirs.
5. Training ground : less experienced participants in group action learn
how to cope with group dynamics by actually being involved.
Disadvantage/cons :
1. Social pressure : Pressure to conform may combine to stifle/hinder the
creativity of individual contributors.
2. Minority domination : Sometimes the quality of group is reduced.
3. Log rolling : Political wheeling and dealing can displace sound thinking.
4. Goal displacement : Sometimes secondary consideration such as
argument make a point or getting back at a rival displace solving a
problem.
5. Group think : Sometimes cohesive is group let desire for override sound
judgement when generating & evaluating alternative course of action.
6. Time Consuming : Group decision making is a time consuming process.
Techniques of group-decision making :
Decision making experts have develop three major techniques. These are
1. Brainstorming : Managers are advised to offer four rules when
brainstorming.
i) free wheeling is encouraged : Group members are advised offer all
ideas they have, the wider the better.
ii) Criticism is discouraged : Dont criticize during the initial stage of
idea.
iii) Quality of idea is encouraged : Managers should try to generate
and write down as many ideas as possible.
iv) Combination and improvement of idea : group members advised
to piggy back into ideas of others.
Brainstorming is an effective technique for new idea but not appropriate for
evaluating alternatives or selecting solutions.
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2. The nominal group technique : The nominal group technique reduce
the roadback to group decision making by.
i) Seperating brainstorming from evaluation.
ii) Promoting balanced participation among group members.
iii) Incorporating mathematical voting techniques in order to reach
consensus.
Nominal group technique has been successfully used in many different
decision making situations.
3. The Delphi Technique : The Delphi technique is a group process that
generates ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts. There
are three stages
i) Review the feedback.
ii) Perioritize the issue being considered.
iii) Return the survey with in a specified time period. This cycle is
repeated until the manager obtains the necessary information.
The technique is useful when face to face discussions are impartical, when
group think is a probable outcome of the group process.
Q. Clearly define group dynamics and discuss the guidelines for better
use of group dynamics in present day organizational context.
Ans. Social needs are among the most powerful and compelling on the job
motivating forces. The social process by which people interact face to face in
small group is called group dynamics.
It focuses team work where in small groups are constantly in contact with
each other and share common ideas to accomplish the given tasks. Every
group chooses its leaders, who may effectively coordinate the group efforts
towards the accomplishment of its objectives. In order to be called a group an
aggregation of persons must satisfy the following conditions
i) People must interact with one another.
ii) People must be psychological aware of one another.
iii) People should perceive themselves to be a group.
Importance of group dynamics to the organizations :
1. Filling gap in manager abilities : It helps to may act to fill gap in
managers abilities.
2. Solving work problems : It helps to solving the work problems to the
members. It allow sharing the job knowledge.
3. Better coordination : Informal groups evolve shortcut and eliminate
redtapism. This facilitate smooth flow of information and quick decision
making.
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4. Channel of Communication : These group act to fill up communication
gaps which might arise in the organization. Informal communication cuts
across the hierarchical and departmental boundaries and transmitted
information with greater speed.
5. Restraint on Managers : Informal groups do not allow the managers to
cross their limits.
6. Better relations : A manager can build better relation with his
subordinates through informal contacts.
7. Norms of behaviour Informal groups develop certain norms to
behaviour which differentiate between good and conduct between
legitimate and illegitimate activities.
8. Develop future Executives Informal group recognize talented workers
as their leaders.
Types of Groups :
1. Formal groups : It is defined by Organizational structure with
designated work assignment and establishing task. Features of Formal
groups are:
1. These are part of organizational structure.
2. These are created by the management to perform the assigned duties.
3. The pattern of communication is also defined and rules are laid
down.
Types of formal Groups are :
1. Command groups : It comprises of managers and subordinates
who meet regularly to discuss general and specific ideas to improve
product or service.
2. Task force : It is organizationally determined but it is temporary
group representing the employees who are working together to
complete a job task or particular project.
3. Committees : These are also set up for special projects. These can
be permanent such as planning committee or budget committee.
2. Informal Groups : These are natural formations in the work
environment the appear in response to the common interest of the
organization members. The features are:
These are formed by the members of such groups by themselves
rather than by the management.
These groups arise spontaneously in the organization because of
social interaction between the people.
These are based on common interest, language, taste, caste, religion,
background etc.
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These groups exist outside the formal authorities system.
Types of Informal Groups :
1. Interest and friendship groups : These include close friends and
relation. These are formed because members know each other.
2. Cliques : these groups consist of colleagues and those who commonly
associate with each other.
Q. Define a work-team & distinguish it from a group. Explain briefly the
Chief stages in team development.
Ans. Work teams are created for various purposes and thus face different
challenge. Manager can deal more effectively with those challenges, when they
understand how team differs. A team is a cooperative group whose members
interact with each other towards the accomplishment of specified objectives.
Or
A team may be defined as a group whose members have complementary
skills and are committed to a common purpose or goals for which they hold
themselves mutually accountable.
Team vs. Group
i) Teams are specific kinds of groups, all groups cant be called teams.
ii) In group, work performance primarily depends on the work of individual
members. But performance of a team depends on both individual
contributions and collective efforts of team members.
iii) Not all groups in organizations are teams, but all teams are groups. A
group qualifies a team only if its members focus on helping one another to
accomplish organization objectives.
Stages of team development :
Life Cycle of a group
Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Adjustment
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1. Forming Stage : It involves the initial formation of the group and the
bringing together of a number of individuals who identify, the purpose of
the group, its composition and terms of reference.
2. Storming Stage : As members of the group get to know each other better,
they will put forward their new more openly and forcefully
3. Norming Stage : As conflict and hostility start to be controlled, members
of the group will establish guidelines and standards, and develop some
norms of acceptable behaviour.
4. Performing Stage : The group matures and learns to handle complex
challenges.
5. Adjourning Stage : Even the most successful groups and teams disband
sooner or later. Their breakup is called adjournment.
Q. Explain the concept of Conflict and its approaches?
Or
Q. What is Conflict? Explain its process?
Or
Q. Write a short note on Conflict management?
Ans. Definition of Conflict :
It is any tension which is experienced when one person perceives that
ones needs or desire are or are likely to be thwarted or frustrated.
Eollett simply defines Conflict as, the appearance of difference of
opinions, of interest.
Features :
1. Conflict occurs when individuals are not able to choose among the
available alternatives courses of actions.
2. Conflict between two individuals implies that they have conflicting
perceptions, values and goals.
3. Conflict is a dynamic process as it indicates a series of events. Each
conflict is made up of a series of interlocking conflict episodes.
4. Conflict must be perceived by the parties to it. If no one is aware of a
conflict, then it is generally agreed that no conflict exists.
Levels of Conflict :
1. Intrapersonal conflict :
Some conflicts that affect behavior in organizations involve the individual
alone. It can be of three types :
Approach-approach conflict occurs when a person must choose between
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two positive and equally attractive alternatives. An example is having to
choose between a valued promotion in the organization or a desirable new
job with another firm.
Avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when a person must choose between
two negative and equally unattractive alternatives. An example is being
asked either to accept a job transfer to another town in an undesirable
location or to have ones employment with an organization terminated.
Approach-avoidance conflict occurs when a person must describe to do
something that has both positive and negative consequences. An example
is being offered a higher paying job whose responsibilities entail unwanted
demands on ones personal time.
2. Interpersonal Conflict :
It occurs between two or more individuals who are in opposition to one
another. It may be substantive or emotional or both.
3. Inter-group conflict :
It occurs among members of different teams or groups.
4. Inter-organizational conflict :
It occurs as the competition and rivalry that characterizes firms operating
in the same markets.
The Conflict process :
The process of conflict management has the following steps :
Stage 1 : Potential Opposition or Incompatibility
This stage concludes the conditions that create opportunities for conflict
to arise. The conditions are as follows:
1. Communication :
Communication becomes a source of conflict due to semantic
difficulties, misunderstandings, and noise (distortion) in the
communication channels.
2. Structure :
The term structure includes variables such as size, degree of
specialization, jurisdictional clarity, member-goal compatibility,
leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of dependence.
3. Personal Variables :
Personal Variables include individual value systems and personality
characteristics. Certain personality types lead to potential conflict.
Stage 2 : Cognition and personalization
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Antecedent conditions lead to conflict only when the parties are
affected by and aware of it. Conflict is personalized when it is felt and
when individuals become emotionally involved.
Stage 3 : Intentions
The primary conflict-handling intentions are represented as follows :
Cooperativeness : the degree to which one party attempts to
satisfy the other partys concern.
Assertiveness : the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy
his or her own concerns.
Competing : When one person seeks to satisfy his or her own
interests, regardless of the impact on the other parties to the conflict.
Collaborating : When the parties to conflict each desire to fully
satisfy the concerns of all parties.
Avoiding : A person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to
withdraw from it or suppress it.
Accommodating : When one party seeks to appease an opponent,
that party is willing to be self-sacrificing.
Compromising : When each party to the conflict seeks to give up
something, sharing occurs, resulting in a compromised outcome.
Stage 4 : Behavior
The behavior stage includes the statements, actions and reactions
made by the conflicting parties. These conflict behavior s are usually
overt attempts to implement each partys intentions.
Stage 5 : Outcomes
Outcome may be functional-improving group performance or
dysfunctional.
Functional Outcomes are :
Improves the quality of decisions
Stimulates creativity and innovation.
Encourages interest.
Provides the medium through which problems can be solved and
tensions released.
Dysfunctional Outcomes are :
Undesirable consequences include a retarding of communications.
Reductions in group cohesiveness.
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Conflict Management Approaches :
These are two types of conflict management approaches:
Direct
Indirect
Direct Conflict management approaches :
There are five approaches to direct conflict management. They are based
on the relative emphasis on cooperativeness and assertiveness in the
relationship between the conflicting parties. They are as follows:
Avoidance
Accommodation
Compromise
Competition
Collaboration
Indirect Conflict management approaches :
It includes reduced interdependence, appeals to common goals,
hierarchical referral and alterations in the use of scripts.
Hierarchical referral means conflicts are reported to the senior levels to
solve.
Q. Write a short note on Negotiation?
Or
Q. Explain the process of negotiation?
Ans. It is a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and
attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. There are two general
approaches to negotiation-:
Distributive bargaining
Integrative Bargaining.
1. Distributive Bargaining :
This approach takes when each party holds out to get its own way. This
approach leads to win-lose outcome in which one party dominates and gains.
2. Integrative Bargaining :
This strategy is adopted to create win-win solution. It builds long term
relationship.
Negotiation Process :
1. Preparation and Planning :
At this stage, their should be planning for the negotiation topic.
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2. Definition of Ground Rules :
At this stage, the venue, the negotiators, time will be decided.
3. Clarification and justification :
Their should be explaination and justification by the both parties to
prove themselves.
4. Bargaining and problem solving :
The essence of negotiation process is the actual give and take in
trying to hash out an agreement. Concessions will undoubtly need to
be made by both parties.
5. Implementation :
This is the final step where the agreement is formalized and
procedures to implement agreement will be developed.
Issues in Negotiation :
Gender Differences in Negotiation
Cultural differences in Negotiation
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Q. Discuss the concept of leadership. What are the leadership styles
followed by the managers in the Indian Corporate Sector?
Or
Q. How can you enhance your effectiveness as a leader on the basis of
your knowledge of leadership theories. Explain?
Ans. Leaders have to breakout of old habits and stereotypes to build
organization that continually improve quality and reduce cost to proper in the
turbulent market place. Leaders have to translate vision and aspirations into
new, concrete way of working.
Definitions :
1. A leader is a person who has the ability to get other people to do what they
dont want to do and like it.
2. Leadership is the ability to decide what is to be done and then to get other
to want to do it.
A question arise here Is leadership the same as management.
Differences between management and leadership :
Management administers, the leader innovates.
The manager is copy and leader is original.
The manager maintains and the leader develops.
The manager relies on control but leader inspires trust.
The manager asks how and when the leader asks what and why?
The manager does things right but leader does the right things.
Leadership styles :
1. Supportive leadership : This style show concern for the well being and
personal needs of subordinates.
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2. Directive leadership : This style provide specific guidance for
subordinate by setting standards of performance scheduling and
coordinating work efforts, rules and regulations.
3. Achievement-oriented leadership : This style of leadership involves
setting challenging, goals, seeking improvement performance
emphasizing excellence in performance.
4. Participative leadership : This style solicit suggestions and advice from
subordinates and take this information in to account when making
decision.
Theories of leadership :
1. Leader Orientation : Fielder (1964-97) distinguished two basic leader
orientation.
i) Relationship Orientation : where concern for people is central
ii) Task Orientation : where concern for work accomplishment is most
important.
Leadership orientation is measured by his least preferred co-worker scale.
The leader asked to the person with whom he worked was least preferred
as a co-worker. Then the leader is asked to rate that person on several
bipolar scales.
2. Situation favourability : Three aspect of work situation.
a) Leader-member relation : This refers to the degree of loyalty, trust
and respect that followers hows for leader. If the other are willing to
follow on the basis of loyalty, then the leader has little need to reply on
task structure.
b) Task Structure : This refer to the extent to which task related goals
can be specified, problem can be solved with procedures, decision
correctness can be verified and so forth.
c) Position Power : This refers to the degree to which the leader has
authority to evaluate subordinate performance and to administer
rewards and punishment.
3. The Path-Goal theory of leadership : The path goal theory of leadership
hold that sub-ordinates, satisfaction, and performance depends on their
expectancies and valances in turn on the leader is behaviour of style.
Quality of Leadership :
1. Decision Quality : The quality of decision is highest when the best
alternative is selected, independent of effects that may be associated with
the necessity that the decision be accepted by subordinate.
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2. Decision Acceptance : Decision acceptance is important whenever a
decision has implications for subordinates work motivation and
whenever a decision must be implemented by subordinates.
3. Decision Timeliness : Decision timeliness is an important consideration
whenever time imposes constraints on decision.
Conclusion :
Leadership were concerned with identifying physical, psychological and
intellectual traits that might predict leader effectiveness.
Q. What defines an organizations culture? How does a strong culture
affect an organisations effort to improve diversity?
Or
Q. Explain the meaning and characteristics of organizational culture
and bring out the impact of culture on modern organizations.
Or
Q. Highlight the importance of organizational culture and discuss how
culture can be created and sustained?
Ans. Culture is the set of important understandings that members of a
community share in common. It consists of patterned ways of patterned ways
of thinking, feeling and reacting that are acquired by language and symbols
that create distinctiveness among human groups. A system of shared values is
the building block of culture.
The study of organizational culture is important because of the following
reasons :
1. No organization can operate in isolation to its cultural environment.
2. People in organization come from different cultural backgrounds. They
have different beliefs, customs, preferences etc.
Characteristics of organizational culture :
1. Individual Autonomy : The degree of responsibility and freedom that
individuals in the organization have.
2. Structure : The rules and regulations and the direct supervision that is
used to control employee behaviour.
3. Support : The degree of assistance provided by managers to their
subordinates.
4. Identity : The degree to which members identify with the organization as
a whole rather than with their particular field of work.
5. Performance-reward : The degree to which reward system in the
organization is based on the employee performance criteria.
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6. Conflict tolerance : The degree of conflict present in relationships as
well as the willingness to be honest and open about differences.
7. Risk tolerance : The degree to which employees are encouraged to be
innovative and risk-taking.
Functions of culture :
Cultures serve two critical functions in organizations :
i) Internal integration : means that members develop a collective identity
and know how to work together effectively.
ii) External adaptation : refers to how the organization meets goals and
deals with outsiders.
Impact of Culture on Modern Organizations :
i) Freedom : It represents a basic cultural value that affects work in
modern organizations.
ii) Equality : This value states that all people are equal, having equal rights.
iii) Security : People seek security of job and personal life.
iv) Opportunity : another value that affects people in organization is the
opportunity. People expect many opportunities to climb the ladder in
organization.
Creating and maintaining culture :
Scheins three levels of organization culture
Visible but often
Undecipherable
Greater level
of awareness
Taken for granted
and invisible
Artifacts
Beliefs and
Values
Assumptions
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Q. Organization structure refers to the differentiation and integration
of activities and authority relationship. Explain?
Or
Q. Discuss the steps in organizing and explain the significance of sound
organizational structure?
Ans. An Organization is defined as a group of people working together to
achieve common goals.
Organizational Structure define how job tasks are formally divided,
grouped and coordinated.
Key Elements in designing an organization structure
The building blocks for designing an organization structure consist of six
elements:
Work specialization
Departmentalization
Chain of command
Span of control
Centralization/Decentralization and
Formalization
i) Work Specialization : The degree to which tasks in an organization are
divided into sub-tasks, each of which is performed by an individual
employee, is referred to as work specialization.
ii) Departmentalization : The process in which jobs are grouped together
to bring coordination among the organizational tasks is called
departmentalization. The jobs are grouped on the basis of either function,
product, geography or customers.
iii) Chain of command : It is the unbroken line of authority that extends
from the topmost level to the lowest level of an organization and clarifies
reporting relationship within the organization. According to the concept
of unity of command, an employee should report to not more than on
superior.
iv) Span of control : refers to the ratio of managers to subordinates. The
number of subordinates who are directly under the control of a manager
differs from organization to organization.
v) Centralization/Decentralization : Centralization refers to the
concentration of power and authority at the top most level of the
organization.
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Decentralization means delegation of authority and decision-making
power to different levels of the organization.
vi) Formalization : The degree to which rules and procedures governs the
roles and responsibilities of employees is referred to as formalization. It
helps organizations control the behaviour of employees.
Q. What is work stress management? What are its consequences? How we
can manage it?
Or
Q. Stress management is important concept for an organization.
Explain?
Ans. Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an
opportunity, demand, or resources related to what the individual is confronted
with an opportunity, demand, or related to what the individual desire and for.
Types of Stress :
There are three types of stress :
1. Physical : This happens when the body as a whole suffer due to stressful
situation. There are many symptoms like headaches, tension in the neck,
forehead & shoulder muscles. Long period of stress can cause other
serious symptoms like digestive problem, ulcer, fatigue, high blood
pressure.
2. Emotional : These response are due to stress affecting the mind and
include anxiety (nervousness), anger, depression, frustration, over
reaction to every day problem, memory loss.
3. Psychological : Long term stress can cause psychological problem in
some individuals. Symptoms may include eating disorder, night terrors,
phobias.
The following may be seen to be the potential source of stress :
1. Environmental factor :
a. Environmental uncertainty influences stress levels among
employees in an organization
b. Changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties.
c. Political uncertainities can be stress inducing
d. Technical uncertainities can cause stress.
2. Organizational factor :
a. Pressure to avoid error or complete tasks in a limited time period,
work overload, a demanding & insensitive boss & unpleasant
coworkers are few examples.
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b. Task demand are factors related to persons job. They include the
design of job & working conditions.
Consequences of Stress :
There are three types of symptoms :
1. Physiological symptoms :
a) Most of the early concern with stress was directed at physiological
symptoms due to fact that specialists in health & medical science
researched the topic.
b) It is related to study for OB students.
2. Psychological symptoms :
a) Job related stress can cause job related dissatisfaction.
b) Job dissatisfaction is the simplest & most psychological effect of
stress.
c) The less control people have over the pace of their work, the greater
the stress & dissatisfaction.
3. Behavioral symptoms :
a) Behaviorally related stress symptoms include changes in
productivity, absence & turnover as well as changes in eating habits,
increased smoking or consumption of alcohol etc.
Stress can be managed by two approaches :
1. Individuals approaches :
a) Effective individual strategies include implementing time
management technique, increase physical exercise, relaxation
training & expanding the social support network
b) Practicing time management principles also leaves as an important
element in managing stress, such as making daily lists of activities to
be accomplished, scheduling activities according to the priorties set
etc.
c) Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through
relaxation techniques such as meditation
2. Organizational approaches :
a) Use of realistic goal setting, redesigning of jobs can help in aligning
the individual & job effectively & reduces stress.
b) Training in stress management technique can be helpful.
c) Improvement in communication increases the transparency &
reduces misunderstandings.
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Increased employee involvement improves motivation, morale
commitment & reduction in stress.
We can manage the stress better by following ways :
a) Become aware of the stressors & the emotional & physical reactions.
b) Recognizing what can be changing.
c) Reduce the intensity of the emotional reactions to stress.
d) Learning to moderate our physical reactions to stress.
e) Build our physical reserves.
f) Maintaining our emotional reserves.
Q. What is organizational change? What are the forces of change? How
we can resist to change?
Ans. Organizational change may be defined as the adoption of a new idea or a
behaviour by an organization. It is a way of altering an existing organization to
increase organizational effectiveness for achieving its objectives.
Forces of change
They are of two types :
1. Internal force
2. External force
1. Internal force :
a) Change in the top management leads to change in the system,
structure & processes.
b) Change in the size of the organization leads to change in the internal
structure & complexity of the operations in the organization.
c) Performance gap set targets & actual results is identified,
organizations face the forces to change & reduce the gap.
d) With change needs & values of the employees, organization changes
their policies e.g. attractive financial incentives.
2. External force :
a) Technology changes are responsible for changing the nature of the
job performed at all levels in an organization.
b) Due to Rapid changes in Business scenario with increasing
competition & global economy, the needs & demands are changing
are also changing among the customers & suppliers.
c) Environmental factor such as economic, political & demographic
factor plays a vital role in devising organizational policies &
strategies.
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Resistance to change :
Resistance to change may be of two types :
1. Individual resistance
2. Organizational resistance
1. Individual resistance :
Change leads to insecurity among the employees because f its unknown
consequences. Employees do not know for certain whether the changes will
bring in better prospects. For example because of technological change people
may feel threatened due to the fear of obsolescence of skill, less wages & losing
the job.
2. Organizational resistance :
Changes may bring some potential threat to the organizational power to
some people. Therefore people try to resist change. With this resources also
play a vital role in resistance to change.
Reaction to change :
1. Anger : Sometimes people who view change as having a negative impact n
their personal situation, many times they get anger & stated blaming
others & management.
2. Denial : Sometimes employees deny for something get change in
organization as he does not want & started making excuse.
3. Acceptance : Some employees accept the changes as real & started
adapting themselves in new situation.
Overcoming resistance to change :
1. Education & communication : Open communication & proper
education helps employees to understand the significance of change.
2. Employee participation & involvement : People generally get more
committed towards the change, if they are directly involved in the changes
process.
3. Negotiation & agreement : Changes should be according to the
acceptance of employee & management.
Theories of Change :
1. Force field analysis Theory :
Lewin Proposed three steps in this theory :
Unfreezing
Moving/ Changing
Refreezing
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Unfreezing :
At this stage, the forces which maintains the status quo in the
organizational behavior.
Moving/ Changing :
This stage involves a shift in behavior of organization by modifying system,
process, technology and people.
Refreezing :
At this stage, actions are taken for new change to make it permanent.
2. Action research Model :
This model describes changes in Eight steps :
Problem Identification
Consultation with the expert
Data gathering
Feedback to Client
Joint Diagnosis
Joint Action Planning
Action
Data Gathering after action
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