Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

3 COMPLEX
NUMBERS
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should

understand how quadratic equations lead to complex

numbers and how to plot complex numbers on an Argand
diagram;

be able to relate graphs of polynomials to complex numbers;

be able to do basic arithmetic operations on complex

numbers of the form a + ib ;

understand the polar form [ r, ] of a complex number and its

algebra;

understand Euler's relation and the exponential form of a

complex number re i ;

be able to use de Moivre's theorem;

be able to interpret relationships of complex numbers as loci

in the complex plane.

3.0

Introduction

The history of complex numbers goes back to the ancient

Greeks who decided (but were perplexed) that no number
existed that satisfies
2

x = 1
For example, Diophantus (about 275 AD) attempted to solve
what seems a reasonable problem, namely
'Find the sides of a right-angled triangle of perimeter 12 units
and area 7 squared units.'

Letting AB = x, AC = h as shown,
h

then

a rea =

and

perimeter = x + h + x + h

1
2

xh
2

55

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Activity 1
Show that the two equations above reduce to
2

6x 43x + 84 = 0

when perimeter = 12 and area = 7 . Does this have real solutions?

A similar problem was posed by Cardan in 1545. He tried to

solve the problem of finding two numbers, a and b, whose sum is
10 and whose product is 40;
a + b = 10

(1)

ab = 40

i.e.

(2)

Eliminating b gives
a(10 a) = 40
or

a 10a + 40 = 0 .

Solving this quadratic gives

a=

1
(10 60 ) = 5 15
2

This shows that there are no real solutions, but if it is agreed to

continue using the numbers
a = 5 + 15, b = 5 15
then equations (1) and (2) are satisfied.
Show that equations (1) and (2) are satisfied by these values of x
and y.
So these are solutions of the original problem but they are not real
numbers. Surprisingly, it was not until the nineteenth century that
such solutions were fully understood.
The square root of 1 is denoted by i, so that
i=
and

a = 5 + 15 i , b = 5 15 i

are examples of complex numbers.

56

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Activity 2

The need for complex numbers

Solve if possible, the following quadratic equations by

factorising or by using the quadratic formula. If a solution is not
possible explain why.
(a) x 2 1 = 0

(b) x 2 x 6 = 0

(c) x 2 2x 2 = 0

(d) x 2 2x + 2 = 0

You should have found (a), (b) and (c) straightforward to solve
but in (d) a term appears in the solution which includes the
square root of a negative number and to obtain solutions you
need to use the symbol i = 1 , or

i 2 = 1
It is then possible to obtain a solution to (d) in Activity 2.

Example
x 2 2x + 2 = 0 .

Solve
Solution

Using the quadratic formula

x =

b 4ac

2a

x =

x =

( 2 )

( 2 )2 4 (1) (2 )
2 (1)

4
2

4 =

But

4 ( 1) =

4 1 = 2 1 = 2i

(using the definition of i).

Therefore

x =

2 2i
2

x = 1i

Therefore the two solutions are

x = 1 + i and x = 1 i

57

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Activity 3
Solve the following equations, leaving your answers in terms of i:
2

(a) x + x + 1 = 0

(b)
(d)

(c) x + 1 = 0

3x 4x + 2 = 0

2x 7 = 4x

The set of solutions to a quadratic equation such as

ax + bx + c = 0
2

can be related to the intercepts on the x-axis when the graph of the
function
f ( x ) = ax + bx + c
2

is drawn.

Activity 4

Quadratic graphs

Using a graphics calculator, a graph drawing program on a

computer, a spreadsheet or otherwise, draw the graphs of the
following functions and find a connection between the existence or
not of real solutions to the related quadratic equations.
(a) f ( x ) = x 1

(b) f ( x ) = x x 6

(c) f ( x ) = x 2x 2

(d) f ( x ) = x + x + 1

(e) f ( x ) = 3x 4x + 2

(f) f ( x ) = x + 1

You should have noted that if the graph of the function either
intercepts the x-axis in two places or touches it in one place then
the solutions of the related quadratic equation are real, but if the
graph does not intercept the x-axis then the solutions are complex.
2

If the quadratic equation is expressed as ax + bx + c = 0 , then the

2

expression that determines the type of solution is b 4ac , called

the discriminant.
In a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, if:

b 2 4ac > 0 then solutions are real and different

b 2 4ac = 0 then solutions are real and equal

b 2 4ac < 0 then solutions are complex

58

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

3.1

Complex number algebra

A number such as 3 + 4i is called a complex number. It is the

sum of two terms (each of which may be zero).
The real term (not containing i) is called the real part and the
coefficient of i is the imaginary part. Therefore the real part of
3 + 4i is 3 and the imaginary part is 4.
A number is real when the coefficient of i is zero and is imaginary
when the real part is zero.
e.g. 3 + 0 i = 3 is real and 0 + 4i = 4i is imaginary.
Having introduced a complex number, the ways in which they can
be combined, i.e. addition, multiplication, division etc., need to be
defined. This is termed the algebra of complex numbers. You
will see that, in general, you proceed as in real numbers, but using

i = 1
2

where appropriate.
But first equality of complex numbers must be defined.
If two complex numbers, say
a + bi, c + di

are equal, then both their real and imaginary parts are equal;
a + bi = c + di a = c and b = d

Addition and subtraction

Addition of complex numbers is defined by separately adding real
and imaginary parts; so if

z = a + bi, w = c + di
z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i .

then

Similarly for subtraction.

Example
Express each of the following in the form x + yi.
(a)

(3 + 5i ) + (2 3i )

(b)

(3 + 5i ) + 6

(c) 7i ( 4 + 5i )
59

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Solution
(a)

(3 + 5i ) + (2 3i ) = 3 + 2 + (5 3)i = 5 + 2i

(b)

(3 + 5i ) + 6 = 9 + 5i

(c) 7i ( 4 + 5i ) = 7i 4 5i = 4 + 2i

Multiplication
Multiplication is straightforward provided you remember that

i 2 = 1.

Example
Simplify in the form x + yi :
(a) 3(2 + 4i )
(b)

(5 + 3i )i

(c)

(2 7i )(3 + 4i )

Solution
(a)

3 ( 2 + 4i ) = 3 ( 2 ) + 3 ( 4i ) = 6 + 12i

(b)

(5 + 3i ) i

(c)

(2 7i )(3 + 4i ) = (2 ) (3) ( 7i ) (3) + (2 ) ( 4i ) ( 7i ) ( 4i )

( ) = 5i + (1) 3 = 3 + 5i

= ( 5) i + (3i ) i = 5i + 3 i

= 6 21i + 8i ( 28)
= 6 21i + 8i + 28
= 34 13i

In general, if

z = a + bi , w = c + di ,
then

z w = (a + bi)(c + di)
= a c b d + (a d + b c)i

60

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Activity 5
Simplify the following expressions:
(a) ( 2 + 6i ) + (9 2i )

(b)

(8 3i ) (1 + 5i )

(c) 3 ( 7 3i ) + i ( 2 + 2i )

(d)

(3 + 5i )(1 4i )

(e)

(5 + 12i )(6 + 7i )

(f)

( 2 + i )2

(g)

(h)

(i)

(1 i)3

(j)

(1 + i)2 + (1 i)2

(k) (2 + i) + (2 i)
4

(l)

( a + ib) ( a ib )

Division
The complex conjugate of a complex number is obtained by
changing the sign of the imaginary part. So if z = a + bi , its
complex conjugate, z , is defined by

Note: an alternative notation

often used for the complex
conjugate is z*.

z = a bi
Any complex number a + bi has a complex conjugate a bi
and from Activity 5 it can be seen that ( a + bi )( a bi ) is a real
number. This fact is used in simplifying expressions where the
denominator of a quotient is complex.

Example
Simplify the expressions:
(a)

1
i

(b)

3
1+ i

(c)

4 + 7i
2 + 5i

Solution
To simplify these expressions you multiply the numerator and
denominator of the quotient by the complex conjugate of the
denominator.
(a)

The complex conjugate of i is i , therefore

1 i (1)( i )
i
=
=
=
= i
i i i (i )( i ) ( 1)

(b)

The complex conjugate of 1 + i is 1 i , therefore

3
1+ i

3
1+ i

1 i
1 i

3 (1 i )

(1 + i ) (1 i )

3 3i
2

3
2

2
61

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

The complex conjugate of 2 + 5i is 2 5i therefore

(c)

4 + 7i

2 + 5i

Activity 6

4 + 7i
2 + 5i

2 5i

2 5i

43 6i

29

43

29

29

Division

Simplify to the form a + ib

(a)

4
i

(b)

3.2

1 i
1+ i

(c)

4 + 5i

(d)

6 5i

4i

(1 + 2i )2

Solving equations

Just as you can have equations with real numbers, you can have
equations with complex numbers, as illustrated in the example
below.

Example
Solve each of the following equations for the complex number
z.
(a) 4 + 5i = z (1 i )

(b) (1 + 2 i ) z = 2 + 5i
Solution
(a)

Writing z = x + iy ,
4 + 5i = ( x + y i ) (1 i )
4 + 5i = x 1 + ( y + 1)i
Comparing real parts

4 = x 1, x = 5

Comparing imaginary parts

5 = y +1, y = 4

So z = 5 + 4i . In fact there is no need to introduce the real

and imaginary parts of z, since

4 + 5i = z (1 i )

(b)

z = 4 + 5i + (1 i )

z = 5 + 4i

(1 + 2i ) z = 2 + 5i
z=

62

2 + 5i
1 + 2i

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

z=
z=

2 + 5i
1 + 2i
12 + i
5

1 2i
1 2i

12 1
+ i
5 5

Activity 7
(a) Solve the following equations for real x and y
(i) 3 + 5i + x yi = 6 2i
(ii) x + yi = (1 i)(2 + 8i) .
(b) Determine the complex number z which satisfies
z(3 + 3i) = 2 i .

Exercise 3A
7. Write in the form x + yi :

1. Solve the equations:

(a) x + 9 = 0

(b) 9x + 25 = 0

(c) x + 2 x + 2 = 0

(a)

(d) x + x + 1 = 0

(d)

(e) 2 x + 3x + 2 = 0
2

2. Find the quadratic equation which has roots

(a) (3 + 2i) + (2 + 4i)

(b) (4 + 3i) (2 + 5i)

(c) (4 + 3i) + (4 3i)

(f) (3 + 2i)2

(a)

(d) (2 + 7i) (2 7i)

(e) (3 + 2i)(4 3i)

4 + 3i

(b)

1+ i
1

3 2i

(e)

2 + 3i

(c)

2 i

(f)

4i
2i
p + qi
r + si

8. Simplify:

2 3i .

3. Write the following complex numbers in the

form x + yi .

2 + 3i

(c)

(2 + i)(3 2i)

(b)

1+ i
1
3+i

(1 i)

(2 + i)2

3i

9. Solve for z when

(a) z(2 + i) = 3 2i

(g) (1 + i)(1 i)(2 + i)

4. Find the value of the real number y such that
(3 + 2i)(1 + iy)

(c)

1
z

1
2i

(b) (z + i)(1 i) = 2 + 3i

3
1+ i

10. Find the values of the real numbers x and y in

each of the following:

is (a) real (b) imaginary.

5. Simplify:
(a) i

(b) i

(c)

(d)

6. If z = 1 + 2i , find
(a) z

(b)

1
z

1
i

(e)

1
i

(a)

(b)
(c)

x
1+ i

x
2i

y
1 2i

yi
i+3

=1

2
1+ i

1
z

63

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

11. Given that p and q are real and that 1 + 2i is a

root of the equation

12. The complex numbers u, v and w are related by

1 1 1
= + .
u v w

z 2 + ( p + 5i)z + q(2 i) = 0

Given that v = 3 + 4i, w = 4 3i , find u in the

form x + iy .

determine:
(a) the values of p and q;
(b) the other root of the equation.

3.3

Argand diagram

Any complex number z = a + bi can be represented by an

ordered pair (a, b) and hence plotted on xy-axes with the real
part measured along the x-axis and the imaginary part along the
y-axis. This graphical representation of the complex number
field is called an Argand diagram, named after the Swiss
mathematician Jean Argand (1768-1822).

Example

Imaginary
imaginary
2

Represent the following complex numbers on an Argand

diagram:
(a) z = 3 + 2i

(b) z = 4 5i

(c) z = 2 i

z = 3 + 2i

1
3

1
1

5
real
Real

z = 2 i
2

Solution
The Argand diagram is shown opposite.

3
4
5

Activity 8
Let z 1= 5 + 2i , z 2 = 1 + 3i , z 3 = 2 3i , z 4 = 4 7i .
(a) Plot the complex numbers z 1 , z 2 , z 3 , z 4 on an Argand
diagram and label them.
(b) Plot the complex numbers z 1+ z 2 and z 1 z 2 on the same
Argand diagram. Geometrically, how do the positions of
the numbers z 1+ z 2 and z 1 z 2 relate to z 1 and z 2 ?

64

z = 4 5i

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

3.4

Polar coordinates

Consider the complex number z = 3 + 4 i as represented on an

Argand diagram. The position of A can be expressed as
coordinates (3, 4), the cartesian form, or in terms of the length
and direction of OA.

Imaginary
4

3
2

2
2
Using Pythagoras' theorem, the length of OA = 3 + 4 = 5 .

This is written as z = r = 5 .
absolute value of z.

z is read as the modulus or

Real
O

The angle that OA makes with the positive real axis is

4
= tan 1 = 53.13 (or 0.927 radians) .
3

This is written as arg( z ) = 53.13 . You say arg( z ) is the

argument or phase of z.

(a, b)

The parameters z and arg( z ) are in fact the equivalent of polar

coordinates r, as shown opposite. There is a simple

connection between the polar coordinate form and the cartesian
or rectangular form (a, b):

a = r cos , b = r sin .

Therefore

z = a + bi = r cos + r i sin = r ( cos + i sin )

where z = r, and arg( z ) = .

It is more usual to express the angle in radians. Note also that
it is convention to write the i before sin , i.e. i sin is
preferable to sin i .

In the diagram opposite, the point A could be labelled 2 3, 2

or as 2 3 + 2i .

2.0

The angle that OA makes with the positive x-axis is given by

1.5

1 2
1 1
= tan
= tan
.
2 3
3

Therefore =

or 2 +

or 4 +

1.0
0.5

O
0

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

or ... etc. There is an

6
6
6
infinite number of possible angles. The one you should normally
use is in the interval < , and this is called the principal
argument.
65

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Using polar coordinates the point A could be labelled with its

polar coordinates [ r, ] as 4, . Note the use of squared
6
brackets when using polar coordinates. This is to avoid
confusion with Cartesian coordinates.

Thus 2 3 + 2i = 4 cos + i sin .
6
6

Important note: if you are expressing a + ib in its polar form,

b
is
a
quite sufficient. But in other cases you need to think about the
position of a + ib in the Argand diagram.
where a and b are both positive, then the formula = tan 1

Example
Write z = 1 i in polar form.
Solution
Now z = a + ib where a = 1 and b = 1 and in polar form the
2

modulus of z = z = r = 1 + 1 =
5
4

2 and the argument is

3
(or 225) : its principal value is .
4

3
in polar coordinates. (The formula
Hence z = 2 ,

tan 1 would have given you .)

a
4

2
1 i

1
1
2

Activity 9
(a) Write the following numbers in [ r, ] form:
(i) 7 + 2i

(ii) 3 i

(iii) 4 + 6i

(iv) 3 i

(b) Write the following in a + bi form:

(remember that the angles are in radians)

(i) 3,
4
2
(iv) 2 ,

66

(ii) [ 5, ]

(iii) [6, 4.2 ]

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

3.5

Complex number algebra

You will now investigate the set of complex numbers in the

modulus/argument form, [ r, ] .
Suppose you wish to combine two complex numbers of the form
z1 =

[r , ]
1

z2 =

[r , ]
2

Note that, in a + bi form,

z 1 = r1 cos 1 + i r1 sin 1

and

z 2 = r 2 cos 2 + i r 2 sin 2

So

z 1 z 2 = r1 cos 1 + i r1 sin 1 r2 cos 2 + i r2 sin 2

)(

= r 1 r 2( cos 1 + i sin 1 ) ( cos 2 + i sin 2 )

= r 1 r 2 ( cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 )

+ (sin 1 cos 2 + cos 1 sin 2 )i .

Simplify the expressions in the brackets.

Using the formulae for angles,

z 1 z 2 = r 1 r 2 cos (1 + 2 ) + i sin (1 + 2 )

or, in polar notation

z 1 z 2 = r 1 r 2, 1 + 2 .

For example, [3, 0.5] [ 4, 0.3] = [12, 0.8] .

That is, the first elements of the ordered pairs are multiplied
and the second elements are added.

Activity 10
Given that z 1 = [3, 0. 7] , z 2 = [2, 1.2 ] and z 3 = [ 4, 0.5] ,
(a) find z1 z2 and z1 z3
(b) show that [1, 0 ] z 1= z 1

67

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

(c) (i) find a complex number z = [ r, ] such that

z z 2 = [1, 0 ] .
(ii) find a complex number z = [ r, ] such that
z z 3 = [1, 0 ] .
(d) for any complex number [ r, ] show that
1

, [ r, ] = [1, 0 ]

(r > 0) .

Activity 11
Use a spreadsheet package to plot numbers on an Argand
diagram by entering numbers and formulae into cells A5 to E5
as shown opposite.
Cells D5 and E5 calculate the x and y coordinates respectively
of the complex number whose modulus and argument are in
cells B5 and C5 (the argument is entered as a multiple of ).

= B5* sin(C5* A5)

= B5* cos(C5* A5)
A5

B5 C5

D5

E5

0.25

A second number can be entered in cells B6 and C6 and its (x, y)

coordinates calculated by using appropriate formulae in cells D6
and E6.
This can be repeated for further numbers (the spreadsheet
facility 'FILL DOWN' is useful here).
Use the appropriate facility on your spreadsheet to plot the (x, y)
values.

2
1

Label rows and columns if it makes it easier.

Experiment with different values of r and .
An example is shown in the graph opposite and the related
spreadsheet below.

4 3 2 1
1
2
3
4
5

68

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Exercise 3B
1. Mark on an Argand diagram the points
representing the following numbers:
(a) 2 (b) 3i (c) i (d) 1 + 2i (e) 3 i
(f) 2 + 3i
2. The points A, B, C and D represent the numbers
z 1 , z 2 , z 3, and z 4 and O is the origin.
(a) If OABC is a parallelogram, and z 1 = 1 + i ,

z 2 = 4 + 5i , find z 3 .
(b) Find z 2 and z 4 when ABCD is a square and
(i)

z 1 = 2 + i, z 3 = 6 + 7i

(ii) z 1 = 6 2i, z 3 = 6i
3. Find the modulus and argument of
(b) 1 + 3i

(a) 1 i

(c) 3 3i

(d) 3 + 2i

4. Show that
(a) z = z

(b) arg z = arg z

and illustrate these results on an Argand

diagram.
5. Find the modulus and argument of z 1 , z 2 , z 1 z 2
and

z1
z2

when z 1= 1 + i and z 2 = 3 + i . What do

you notice?

8. In this question, angles are in radians.

(a) (i)

Plot the following complex numbers on

an Argand diagram and label them:

z1 = [ 4,0 ] ,

z 4 = 3, ,
3

z2 = 3, ,

z3 = 2,

5
z5 = 2,
3

(ii) Let the complex number z = 1,

2

Calculate z z1 , z z2 , etc. and plot the

points on the same diagram as in (i).
What do you notice?

(b) Repeat (a) (ii) using z = 1,

3

(c) In general, what happens when a complex

number is multiplied by [1, ] ? Make up some
examples to illustrate your answer.

(d) Repeat (a) (ii) using z = 0.5,

(e) In general, what happens when a complex

number is multiplied by 0.5, ? Make up

some examples to illustrate your answer.

(f) Repeat (e) for 3,

3

6. Write in the form a + bi

(a) 4,
3

(b) 5,
2

(c) 3 2 ,

(d) [ 4, 13 ]

(g) Describe what happens when a complex

number is multiplied by 3, . Make up

3

some examples to illustrate your answer.

7. Write in polar form

(a) 1 + i

(b) 2 + i

(f) 3 4i

3.6

(c) 5

(g) 3 4i

(d) 4i (e) 3 + 4i

(h) 3 + 4i

De Moivre's theorem

An important theorem in complex numbers is named after the

French mathematician, Abraham de Moivre (1667-1754).
Although born in France, he came to England where he made
the acquaintance of Newton and Halley and became a private
teacher of Mathematics. He never obtained the university
position he sought but he did produce a considerable amount of
research, including his work on complex numbers.
69

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

The derivation of de Moivre's theorem now follows.

Consider the complex number z = cos + i sin .

3
3
Then

2
z = cos + i sin cos + i sin

3
3
3
3
= cos 2

= cos

sin 2

2
3

+ i sin

+ 2i cos

sin

2
3

or with the modulus/argument notation

z = 1,
3

2
2
z = 1, 1, = 1,
.
3
3 3

and

Remember that any complex number z = x + y i can be written in

the form of an ordered pair [ r, ] where r = x + y
2

and

y
= tan 1 .
x
If the modulus of the number is 1, then z = cos + i sin

z2 =

and

(cos + i sin )2

= cos 2 sin 2 + 2i cos sin

= cos 2 + i sin 2

z 2 = [1, ] = [1, 2 ] .
2

i.e.

Activity 12
(a) Use the principle that, with the usual notation,

[r 1, 1 ] [r 2, 2 ] = [r 1 r 2, 1 + 2 ]
n

to investigate cos + i sin when n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., 12.

6
6
70

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

(b) In the same way as in (a), investigate

3cos +3i sin

6
6

for n = 0, 1, 2, ..., 6.

You should find from the last activity that

(cos + i sin )n = cos( n ) + i sin( n ) .

n
In [ r, ] form this is [ r, ] = r , n and de Moivre's theorem
n

states that this is true for any rational number n.

A more rigorous way of deriving de Moivre's theorem follows.

Activity 13
Show that ( cos + i sin ) = cos n + i sin n for n = 3 and n = 4 .
n

Activity 14
Show that

(cos k + i sin k )(cos + i sin ) = cos( k + 1) + i sin( k + 1) .

Hence show that if

(cos + i sin )k = cos k + i sin k

then

(cos + i sin )k +1 = cos(( k + 1) ) + i sin(( k + 1) ) .

The principle of mathematical induction will be used to prove

that ( cos + i sin ) = cos( n ) + i sin( n ) for all positive integers.
n

Let S(k) be the statement

' ( cos + i sin ) = cos k + i sin k '.
k

As S(1) is true and you have shown in Activity 14 that S(k)

implies S( k + 1) then S(2) is also true. But then (again by Activity
14) S(3) is true. But then ... Hence S(n) is true for n = 1, 2,3, K .
This is the principle of mathematical induction (which you meet
more fully later in the book). So for all positive integers n,
71

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

(cos + i sin )n = cos n + i sin n

If n is a negative integer, then let m = n

(cos + i sin )n = (cos + i sin ) m =

(cos + i sin )m

where m is positive and, from the work above,

(cos + i sin )m = (cos m + i sin m ) .

Therefore

(cos + i sin )n =

(cos m + i sin m )

Activity 15
Show that
1

(cos m + i sin m )

= cos m i sin m

and hence that ( cos + i sin ) = cos n + i sin n when n is a

negative integer.
n

Hint : multiply top and bottom by ( cos m i sin m ) and use

the

fact that sin( A) = sin( A) .

When n is a rational number, i.e. n =

p
q

where p and q are

integers, then as q is an integer

q

p
p

cos + i sin = ( cos p + i sin p )

q
q

Since p is an integer

cos p + i sin p = ( cos + i sin ) ,

p

and hence
q

p
p

p
cos + i sin = ( cos + i sin )
q
q

72

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

p
p
p

cos + i sin = ( cos + i sin ) q

q
q

Thus

Therefore cos n + i sin n = ( cos + i sin )

number n and clearly this leads to

for any rational

(r (cos + i sin ))n = r n (cos n + i sin n )

3.7

Applications of
de Moivre's theorem

There are many applications of de Moivre's theorem, including

the proof of trigonometric identities.

Example
Prove that cos 3 = cos3 3cos sin 2 .
Solution
By de Moivre's theorem:
cos 3 + i sin 3 = ( cos + i sin )

= cos + 3cos (i sin ) + 3cos (i sin ) + (i sin )

3

= cos3 + 3i cos 2 sin 3cos sin 2 i sin 3

= cos 3cos sin + i (3cos sin sin )
3

Comparing real parts of the equation above you obtain

cos 3 = cos3 3cos sin 2

Example
Simplify the following expression:
cos 2 + i sin 2
cos 3 + i sin 3
Solution
cos 2 + i sin 2
cos 3 + i sin 3

1
(cos + i sin )2
=
3
(cos + i sin ) ( cos + i sin )1

73

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

= ( cos + i sin )

= ( cos( ) + i sin( ))
= cos i sin

Exercise 3C
1. Use de Moivre's theorem to prove the trig
identities:
(a) sin 2 = 2sin cos

3. Simplify the following expressions:

(a)

5
3
2
4
(b) cos5 = cos 10 cos sin + 5cos sin

cos5 + i sin 5
cos2 i sin 2

(b)

cos isin
cos 4 isin 4

2. If z = cos + isin then use de Moivre's theorem to

show that:
(a) z +

1
z

(c) z n +

= 2 cos
1
z

(b) z 2 +

1
z

= 2 cos2

= 2 cos n

Activity 16
Make an educated guess at a complex solution to the equation

= B7 * sin(A5* C7)

z = 1 and then use the facilities of the spreadsheet to raise it to

the power 3 and plot it on the Argand diagram. If it is a solution
of the equation then the resultant point will be plotted at distance
1 unit along the real axis. The initial spreadsheet layout from
Activity 11 can be adapted. In addition, the cells shown opposite
are required.
3

= B7 * cos(A5* C7)
B7 C7

D7

E7

= B5^ 3

What does the long formula in cell C7 do? Is it strictly necessary in

this context?

= C5* 3 - 2 * int ( C5*3 )

2

Below are two examples of the output from a spreadsheet using

these cells the first one is not a cube root of 1 but the second is.

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1

0.5

0.5

0.5

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1

74

0.5

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

3.8

Solutions of z = 1
3

Write down one solution of z 3 = 1.

n=1

De Moivre's theorem can be used to find all the solutions

of z 3 = 1.
Let

z = [ r, ]

then

z = [ r, ] = r ,3
3

and you can express 1 as 1 = [1, 2n ] where n is an integer.

Then

n=2

[r ,3 ] = [1, 2n ]

Therefore

r = 1 and 3 = 2n

i.e.

r = 1 and

2n
3

The solutions are then given by letting n = 0, 1, 2, ...

If n = 0,

z1 = [1, 0 ] = 1

If n = 1,

2
2
2
z2 = 1,
+ i sin
= cos
3
3
3

2
If n = 2,

4
4
4
z3 = 1,
+ i sin
= cos
3
3
3

1
2

What happens if n = 3 , 4, ... ?

Activity 17

Cube roots of unity

Plot the three distinct cube roots of unity on an Argand diagram.

What do you notice?

75

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Activity 18
Use de Moivre's theorem to find all solutions to the following
equations and plot the results on an Argand diagram.
(a) z 4 = 1

3.9

(b) z 3 = 8

(c) z 3 = i

Euler's theorem
x

You have probably already met the series expansion of e ,

namely
e = 1+ x +
x

x2
2!

x3
3!

x4
4!

+K

Also the series expansions for cos and sin are given by
cos = 1

sin =

2
2!

3
3!

4
4!

5
5!

6
6!

7
7!

+K

+K

Activity 19
(a) For each of the following values of , use the series for ex
i
with x replaced by i to calculate (to 4 d.p.) the value of e .
(Write your answer in the form a + bi .)

(i) = 0

(ii) = 1 (iii) = 2

(iv) = 0. 4

(b) Calculate cos and sin for each of the values in (a).
(c) Find a connection between the values of e i , cos and sin
for each of the values of given in (a) and make up one
other example to test your conjecture.
(d) To prove this for all values of , write down the series
i
expansions of e , cos and sin and show that

76

= cos + i sin .

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

The previous activity has shown that

e i = cos + i sin
which is sometimes known as Euler's theorem.
It is an important result, and can be used to derive de Moivre's
theorem in a simple way. If z is any complex number then in
polar form
z = x + yi = r cos + r i sin

= r ( cos + i sin )
i

= re , using Euler's theorem.

( )

= r nen i = r ne

i ( n )

Thus

z n = re i

or

(r cos + ir sin )n = r n (cos(n ) + i sin(n ))

(cos + i sin )n = cos( n ) + i sin( n )

which is de Moivre's theoem.

What assumptions about complex number algebra have been
made in the 'proof' above?
One interesting result can be obtained from Euler's theorem by
putting = . This gives

= cos + i sin
= 1 + i 0 .

So

ei + 1 = 0

This is often referred to as Euler's equation, since it connects

the five most 'famous' numbers
0, 1, , e, i
with a ' + ' and ' = ' sign!
Try substituting other values of in Euler's theorem and see
what equation is derived.

77

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

3.10 Exponential form of a

complex number
When a complex number z has modulus r, which must be nonnegative, and argument , which is usually taken such that it
satisfies < , you have already shown that it can be
represented in the forms
(i)

r ( cos + i sin )

(ii) [ r, ]
(iii) re i
Expression (iii) is referred to as the exponential form of a
complex number.

Activity 20
Write each of the following complex numbers in the exponential
form.

(a) 2 cos + i cos

3
3

2
(b) 5,

(c) 1 i 3

3.11 Solving equations

You have already investigated the solutions of the equation
z 3 = 1 and similar equations using a spreadsheet and by using de
Moivre's theorem. A similar approach will now be used to solve
more complicated equations.

Example
Write down the modulus and argument of the complex number
4 4i.
Solve the equation z 5 = 4 4i , expressing your answers in the
exponential form.
Solution

4 4i =

{4

+ ( 4 )

}=4

As before it is often helpful to make a small sketch of an

Argand diagram to locate the correct quadrant for the argument.
78

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

arg( 4 4i ) =

So

Imaginary
imaginary

Therefore the complex number 4 4i can be expressed as

4

4 2 ,

real
Real

It is quite convenient to work using the polar form of a complex

4 4i

number when solving z = 4 4i.

5

Let z = [ r, ] , then z 5 = r 5 , 5 .
So as to obtain all five roots of the equation, the argument is

considered to be 2n where n is an integer.

4
Equating the results

[r , 5 ] = 4

2 , 2n

r5 = 4 2 r = 2

5 = 2n

= (8n 1)

20

Now choose the five appropriate values of n so that lies

between and .
n = 2

17
20

n = 1

9
20

n=0

20

n =1

7
20

n=2

15
3
or
20
4

The solutions in exponential form are therefore

2e

17 i
20

2e

9 i
20

2e

20

2e 20

and

2e 4 .

79

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Activity 21
Show that 1 + i is a root of the equation z 4 = 4 and find each of
the other roots in the form a + bi where a and b are real.
Plot the roots on an Argand diagram. By considering the
diagonals, or otherwise, show that the points are at the vertices
of a square. Calculate the area of the square.

Activity 22
Given that k 1 and the roots of the equation z 3 = k are ,
and , use the substitution z =

( x 2)
to obtain the roots of the
( x + 1)

equation

( x 2 )3 = k ( x + 1)3

Exercise 3D
1. By using de Moivre's theorem, find all solutions
to the following equations, giving your answers
in polar form. Plot each set of roots on an
Argand diagram and comment on the symmetry.
(a) z 4 = 16

(b) z 3 = 27i

(c) z 5 = 1

1 + 27i ( x + 1) = 0
3

giving your answers in the form a + bi.

5. Solve the equation z 3 = i ( z 1) giving your
3

2. Find the cube roots of

(a) 1 + i

4. Using the results from Question 1(b), solve the

equation

(b) 2i 2

giving your answers in exponential form.

3. Using the answers from Question 1(a), determine
the solutions of the equation

answers in the form a + bi.

Plot the solutions on an Argand diagram and
comment on your results.
6. Determine the four roots of the equation

( z 2 )4 + ( z + 1)4 = 0

( x + 1)4 = 16( x 1)4

giving your answers in the form a + bi.

and plot them on an Argand diagram.

3.12 Loci in the complex plane

Suppose z is allowed to vary in such a way that z 1 = 2. You
could write z = x + i y and obtain

{( x 1)
or
80

+ y2 = 2

( x 1)2 + y 2 = 4

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

You can immediately identify this as the cartesian equation of a

circle centre (1, 0 ) and radius 2. In terms of the complex plane,
the centre is 1 + 0i.

Imaginary

This approach could be adopted for most problems and the

exercise is simply one in algebra, lacking any geometrical feel for
the locus.
Instead, if is a complex number, you can identify z as the
distance of z from the point represented by on the complex
plane. The locus z 1 = 2 can be interpreted as the set of points
that are 2 units from the point 1 + 0i; in other words, a circle
centre 1 + 0i and radius 2.

Real
Imaginary

Activity 23

Real

Illustrate the locus of z in the complex plane if z satisfies

(a)

z (3 + 2i ) = 5

(b)

z 2 + i = 1 + 3i

(c)

z + 2i = 2

(d)

z4 =0

Activity 24
Describe the path of a point which moves in a fixed plane so that
it is always the same distance from two fixed points A and B.
Illustrate the locus of z in the case when z satisfies
z + 3 = z 4i .

You would probably have had some difficulty in writing down a

cartesian equation of the locus in Activity 24, even though you
could describe the locus geometrically.

Activity 25
Describe the locus of z in the case where z moves in such a way
that
z = z + 2 2i .
Now try to write down the cartesian equation of this locus which
should be a straight line.
By writing z = x + i y, try to obtain the same result algebraically.

81

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Activity 26
Investigate the locus of P when P moves in the complex plane
and represents the complex number z which satisfies

z +1 = k z 1
for different values of the real number k.
Why does k = 1 have to be treated as a special case?

Example
The point P represents the complex number z on an Argand
diagram. Describe the locus geometrically and obtain a
cartesian equation for the locus in the cases
(a)

z = z4

(b)

z + z4 =6

(c)

z =2z4

Solution
(a) From your work in Activity 25, you should recognise this
as a straight line. In fact, it is the mediator, or
perpendicular bisector, of the line segment joining the
origin to the point 4 + 0i .

imaginary
Imaginary

It should be immediately obvious that its cartesian equation

is x = 2 ; however, writing

real
Real

z = x + iy
z = x + iy = x 4 + iy
Squaring both sides gives

x 2 + y 2 = ( x 4) + y 2
2

leading to
0 = 8x + 16

or

x = 2.
imaginary
Imaginary

(b) You may be aware of a curve that is traced out when the
sum of the distances from two fixed points is constant. You
could try using a piece of string with its ends fastened to
two fixed points. The curve is called an ellipse.
1

A sketch of the locus is shown opposite.

82

5 Real
real

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

You can obtain a cartesian equation by putting z = x + i y

x + iy + x 4 + iy = 6

(( x 4 )

x 2 + y2 +

So

+ y2 = 6

( x 4)2 + y2 = 6 ( x 2 + y2 )
x 2 8x + 16 + y 2 = 36 12
12

(x

(x

+ y2 + x 2 + y2

+ y 2 = 20 + 8x

(x

+ y 2 = 5 + 2x

9 x 2 + y 2 = 25 + 20x + 4x 2
5x 2 20x + 9y 2 = 25

5( x 2 ) + 9y 2 = 45
2

( x 2 )2
9

y2
=1
5

(c) You should have discovered in Activity 26 that the locus

will be a circle when the relationship is of this form. It is
called the circle of Apollonius.

Imaginary
imaginary

You could possibly sketch the locus without finding the

cartesian equation.
2

z = x + iy

Let

real
Real

x + iy = 2 x 4 + iy

(x

(( x 4 )

+ y2 = 2

+ y2

x 2 + y 2 = 4 x 2 8x + 16 + y 2

0 = 3x 2 + 3y 2 32x + 64
In order to find the centre and radius you can complete the
square
32
64
x 2 + y2
x+
=0
3
3
2

x 16 + y2 = 256 64 = 64

3
9
3
9

Centre of circle is at

16
8
+ 0i and radius is .
3
3
83

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Activity 27
By recognising the locus
z 2 = 3 z 10

as the circle of Apollonius, use the idea of simple ratios to

determine the coordinates of the centre and the radius of the
circle.
Check your answer by finding the cartesian equation of the
circle.

P
Discover the
locus of the
vertex P

45o

Activity 28
By folding a piece of paper, create an angle of 45 and cut it
out. Now mark two fixed points on a piece of paper and
explore the locus of the vertex as you keep the two sides of the
cut-out in contact with the fixed points as shown.
You should find that P moves on the arc of a circle.

fixed
Fixed
point
point

fixed
Fixed
point
point

P2
P1

Alternatively, when you have a circle and two fixed points A

and B, if you choose a sequence of points P1 , P2 , P3 , ... on the
circumference, what do you notice about the angles
AP1B, AP2 B, AP3B, etc.?

P3

A
B

This is an example of the constant angle locus.

Example
The point P represents z in the complex plane. Find the locus of
P in each of the cases below when z satisfies
(a) argz =

5
6

(b) arg( z 2 + 3i ) =

z 1
=
(c) arg
z + 1 4
Solution
(a) The locus is a half-line starting at the origin making an
5
angle with the real axis.
6
84

imaginary

Imaginary

Locus
locus

real
Real

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

(b) The half-line to be considered here is one which starts at the

point 2 3i.
It makes an angle of

below the real axis as shown opposite.

4

Imaginary

Imaginary

Real

Real

(c) You need to make use of the fact that

z 1
arg
= arg( z 1) arg( z + 1)
z + 1

By the results of Activity 28 you can see that the locus of z is

the major arc of a circle passing through 1 + 0i and 1 + 0i.
Since the angle at the centre of the circle is twice that on the
circumference, it can be seen that the centre of the circle is at

One possible solution for z is shown in the second diagram

opposite.

0 + i and hence the radius of the circle is

2 3i

arg (z 1)
arg (z + 1)

imaginary
Imaginary

real
Real

2.

The problem can be tackled algebraically but there are

difficulties that can creep in by assuming

imaginary
Imaginary

y
arg ( x + i y ) = tan 1
x

Nevertheless, you can obtain the cartesian equation of the full

circle of which the locus is only part.
1

z = x + iy

Let

real
Real

x 1+ iy
z 1
= arg
arg

z + 1
x +1+ iy
{( x 1) + i y}{( x + 1) i y}
= arg

( x + 1)2 + y2

x 2 1 + y2 + 2i y
=
= arg
2
2
4
( x + 1) + y

Taking tangents of both sides

2y
=1
x 2 1 + y2

x 2 + y 2 2y = 1
x 2 + ( y 1) = 2
2

from which we see the centre is 0 + i and the radius is

2.

Note: this approach does not indicate whether the locus is the
major or minor arc of the circle and so the first approach is
recommended.
85

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

Exercise 3E
1. Sketch the locus of z described by
(a) z + 3 4i = 5

(b) z + 2 = z 5 + i

(c) z + 3i = 3 z i

(d) z 2 + z 3 + i = 0

2. Describe geometrically and obtain a cartesian

equation for the locus of z in each of the
following cases.

3. Describe geometrically and sketch the region on

the complex plane for which

arg( z 2i )
(b)
(a) 2 < z 3 + i 5
4
3
4. Sketch the loci for which
z + 1 3
(a) arg
=
zi
2

(b) arg( z 2 ) =

(a) z 3 = 100

(b) z 1 + z 4 = 9

(c) arg( z + 2 ) arg( z 3) =

(c) z 1 + z 4 = 5

(d) z 1 z 4 = 1

z 5 + 7i
(d) arg
=
z +1+ i 2

3.13 Miscellaneous Exercises

1. Find the modulus and argument of the complex
numbers

5. Simplify

Given that n is a positive integer, show that

z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 1 3i.

Hence find in the form z = [ r, ] where

< and r > 0 , the complex numbers

(a) z1 z2

(b)

z1
z2

(c)

z2
z1

(d) z12

(e) z2 3

(f)

z12
z2 4

2. Express the numbers 1, 3i, 4, z = 2 + 5i

in the [ r, ] form. Hence express in the [ r, ]
form
(a)

1
z

(b) 3zi

(d) 4z
3. Find
(a)

(c)

4
z

(e)

z
3i

3 +i

(b)

3 +i

3 +i

7. Show that the three roots of z 3 = 1 can be

expressed in the form 1, , 2 .
Hence show that 1 + + 2 = 0.
Using this relation and the fact that 3 = 1,
simplify the following
(a) (1 + )

is

(b)

5
1+

(1 )(1 2 )

(d)

(e) 2

(c) Find the least value of the positive integer n

3 1
+ i, simplify z 2 , z 3 , z 4 and
2
2
illustrate each of these numbers as points on an
Argand diagram.

6. Given that z =

in the form a + bi.

for which

(1 + i ) 4 n (1 i ) 4 n = 0.

(c)

3 + i in the [ r, ] form. Hence find

(1 + i )10 (1 i )10 .

(1 + )

(f)

(1 + )(1 )

2 4

(1 + )

8. The roots of the equation z 2 + 4z + 29 = 0 are z1

and z2 . Show that z1 = z2 and calculate, in
degrees, the argument of z1 and the argument

(i) purely real

of z2 .

(ii) purely imaginary.

In an Argand diagram, O is the origin and z1 and

z2 are represented by the points P and Q.

4. Find in the form a + bi

(a) 1 + 3i

(b)

3 i

10

(c)

(1 i ) 7

by making use of de Moivre's theorem.

86

Calculate the radius of the circle passing

throught the points O, P and Q.
(AEB)

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

9. Sketch on an Argand diagram the loci given by

13. Let z be the complex number 1 + 3 i.

z 1 2i = 5

(a) Express z 2 in the form a + bi.

z 5 + i = z + 3 5i

(b) Find the value of the real number p such that

Show that these loci intersect at the point z1

where z1 = 2 2i, and at a second point z2 . Find
z2 in the form a + bi , where a and b are real.
Express z1 in the form r ( cos + isin ) where
r > 0 and < , giving the value of r and
the value of . Show that z1 is a root of the

equation z + 64 = 0.

z 2 + pz is real.
(c) Find the value of the real number q such that

5
.
(AEB)
6
14. Use the method of mathematical induction to
prove that

(cos + isin )n = cos n + isin n ,

where n is a positive integer.

Express z4 + 64 in the form

(z

)(

+ Az + B z 2 + Cz + D

Deduce that the result is also true when n is a

negative integer.

where A, B, C and D are real, and find these

numbers.
(AEB)
10. (a) Find the modulus and argument of the

2 cos n = z n + z n ,
where z = cos + isin .

cos 4

argument in radians between and .

(b) Find the value of the real number in the
3 + i
is real.
1+ i 3

Show that

By considering z + z 1 , show that

3 +i
complex number
giving the
1+ i 3

case when

Arg z 2 + qz =

Hence evaluate

1
( cos 4 + 4 cos2 + 3).
8

(AEB)

(a) Show the complex number u on an Argand

diagram.

(AEB)

15. You are given the complex number

= cos

11. The complex number u = 10 + 9i

cos 4 2 d .

2
2
+ isin
.
5
5

(a) Write down the value of 5 and prove that

1 + + 2 + 3 + 4 = 0.

) (

(b) Giving your answer to the nearest degree,

calculate the argument of u.

Simplify + 4

(c) Find the complex number v which satisfies

the equation
uv = 11 + 28i.

Form a quadratic equation with integer

coefficients having roots

(d) Verify that u + v = 8 2 .

(AEB)

12. (a) The complex number z satisfies the

equation z + 1 = 2 z 1 . The point P
represents z on an Argand diagram. Show
that the locus of P is a circle with its centre
on the real axis, and find its radius.
(b) Find the four roots of the equation

( z + 1) 4 + 4( z 1) 4 = 0,

+ 3 .

( + 4 ) and (2 + 3)
and hence prove that
cos

2 1 + 5
=
.
5
4

(b) In an Argand diagram the point P is

represented by the complex number z.

expressing the roots z1 , z 2 , z 3 and z 4 in the

Sketch and describe geometrically in each

case, the locus of the point P when

form a + bi.

(i) z = z 1

Show that the points on an Argand diagram

representing z1 , z 2 , z 3 and z 4 are the
vertices of a trapezium and calculate its area.
(AEB)

z
(ii) arg
= .
z 1 5

(AEB)

87

Chapter 3 Complex Numbers

16. (a) Use de Moivre's theorem to show that

n
n
n
,
isin
3 i = 2n cos

6
6

(b) The point P represents a complex number z

on an Argand diagram and

z 6 = 3 z 3 ,

where n is an integer.
(i) Find the least positive integer m for
which

3 i

(ii) Given that

is real and positive.

3 i is a root of the

equation z + 16(1 + i ) z 3 + a + ib = 0,
9

find the values of the real constants

a and b.

88

where = 3 i.
Show that the locus of P is a circle and find
its radius and the complex number
represented by its centre.
(AEB)