Chapter 4

Complex numbers

4.1 Imaginary numbers and complex numbers

√
Since we are not able to handle the number −x, for x > 0 in the real number system, math-
ematicians introduced a number system called the complex numbers, which is an extension
of the reals and can deal with square roots of negative numbers.

This number system uses the imaginary number i which mathematicians from the 18th
century assumed had the property
i2 = −1,
and could otherwise be treated like a real number. We also refer to i as the imaginary unit.
In particular, one can combine the imaginary number i with real numbers in the following way

a + bi,

with a,b ∈ R. Numbers of the form a + bi are called complex numbers. Since a complex
number a + bi is determined by the real numbers a and b, we can identify this complex number
as the ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers.

Definition
A complex number is an ordered pair of real numbers, denoted either by (a, b) or
by a + bi, where i2 = −1.

Note.

1. It is customary to denote a complex number a + bi by z, i.e.,

z = a + bi or z = (a, b).

2. We have dealt with ordered pairs of real numbers in Chapter 1 - Vectors in R2 . Hence a
complex number can be identified with a vector in R2 and plotted in the plane. Therefore
the set of all complex numbers is also called the complex plane, denoted by C.

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 3. A real number a, which can be written as

a = a + 0 · i,

is represented by (a, 0) in the complex plane, i.e., real numbers are plotted on the x-axis
in the complex plane. This axis is referred to as the real axis in the complex plane.
When real numbers x are displayed as points (x, 0) on the real axis, it is clear that the
set of complex numbers include the real numbers as a subset.
To summarize, for z = a + bi with b = 0, z is a real number.

4. The imaginary unit

i=0+1·i
is plotted as the unit on the y-axis in the complex plane. Complex numbers of the form
(0, y), i.e.,
yi = 0 + yi
are known as pure imaginary numbers when y 6= 0 and correspond to points on the
y-axis, which is known as the imaginary axis in the complex plane.
To summarize, for z = a + bi with a = 0 and b 6= 0, z is a pure imaginary number.

5. When a complex number z is written as

z = a + bi

with real numbers a and b, then a is called the real part of z, denoted Re(z) and b is
called the imaginary part of z, denoted Im(z), i.e., Re(z) = a and Im(z) = b.

6. The notation z = a + bi is called the standard form or rectangular form or real-

imaginary form of the complex number z.
Example 4.1.1. Plot the numbers i, 1, −i, −3i, 3 + 2i, 3 − 2i, −3 + 2i, −3 − 2i in the complex
plane.

Solution.

Imaginary axis

−3 + 2i 3 + 2i

1 Real axis

−i

−3 − 2i 3 − 2i

−3i

Example 4.1.2. Find the real and imaginary parts of the numbers 5, −3i, 3 + 2i, 3 − 2i.

Solution.

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 Note. Both the real part and the imaginary part of a complex number are real.

In Chapter 1 we learned that two vectors (a, b) and (c, d) in R2 are equal if and only if they
are entry-wise equal, i.e., a = c and b = d. Since we identify complex numbers with numbers
in R2 , we therefore have

Two complex numbers a + bi and c + di are equal, written

a + bi = c + di,

if and only if a = c and b = d.

In other words, for two complex numbers z1 and z2 , it follows that z1 = z2 (hence both
correspond to the same point in the complex plane) if and only if Re(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) and Im(z1 ) =
Im(z2 ).

We have defined the sum, difference and a scalar multiple of vectors in R2 (remember these
operations take place component-wise) and since we identify complex numbers with vectors in
R2 , we have the following definitions.

The sum of complex numbers

Two complex numbers z and w are added to give a new complex number z + w whose real
part is
Re(z + w) = Re(z) + Re(w)
and whose imaginary part is

Im(z + w) = Im(z) + Im(w).

If z = a + bi and w = c + di, then

z + w = (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i.

The difference of complex numbers

Subtracting a complex numbers w from z gives a new complex number z − w whose real
part is
Re(z − w) = Re(z) − Re(w)
and whose imaginary part is

Im(z − w) = Im(z) − Im(w).

If z = a + bi and w = c + di, then

z − w = (a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i.

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 Multiplication of a complex number by a real number

The complex number z and real number k are multiplied to give a new complex number kz
whose real part is
Re(kz) = k Re(z)
and whose imaginary part is
Im(kz) = k Im(z).

If z = a + bi and k ∈ R, then

kz = k(a + bi) = (ka) + (kb)i.

Example 4.1.3. Let z = 3 + 5i and w = −2 + 3i. Find z + w, z − w and 4w.

Solution.

Multiplication of complex numbers

There is one important property which sets the complex numbers apart from mere vectors
in R2 and that is the product of complex numbers. The formal way of multiplication, using the
usual rules of algebra and observing that i2 = −1, leads to

(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2

= ac + adi + bci + bd(−1)
= (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.

This result is taken as the definition of the product of complex numbers.

Hence if z = a + bi and w = c + di, then

zw = (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.

Note.

1. The procedure in arriving at the product is the way in which you would normally calculate
the product.

2. The formula for multiplication of a complex number with a real number is a special case
of the formula for the product of complex numbers (take b = 0 and check this).

Example 4.1.4. Find the following products of complex numbers.

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 1. 3i(−3 + 4i).
Solution.

2. (3 − 4i)(2 + i).
Solution.

√ !2
1 3
3. + i .
2 2
Solution. The usual binomial theorem (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 applies.

Note. It is possible to divide a complex number by a nonzero complex number. We are

now able to prove this and to present a method to find the inverse by solving simultaneous
equations. However, this method is very cumbersome, and we therefore postpone division of
complex numbers until we are able to use a more efficient method.

We summarize the following rules of complex arithmetic, which are formally identical to the
corresponding rules of real arithmetic.

Theorem 4.1. Let z, z1 , z2 , z3 be complex numbers. Then

1. z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 (addition is commutative)
2. z1 z2 = z2 z1 (multiplication is commutative)
3. z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 (addition is associative)
4. z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3 (multiplication is associative)
5. z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 (distributive law)
6. 0+z =z
7. z + (−z) = 0
8. 1·z =z
9. z·0=0
10. z 2 = zz, z 3 = zzz, ...
Tutorial 4.1.1. 1. Plot the point −3 − 2i and draw the vector it represents.

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 2. Find x and y given (a) x − iy = −2 + 3i and (b) (x + y) + (x − y)i = 3 + i.

3. Given z = 1 − 2i and w = 4 + 5i find (a) z + w, (b) z − w, (c) 4z and (d) −w.

4. Given z = −2 + 2i and w = 4 + 5i. Sketch the following (a) z and w; (b) z + w and
z − w.

5. Given z = 2 − 5i and w = −1 − i find (a) z − zw, (b) (z + 3w)2 and (c) iw − z 2 .

6. Evaluate the following and write in the form a + bi.

(a) (1 − 2i)(4 − 6i)2 ;

 2
1 3
(b) (2 + i)( + i) ;
2 4
√ √ √
(c) ( 2 + i) − i 2(1 + i 2);

(d) (1 + i + i2 + i3 )100 .

7. Show that (a) Im(iz) = Re(z) and (b) Re(iz) = − Im(z).

8. Show that if n is a positive integer then the only possible values for in are 1, −1, i and
−i. Also find i2509 .
p 2  p 2
9. Let c be a negative real number. Show that |c|i = c and − |c|i = c.

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