University of Zimbabwe

Linear Algebra
Department:
Author:
Mathematics and
M. Zhangazha
computational science

October 23, 2020

 Abstract

The module will lays down basic concepts and techniques of linear algebra and provide an appre-
ciation of the wide application of this discipline within the scientific field. The module highlights
various types of mathematical thinking including direct, indirect and inductive proofs, with care-
ful treatment of quantified statements. Topics include complex numbers, vectors and geometry in
space, matrices and determinants and differential equations. Our goal is the elementary theory of
vectors, matrices and determinants, and their applications to solving systems of linear equations.
Chapter 1

Complex Numbers and Polynomials

There are no secrets about the world of nature. There are secrets about the thoughts and intentions of men.

—Robert Oppenheimer

1.1 Introduction

No one person invented complex numbers, but controversies surrounding the use of these numbers
existed in the sixteenth century. In their quest to solve polynomial equations by formulas involving
radicals, early dabblers in mathematics were forced to admit that there were other kinds of numbers
besides positivepintegers. Equations such as x2 + 2x + 2 = 0 and x3 = 6x + 4 that yielded solutions
√ √ p √
1 + −1 and 3 2 + −2 + 3 2 − −2 caused particular consternation within the community √ of
√ mathematical scholars because everyone knew that there are no numbers such as −1
fledgling
and −2, numbers whose square is negative. Such numbers exist only in one’s imagination, or
as one philosopher opined, “the imaginary, (the) bosom child of complex mysticism.” Over time
these imaginary numbers did not go away, mainly because mathematicians as a group are tenacious
and some are even practical. A famous mathematician held that even though they exist in our
imagination, nothing prevents us from employing them in calculations. Mathematicians also hate
to throw anything away. After all, a memory still lingered that negative numbers at first were
branded fictitious. The concept of number evolved over centuries; gradually the set of numbers grew
from just positive integers to include rational numbers, negative numbers, and irrational numbers.
But in the eighteenth century the number concept took a gigantic evolutionary step forward when
the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss put the so-called imaginary numbers or complex
numbers, as they were now beginning to be called on a logical and consistent footing by treating
them as an extension of the real number system.

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1.2 Complex Numbers

The set of all complex numbers is usually denoted by C. Since x2 ≥ 0 for every real number, x, the
equation
x2 + 1 = 0
has no real solutions.

Introduce the imaginary number 1 , √

i= −1
which is assumed to have the property
√
i2 = ( −1)2 = −1.

Complex numbers are usually written in the form a + bi where a and b are real numbers or can be
regarded as the ordered pair (a, b).

Ordered Pair Equivalent Notation

(3, 4) 3 + 4i
(0, 1) 0+i
(2, 0) 2 + 0i
(4, −2) 4 + (−2)i

Geometrically, a complex number can be viewed either as a point or vector in the xy−plane.

Let us denote
z = a + bi.
The real number a is called the real part of z and the real number b is called the imaginary part
of z.

These numbers are denoted Re(z) and Im(z) respectively.

Example 1.2.1. Re(4 − 3i) = 4 and Im(4 − 3i) = −3.

When complex numbers are represented geometrically in the xy-coordinate system, the x-axis is
called the real axis, the y-axis, the imaginary axis, and the plane is called the complex plane.

Definition 1.2.1. Two complex numbers a + bi and c + di are defined to be equal, when

a + bi = c + di if a = c and b = d.
1
was first used by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler in 1777.

2
Numbers of the form where a = 0, then a + bi reduces to 0 + bi = bi, these complex numbers which
correspond to points on the imaginary axis, are called purely imaginary numbers. For example
z = 8i is a purly imaginary number.

1.2.1 Operations

Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.

(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i.

(a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i.
k(a + bi) = (ka) + (kb)i, k ∈ R. (multiplication by a real number)

Because (−1)z + z = 0, we denote (−1)z as −z and call it the negative of z.

Example 1.2.2. If z1 = 4 − 5i, z2 = −1 + 6i, find z1 + z2 , z1 − z2 , 3z1 and −z2 .

Solution:

z1 + z2 = (4 − 5i) + (−1 + 6i) = (4 − 1) + (−5 + 6)i = 3 + i.

z1 − z2 = (4 − 5i) − (−1 + 6i) = (4 + 1) + (−5 − 6)i = 5 − 11i.
3z1 = 3(4 − 5i) = 12 − 15i.
−z2 = −1(z2 ) = (−1)(−1 + 6i) = 1 − 6i.

Multiplying two complex numbers as (a + bi)(c + di), treating i2 = −1, this yields

(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + bdi2 + adi + bci = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.

Example 1.2.3. 1. (3 + 2i)(4 + 5i) = (3 · 4 − 2 · 5) + (3 · 5 + 2 · 4)i = 2 + 23i.

2. i2 = (0 + i)(0 + i) = (0 · 0 − 1 · 1) + (0 · 1 + 1 · 0)i = −1.

1.2.2 Rules of Complex Arithmetic

Given that z1 , z2 , z2 ∈ C, then

1. z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 .

2. z1 z2 = z2 z1 .

3. z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .

4. z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3 .

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 5. z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
6. 0 + z = z.
7. z + (−z) = 0.
8. 1 · z = z

1.3 Modulus, Complex Conjugate and Division

1.3.1 Complex Conjugate

If z = a + bi, is any complex number, then the conjugate of z denoted by z is defined as

z = a − bi.

Geometrically, z is the reflection of z about the axis.

Figure 1.1: Complex conjugate

Example 1.3.1. 1. z = 3 + 2i, then z = 3 − 2i.

2. z = −4 − 2i, then z = −4 + 2i.
3. z = 4, then z = 4.

So z = z if and only if z is a real number.

1.3.2 Modulus of a Complex Number

Definition 1.3.1. The modulus of a complex number z = a + bi, denoted |z|, is defined by
√
|z| = a2 + b2 .

If b = 0, then z = a is a real number, and

√ √
|z| = a2 + 02 = a2 = |a|.

So the modulus of a real number is simply its modulus value.

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Example 1.3.2. Find |z| if z = 3 − 4i.
p √
Solution: |z| = 32 + (−4)2 = 25 = 5.

Theorem 1.3.1. For any complex number

√
zz = |z|2 or |z| = zz.

Proof. If z = a + bi, then

zz = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 − abi + bai − b2 i2

= a2 + b 2
= |z|2 .

 
 z1  |z1 |
The modulus of a complex number z has the additional properties |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and   = .
z2 |z2 |

1.3.3 Division of Complex Numbers

For division
z1 z1 z 2
= .
z2 |z2 |2
3 + 4i
Example 1.3.3. Express in the form a + bi.
1 − 2i

Solution:
3 + 4i (3 + 4i)(1 + 2i)
=
1 − 2i (1 − 2i)(1 + 2i)
3 + 6i + 4i + 8i2
=
1 + 2i − 2i − 4i2
−5 + 10i
=
5
= −1 + 2i.

1.3.4 Properties of the Conjugate

Theorem 1.3.2. For any complex numbers z, z1 and z2 , then

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 (a) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 .

(b) z1 − z2 = z1 − z2 .

(c) z1 · z2 = z1 · z2 .
 
z1 z1
(d) = .
z2 z2
(e) z = z.

Proof. (a) Let z1 = a1 + b1 i and z2 = a2 + b2 i, then

z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i
= (a1 + a2 ) − (b1 + b2 )i
= (a1 − b1 i) + (a2 − b2 i)
= z1 + z2 .

1 √ 1
Since |z| = (zz) 2 = a2 + b2 = ((Re(z))2 + (Im(z)2 )) 2 , then
p p
Re(z) ≤ |Re(z)| = (Re(z))2 ≤ (Re(z))2 + (Im(z))2 = |z|.

Similarly,
Im(z) ≤ |Im(z)| ≤ |z|.
For any two complex numbers, z1 and z2 , we have that

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

This is called the triangle inequality.

Proof.

|z1 + z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 ) = (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 )

= z1 z1 + 2Re(z1 z2 ) + z2 z2 .

Using the fact that 2Re(z1 z2 ) ≤ 2|z1 z2 | = 2|z1 ||z2 |, we get

|z1 + z2 |2 ≤ |z1 |2 + 2|z1 ||z2 | + |z2 |2 = (|z1 | + |z2 |)2 .

Taking square roots the result follows, that is

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

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1.4 Polar Representation of Complex Numbers

If z = x + iy is a non-zero complex number, r = |z| and θ measures the angle from the positive real
axis to the vector z,

then
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ,
so that z = x + iy can be written as

z = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

This is called a polar form of z. The angle θ is called an argument of z and is denoted by
θ = arg z. The argument of z is not uniquely determined because we can add or subtract any
multiple of 2π from θ to produce another value of the argument.

One value of the argument in radians that satisfies −π < θ ≤ π is called the principal argument
of z and is denoted by θ = Arg z.
√
Example 1.4.1. Express z = 1 + 3i in polar form using the principal argument.
q √ √ √
Solution: The value of r is r = |z| = (1)2 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2. Since x = 1 and y = 3, it
√ √
follows that 1 = 2 cos θ and 3 = 2 sin θ. So cos θ = 21 and sin θ = 23 . The only value of θ that
satisfies these relations and meets the requirement −π ≤ θ ≤ π is θ = π3 . The polar form of z is
 π π
z = 2 cos + i sin .
3 3

We now show how polar forms can be used to give geometric interpretations of multiplication and
division of complex numbers.

Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ). Multiplying, we obtain

z1 z2 = r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i(sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 )].

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Recall:

cos(θ1 + θ2 ) = cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 .

sin(θ1 + θ2 ) = sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 .

We obtain
z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )]
which is a polar form of the complex number with modulus r1 r2 and argument θ1 + θ2 . Thus, we
have shown that
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 .
Also
z1 r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )] ,
z2 r2
from which, it follows that  
 z1  |z1 |
 z2  |z2 | ,
 = if z2 6= 0

and  
z1
arg = arg z1 − arg z2 .
z2

1.5 De Moivre’s Formula

If n is a positive integer and z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), then

z n = z · z · z · · · z = rn [cos (θ + θ + · · · + θ) +i sin (θ + θ + · · · + θ)]

| {z } | {z }
n terms n terms

or
z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ). (1.1)

In the special case, if r = 1, we have for z = (cosθ + i sin θ), so that (1.1) becomes

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ (1.2)

which is called the De Moivre’s formula.

1.5.1 Application of De Moivre’s Formula

It is used to obtain roots of complex numbers

Recall from algebra that −2 and 2 are said to be square roots of the number 4 because (−2)2 = 4
and (2)2 = 4. In other words, the two square roots of 4 are distinct solutions of the equation w2 = 4.

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If n is a positive integer and z is any complex number, then we define the nth root of z to be any
complex number that satisfies the equation

wn = z (1.3)
1
and denote the nth root of z by z n .

Let w = ρ(cos α + i sin α) and z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), then

ρn (cos nα + i sin nα) = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

Comparing the moduli of the two sides, we see that

√
ρn = r or ρ = n
r
√
where n r denotes the real positive nth root of r. In order to have cos nα = cos θ and sin nα = sin θ,
the angles nα and θ must be either equal or differ by a multiple of 2π, that is

nα = θ + 2kπ, k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

θ 2kπ
α = + , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
n n
Thus, the values of w = ρ(cos α + i sin α) that satisfy (1.3) are given by
√
    
θ 2kπ θ 2kπ
n
w = r cos + + i sin + , k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
n n n n
Although there are infinitely many values of k, it can be shown that k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1 produces
distinct values of w satisfying (1.3), but all other choices of k yield duplicates of these.
Example 1.5.1. Find all the cube roots of −8.

Solution:
Since −8 lies on the negative real axis, we can use π as an argument.
Here r = |z| = | − 8| = 8, so a polar form of −8 is

−8 = 8(cos π + i sin π).

Here n = 3, hence
√
    
1 3 π 2kπ π 2kπ
(−8) =3 8 cos + + i sin + , k = 0, 1, 2.
3 3 3 3
Thus, the cube roots of −8 are
√ !
π π 1 3 √
k = 0, 2 cos + i sin = 2 + i = 1 + 3i.
3 3 2 2
k = 1, 2(cos π + i sin π) = 2(−1) = −2.
√ !
√
 
5π 5π 1 3
k = 2, 2 cos + i sin = 2 − i = 1 − 3i.
3 3 2 2

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We can also use (1.2) to express cos nθ and sin nθ in terms of powers of cos θ and sin θ. For instance,
for n = 2 we have on the left cos2 θ + 2i sin θ cos θ − sin2 θ. Taking the real and imaginary parts on
both sides of (1.2) with n = 2 gives the familiar formulas

cos 2θ = cos2 − sin2 θ and sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

1.6 Applications of Complex Numbers

1.6.1 The Quadratic Formula

Example 1.6.1. Solve the quadratic equation z 2 + (1 − i)z − 3i = 0.

Solution:
From the quadratic formula, we have
1
−(1 − i) + [(1 − i)2 − 4(−3i)] 2
z =
2
1h 1
i
= −1 + i + (10i) 2 .
2
1 √
We compute (10i) 2 with r = 10 and θ = π2 and n = 2 for k = 0 and k = 1. The two square roots
of 10i are
√  π √ √ √
 
π 1 1
w0 = 10 cos + i sin = 10 √ + √ i = 5 + 5i
4 4 2 2
√ √ √ √
   
5π 5π 1 1
w1 = 10 cos + i sin = 10 − √ − √ i = − 5 − 5i.
4 4 2 2
√ √ √ √
Therefore the two values are z1 = 21 [−1 + i + ( 5 + 5i)] and z2 = 21 [−1 + i + (− 5 − 5i)]. These
solutions written in the form z = a + bi, are
1 √ 1 √ 1 √ 1 √
z1 = ( 5 − 1) + ( 5 + 1)i and z2 = − ( 5 + 1) − ( 5 − 1)i.
2 2 2 2

1.6.2 Roots of Polynomials

A polynomial in x is a function of the form

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .

Example 1.6.2. x3 − 2x + 4.

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A number (real or complex) a is said to be a root of the polynomial p(x) if p(a) = 0.
Example 1.6.3. x = 1 is a root of x2 − 2x + 1, since 12 − 2 + 1 = 0.

A number a (real or complex) is a root of the polynomial p(x) if and only if (x − a) is a factor of
p(x). It may be the case that you pull more than one factor (x − a) out of the polynomial. In such
cases a is said to be a multiple root of p(x).

A root is called a simple root if it produces one factor.

1.6.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Theorem 1.6.1 (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). Let p(x) be any polynomial of degree n.
Then p(x) can be factorized into a product of a constant and n factors of the form (x − a), where
a may be real or complex.

Suppose the complex number z is a root of the polynomial, then the complex conjugate z is also a
root.
Example 1.6.4. Let p(z) = z 4 − 4z 3 + 9z 2 − 16z + 20. Given that 2 + i is a root, express p(z) as
a product of real quadratic factors.

Solution:
Given that 2 + i is a root, it follows that 2 − i must also be a root and so the quadratic
(z − (2 + i))(z − (2 − i)) = z 2 − 4z + 5
must be a factor. Dividing the given polynomial by this factor gives
p(z) = z 4 − 4z 3 + 9z 2 − 16z + 20 = (z 2 − 4z + 5)(z 2 + 4).
Example 1.6.5. Solve z 3 +3z 2 +2z −6 = 0 and express the left hand side as a product of irreducible
factors.

Solution:
Since the equation is a polynomial equation of odd degree there is at least one real solution. To find
that solution by trial and error the factors of the constant terms are substituted into the polynomial.
The factors of 6 are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6.

Substituting z = 1 gives
1+3+2−6=0
z 3 + 3z 2 + 2z + 6
so z = 1 is a solution and (z − 1) is a factor. So = z 2 + 4z + 6 and the other
√ z−1
solutions are z = −2 ± 2i and so
z 3 + 3z 2 + 2z − 6 = (z − 1)(z 2 + 4z + 6)

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as a product of irreducible real factors.

Exercise 1.6.1. Express z 5 − 1 as a product of real linear and quadratic factors.

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 UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCE
LINEAR ALGEBRA k COMPLEX NUMBERS TUTORIAL-2020 k M.Z

1. Given that z1 = 1 − 8i and z2 = −3 + i, find

(i) iz1 + 2z2 (ii) z1 + z2
2. Express each of the following complex numbers in polar form and represent
each number on an Argand diagram:
√ 2
(i) −1 − i (ii) 3 − 3 3i (iii) −2 − √ i
2
2+i 1
3. If z = , find the real and imaginary parts of z + .
1−i z
z−i
(a) Let z ∈ C, and let w = .
z+i
i. Evaluate w when z = 0, and when z = 1.
ii. Let z = β where β ∈ R. Show that for any such z the corresponding
w
always has unit modulus.
(b) i. Express the complex number z = 24 + 7i in polar form.
1
ii. Find the four values of z 4 in exponential form, and plot them on an
Argand diagram.

4. Show that cos 6φ = 32 cos6 φ − 48 cos4 φ + 18 cos2 φ − 1.

5. Consider the polynomial

p(z) = z 4 − 3z 3 + rz 2 + sz + t,

where r, s, and t are real constants. Given that the two roots of p(z) are 2
and 1 + 2i, determine the values of r, s and t.
√
6. Find all values of z for which z 4 + 2 3i + 2 = 0.

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