Math 147 — Complex Analysis

Neil Donaldson

Spring 2022

1 Complex Numbers
1.1 Definition and Basic Algebraic Properties
In the 1500’s, Italian mathematician Rafael Bombelli posited a solution to the seemingly absurd equa-
tion x2 = −1. By supposing that it behaved according to the ‘usual’ rules of algebra, Bombelli and
others were able to describe the solutions to any quadratic equation. To some extent, this was math
for its own sake; Bombelli always considered his solutions to be entirely ‘fictitious.’
For a modern definition, we start with the Cartesian plane R2 = {( x, y) : x, y ∈ R}.

Definition 1.1. Given real numbers x, y, the complex number z = x + iy is the point ( x, y) ∈ R2 .
Its real and imaginary parts are the co-ordinates
z+w
Re z = x, Im z = y w
iv
The complex numbers C comprise the real vector space R2 with the extra
operation of complex multiplication: If z = x + iy and w = u + iv, define

(Vector) Addition: z + w := ( x + u) + i (y + v)

Complex multiplication: zw := ( xu − yv) + i ( xv + yu) iy z

When drawn with axes, the complex plane is known as the Argand
diagram and we refer, respectively, to the real and imaginary axes. u x

Since C = R2 is a real vector space under addition, we have several immediate properties:
Lemma 1.2 (Basic properties of complex addition).

Associativity: z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3

Commutativity: z + w = w + z (this is the parallelogram law as illustrated in the picture)
(Real) scalar multiplication: ∀λ ∈ R, λ( x + iy) = λx + iλy
Additive inverse: −z = −( x + iy) = (− x ) + i (−y) = − x − iy

Example 1.3. If z = 3 + 4i and w = 2 − 7i, then

z − w = z + (−w) = (3 − 2) + (4 − (−7))i = 1 + 11i

1
The natural distance measure from R2 transfers to C (the complex numbers are a real metric space).
√
Definition 1.4. The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy is the 2i z = 1+ 3i
Euclidean distance of the point ( x, y) from the origin:
q i |z| = 2
| z | : = x 2 + y2
√ √ 0
In the picture, z = 1 + 3i has modulus |z| = 1 + 3 = 2. 0 1 2

Some natural inequalities following straight from the picture in Definition 1.1.

Lemma 1.5 (Triangle inequalities). For all z, w ∈ C,

|z + w| ≤ |z| + |w| and |z + w| ≥ |z| − |w|

In the second inequality, we take the absolute value of the difference of the moduli. Unlike in R, these
inequalities follow from an honest triangle! We can easily extend the first by induction,

| z1 + z2 + · · · + z n | ≤ | z1 | + · · · + | z n |

The modulus may be used to describe various curves and regions in the plane.

Examples 1.6. 1. |z| = 3 describes the circle radius 3 centered at the

origin. In Cartesian co-ordinates, this becomes x2 + y2 = 9. 4i

2. |z − 2 − 3i | ≤ 2 describes the disk of radius 2 centered at 2 + 3i.

3. |z| + |z − 2| = 4 describes an ellipse with foci 0 and 2. This is

more familiar after multiplying out (try it!):
−4 4
q q
x2 + y2 + ( x − 2)2 + y2 = 4 =⇒ ( x − 2)2 + y2 = · · ·
( x − 1)2 y2 −4i
=⇒ + =1
4 3

Complex multiplication, division and the complex conjugate

Multiplication is the source of all the distinct structure of the complex numbers. For starters, we
instantly see that i is a solution to Bombelli’s absurd equation:

i2 = (0 + 1i )(0 + 1i ) = (0 · 0 − 1 · 1) + i (0 · 1 + 1 · 0) = −1

The upshot is that we can treat complex addition, subtraction and multiplication as if we are working
with linear polynomials1 in the abstract variable i; simply replace i2 with −1 when needed.
1 This is precisely the definition you’ll see if you take a course in Rings & Fields, where C is the factor ring of real

polynomials modulo the ideal x2 + 1 .

2
Example 1.7. If z = 3 + 4i and w = 2 − 7i,

zw = (3 + 4i )(2 − 7i ) = 3 · 2 + 4i · 2 − 3 · 7i − 4i · 7i = 6 + 8i − 21i − 28i2

= 6 + 8i − 21i + 28 = 34 − 13i

The basic algebraic properties of complex multiplication are straightforward, if tedious, to verify:

Lemma 1.8 (Basic properties of multiplication). For any complex numbers z1 , z2 , z3 ,

Associativity: z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3

Commutativity: z1 z2 = z2 z1
Distributivity: z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3

To develop division, it is is helpful to introduce a new concept.

Definition 1.9. The (complex) conjugate of z = x + iy is z := x − iy (read z-bar). Geometrically, z is

obtained by reflection in the real axis.

It is immediate that zz = x2 + y2 = |z|2 , which helps us conclude:

Lemma 1.10. Every non-zero complex number z = x + iy has a unique multiplicative inverse

z x − iy
z −1 = 2
=
|z| x 2 + y2

Proof. That zz−1 = 1 is trivial. For uniqueness, suppose we also have zw = 1 and use associativity
and commutativity to conclude that

w = (z−1 z)w = z−1 (zw) = z−1

Division is simply multiplication by an inverse.

Example 1.11. Given z = 3 + 4i and w = 2 − 7i, we compute

w 2 − 7i wz (2 − 7i )(3 − 4i ) 2 · 3 − 2 · 4i − 7i · 3 + 7i · 4i
= = wz−1 = 2 = 2
=
z 3 + 4i |z| |3 + 4i | 32 + 42
6 − 8i − 21i + 28i2 −22 − 29i
= =
25 25
If you prefer, you can think about this as multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conju-
gate2 of the denominator:

2 − 7i 2 − 7i 3 − 4i
= · = ···
3 + 4i 3 + 4i 3 − 4i

2 Compare
√ √
this approach√with elementary
√
algebra where, for example, 5 + 3 is the conjugate of 5 − 3, and we use it
to compute 1√ √5+ 3 √ 5+ 3
5− 3
=
(5− 3)(5+ 3)
= 22 .

3
Exercises 1.1 1. For any z ∈ C, prove that Re(iz) = − Im z and that Im(iz) = Re z.

2. (a) Check explicitly that z = 2 + 3i and its conjugate z = 2 − 3i solve the quadratic equation
z2 − 4z + 13 = 0.
√
(b) Suppose a, b, c ∈ R where ω := 4ac − b2 > 0. Check that z = −b+2ai ω and its conjugate z
both solve the quadratic√equation√az2 + bz + c = 0.
(Since i2 = −1, we write −ω = i ω: the quadratic formula now applies to all real quadratics)

3. Explicitly prove the commutativity of complex multiplication (Lemma 1.8) using the vector
definition of C (Definition 1.1).

4. Evaluate the following in the form x + iy:

2−i
(a) (b) (1 + i )4 (c) (2 + 3i )−2 − (2 − 3i )−2
3 − 5i
5. Prove the following: you should write z = x + iy rather than using the vector definition.

(a) z = z (b) (z−1 )−1 = z (c) zw = z · w

6. (a) For any z, w, prove that |z + w| ≥ |z| − |w| .

(b) What relationship between z, w corresponds to equality here? Draw a picture!

7. Suppose that |z| ≥ 2 and consider the polynomial P(z) = z3 + 3z − 1.

3z−1 7
(a) Prove that z3
≤ 8
(b) Write | P(z)| = z3 + 3z − 1 = z3 1 + 3zz−3 1 . Use the extended triangle inequality (Exer-
cise 6(a)) to prove that | P(z)| ≥ 1.
(This shows that all zeros of P(z) lie inside the circle |z| < 2.)

8. By considering the inequality (| x | − |y|)2 ≥ 0, prove that

√
2 |z| ≥ |Re z| + |Im z|

9. Prove that the hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1 can be written in the form z2 + z2 = 2.

10. Draw a picture of the ellipse satisfying the equation |z| + |z − 4i | = 6. Find the equation of the
( x − c )2 ( y − d )2
curve in Cartesian coordinates: a2 + b2 = 1 where (c, d) is the center of the ellipse and
a, b are the semi-axes.
(Hint: write |z − 4i | = 6 − |z|, square both sides, cancel x2 , y2 terms and repeat. . . )

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1.2 The Exponential or Polar Form of a Complex Number
Recall Definition 1.4 of the modulus of a complex number. We extend this to also consider the angle.
Definition 1.12. A complex number can be written in polar co-ordinates: √
2i z = 1+ 3i
z = x + iy = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ )

Plainly r = |z| is the modulus. The angle arg z = θ is the argument of z. i |z| = 2
The argument is multi-valued in that we also have arg z = θ + 2πn for any Arg z = π
3
integer n. We therefore distinguish the principal argument Arg z by insisting
0
that −π < Arg z ≤ π.
0 1 2

Note that 0 has no argument: it is the only complex number without an argument!
√
Example 1.13. In the above picture, z = 1 + 3i has principal argument Arg z = π3 . You can write
the argument either as many different values, or as a set:3 all the following are legitimate
7π
arg z = { π3 + 2πn : n ∈ Z}, or arg z = 3,
π
or arg z = 3

Provided x ̸= 0, the following is (almost) all we need to calculate the argument:

π
( 2
x = r cos θ y ??? −1 y
=⇒ tan θ = =⇒ arg z = tan
y = r sin θ x x
This isn’t quite right. Since arctan has range (− π2 , π2 ), if y y
z lies in the second or third quadrants, an addition or Q2: tan−1 x +π Q1: tan−1 x
subtraction of π might be required to find the correct
value of the principal argument Arg z.
π 0
Example 1.14. Since z = −3 − 3i lies in the third
quadrant, we have
y y
Q3: tan−1 x −π Q4: tan−1 x
−3 3π
Arg z = tan−1 −π = −
−3 4
If we preferred the argument to be positive, we could
instead choose a non-principal argument arg z = 5π
4 . − π2

The polar form allows us to define a crucial new function.

Definition 1.15. Given θ ∈ R, the exponential eiθ is defined by Euler’s formula

eiθ := cos θ + i sin θ

The polar form of a complex number can now be written z = reiθ where r = |z| and θ = arg z.
If w = u + iv is complex, then its exponential is defined by ew := eu eiv = eu (cos v + i sin v).

3 This is merely the common mathematical fudge of denoting an equivalence class { π3 + 2πn : n ∈ Z} by any of its
representatives, e.g. π3 and 7π
3 .

5
There are several reasons why Euler’s formula provides a sensible definition of eiθ : in particular it
fits with two common definitions of the exponential in real analysis:
1. If k ∈ R, then ekθ is the solution to the initial value problem y′ = ky with y(0) = 1. Assuming
that differentiation works when k = i, Euler’s formula satisfies this criterion
d iθ d
e = (cos θ + i sin θ ) = − sin θ + i cos θ = i (cos θ + i sin θ ) = ieiθ
dθ dθ
n
2. The real and imaginary parts of the Maclaurin series exp z = ∑ zn! evaluated at z = iθ are,
respectively, the Maclaurin series of cos θ and sin θ.
Another reason is that the definition satisfies the usual exponential laws.

Lemma 1.16 (Exponential laws). Let z = reiθ and w = seiψ be written in polar form. Then

1. zw = rsei(θ +ψ) , in particular |zw| = |z| |w| and arg zw = arg z + arg w
z
2. w = rs ei(θ −ψ)
3. zn = r n einθ , n ∈ Z

Note that the principal argument might not behave so nicely for products; the best we can say is that

Arg zw = Arg z + Arg w + 2πn for some n = 0, ±1

Proof. Part 1 follows from the multiple-angle formulæ for sine and cosine:

ei(θ +ψ) = cos(θ + ψ) + i sin(θ + ψ) = cos θ cos ψ − sin θ sin ψ + i (sin θ cos ψ + cos θ sin ψ)
= (cos θ + i sin θ )(cos ψ + i sin ψ) = eiθ eiψ

Parts 2 and 3 are now straightforward.

Examples 1.17. 1. Given z = −7 + i and w = 3 + 4i, we find the modulus and argument of zw in
two ways:

(a) First find the polar forms of z, w, then apply the Lemma:
√    
z = |z| ei arg z = 5 2 exp i (π − tan−1 71 ) , w = |w| ei arg w = 5 exp i tan−1 43
√ 1 4
=⇒ |zw| = |z| |w| = 25 2, arg zw = arg z + arg w = π − tan−1 + tan−1
7 3

(b) First find zw = (−7 + i )(3 + 4i ) = −25 − 25i then compute its polar form:
√ 3πi √ 3π
zw = 25 2e− 4 =⇒ |zw| = 25 2, Arg zw = −
4

The first answer is plainly uglier. It is usually better to use the second approach unless the
arguments of z, w are exactly computable. In Exercise 7, we check that these values correspond.

6
 √ πi
2. We compute z10 when z = 3 − i. First observe that z = 2e− 6 , from which
5πi √
z10 = 210 e−
πi
3 = 1024e 3 = 512(1 + 3i )

3. The identity (eiθ )n = einθ is known as de Moivre’s formula; it is usually written

(cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos nθ + i sin nθ

Many trigonometric identities follow from this by taking real or imaginary parts. For instance,
when n = 3,

cos 3θ + i sin 3θ = (cos θ + i sin θ )3 = cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ − i sin3 θ
=⇒ cos 3θ = cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ
Exercises 1.2 1. Use induction to prove that for any n ∈ N≥2 we have
eiθ1 eiθ2 · · · eiθn = ei(θ1 +θ2 +···+θn )
2. Find the principal argument of (1 + i )2022 .

3. Prove that eiθ = 1 and that eiθ = e−iθ .

4. (a) Show that if Re z > 0 and Re w > 0, then Arg zw = Arg z + Arg w.
(b) If z and w both lie in quadrant 2, explain why Arg zw = Arg z + Arg w − 2π.
5. Prove that non-zero z, w ∈ C have the same modulus if and only if ∃ p, q ∈ C such that z = pq
and w = pq.
6. Use de Moivre’s formula to establish the identity
cos 4θ = 8 cos4 θ − 8 cos2 θ + 1
4
7. (a) Let α = tan−1 3 and β = tan−1 71 . Use right-triangles to show that
3 4 7 1
cos α = , cos β = √ ,
sin α = , sin β = √
5 5 50 50
Now use the cosine multiple-angle formula to check that α − β = π4 .
(This shows that arg zw = 5π
4 in Example 1.17(a))
(b) Generalize the approach in part (a) to prove the multiple-angle formula for tangent
tan α − tan β
tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β
when α, β are acute angles.
8. The polar form of a complex number is well-suited to describing circles. For instance the circle
centered at i with radius 3 may be parametrized by z = i + 3eiθ where θ ∈ (−π, π ].
(a) Describe the circle centered at z0 = 3 + 4i with radius 2.
(b) Show that the points z = reiθ for which r = 2a cos θ describe a circle.
(Hint: Multiply by r)

7
1.3 Roots of Complex Numbers
A naı̈ve approach to taking roots in C is very messy.

Example 1.18. To find c such that c2 = −5 + 12i, we need to solve an equation:

(
2 2 2 2 x 2 − y2 = −5
−5 + 12i = c = ( x + iy) = x − y + 2ixy ⇐⇒
xy = 6

Substituting y = 6x −1 into the first equation yields a quadratic in x2 :

x4 + 5x2 − 36 = ( x2 − 4)( x2 + 9)

from which we conclude that x = ±2 and obtain the square roots ±c = ±(2 + 3i ).

The example is reassuring in that we obtain precisely two square roots. However, attempting to ex-
tend the method to cube, or higher, roots is utterly doomed! Instead we use the polar form. Suppose
n ∈ N and that c, z satisfy z = cn . In polar form

z = reiθ , c = seiψ =⇒ reiθ = sn einψ

By equating moduli and arguments, we conclude that

r = sn , nψ = θ + 2πk (∗)

where k is some integer. We’ll shortly put this together to obtain a proper definition, but we already
have enough for a calculation.
2πi √
Example 1.19. We compute the fifth roots of z = 2e 3 = −1 + i 3. z
In the above language,
c1
√ 1

2π

2π
s=
5
2, ψ= + 2πk = (1 + 3k) r
5 3 15
√
5 c0
which results in the fifth roots c2 2π 2
3 2π
√ 2πi √ 8πi √ 14πi 15
c0 = 5 2e 15 c1 = 5 2e 15 c2 = 5 2e 15 2π
√ 20πi √ √ 26πi √ 5
10πi 4πi
c3 = 5 2e 15 = 5 2e− 15 c4 = 5 2e 15 = 5 2e− 15

Note how there are precisely five fifth roots: once k ≥ n(= 5) in c4
(∗), the roots start repeating. The last two roots were written both c3
with positive and principal arguments: both have advantages!
Observe also how√ the fifth roots form the vertices of a regular pentagon, equally spaced around the
5
circle of radius 2.
Finally, note how essential the polar form was to this calculation. We could convert back to rectan-
gular form, but since cos 2π 2π
15 and sin 15 do not have friendly values, this is of limited utility.

8
Definition 1.20. Given a non zero complex number z = reiθ and a positive integer n, the nth roots of
z are the n complex numbers

√ (θ + 2kπ )i
ck = n
r exp k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1
n
√
where n
r is the usual real (positive!) nth root.
There are some conventions to follow. Let θ = Arg z be the principal argument of z:
√ √ iθ
(a) The principal nth root is n z := n re n .
1
(b) The set of nth roots is z n := {c0 , . . . , cn−1 }.
2πi
Denote by ωn = e n a primitive nth root of unity, then the full set of nth roots of unity is
1 2πki
1 n = {ωnk : k = 0, . . . , n − 1} = {e n : k = 0, . . . , n − 1}

The nth roots of z may be written in terms of the principal root and the nth roots of unity
1 √ 1 √
z n = n z 1 n = { n zωnk : k = 0, . . . , n − 1}
2πki 2πk
The geometric effect of multiplying by ωnk = e n is to rotate counter-clockwise by n radians:
√ √ √ 2πk
arg n
zωnk = arg n
z + arg ωnk = arg n
z+
n
It follows that the
√ nth roots of z = reiθ form the vertices of a regular n-gon spaced equally round the
circle of radius r. Compare this with the previous example.
n

Examples 1.21. 1. First compare what happens when z = r = 16 and n = 4.

√
• 4 16 = 2 is the principal sixth root.
1
• In the real numbers, we have two fourth roots: 16 4 = ±2.
1 iπ
• In complex analysis, there are four fourth roots: 16 4 = {2, 2i, −2, −2i } where i = ω4 = e 2
is a primitive fourth root of unity.
√
2. We compute the fourth roots of z = 8 2(1 + i ).
πi
First we write in polar form: z = 16e 4 . Since Arg z = 4,
π
the principal fourth root is
q √
4 πi
8 2(1 + i ) = 2e 16
1
To find all fourth roots, simply multiply by the fourth roots of unity 1 4 = {1, i, −1, −i }:
 √  41 πi πi πi 9πi 15πi 7πi
8 2(1 + i ) = {±2e 16 , ±2ie 16 } = {2e 16 , 2e 16 , 2e− 16 , 2e− 16 }

Evaluating these in rectangular form is messy but possible (see Exercise 7). In practice it is
better to leave such expressions in polar form.

9
 √
Exercises 1.3 1. Find the square roots √of − 23 + i and√
express them in rectangular co-ordinates.
(Hint: you may find it useful that ( 3 − 1) = 4 − 2 3)

2. Find the sixth roots of i in polar co-ordinates. Which is the principal root?
√ √
−1+ 3i −1− 3i
3. Use the fact that the cube roots of unity are 1, ω3 = 2 and ω32 = 2 to evaluate the
cube roots of −27 in rectangular co-ordinates.

4. We previously found the fourth roots of 16. Use these to find the fourth roots of −16. Hence
factorize the equation z4 + 16 = 0 as a product of two quadratic equations with real coefficients.
n −1
5. If ω is an nth root of unity other than 1, prove that ∑ ω k = 0.
k =0
(Hint: recall geometric series)

6. (a) Suppose that a, b, c ∈ C with a ̸= 0 and suppose that z satisfies the quadratic equation
az2 + bz + c = 0. Prove the quadratic formula:

−b + (b2 − 4ac)1/2
z=
2a

Note that (b2 − 4ac)1/2 is the set of square roots of b2 − 4ac, so that this provides two solu-
tions whenever b2 − 4ac ̸= 0.
(b) Find the roots of the equation iz2 + (1 + i )z + 3 = 0 in rectangular form.
1
7. Use the half-angle formula cos2 α2 = 2 (1
+ cos α) to explicitly evaluate cos π8 and then cos 16
π
.
q √
4 πi
Hence find an expression for the rectangular form of 8 2(1 + i ) = 2e 16 using only square
roots.

8. Recall Example 1.18. √Verify that the method in Definition 1.20 gives the same value for the
principal square root −5 + 12i.
(You’ll need some trig identities. . . )

10