1 Complex Numbers

1.1 Sums and Products

Definition: The complex plane, denoted C is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) with x, y ∈ R,
where Re z = x is called the real part and Imz = y is called the imaginary part.
• We call the x-axis the real axis.
• We call the y-axis the imaginary axis.
• Usually we write z = (x, y) or z = x + iy, this is called rectangular form.
• For two complex numbers, z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) we have z1 = z2 if and only if
x1 = x2 and y1 = y2

For z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ), we define addition as

z1 + z2 = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
and multiplication as
z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , y1 x2 + x1 y2 )
How do the real numbers interact here?
• For any r ∈ R we have (r, 0) ∈ C, and
(r, 0) + (s, 0) = (r + s, 0)
and
(r, 0)(s, 0) = (rs, 0)

• For i = (0, 1) ∈ C we have

i2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0)

Now we can see that multiplication is well-defined, since

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 + i2 (y1 y2 ) + i(y1 x2 + x1 y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , y1 x2 + x1 y2 )

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1.2 Basie Algebraic Properties
• Complex numbers are associative

z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3

and commutative
z 1 + z2 = z2 + z1
so we can rearrange and drop parenthesis.

• We have an additive identity 0 = (0, 0) ∈ C, and mult. identity 1 = (1, 0) ∈ C. Check

these!

• For any z = x + iy we have an additive inverse −z = −x − iy since

x + iy + (−x − iy) = 0.

For z = x + iy non-zero we have a multiplicative inverse z −1 = u + iv so that zz −1 = 1

defined by
(x + iy)(u + iv) = 1
and so
ux − vy + i(uy + vx) = 1
therefore ux − vy = 1 and uy + vx = 0. Solving the linear equation, we get
 
−1 x −y
z = ,
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

• If z1 z2 = 0 then z1 = 0 or z2 = 0. To see this, suppose z1 6= 0, then

z2 = z2 · 1 = z2 · z1 · z1−1 = 0 · z1−1 = 0

• Some interesting things happen with quotients, for example

1 1 i i
= · = = −i
i i i −1
and
4+i (4 + i)(2 + 3i) 5 + 14i 5 14
= = = +i .
2 − 3i (2 − 3i)(2 + 3i) 13 13 13

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1.3 Vectors and Moduli
We can consider z = x + iy = (x, y) as a vector on the complex plane.

Then the sum can also be interpreted vectorially, as follows.

Definition: The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy gives the distance from z to the
origin, and is given by p
| z |= x2 + y 2
extending the notion of absolute value for the reals, and

| z |2 = (Re z)2 + (Im z)2

now gives a relation between real numbers. From here

• | z |=| −z |

• Re z ≤| Re z |≤| z | and Im z ≤| Im z |≤| z |

• Note that z1 < z2 is meaningless, but | z1 |<| z2 | has meaning.

Consider the difference

p
| z1 − z2 |=| (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 ) |= (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2

What does this mean geometrically?

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Examples:

1. Consider √ √
| −3 + 2i |= 9+4= 13
and √ √
| 1 + 4i |= 1 + 16 = 17
What does this mean, geometrically?

2. The equation | z |= 1 is the unit circle centered at the origin.

3. The equation | z − 1 + 3i |= 2 is the circle with center z = (1, −3) and radius 2.

4. Exercise: Show that | z1 · z2 |=| z1 | · | z2 |.

5. Exercise: Show that | z 2 |=| z |2 .

1.4 Triangle Inequality

Definition: The triangle inequality is given by

| z1 + z2 |≤| z1 | + | z2 | .

Illustrated by figure 3. Some consequences:

• We have | z1 + z2 |≥|| z1 | − | z2 ||, to see this, observe

| z1 |=| (z1 + z2 ) + (−z2 ) |≤| (z1 + z2 ) | + | −z2 |

and hence
| (z1 + z2 ) |≥| z1 | − | z2 | if | z1 |≥| z2 |
and
| (z1 + z2 ) |≥ −(| z1 | − | z2 |) if | z1 |<| z2 | .
What does this mean geometrically? Length of one side is greater than difference of other
two.

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Examples:

1. Suppose z is on the circle | z |= 1. Then

| z − 2 |=| z + (−2) |≤| z | + | 2 |= 1 + 2 = 3

and
| z − 2 |=| z + (−2) |≥|| z | − | −2 ||=| 1 − 2 |= 1.
This means the distance from z to 2 is between 1 and 3.

2. The triangle inequality can be extended inductively, that is

| z1 + z2 + ... + zn |≤| z1 | + | z2 | +...+ | zn |

for any n. So for example, for z on the circle | z |= 2, we have

| 3 + z + z 2 |≤ 3+ | z | + | z 2 |= 3+ | z | + | z |2 ≤ 9.

3. Consider the degree n polynomial given by

P (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + ... + an z n

where n ∈ Z + and a0 , ..., an ∈ C. We will show that for some positive R ∈ R,

 
 1  2
 P (z)  < an Rn
 

whenever | z |> R. Morally: Reciprocal 1/P (z) is bounded from above when z is outside
of the circle | z |= R. Recall,

• | z1 · z2 |=| z1 | · | z2 |
• | z 2 |=| 2 |2

and write
P (z) − an z n a0 a1 an−1
w= n
= n + n−1 + ... + .
z z z z
Then
P (z) = (an + w)z n
Then the equation above becomes

wz n = a0 + a1 z + ... + an−1 z n−1

and hence
| w || z n |≤| a0 | + | a1 z | +...+ | an−1 z n−1 |
implying
| a0 | | a1 | | an−1 |
| w |≤ n
+ n−1
+ ... +
|z| |z| |z|

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 Now pick R large enough so that

| ai | | an |
n−i
<
|z| 2n

when | z |> R. Then,

| an | | an |
w <n· = whenever | z |< R.
2n 2
Consequently,
| an |
| an + w |≥|| an | − | w ||>
2
and hence
| an |
| P (z) |=| an + w | · | z n |> · Rn .
2

1.5 Complex Conjugates

Definition: The complex conjugate of a number z = x + iy is given by

z = x − iy

Some observations:

• | z |=| z |

• z = z.

• z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 , since

z1 + z2 = x1 + iy1 + x2 + iy2 = xi + x2 − i(y1 + y2 ) = x1 − iy1 + x2 − iy2 = z1 + z2 .

• z1 − z2 = z1 − z 2

• z1 · z2 = z1 · z 2
 
• zz12 = zz12

• z + z = 2Re z.

• z − z = 2Im z.

• zz = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 + y 2 =| z |2 .

Examples:
−1+3i (−1+3i)(2+i) −5+5i −5+5i
1. 2−i = (2−i)(2+i) = |2−i|2
= 5 = −1 + i

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1.6 Exponential Form
Let r > 0 and θ be polar coordinates for z = (x, y), then

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

then p
| z |= r cos2 θ + sin2 θ = r
Definition: The value θ = arg(z) is an argument for z, and it is the angle z = (x, y) makes
with the real axis. Infinite arguments exist for z, namely,

θ + 2π, θ + 4π, ..., θ + 2kπ, ...

but we call Θ = Arg(z) with −π < Θ ≤ π the principal argument of z.

Examples:

1. The complex number −1 − i has

3π
Arg(−1 − i) = −
4
but
5π
arg(−1 − i) = + 2kπ
4
for n ∈ Z.

Definition: The symbol eiθ is defined by Euler’s formula as

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ

and hence
z = reiθ = r(cosθ + i sin θ)

Examples:

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 1. Writing −1 − i in exponential form we have
√ −3π
−1 − i = 2ei 4

or √ −3π
−1 − i = 2ei( 4
+2πk )

2. The set of numbers z = eiθ are the set of numbers on the unit circle. Accordingly,

eiπ = −1 and eiπ/2 = i and ei4π = 1.

Also,
z = Reiθ where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
is a parametrization of the unit circle, moving counter-clockwise, and

z = z0 + Reiθ where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

moves the circle to be centered at z0 .

Some basic properties of exponential forms:

0 0
• eiθ eiθ = ei(θ+θ )
0
• reiθ · r0 eiθ = (rr0 ) · ei (θ + θ0 )
reiθ r i(θ−θ0 )
• r0 eiθ0
= r0 e

• If z = reiθ then
1 1
z −1 = iθ
= e−iθ
re r
and
z n = rn einθ .

Examples:

1. From the properties above we see that

arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).

but this doesn’t necessarily hold when arg is replaced with Arg. For example, z1 = −1
and z2 = i, then
π
Arg(−1) = π and Arg(i) =
2
so
π 3π
Arg(−1) + Arg(i) = π + =
2 2
but
−π
Arg(−1 · i) = Arg(−i) =
2

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2. Find the principal argument of
i
.
−1 − i
π √ 3π
We already know that i = 1ei 2 and −1 − i = 2e−i 4 and so
π
i ei 2 1 i(π/2+3π/4)
=√ 3π = √ e
−1 − i 2e−i 4 2
Therefore  
i π 3π 5π
arg = + =
−1 − i 2 4 4
and hence  
i 5π −3π
Arg = − 2π =
−1 − i 4 4

3. Let’s write the expression (−1 + i)7 in rectangular form. First, for z = (−1 + i) we have
√ √
| z |= 1 + i = 2

and
3π
Arg(z) =
4
√ 3π
so −1 + i = 2ei 4 , and
√ i3π
7 √ i21π √ iπ √ iπ
(−1 + i)7 = 2ei 4 = 8 2e 4 = 8 2ei5π e 4 = −8 2e 4

But we can easily see that √ iπ

(1 + i) = 2e 4
and so
(−1 + i)7 = −8(1 + i)

4. When r = 1, for any value n ∈ Z, we have

 n
eiθ = einθ

but this means

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
this is known as De Moivre’s formula.

5. Using the above with n = 2, we reclaim known identities

cos2 θ − sin2 θ + 2i cos θ sin θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)2 = cos 2θ + i sin 2θ.

Now equating real and imaginary parts, we have

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ and sin 2θ = 2 cos θ sin θ

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1.7 Roots of Complex Numbers
Two non-zero complex numbers can be arrived at in infinitely many ways, for example
0
z = reiθ and z 0 = r0 eiθ

are equal precisely when

r = r0 and θ = θ0 + 2πk
for k ∈ Z. We also know that z n = rn einθ , so we should know something about nth roots.
Definition: An nth root of z0 ∈ C is a complex number z = reiθ such that

z n = z0

that is
r0 eiθ0 = rn einθ ,
and hence
r0 = rn and nθ = θ0 + 2πk.
√
• Since r0 is real, this just means r = n r0 .

• For k ∈ Z, we know that

θ0 2πk
θ= +
n n
So the nth roots of z0 are given by the infinite family
  
√ θ0 2πk
z = r0 exp i
n
+
n n
√
all lying on the circle | z |= n r0 .

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So n of them should be more special than the others, namely, those with
  
√ θ0 2πk
ck = r0 exp i
n
+
n n

and k ∈ 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1.
√
• When z0 is a positive real then n r0 means the familiar unique positive root.

• When θ0 = Arg(z0 ) then we call c0 the principal root.

√
• When z0 is a positive real, its principal root is n r0 .

Examples:
1
1. Let’s find all values of (−16) 4 , that is, the 4th roots of −16. Since

−16 = 16ei(π+2kπ)

so the roots are just

π kπ
ck = 2ei( 4 + 2 )

where k = 0, 1, 2, 3. So we have
√
 
i( π4 ) i( kπ
 π π  i( kπ ) 1 1 kπ kπ
ck = 2e e 2 ) = 2 cos + i sin e 2 =2 √ + i√ e i( 2 )= 2(1 + i)ei( 2 )
4 4 2 2
and therefore
√ √
c0 = 2(1 + i) · 1 =
2(1 + i)
√ √
c1 = 2(1 + i) · i = 2(−1 + i)
√ √
c2 = 2(1 + i) · −1 = 2(−1 − i)
√ √
c3 = 2(1 + i) · −i = 2(1 − i)

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 2. Let’s examine the nth roots of 1, called the nth roots of unity. We start with

1 = 1 · ei(0+2πk)

where k ∈ Z. Then,
√ 2πk
ck =
n
1 · ei(0+ n ) = ei( 2πk
n )

where k ∈ {0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1}. When n = 2 we get c0 = 1 and c1 = −1. For larger n, we
get roots lying on the regular n-gon inscribed in the circle | z |= 1.

1.8 Regions in the Complex Plane

Definition: We define an  neighborhood around a given point z0 by

| z − z0 |< 

we can also define the deleted neighborhood, that is the neighborhood minus the point z0 itself,
by
0 <| z − z0 |< 
For a given set S contained in C,
• A point z0 is called interior if there exists a neighborhood containing only z0 and points
of S.

• A point z0 is called exterior if there exists a neighborhood containing z0 and no points in

S.

• If z0 is neither of these, then it is a boundary point.

• A set is open if it contains none of its boundary points.

• A set is closed if it contains all of its boundary points.

• A set is a closure of S if it contains S plus its boundary points. For example, | z |≤ 1 is

the closure of | z |< 1.

• Some sets like 0 <| z |≤ 1 is neither open nor closed.

• An open set S is connected if every pair of points in S can be joined by a polygonal line.

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 • A domain is an non-empty open connected set.

• A domain with some, none, or all of its boundary points is called a region.

• A set S is bounded if every point of S lies in some circle | z |< R.

Examples:
1


1. Consider the set Im z > 1 in relation to these properties, for z 6= 0 we have

1 z z x − iy
= = = 2
z zz | z |2 x + y2
so we want  
1 −y
Im = 2 >1
z x + y2
and therefore
x2 + y 2 + y < 0.
Completing the square, we get
1 1
x2 + y 2 + y + <
4 4
which means
1 2
   2
2 1
(x − 0) + y + < .
2 2
This is the region whose boundary is the circle centered at x = 0 and y = −1/2 with
radius 1/2.

• A point z0 is an accumulation point, or limit point, of a set S if each deleted neighborhood

of z0 contains at least one point of S.

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