ALL LECTURES

Lecture 1
Complex Numbers and operations on complex numbers
Imaginary Unit

Imaginary unit is a number i with the property that

i 2 =−1 .

All of the normal operations of mathematics – addition, subtraction, multiplication and division –
can be applied to the number i .

Addition:
i +i=2 i , 2 i+i =3i , 5 i+ 3i=8i

Subtraction:
i−i=0 ,10 i−i=9 i , 3 i−5 i=−2

2 2
Multiplication:
i⋅i=i 2 =−1 , (3 i)⋅(5 i)=15i =−15 ,(4 i)⋅(6 i)=24 i =−24

i 5i 2i 2
=1 =5 =
Division:
i , i ,
7 i 7
Powers of the Imaginary unit

i 0 =1 , i 1=i , i 2 =−1 ,i 3 =i 2⋅i=−i , i 4 =i 2⋅i2 =1 ,i 5 =i 4⋅i=i

i 4 n =1 , i 4 n±2=−1

Complex Numbers
Definition. A complex number is an expression of the form

z=x +iy (1)

2
where x and y are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit satisfying the equality i =−1 ; x is
called the real part and y the imaginary part of the complex number z .

For the real and imaginary parts we use the notation x=Re z and y=Im z .
Definition. The complex conjugate of the complex number is the number with an equal real part and
an imaginary part equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.The complex conjugate of the complex
number z=x +iy is given by z̄=x −iy
For example:

5+3 i and 5−3i

4−2 i and 4 +2 i

−1−3 i and −1+3 i

Definition. Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their
imaginary parts are equal: if
z 1=x 1 + iy 1 and z 2 =x2 +iy 2 then the equalities

{
x 1 =x 2
z 1=z 2 ⇔ y 1= y 2 are equivalent.

Example 1. Find y from the equality 2 x−i=6+ ( x + y ) i

⇒ x=3
Solution. 2x=6

−1=x + y ⇒ −1=3+ y ⇒ y=−4

Example 2.Find real solutions of equation

( 4 +2 i ) x + ( 5−3 i ) y=13+i
Solution. Select the real and imaginary parts

( 4 x+5 y ) +i ( 2 x−3 y )=13+i

Hence
{4 x +5 y=13
2 x−3 y=1 Solving this system, we find x=2 , y=1

Complex numbers may be represented in a plane. To do this we take a Cartesian coordinate system
x , y which enables us to represent any number of the form z=x +iy as a point.
Real numbers are a special case of complex numbers: if we put y=0 in formula (1) we may regard
a complex number x +i⋅0 as representing real number x ; real numbers are represented as points
lying on the real axis i.e. on the x -axis. Complex numbers that not real are called imaginary. Thus,
every complex number is either real or imaginary. A complex number without a real part ( i.e. with
the real part equal to zero) is called pure imaginary; such numbers are represented by points of the
y -axis which is called imaginary axis .

It is often convenient to introduce polar coordinates in a complex plane. The polar coordinates ρ
and θ of the point, which represents the complex number z=x +iy are denoted as ρ=|z| and
θ=arg z . ρ is called the modulus or the absolute value of z and θ is called the argument, or
amplitude ,or phase, of z.

As is known, ρ=√ x 2 + y 2 , x=ρ cos θ , and y= ρsin θ .This implies, by (1) , that
z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ ) (2)
Hence, each complex number can be written in the so-called trigonometric form (2).
The modulus of a complex number is a certain uniquely defined non-negative real number whereas

the argument is defined within an integral multiple of 2 π . For instance, |i|=1 and
π
Argi= +2 kπ
2 ( k=0 ,±1 ,±2 ,. .. ) . The sign Argz denotes the totality of all the possible values
of the argument of a complex number z .Thus, Argz has infinitely many different values. There is,
however, one and only one value of Argz , denoted as arg z ,which satisfies the inequality
−π <arg z ≤π ; arg z is called the principal value of the argument.

{
y
arctan ,if x >0
x
y
π + arctan,if x <0 , y≥0
x
y
arg z = −π + arctan , if x <0 , y <0
x
π
,if x=0 , y >0
2
π
− ,if x=0 , y <0
2

Example 3.Let`s consider the complex number z=2+2 i .Find ρ and θ .

Solution. Let`s take the point ( x , y ) =( 2 ,2 )

 2

ρ=|z|=√ 22 +2 2=√ 8
y 2 π
tanθ= = =1 θ=arctan 1=
x 2 ⇒ 4
Example 4

Represent the following complex number z=2−2i in trigonometric form

Solution.

y −2
tanθ= = =−1 θ=arctan (−1 ) =− π
ρ=|z|=√ 2 + (−2 ) = √8=2 √2 ,
2 2
x 2 , 4

z=2 √ 2[cos − ( ) π
4 ( )
π
+i sin − ]
4
Example 5

Represent the following complex number z=−1−i √ 3 in trigonometric form

Solution.

tanθ= = √ = √3
y − 3
√
ρ=|z|= (−1 ) + (−√3 ) =2 ,
2 2
x −1 ,

π −2 π
θ=−π + arctan √ 3=−π + =
3 3

z=2[ cos − ( 23π )+i sin (− 23π ) ]

Operations on the complex numbers.
Let two complex numbers
z 1=x 1 + iy 1 and z 2 =x2 +iy 2 be given.

z z
1.Addition .Two complex numbers 1 and 2 are most easily added by separately adding their real
and imaginary parts of the summands. That is to say:

z 1 + z 2 =( x 1 +iy 1 ) + ( x2 +iy 2 ) =( x 1 + x 2 ) +i ( y 1 + y 2 )

2.Subtraction.Similarly, subtraction can be performed as

z 1−z 2 =( x 1 +iy 1 ) −( x 2 +iy 2 ) =( x 1−x 2 ) +i ( y 1− y 2 )

3.Multiplication. The product

z 1 z 2 of complex numbers is called a complex number
z 1 z 2=( x1 x 2 − y 1 y 2 ) +i ( x 1 y 2 + x2 y 1 )
and

z z̄=x 2 + y 2
If we use the trigonometric form z 1= ρ1 ( cos θ 1 +i sinθ 1 ) z 2 =ρ2 ( cos θ2 +i sin θ2 ) then the
,
product
z 1 z 2 can be written as

z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ )= ρ1 ( cos θ 1 +i sin θ1 ) ρ2 ( cos θ2 +i sin θ2 ) =

ρ1 ρ 2 ( cos θ1 cos θ2 +i cos θ1 sin θ 2 +i sinθ 1 cos θ2 −sin θ1 sin θ 2 ) =
ρ1 ρ 2 [ cos ( θ 1 +θ2 ) +i sin ( θ1 +θ 2 ) ]

Therefore,
ρ=ρ1 ρ2 , θ=θ1 θ2 i.e. |z 1 z 2|=|z 1|⋅|z 2|, Arg ( z 1 z 2 ) = Argz1 + Argz 2

Hence, when complex numbers are multiplied their moduli are multiplied and their arguments are
added.
4.Reciprocal and division. Using the conjugation, the reciprocal of a nonzero complex number
z=x +iy can always be broken down to

1 z̄ z̄ z̄ x y
= = 2 = 2 2 = 2 2 −i 2 2
z z z̄ |z| x + y x + y x +y

Since nonzero implies that x 2 + y 2 is greater than zero.

This can be used to express a division of an arbitrary complex number

z 1=x 1 + iy 1 by a nonzero
complex number
z 2 =x2 +iy 2 :

z1 z 1 z̄ 2 z 1 z̄ 2 z1 x 1 x 2 + y 1 y 2 x 2 y 1 −x 1 y 2
= = = +i
z2 z 2 z̄ 2 |z 2|2 or
z2 x 22 + y 22 x 22 + y 22
 z1 ρ1
z2 ρ2 [
= cos ( θ1 −θ2 ) +i sin ( θ1 −θ2 ) ]

In trigonometric form

( )
z |z | z
| 1|= 1 Arg 1 = Argz1 −Argz 2
z |z 2| ,
i.e. 2
z2

5. The real part Re z and the imaginary part Im z of the complex number z are expressed through
conjugate complex numbers as follows:

z̄ + z z̄ −z z− z̄
Re z= Im z=i =
2 , 2 2i

6. Each complex number can be written in the so-called exponential form

z=ρe iθ ,where ρ=|z|,θ= Argz

7.Euler`s formula states that for any real number x :

e ix=cos x+i sin x

where e is the base of natural logarithm. This can be proved through induction by observing that

i 0 =1 , i 1=i , i 2 =−1 , i 3 =−i ,

i 4 =1 , i 5 =i , i 6 =−1 , i 7 =−i ,
ix
and so on, and by considering the Taylor series expansions of e ,cos x andsin x :

ix ( ix )2 ( ix )3 ( ix ) 4 (ix )5 (ix )6 (ix )7 ( ix )8

e =1+ix + + + + + + + +. ..
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!
x 2 ix 3 x 4 ix 5 x 6 ix 7 x 8
=1+ix− − + + − − + +. . .
2! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8!

( x2 x4 x6 x8
2 ! 4 ! 6 ! 8!
x 3 x 5 x7
= 1− + − + −.. . . +i x− + − +. ..
3! 5! 7! ) ( )
=cos x+ i sin x
The rearrangement of terms is justified because each series is absolutely convergent.
The rule of multiplication of complex numbers extends automatically to an arbitrary number of
factors. In particular, if we take equal factors then we have
[ ρ ( cos θ+i sin θ ) ]n =ρn ( cos nθ+i sin nθ ) ( n=2 ,3 , . .. )
,

In case ρ=1 , we obtain the formula ( cos θ+ i sin θ )n =( cos nθ+i sin nθ )
Which was named De Moivre`s formula.
60
Example 6. Calculate ( −1+i √ 3 ) .

Solution. We represent complex number z=−1+i √3 in a trigonometric form

−1+i √ 3=2 cos ( 2π

3
+i sin
2π
3 . )
Using formula, we get
60
(−1+i √3 ) =260 cos 60⋅ ( 2π
3
+ isin 60⋅
2π
3
= )
=2 60 ( cos 40 π +i sin 40 π )=260

Now we turn to extracting roots of complex numbers.

n
If z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ ) is given and √ z=w=r ( cos ψ +i sin ψ ) is to be found, then, by
n n
the definition of a root, z=w =r ( cos nψ +i sin nψ ) .Comparing
n
z we conclude that r =ρ , nψ =θ+2 kπ
this with the original expression of .

θ+2 kπ
n ψ=
Since r and ρ are non-negative numbers, we have r =√ ρ and n .

Thus,
n n
√ z=√ ρ cos(θ+2 kπ
+i sin
n
θ+ 2 kπ
n ) ,where k=0,1,2,3,…,n-1
4
Example 7. Find all values of √ 1−i .
Solution. We represent complex number 1−i in a trigonometric form

[ ( ) ( )]
1−i= √ 2 cos −
π
4
+i sin −
π
4
 [ ( ) ( )]
π π
− +2 kπ − +2 kπ
4 8 4 4
√ 1−i= √2 cos + i sin
4 4
Hence,

Believing k=0,1,2,3 we find

( k =0 )
4 8
(π
√ 1−i= √2 cos −isin
π
16 16 )
( k =1 )
4 8
(
7π
√ 1−i= √2 cos +isin
7π
16 16 )
( k =2 )
4 8
(
√ 1−i= √2 cos
15 π
+isin
16
15 π
16 )
( k =3 )
4 8
√ 1−i= √2 cos(23 π
16
+ isin
23 π
16 )
Examples:

z2
z =3+4 i , z 2 =1−2 i ,calculate: z1
Example 1. Given that 1
Solution.

z2 z 2 z̄ 1 z 2 z̄ 1
= =
z1 z 1 z̄ 1 |z 1|2

z2 1−2i ( 1−2 i )( 3−4 i ) 3−4 i−6 i+8 i 2 −5−10 i 1 2

= = = = =− − i
z1 3+ 4 i 9+16 25 25 5 5

Example 2.
Find modulus and the argument of z :

π π
z=−sin −icos
8 8
Solution. We have
 π π
x=−sin <0 y=−cos <0
8 8
,
In this case principal value of the argument is

y
arg z =−π +arctan
x
π
−cos
arg z =−π + arctan
−sin
8
π
π
=−π +arctan cot =
8 ( )
8

[ ( )]
π π
=−π + arctan tan − =−π +arctan tan
2 8
3π
8 (
=−π + =
8 8 )
3 π −5 π

5π
Argz=− +2 kπ
Hence, 8 ( k=0,±1,±2,... )
Absolute value of z is

π
√ π
ρ=|z|= sin2 + cos2 =1
8 8

Example 3.

Write complex numbers in trigonometric form:

a)-2 b) 2 i
Solution.

a) We have x=−2< 0 y=0

,

ρ=|z|=2
In this case principal value of the argument is

y
arg z =π + arctan =π
x
Hence, trigonometric form is z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ )=2 ( cos π +i sin π )

b) We have x=0 y=2>0

,

ρ=|z|=2
In this case principal value of the argument is

π
arg z =
2

Hence, trigonometric form is

π
z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ )=2 cos +i sin
2
π
2 ( )
Example 4.

( )
40
1+i √ 3
Calculate: 1−i
Solution.

1+i √3
Let`s consider

ρ=|z|=2 In this case principal value of the argument is

,

arg z=arctan =arctan √ =

y 3 π
x 1 3

Hence, trigonometric form is

π
z=ρ( cos θ+i sinθ )=2 cos +i sin
3
π
3 ( )
 40
( 1+ √ 3 ) =240 cos ( 40 π
3
+isin
40 π
3
= )
[
240 cos 14 π− ( ) ( 2π
3 )]
+isin 14 π−
2π
3
=

¿ 240
[ 3 3 ]
cos (− )+ isin (− ) =2 (− −i √ )
2π 2π 1
2 2
3

2 20
49

, Let`s consider ( 1−i ) = ( 1−i )

40
[ ] 20
=( 1−2 i+ i 2 ) =(−2 i )20 =220
Now

240 ( −1−2 √ 3 ) =−2

( )=
40
1+i √ 3
20
19
( 1+ √ 3 )
1−i 2
−1−i √ 3
Example 5.Represent complex number
exponentially.
Solution. We have

√
ρ=|z|= (−1 )2 + (−√3 ) =2
2

,
In this case principal value of the argument is

arg z =−π +arctan =−π +arctan √ =−π + =−

y 3 π 2π
x 1 3 3
So, exponential form is
−2 π
i
−1−i √ 3=2 e 3

Test

1.Given that
z 1=3+4 i , z 2 =1−2 i ,calculate:

z1 z2
z 1−z 2 b) 2 c)
|z 1| d)
z1
a)
 form: a)
2.Perform the indicated operation and write the answers in standard
(−4+7 i ) + ( 5−10 i ) b) ( 4 +12 i )−( 3−15 i ) c) 5 i−(−9+i )
3.Multiplay each of the folowing and write the answers in standard form:

a) 7 i (−5+2i ) b) ( 1−5 i ) (−9+2 i ) c) ( 4 +i ) ( 2+ 3i ) d) ( 1−8i ) ( 1+8 i )

4.Find modulus and the argument of z :

π π
z=−sin −icos
a) 8 8 b) z=4+3 i c) z=−2+2 √ 3 i
5.Write complex numbers in trigonometric form:

a)-2 b) 2 i c) − √ 2+i √ 2
6. Write complex numbers in exponential form:

a) i b) −1−i √3 c) -2
7. Calculate:

( )
40
1+i √ 3
6
a) ( 2−2i )7
b)
( √ 3−3 i ) c)
1−i
8. Find all values of root

a)
4
√−1 b) √i 3
c) √ −1+i

9. Find real solutions of equation

( 3 x−i ) (2+i ) + ( x−iy )( 1+2 i )=5+6 i

10.Prove the following relations:

( )
z1 z
= 1
z 1 + z 2 =z 1 + z 2 z z =z 1 z 2 z2 z2
a) b) 1 2 c)

Lecture 2
Matrices
Definitions. A matrix is a rectangular array of real (or complex) numbers. We’ll only deal with real
number matrices. The individual values in the matrix are called entries. The size of the array is
written as m× n , where m− is number of rows, n is number of columns.
A matrix can be put down in the general form as

( )
a11 a12 . .. a 1n
A= a21 a 22 . .. a 2n
. . . . .. . .. ...
am 1 am 2 . .. amn

The numbers
a ij are called entries the i indexes the rows of matrix and the j indexes the
v=( v n1 )=( v n )
column of matrix. An n×1 matrix is called a column vector, written

()
v1
v= v 2
vn

a 1×n matrix v=( v 1n )=( v n ) is called row vector, written v=( v 1 , v 2 . .. v n )

( )
a11 a12 .. . a1 n
A= a 21 a22 .. . a2 n
... .. . .. . .. .
an 1 a n2 .. . ann
If m= n the matrix is called square
In this case we have:

a =0
1) A matrix is said to be diagonal if ij
i≠ j

2) A diagonal matrix A may be denoted by

diag ( d 1 , d 2 , . .. , d n )
where
a ii=d i , aij =0 j≠i

The diagonal matrix diag ( 1,1,...,1 ) is called identity matrix and is usually denoted by

( )
1 0 0 .. 0
0 1 0 .. 0
I n= 0 0 1 .. 0
.. .. .. .. ..
0 0 0 .. 1
A matrix whose all elements are equal to zero is called a zero matrix. In case of square matrix we
introduce the notions of principal and secondary diagonals. Principal diagonal is diagonal
a 11 , a22 , . .. a nn connecting the left uppermost element with the right lowermost element.

a ,a ...a1n connecting the left lowermost element with the

The secondary diagonal is diagonal n1 n−1 ,2
right uppermost element.
Equality. Addition. Multiplication.

I.
a =b ij for all i , j
Two matrices A and B are equal if they have the same size and ij
II. If A and B are matrices of the same size then the sum A and B is defined by
C= A+ B , where c ij =aij + bij for all i , j

( a11
a21
a12
a22
a13
a23
b
)(
+ 11
b 21
b12
b22
b13
b23 )(
a +b
= 11 11
a21+ b21
a 12+b 12
a 22+b 22
a13 +b13
a23 +b23 )
III. If A is any matrix and α - is a scalar (real number), then the scalar multiplication
B=αA is defined by b ij=αa ij for all i , j

α
( a11 a12 a13
a 21 a22 a23
αa
)(
= 11
αa 12 αa 13
αa21 αa 22 αa 23 )
IV. We can also compute the difference D= A−B by summing A and (−1 ) B ;
D= A−B= A+ (−1 ) B matrix subtraction
M ( F ) , where F is the underlying field (usually
The set of all m× n matrices is demoted by m , n
R or C ). In the case where m= n we write M n ( F ) to demote the matrices of size n×n .

Properties. If
A , B ,C ∈ M m , n ( F ) and α , β ∈ F then

(1) A+ B=B+ A commutativity

(2) A+ ( B+C )=( A+ B ) +C associativity
(3) α ( A +B )=αA + αB distributivity of a scholar
(4) If B=0 (a matrix of all zeros) then A+ B= A +0= A
(5) ( α + β ) A=αA + βA
(6) α ( βA )=αβ A
V. Multiplication of two matrices.
To multiply two matrices it is necessary that the number of columns of the first matrix be equal to
the number of the rows of the second one; if otherwise, the multiplication is impossible.
 Let A is matrix of size m× n and B is n×p .The product C= AB is the m× p matrix

n 1≤i≤m
c ij =∑ aik bkj
defined by k =1 1≤ j≤ p
so

( a11 a12
a21 a22 )( b11 b12 b 13
b21 b22 b 23 )(
a b +a b a b +a b a b +a b
= 11 11 12 21 11 12 12 22 11 13 12 23
a21 b11+a22 b 21 a21 b12+a22 b22 a21 b13 +a 22 b23 )
Properties of matrix multiplication

Assume A , B ,C are matrices for which all products below make sense. Then

(1) AB≠BA
(2) ( AB ) C= A ( BC )
(3) A ( B+C )=AB+ AC
A2 = A×A
(4) if A is square matrix then A3 = A 2× A
AI n = A
(5)
I n A= A where
I n − is identity matrix
Examples

(13 24 ) B=(−10 11 )
A=
,

AB=( ) BA=(
3 4)
−1 3 2 2
−3 7 , so AB≠BA .
The Transpose of a matrix
T
Given an m× n matrix A , the transpose of A is the n×m matrix, denoted by A whose
columns are formed from the corresponding rows of A .
Determinants

Every square matrix has associated with it scalar called its determinant. Given a matrix A , we use
|A| or det ( A ) to designate its determinant. The determinant of the first order of square matrix A

is the scalar defined by

det ( A )=|a11|=a 11 .

The determinant of the second order of square matrix A is the scalar defined by
 a a
det ( A )=| 11 12|=a11 a22−a 21 a12
a 21 a22

The determinant of 3×3 matrix is the scalar the defined by

a11 a12 a13

|a21 a22 a 23|=a11 a 22 a33 +a12 a 23 a 31+a21 a32 a 13−a31 a22 a13−a32 a23 a11−a12 a21 a33
a31 a32 a33

Properties of determinants
I. Interchanging two rows or two columns of a determinant is equivalent to multiplying the
determinant by −1
For example,

a11 a12 a13 a13 a12 a11

|a21 a22 a 23|=−|a23 a22 a21|
a31 a32 a33 a33 a32 a31
(we have interchanged the third and the first columns)
II. A determinant having two identical rows or columns is equal to zero. For example,

a11 a12 a13

|a11 a12 a13 |=0
a31 a32 a33

(here the second row coincides with the first one )

III. If the elements in any row (or column) have common factor λ , then the determinant equals the
determinant of the corresponding matrix in which λ=1 , multiplied by λ .

λa11 a12 a13 a 11 a 12 a13

|λa 21 a22 a23 |=λ|a21 a 22 a23|
λa 31 a32 a33 a31 a 32 a33
IV. A determinant having a row (or a column) consisting of zeros equal zero
V. When at least one row (or column) of a determinate is a linear combination of the other rows
(or columns) the determinant is zero
VI. The determinant of the transpose of a matrix is the same as that of original matrix
 |A T|=|A|
Rows and columns can be interchanged without affecting the value of a determinant
VII. If each element of a row or of a column can be represented in the form of a sum of two terms
the determinant itself can be represented as a sum of two determinants according to the
formula
' '' ' ''
a11 + a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
|a'21+ a'21' a22 a 23|=|a '21 a22 a23 |+|a '21' a22 a23 |
' '' ' ''
a31+ a31 a32 a 33 a 31 a32 a33 a 31 a32 a33
VIII. Adding arbitrary numbers proportional to the elements of row (a column) to the corresponding
element of another row (column) of a determinant we do not change the value of the
determinant.
For example

a11 + λa12 a12 a 13 a 11 a 12 a13 a 12 a12 a13

|a21+ λa22 a22 a 23|=|a21 a 22 a23|+λ|a 22 a22 a23 |=
a31+ λa32 a32 a 33 a31 a 32 a33 a 32 a32 a33
a11 a 12 a13
=|a21 a 22 a23|
a31 a 32 a33
Expanding a determinant in minors of its row or column
First we introduce the notion of a cofactor of an element of determinant. Suppose we choose
an element of a determinant and then delete the row and the column to which the element
belongs. Thus we get a determinant of lower order which is called the minor of the element of a
determinant.

For any row i and column j define the ( i , j ) - minor of A by

i th row removed
M ij=det A| th
j column removed
i+ j
( i , j ) cofactor of A is the number
C ij given by
C ij = ( −1 ) M ij

Property IX. A determinant is equal to the sum of the products of the elements of any row
or column of the determinant by their cofactors

det A=a11 C 11+a 12 C 12+ a13 C 13

This formula is called a cofactor expansion across the first row of A .

Theorem. The determinant of an n×n matrix A can be computed by a cofactor expansion

across any row and down any column.

The expansion across the i -th row using the cofactors is

det A=ai 1 Ci1 +ai 2 Ci 2 +.. .+a in Cin

The cofactors expansion down the j -th column is

det A=a1 j C 1 j +a2 j C 2 j +.. .+a nj C nj .

Property X . The sum of products of the elements of any row or column of the determinant
by cofactors of corresponding elements of other row or column equals zero.

For example
a 11C 21 +a12 C22 +a 13 C 23=0 .

TEST
Matrices and Determinants

1. Find the matrix 3 A if

A= ( 2 5
−1 0 )
A)
(62 83 ) B)
(53 150 ) (−36 150 ) (12 23 ) (30 03 )
C) D) E)

A=(
3 2)
1 4
2
2. Find the matrix A if

A)
(19 164 ) B)
(155 2010 ) (1312 169 ) (139 1216 ) (26 84 )
C) D) E)

4 5
| |
3. Calculate the determinant −1 2
A) -3 B) 11 C) -13 D) 3 E)13

4. Find A−B if
A= ( 1 0
−2 3 ) and
B= (−1 2
3 −1 )
A)
( 0 −2
1 2 ) B)
( 2 −2
1 2 ) (
C)
0 2
−5 4 ) (
D)
2 −2
−5 4 ) E)
( 2 2
5 −4 )
5. The matrices A , B and C are square ones of the same order. Each of the following must be
true EXCEPT

A) A+ B=B+ A

B) C ( A+B )=CA+CB

C) A ( BC )=( AB ) C

D) AB=BA

E) ( A+C ) + B= A+ ( B+C )

5 7
| |
6. Calculate the determinant 1 3
A) 1 B)-8 C) 22 D) -1 E) 8

7. Find the matrix 2 A +5 B if

A= ( ) ( )
9 3
1 6 ,
B=
7 4
3 5

A)
(5317 2637 ) (
B) 18 24
27 10 ) C)
(2510 2637 ) D)
(5332 2614 )
E)
(1726 3753 )
8. Find the matrix 3 A−4 B if
A= (−52 34 ) B=(−15 72 )
,

A)
(25 3720 ) B) (10−35 −19
4 ) C)
(1035 2720 ) D)
(60 16 )
(
2 19
E) 5 4
)
9. Find the matrix A−B if
A= (−45 −36 ) B=(−44 −35 )
,
 (
9 −6
A) −8 11
) B) ( )
1 6
8 1 ( )
1 0
C) 0 1
( )
9 0
D) 8 1

(
1 −6
E) 0 1 )

()
4
B= 0
10. Find the matrix AB if A=( 1, 2, 3 ) ,
7

()
4
0
A) 25 B)
21 C) ( 5 2 10 ) D) 17 E) ( 4 21 )

11. Find the product AB if

A= (23 12 ) B=(11 −11 )
,

A)
(23 −12 ) B) ( 34 03 ) C)
(35 −1
−1 ) D)
(12 21 )
E)
( 34 13 )
12. Find the product MN if
M= (36 −15 ) N=(−32 12 )
,

A)
(63 52 ) B) (53 61 ) C)
(−9
12 −2 )
13
D)
(12 03 )
E)
(−915 134 )
5 3 2
|−1 2 4 |
13. Calculate the determinant 7 3 6
A) 50 B) 68 C) 0 D) 72 E)1
 2 5 1
|0 3 4 |
14. Calculate the determinant 3 4 1
A) 77 B) 24 C) 35 D) 2 E) 25

1 1 1
|5 3 6 |
15. Calculate the determinant 7 4 2
A) 13 B) 14 C) 49 D) 50 E) 15

0 1 1
|1 0 1 |
16. Calculate the determinant 1 1 0
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4

( ) ( )
1 3 1 2 1 0
A= 2 0 4 B= 1 −1 2
17. Find the product AB if
1 2 3 , 3 2 1

( ) ( )( ) ( )
8 0 7 2 3 0 3 4 1 1 0 7
16 10 4 2 0 8 3 −1 6 10 1 4
A)
13 5 7 B)
1 4 3 C) 4 4 4 D)
2 3 7

( )
8 0 7
1 6 1
E)
1 3 5

18. Find A if
A= 3 2
3 1 4 ( )
A)
(19 648 ) B) ( 4739 7886 ) C)
(39 136 ) D)
( 4130 1881 )
(
20 13
E) 17 16
)
 2
19. Find f ( A ) if f ( x )=x −5 x+ 3 ,
A= ( 2 −1
−3 3 )
(
−3 9
A) 3 3
) B) ( ) 1 1
2 2 ( )
5 8
C) 1 0
( )
3 0
D) 0 3

( )
0 0
E) 0 0

n
20. Find A if
(10 11 )
A=

A)
(10 11 ) ( )
B) n 1
0 n C)
(10 n1 ) D)
(21 10 )
E)
(11 0n )
Lecture 3
Inverse Matrix

Let
A ∈ M n ( F ) . The matrix A is said to be invertible if there is a matrix B∈ M n ( F )
such that AB=BA=I .
−1
In this case B is called the inverse of A and the notation for the inverse is A .
A matrix that is not invertible is sometimes called a singular matrix, and invertible matrix is
called a nonsingular matrix.

A matrix A is invertible if and only if det A≠0 . The inverse of 2×2 matrix

A= ( ) a b
c d is

A−1 = (
1 d −b
|A| −c a ) |A|=ad −bc≠0 .
Let A be an invertible 3×3 matrix. Then

( )
C 11 C 21 C 31
1
−1
A = C C 22 C 32
det A 12
C 13 C 23 C 33 det A≠0
 1
A−1 = adjA
or det .
The matrix of cofactors on the right side is called the adjugate.
For example:

( )
2 5 7
A= 6 3 4
5 −2 −3 −1
Find A .

First, we find the det ( A )

2 5 7
Δ=|6 3 4 |=−18+100−84−105+16+90=−1
5 −2 −3
The nine cofactors are

3 4
C 11=(−1 )1+1| |=−9+8=−1
−2 −3

C 12=(−1 )1+2|6 4 |=−(−18−20 )=38

5 −3
6 3
C 13=(−1 )1+3| |=−12−15=−27
5 −2

C 21=(−1 )2+1| 5 7 |=− (−15+14 ) =1

−2 −3
2 7
C 22=(−1 )2+2| |=−6−35=−41
5 −3

C 23=(−1 )2+3|2 5 |=−(−4−25 )=29

5 −2
5 7
C 31=(−1 )3+1| |=20−21=−1
3 4

C 32=(−1 )3+2|2 7 |=−( 8−42 )=34

6 4
 2 5
C 33=(−1 )3+3| |=6−30=−24
6 3
Then

( ) (
−1 1 −1

)
1
−1
1 −1 1
A = 38 −41 34 −1
A = −38 41 −34
−1
−27 29 −24 or
27 −29 24

Using Linear Row Reduction to Find the Inverse Matrix

1.Adjoin the identity matrix to the original matrix. Write out the original matrix M, draw a
vertical line to the right of it, and then write the identity matrix to the right of that. You should now
have what appears to be a matrix with three rows of six columns each.
2.Perform linear row reduction operations. Your objective is to create the identity matrix on the
left side of this newly augmented matrix. As you perform row reduction steps on the left, you must
consistently perform the same operations on the right, which began as your identity matrix.
 Remember that row reductions are performed as a combination of scalar multiplication and
row addition or subtraction, in order to isolate individual terms of the matrix.

3.Continue until you form the identity matrix. Keep repeating linear row reduction operations
until the left side of your augmented matrix displays the identity matrix (diagonal of 1s, with other
terms 0). When you have reached this point, the right side of your vertical divider will be the inverse
of your original matrix
4. Write out the inverse matrix. Copy the elements now appearing on the right side of the vertical
divider as the inverse matrix.

( )
3 0 2
A= 2 0 −2
−1
Example. Find inverse matrix A , if
0 1 1

( ) ( )
3 0 2 1 0 0 5 0 0 1 1 0
' '
2 0 −2 | 0 1 0 →R 1=R 1 +R2 → 2 0 −2 | 0 1 0 →R 1=R 1÷5 →
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

( ) ( )
1 0 0 0. 2 0 . 2 0 1 0 0 0. 2 0.2 0
' '
2 0 −2 | 0 1 0 → R2 =R3 → 0 1 1| 0 0 1 → R3 =R1⋅(−2 ) +R3 →
0 1 1 0 0 1 2 0 −2 0 1 0
( ) ( )
1 0 0 0.2 0.2 0 1 0 0 0 .2 0. 2 0
' '
0 1 1| 0 0 1 →R 3 =R3 ÷(−2 ) → 0 1 1 | 0 0 1 →R 2=R 3⋅(−1 )+R 2 →
0 0 −2 −0. 4 0 . 6 0 0 0 1 0 .2 −0 . 3 0

( )
1 0 0 0 .2 0. 2 0
'
0 1 1| 0 0 1 →R 2=R 3⋅(−1 )+R 2 →
0 0 1 0 .2 −0 . 3 0

( )
1 0 0 0.2 0.2 0
0 1 0 |−0.2 0.3 1
0 0 1 0.2 −0.3 0

( )
0 .2 0 .2 0
−1
A = −0 .2 0. 3 1
So,
0 .2 −0 .3 0

Rank of a Matrix
Given the rectangular matrix

( )
a11 a12 . .. a 1n
A= a21 a 22 . .. a 2n
. . . . .. . .. ...
am 1 am 2 . .. amn

Let us isolate k arbitrary rows and k arbitrary columns (k ≤m , k ≤n ) in this matrix. A

determinant of the k -th order composed from the elements of the matrix A located at the
intersection of the isolated rows and columns is known as minor of the k -th order of the matrix A .
A matrix can have many minors; some of them may equal zero and some may be different from
zero. The maximal order of the nonzero minors is called the rank of the matrix.
Every nonzero minor of a matrix whose order is equal to the rank of that matrix is called the
base minor of that matrix. The rank of matrix A will be designated as r ( A ) .

If r ( A )=r ( B ) , the matrices A and B are said to be equivalent A ~ B .

Computing the rank. Let A be an m× n matrix.

 Start with the minors of maximal order k . If there is one that is non-zero, then r ( A )=k . If
all maximal minors are zero, then r ( A ) < k , and we continue with the minors of order k −1 and so
on, until we find a minor that is non-zero. If all minors of order 1 (i.e. all entries in A ) are zero, then
r ( A )=0 .
It is useful to bear in mind that the rank of a matrix does not change as result of elementary
transformations.
The following transformations are usually understood as elementary:
1) replacement of rows by columns and columns by the respective rows
2) interchange of the rows of a matrix
3) deletion of the row whose all elements are zero
4) multiplication of some row by a nonzero number
5) addition to the elements of one row the respective elements of another row
Example №1
Determine the rank of the matrix

( )
2 4 3 5
4 8 6 10
6 12 9 15
Solution. All the second - and third-order minors of the given matrix are equal to zero since
the elements of the rows of these minors are proportional, while the first order minors (the elements
of the matrix themselves) are nonzero. Consequently, the rank of the matrix is equal to unity:
r ( A )=1 .
Example №2 Determine the rank of the matrix

( )
1 0 0 0 5
0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 11
Solution. Deleting the 2nd row and then 2nd, 3rd and 4th columns from the matrix, we

obtain the matrix

(12 115 ) , equivalent to the given matrix.

1 5
| |=1≠0
Since 2 11 the rank of the given matrix is equal to 2.
 ( )
3 5 7
1 2 3
Example №3 Determine the rank of the matrix
1 3 5 .
Solution. Add up the elements of the 1st and the 3rd row respectively

( )( )
3 5 7 4 8 12
1 2 3 ~ 1 2 3
1 3 5 1 3 5
Then divide by the 4 the elements of the first row

( )( )
3 5 7 1 2 3
1 2 3 ~1 2 3
1 3 5 1 3 5
From elements of the 1st row subtract the corresponding elements of the 2nd row

( )( )(
1 5 7 0 0 0
1 2 3 ~1 2 3 ~
1 3 5 1 3 5
1 2 3
1 3 5 )
We deleted the first row.

1 2
| |≠0
The rank of the last matrix is equal to 2 since, for instance 1 3 .

Consequently, r ( A )=2 .

( )
4 3 2 2
0 2 1 1
Example №4 Determine the rank of the matrix
0 0 3 3 .
Solution. Subtract the elements of the 3rd column from the elements of the 4th column

( )( )( )
4 3 2 2 4 3 2 0 4 3 2
0 2 1 1 ~ 0 2 1 0 ~ 0 2 1
0 0 3 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 3
 4 3 2
|0 2 1|=24≠0
Since 0 0 3 the rank of the matrix is equal to 3 r ( A )=3 .

TEST
Inverse matrix and rank of matrix

1) Given the matrix

A= (12 52 ) . Find its inverse

A)
( )
5 2
2 1 (0 1 )
1 0
B) C)
(
−5 2
2 −1 ) D)
(5 −2
−2 1 )
E)
( )
1 5
2 2

( )
1 2 −3
A= 0 1 2
2) Given the matrix
0 0 1 . Find its inverse

( ) ( ) ( )
1 −2 7 1 0 0 1 0 3
0 1 −2 2 1 0 0 1 2
A)
0 0 1 B)
−3 2 1 C)
2 0 1

( ) ( )
1 2 7 1 −2 7
0 1 2 2 1 −2
D)
0 0 1 E)
2 0 1

( )
3 2 2
A= 1 3 1
3) Given the matrix
5 3 4 . Find its inverse

( ) ( ) ( )
9 −2 −4 9 2 4 1 2 7
1 1 1
1 2 −1 1 2 1 0 1 2
5 5 4
A)
−12 1 7 B)
12 1 7 C)
5 1 7
 ( ) ( )
9 −2 −4 0 0 1
1
1 4 −1 1 0 0
4
D)
15 1 7 E)
0 1 0

( 35 −2
4) Solve the matrix equation−4 −5 6 )
X) =(
−1 2

A)
(19 25 ) (35 −4
B)
−2
) (12 −13 ) (00 05 ) (35 24 )
C) D) E)

5) Solve the matrix equation

(13 24 ) X=(35 59 )
(5 6 ) (2 3 )
1 −1
A)
(−1
−5 6 )
2
B)
3 4
C) D)
(00 00 ) (13 73 )
E)

( )
1 2 3 4
2 4 6 8
6) Determine the rank of the matrix
3 6 9 12
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D)4 E) 0

( )
5 0 0 0 4
0 0 0 0 0
7) Determine the rank of the matrix
2 0 0 0 3
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D)3 E) 7

( )
1 0 2 1
0 2 4 2
8) Find the rank of the matrix
0 2 2 1
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D)4 E) 0

( )
1 2 1 −1
9 5 2 2
9) Find the rank of the matrix
7 1 0 4
A) 0 B) 1 C) 3 D)2 E) 5

( )
3 1 0
2 0 5
10) Find the rank of the matrix
1 2 1
A) 3 B) 0 C) 2 D)5 E) 4
 Lecture 4
System of linear equations. General case.

A linear equation in the variables

x 1 , .. .. . , x n is an equation that can be written in the form

a 1 x 1 + a2 x 2 +. . .+ an x n =b , (1)

a , a , .. . , an are real or complex numbers, usually known in advance.

where b and the coefficients 1 2
A system of linear equations is a finite collection of linear equations involving the same
variables
x 1 , .. . , x n .

For instance, a linear system of m equations in n variables

x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n can be written as

{
a11 x 1 + a12 x 2 +. . .+ a1 n x n=b1
a21 x 1 + a22 x 2 + .. .+a2 n x n =b2
⋮
am 1 x 1 + am 2 x 2 +. ..+ amn x n=bm
(2)

A solution of a linear system (2) is a tuple ( s1 , s 2 ,. .. , sn ) of numbers that makes each

equation a true statement when the values
s1 , s2 , . .. , s n are substituted for x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n , respectively.

The set of all solutions of a linear system is called the solution set of the system.
Theorem 1. Any system of linear equations has one of the following exclusive conclusions
(a) No solution
(b) Unique solution
(c) Infinitely many solutions
A linear system is said to be consistent (or compatible) if it has at least one solution; and it
said to be inconsistent (or incompatible) if it has no solution
Definition. The augmented matrix of the general linear system (2) is the table

( )
a11 a12 . .. a 1n b1
Ā= a21 a 22 . .. a 2n b2
. . . . .. . .. ... ...
am 1 am 2 . .. amn bn
 ( )
a11 a12 . .. a 1n
a a 22 . .. a 2n
A= 21
. . . . .. . .. ...
am 1 am 2 . .. amn
and the coefficient matrix of (2) is .
Kronecker-Capelli Theorem. A system of linear equations (2) is consistent if and only if
the rank of the coefficient matrix A is equal to that of the augmented matrix Ā , obtained from A
by adding the column of free terms
b i rank ( A )=rank ( Ā ) .

For use this theorem, we compute first the rank of the matrix A , suppose rank A=r . The
non-zero minor which gives us the rank is called the principal minor. Then we compute the
characteristic minors.

A characteristic minor is a minor with r +1 rows and r +1 columns obtained from

principal minor adding like r +1 row the elements from one of the remaining row and the r +1
column the column of constant terms
Rouche’s Theorem. A linear system is consistent if and only if all characteristic minors are
zero.

Let system (2) is consistent. We suppose that rank A=rank Ā=r and the principal
minor is of the form:

a11 a12 . .. a1r

a a22 . .. a2r
| 21 |≠0
. .. . .. . .. ...
ar 1 ar 2 . .. arr .
Let consider the system

{
a 11 x 1 +a12 x 2 +.. .+a1 n x n =b1
a21 x1 +a22 x2 +.. .+a 2n x n =b 2
.. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .
ar 1 x 1 +a r2 x 2 +.. .+arn x n=br
(3)
The matrix of the coefficients for the system (3) has a non-zero minor of order r (formed by
first r columns), then has rank equal with r , where r ≤n .

1) If r =n , system (3) has the same number of equations and unknowns

and its determinant is non-zero. In this case, this system has unique solution.

2) If r < n , supposing that the minor formed with the coefficients of first
r unknowns is principal, we called the unknowns 1 2
x , x ,. .. , x
r principal unknowns and the
remaining unknowns are called secondary unknowns. We put in the right side all terms which has
secondary unknowns
x r+1 , .. . , x n , we give then arbitrary values λ r+1 , .. . , λ n and we find a system
with r equations and r unknowns 1 2
x , x ,. .. , x r :

{
a11 x 1 +a12 x 2 +. . .+a1 r x r =b1 −a1r +1 λ r+1 −.. .−a1n λn
a21 x1 +a22 x2 +.. .+a 2n x n =b2 −a 2r +1 λr+1 −.. .−a2 n λn
.. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .
ar 1 x 1 +ar 2 x 2 +. ..+a rn x n =br −arr +1 λ r+1 −.. .−arn λ n
(4)

It has unique solution

λ 1 ,. . ., λ r . The numbers λ 1 ,. . ., λ r , λ r+1 ,. . . , λ n form a solution for
system (4) which is a solution for the system (2). Since the values r+1
λ , .. . , λ n for the secondary
x , .. . , x n are arbitrary, we obtain in this way an infinity different solutions for the
unknowns r+1
system (4), which is the set of all solutions of the system (1).
System of linear homogeneous equations
A linear system is called homogeneous if in the right side all constant terms are zero

{
a11 x 1 +a12 x 2 +...+a1 n x n=0
a21 x 1 +a22 x 2 +...+a2 n x n =0
........................................
a m1 x 1 +am2 x 2 +...+amn x n =0
(5)
we have the following properties for the homogeneous systems:
1) A homogeneous system is always consistent (we can see this if we replace
x 1 , .. . , x n with zero)
2) Supposing that rank A is r
i) if r =n , then the zero solution is the unique solution of system (5)
ii) if r < n , then the system (5) has non-zero solutions.
A homogeneous system with the same number of equations and unknowns has non-
zero solutions if and only if its determinant is zero.
For a homogeneous system if the number of equations is smalls than the number of
unknowns then the system has non-zero solutions.
 Matrix Representation of a Linear System
Matrices are helpful in rewriting a linear system in a very simple form. The algebraic
properties of matrices may then be used to solve systems. First, consider the linear system

{
a 11 x 1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 =b 1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 +a23 x 3=b2
a31 x 1 + a32 x 2 + a33 x 3 =b 3
(1)
Set the matrices

( ) () ()
a11 a12 a 13 x1 b1
A= a21 a22 a 23 X = x2 B= b 2
a31 a32 a 33 x3 b3
, and
Using the matrix multiplications, we can rewrite the system (1) as the matrix equation
A⋅X= B
−1
Now, if the above A has an inverse, then both sides can be left-multiplied by A , to get

A−1 AX= A−1 B

I 3 X =A−1 B

X =A−1 B
For example

{ ( ) () ( )
x +2 y=10 1 2 0 x 10
3 x+2 y +z=23 A= 3 2 1 X= y B= 23
y+2 z=13 0 1 2 , z , 13

( )
c 11 c 21 c 31
−11
A = c 12 c 22 c 32
A
c 13 c 23 c 33
First, find inverse

1 2 0
Δ=|3 2 1 |=4−1−12=−9
0 1 2
2 1 2 0 2 0
c 11 =| |=3 c 21=−| |=−4 c 31=| |=2
1 2 1 2 2 1
 3 1 1 0 1 0
c 12=−| |=−6 c 22=| |=2 c 32=−| |=−1
0 2 0 2 3 1
3 2 1 2 1 2
c 13=| |=3 c 23=| |=−1 c 33=| |=2−6=−4
0 1 0 1 3 2

( )
1 4 2
− −
3 9 9

( )
3 −4 2
1 2 2 1
A−1 =− −6 2 −1 = − −
9 3 9 9
3 −1 −4
1 1 4
−
3 9 9

( )
1 4 2
− −
3 9 9

( )()
10 4
2 2 1
X=
3
−
9 9
23 = 3 x=4
13 5 y=3
1 1 4
−
, i.e. z=5
3 9 9

Lecture 5

Cramer’s rule
Cramer’s rule is an explicit formula for the solution of a system of linear equations
with as many equations as unknowns, valid whenever the system has a unique solution. It
expresses the solution in terms of determinants of the coefficient matrix and of matrices
obtained from it by replacing one column by the vector of right hand sides of the equations.

Now consider a system of 3 linear equations in 3 unknowns x , y , z

{
a 11 x + a12 y +a 13 z=b 1
a21 x+ a22 y + a23 z=b2
a31 x +a 32 y +a 33 z=b 3
(1)

a11 a12 a 13
Δ=|a21 a22 a 23|
a31 a32 a 33 is determinant of the coefficient matrix.

Let multiply the first of equations (1) by the cofactor C 11 of entry a 11 , the second one by C 21
and the third equation by
C 31 and them sum together the results. Doing this we derive

( C 11 a11+ C21 a21 +C 31 a31 ) x + ( C 11 a12 +C21 a22 +C 31 a 32) y +

 + ( C 11 a 13+C 21 a23 +C31 a33 ) z=C 11 b1 +C 21 b2 +C 31 b 3
.

But the coefficient of x will become Δ , while the coefficients of all other unknowns
become zero by property 10 in lecture 1. The lefthand side becomes simply Δ⋅x . The right hand
b1 a12 a13
|b 2 a22 a23|
C b +C b +C b
side is 11 1 21 2 31 3 which is equal to b 3 a32 a33 .

b1 a12 a13
Δ x =|b2 a22 a23 |
Thus b 3 a32 a33 is determinant obtained by substituting the constant column for the
coefficient of x .
Δx
So
Δ⋅x=Δ x . Let suppose that Δ≠0 , we find x= Δ .

In the some way we find

Δ⋅y= Δ y and Δ⋅z=Δ z , where

a11 b1 a13 a11 a 12 b 1

Δ y =|a21 b2 a23| Δ z =|a21 a 22 b 2 |
a31 b3 a33 , a31 a 32 b 3

The formulas

Δx Δy Δ
x= y= z= z
Δ , Δ , Δ are called Cramer’s rule.

For example

{
x − y+ z=5 1 −1 1
2 x + y +z=6 Δ=|2 1 1|=5≠0
x + y +2 z=4 1 1 2
5 −1 1 1 5 1
Δx =|6 1 1 |=15 Δ y =|2 6 1 |=−5
4 1 2 1 4 2
1 −1 5
Δz =|2 1 6 |=5 15 −5 5
x= =3 y= =−1 z= =1
1 1 4 , so 5 , 5 , 5 .
Gauss’ method (the method of elimination)
 Consider a linear system

{
a 11 x 1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 =b 1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 +a23 x 3=b2
a31 x 1 + a32 x 2 + a33 x 3 =b 3
(1)

We divide the first equation of the system by a 11≠0 which results in

{
a12 a b
x 1+ x 2 + 13 x 3 = 1
a11 a 11 a11
a21 x1 +a22 x2 +a23 x 3=b2
a31 x 1 +a32 x 2 +a33 x 3 =b 3
(2)

−a 21 (−a31 )
Multiply the first equation of (2) by and add it to the second (third) equation of system
(2). This eliminates x 1 and yields the system

{
x 1 +a'12 x 2 +a'13 x 3=b'1
a'22 x 2 +a '23 x 3 =b'2
a'32 x2 +a'33 x 3=b'3
(3)
(the primes designate the new coefficients here)

Now we divide the second equation of (3) by a 22 , then multiply by (−a32 ) and add with
'

third equation. We get if the system is consistent the system

{
x 1 +b12 x2 +b13 x 3=B1
x 2 + b23 x 3=B2
x 3 =B3

We got a triangular form of system. Substituting

x 3 into second equation, we find x 2 , then
substituting
x 3 , x 2 into first equation we finally evaluate x 1 .

Example

{ {
2 x 1 + x 2 −x 3=1 x1 −x 2 +2 x 3 =5
3 x1 + 2 x 2 −2 x3 =1 2 x 1 + x 2 −x 3 =1
x 1 −x 2 +2 x 3 =5 ⇒ 3 x 2 +2 x 2 −2 x3 =1 ⇒

{ {
x −x +2 x =5
x1 −x 2 +2 x 3 =5 1 2 3
5
3 x 2−5 x 3 =−9 x 2 − x 3 =−3
3
⇒ 5 x 2 −8 x 3 =−14 ⇒ 5 x 2 −8 x 3 =−14 ⇒
 {
x1 −x 2 +2 x 3 =5
5 5
x 2 − x 3 =−3 x 2 − ⋅3=−3
3 3
1 x 2 =2
x 3 =1
⇒ 3 ⇒ x 3 =3 , x 1=1

TEST

1. Solve the system of equations and find x  y

3 y  2 z  10

 x  y  5 z  5
3 x  2 y  13

A) 4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 7 E) 8

2. Solve the system of equations and find y  z

2 x  y  z  5

 x  2 y  3 z  20
3 x  y  2 z  17

A) 4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 7 E) 8

3. Solve the system of equations and find x  z

5 x  y  3 z  18

4 x  3 y  5 z  4
x  y  z  6

A) 4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 7 E) 8

4. Solve the system of equations and find x  y  2 z

x  y  z  2

2 x  y  z  7
 x  4 y  z  17

A) 7 B) 8 C) 9 D) 5 E) 10

5. Solve the system of equations and find x  y  z

4 x  3 y  2 z  9

2 x  5 y  3 z  4
5 x  6 y  2 z  18

A) 10 B) 11 C) 12 D) 13 E) 14

6. Solve the system of equations and find y  z

2 x  3 y  5 z  11

 x  y  3z  7
3 x  2 y  7 z  18

A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 5

7. Solve the system of equations and find x  z

2 x  3 y  z  0

 x  2 y  3z  0
2 x  y  z  6

B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4

A) 0

8. Solve the system of equations and find x + y + z

{x−3y+z=−6¿{5x+y−2z=4¿ ¿
B) 6 C) 7 D) 8 E) 9

A) 5

9. Solve the system of equations and find x + y

{x+3y−z=4¿{2x−4y−z=−7¿ ¿
 )5 B) 6 C) 7 D) 8 E) 9

10. Solve the system of equations and find x + y

{5x+y−3z=3¿{2x−3y+7z=19¿ ¿
B) 5 C) 6 D) 7 E) 8

A) 4
Lecture 6 (LA)
Linear Spaces

Basic notions. Let us consider a set R of elements x , y , z, . .. such that the sum x+ y∈ R is defined
for any two elements x ∈ R and y ∈R and the product λx ∈ R is defined for any element x ∈ R
and any real number λ .
If summation of the members of the set R and multiplication of a member of that set by a real
number satisfy the conditions:

1. x + y= y + x

2. ( x+ y )+ z=x + ( y + z )

3.there exists an element 0 ∈ R (null-element) such that x +0=x for any x ∈ R

4. there exists an element y ∈R for every element x ∈ R such x + y=0 ( in what follows we`ll
write y=− x i.e. x + (−x )=0 )

5. 1⋅x=x

6. λ ( μx )=( λμ ) x

7. ( λ+ μ ) x= λx+ μx

8. λ ( x + y )= λx+ λy

then the set R is said to be linear(or vector) space, and the elements x , y , z, . .. of that space are
called vectors.
The difference of two vectors ⃗
x and ⃗y of a linear space is a vector ⃗v of that space such that
⃗y +⃗v =⃗x . The difference of two vectors ⃗x and ⃗y is designated as ⃗x −⃗y ,i.e ⃗x −⃗y =⃗v

The following theorems hold true:

1. Every linear space contains only one null-element
2. Each element of linear space is associated with only one opposite element.
3. The equality 0⋅x=0 is satisfied for every element x ∈ R
4. The equality λ⋅0= 0 is satisfied for any real number λ and 0 ∈ R
5. The equality λx=0 yields one of the two equalities: λ=0 or x=0
6. The element (−1 )⋅x is the opposite of the element x

Assume that ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗

u are some vectors of the linear space R. The vector specified by the equality
⃗v =α ⃗x + β ⃗y +γ ⃗z +. . .+ λ ⃗u
where α , β , γ , . .. , λ are real numbers, also belongs to linear space R. This vector is known as the
linear combination of the vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗
u.

Suppose the linear combination of the vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗

u is a null-vector, that is
α ⃗x +β ⃗y +γ ⃗z+. ..+λ ⃗u =0 (1)

If equality (1) can be also satisfied in the case when not the numbers α , β , γ , . .. , λ are equal to zero,
the vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗
u are said to be linearly dependent.

The vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗

u are called linearly independent if equality (1) is satisfied only for
α =β=γ .. .= λ=0 . The vectors ⃗x ,⃗y ,⃗z ,...⃗u are linearly independent if and only if one of them
can be represented as a linear combination of the other vectors.

Dimensionality and the basis of a linear space. If there are n linearly independent vectors in the
linear space R but any n+1 vectors of that space are linearly dependent, the space R is said to be n-
dimensional. It is also customary to say that the dimensionality of space R is equal to n and write
d ( R )=n . The space containing infinitely many linearly independent vectors is called infinite-
dimensional. If R is infinite-dimensional space, thend ( R )=∞ .
A collection of n linearly independent vectors of an n-dimensional linear space is known as the
basis. The following theorem hold true: every vector of a linear n-dimensional space can be
uniquely represented as a linear combination of the vectors of the basis. Thus, if 1 2
⃗e , ⃗e ,.. .,⃗e
n is the

basis of an n-dimensional linear space R, then any vector x ∈ R can be uniquely represented in the
form
 ⃗x =ξ 1 ⃗e 1 + ξ2 ⃗e 2 +. . .+ ξ n ⃗e n

Thus, the vector ⃗

x in the basis ⃗e 1 , ⃗e 2 ,.. .,⃗e n can be uniquely defined with the aid of numbers
ξ 1 , ξ 2 ,. . . ,ξ n . These numbers are called the coordinates of the vector x in the given basis.

⃗x =ξ 1 ⃗e 1 + ξ2 ⃗e 2 +. . .+ ξ n ⃗e n ⃗y =η1 ⃗e 1 +η2 ⃗e 2 +. . .+ ηn ⃗e n
If , , then
x + y=( ξ1 +η1 ) e1 +( ξ 2 +η 2 ) e 2 +. ..+( ξ n +η n ) e n

λx= λξ1 e 1 + λξ 2 e 2 +. ..+ λξ n en

To determine the dimensionality of a linear space, it is useful to bear in mind the following theorem:
If any vector of the linear space R can be represented as a linear combination of the linearly
independent vectors
e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., e n , then d ( R )=n ( and , consequently, the vectors e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., e n
form a basis in the space R)
Example 1.The elements of the linear space are the systems of the ordered real numbers
x i=( ξ 1i , ξ 2i , .. . , ξni ) ( i=1 , 2 ,3 , .. . )
. What condition must be fulfilled by the numbers
ξ ik ( i=1 , 2, 3 , .. . , n; k=1 , 2 ,. .. , n ) for the vectors x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n to be linearly independent if the sum
of vectors and the product of a vector by a number are specified by the equalities
x i + x k =( ξ 1i + ξ 1k ; ξ 2 i +ξ 2k ; . . .; ξ ni +ξ nk ) λx i= ( λξ 1i ; λξ 2 i ; .. . ; λξ ni )
, ?

α x +α 2 x 2 +.. .+α n x n =0 . It is equivalent to the system

Solution. Let us consider the equation 1 1
of equations

{
α 1 ξ11+ α 2 ξ 12+. . .+ α n ξ1 n = 0
α 1 ξ 21 + α 2 ξ 22+. . .+ α n ξ3 n = 0
.. . ... . .. .. .
α 1 ξ n1 + α 2 ξ n 2 +. ..+ α n ξ nn= 0

x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n are linearly independent, the system must possess the unique

In the case the vectors
α =α 2 =. ..=α n=0 , that is
solution 1

ξ 11 ξ 12 . .. ξ1 n
|ξ 21 ξ 22 . .. ξ2 n |≠0
. .. . .. . .. ...
ξn 1 ξn 2 . .. ξ nn
 x 1=( ξ 11 ; ξ 21 ) x 2 =( ξ 12 ; ξ 22 )
In particular , are linearly independent if and only if
,
ξ 11 ξ 22−ξ 12 ξ 21≠0

x 1=( ξ 11 ; ξ 21)
Example 2. Given a linear space of various pairs of the ordered real numbers ,
x 2 =( ξ 12 ; ξ 22 ) x 3 =( ξ 13 ; ξ23 )
, …,and addition of vectors and multiplication of a vector by a real
x i + x k =( ξ 1i + ξ 1k ; ξ 2 i +ξ 2k ) λx i= ( λξ 1i ; λξ 2 i )
number are determined by the equalities :

Prove that the vectors

e 1= ( 1; 2 ) and e 2 =( 3 ; 4 ) form the basis of the given linear space. Find the

coordinates of the vector x=( 7 ;10 ) in this basis.

Solution. The the vectors

e 1= ( 1; 2 ) and e 2 =( 3 ; 4 ) are linearly independent(see example
y=( η1 ; η2 ) η η
1).Consider an arbitrary vector .Show that for any 1 and 2 there are numbers λ and
μ such that the equality y= λe1 + μe 2 or ( η1 ; η2 ) =( λ+ 3 μ ; 2 λ+ 4 μ ) is satisfied.

It is easy to see that there exists a unique pair of values ( λ , μ ) for which this equality is satisfied.
This follows from the fact that the system of equations

{ λ+ 3 μ=
2 λ+4 μ=
η1
η2

is determinate.

e e
Thus, the vectors 1 and 2 form a basis. Determine the coordinates of the vector x=( 7 ;10 ) in this
basis. The problem reduces to determining λ and μ from the system of equations

{ λ+3 μ= 7
2 λ+4 μ= 10
λ=1 , μ=2 i.e x=e 1 +2 e 2
This yields

Linear Transformations
Basic notions. A transformation A is said to be given in the linear space R if in accordance with
some rule each vector x ∈ R is put into correspondence with the vector Ax ∈ R . A transformation
A is called linear if the equalities

A ( x + y )= Ax+ Ay A ( λx )=λ Ax
,

are satisfied for any two vectors x and y and for any real number λ .
 itself. An
A linear transformation is called identity transformation if it maps any vector x into
identity linear transformation is denoted by I. Thus, Ix=x .

Zero linear transformation is A ( x )=0 for all x

Example 3. Show that transformation Ax=αx , where α is a real number, is linear.

Solution. We have

A ( x + y )=α ( x+ y )=αx+ αy= Ax+ Ay

A ( λx )=α ( λx )=λ ( αx )=λ Ax
Thus, two conditions defining a linear transformation are satisfied.
Matrix of a linear transformation
A is given in an n-dimensional linear space R whose basis is
Suppose a linear transformation
⃗e 1 , ⃗e 2 ,. . ., e n . Since Ae1 , Ae2 , .. . , Aen are vectors of the space R, each of them can
be uniquely
resolved with respect to vectors of the basis

Ae 1= a11 e 1 + a21 e2 +.. .+ an 1 e n

Ae 2 = a12 e 1 + a22 e2 +.. .+ an 2 e n
. .. .. . .. . .. .
Ae n= a1 n e 1 + a 2n e 2 +. . .+ a nn e n
The matrix

( )
a11 a12 .. . a1n
A= a 21 a22 .. . a 2 n
... .. . .. . .. .
an 1 a n2 .. . a nn

is said to be the matrix a linear transformation A in the basis

e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., e n .The columns of the matrix
consist of the coefficients of the formulas for
e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., e n of the base vectors. Let us take an
arbitrary vector
x=x 1 e 1 + x 2 e 2 +. ..+ x n e n in the space R.

Since
Ax ∈ R , the vector Ax can be also resolved with respect to the vectors of the basis

Ax=x¿1 e1 + x '2 e2 +. . .+ x'n e n

The coordinates ( x1 ; x 2 ; . .. x n ) of the vector Ax can be expressed in terms of the coordinates
' ' '

( x 1 ; x 2 ;.. . x n ) of the vector x by the formulas

'
x 1= a11 x 1 + a12 x2 +.. .+ a1 n x n
'
x 2 = a21 x 1 + a22 x2 +.. .+ a2 n x n
. .. .. . . .. .. .
'
x n = a n1 x 1 + a n2 x 2 +. . .+ ann x n

These n equalities can be called a linear transformation A in the basis 1 2

e , e ,. . ., e
n . The coefficients
in the formulas for this linear transformation are the elements of the rows of the matrix A.
Properties of Linear transformations

1. A ( 0 ) =0
2. A (−x )=− A ( x )
3. A ( y−x )= A ( y )− A ( x )
4. If
x=α 1 x 1 +α 2 x 2 +. ..+α n x n then
A ( x )= A ( α 1 x 1 +α 2 x 2 +. ..+ α n x n )=α 1 A ( x 1 ) +α 2 A ( x 2 ) +. ..+ α n A ( x n )

Proof

To prove the first property, note that 0 x=0 . Then it follows that A ( 0 ) =A ( 0 x ) =0 A ( x )=0 .

The second property follows from −x=(−1 ) x ,which implies that

A (−x )= A [ (−1 ) x ] =(−1 ) A ( x ) =−A ( x )

The third property follows from y−x = y+ (−x ) , which implies that

A ( y−x )= A [ y+ (−1 ) x ] = A ( y ) + (−1 ) A ( x )= A ( y )− A ( x )

A ( x + y )= Ax+ Ay A ( λx )=λ Ax
The fourth property follows from , ,

A ( x )= A ( α 1 x 1 +α 2 x 2 +. ..+ α n x n )= A ( α 1 x 1 ) + A ( α 2 x 2 ) +. ..+ A ( α n x n ) =
α 1 A ( x 1 ) + α 2 A ( x 2 ) +.. .+α n A ( x n )
which implies that
3 3
Example 4. Let A : R → R be a linear transformation such that

A ( 1 , 0 ,0 )=( 2 ,−1 , 4 ) , A ( 0 , 1,0 )=( 1 ,5 ,−2 ) , A ( 0 , 0 , 1 )=( 0 , 3 ,1 ) . Find A ( 2 ,3 ,−2 )

Solution. Because ( 2 , 3 ,−2 )=2 ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) +3 ( 0 ,1 , 0 ) −2 ( 0 ,0 , 1 ) , you can use Property 4to write
A ( 2 ,3 ,−2 )=2 A ( 1 , 0 ,0 )+3 A ( 0 ,1 , 0 )−2 A ( 0 , 0 , 1 )=2 ( 2 ,−1 , 4 )+3 ( 1 , 5 ,−2 ) −2 ( 0 , 3 , 1 )=( 7 , 7 , 0 )
Operations on linear transformations

 The sum of the linear transformations A and B is transformation

C 1 specified by the equality
C 1 x=Ax + Bx . The notation is C 1= A+ B

C
The product of the linear transformation A by the number λ is transformation 2 specified
by the equality 2
C x=λ Ax . The notation is 2
C = λA
 The product of the linear transformation A by the linear transformation B is transformation
C 3 specified by the equality C 3 x= ABx . The notation is C 3= AB
 If for the linear transformation A there can be found transformations B and C such that
BA=I , AC=I , then B=C . In this case notation is B=C= A−1 and linear
−1
transformation A is called an inverse linear transformation with respect to the linear
−1 −1
transformation A. Thus, A A= AA =I
Characteristic numbers and eigenvectors of a linear transformation

Suppose R is a given n-dimensional linear space. The nonzero vector x ∈ R is called an eigenvector
of the linear transformation A if there is a number λ such that the equality Ax=λx .The number
λ is called a characteristic number ( eigenvalue) of the linear transformation A corresponding to
the vector x .

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be found as follows. Since x=Ix we can rewrite equation
Ax=λx in the form ( A−λI )x =0 .

An eigenvalues of A is a scalar such that det ( A−λI ) x=0 .

The eigenvectors of A corresponding to λ are the nonzero solutions of ( A−λI )x =0

If the linear transformation A in the basis

⃗e 1 , e 2 ,. . ., ⃗e n has matrix

( )
a11 a12 .. . a1n
a a22 .. . a 2 n
A= 21
... .. . .. . .. .
an 1 a n2 .. . a nn

then the characteristic numbers of the linear transformation A are the real roots
λ 1 , λ2 , .. . , λn of the
nth degree equation which can be written in the form
 a11− λ a 12 . .. a1 n
a a 22−λ . .. a2 n
| 21 |=0
. .. . .. . .. . . .
an 1 an 2 . .. ann−λ
characteristic equation and its left-hand side, as a characteristic polynomial of the
It is known as
linear transformation A. The eigenvector
⃗x k corresponding to characteristic number λ k is any vector
ξ 1 ⃗e 1 +ξ 2 ē 2 +. . .+ ξ n ⃗e n whose coordinates
satisfy the system of homogeneous equations

{
( a 11−λ k ) ξ1 + a12 ξ 2 +.. .+ a1 n ξ n = 0
a21 ξ1 + ( a 22−λk ) ξ 2 +. ..+ a2 n ξ n = 0
.. . .. . . .. ...
a n1 ξ 1 + a n2 ξ2 + .. .+ ( ann− λk ) ξ n= 0

If the matrix A of the linear transformation A is symmetrical, then all the roots of the
characteristic equation|A−λI|=0 are real numbers.
Example 5. Find characteristic numbers and eigenvectors of the linear transformation A specified
' '
by the equations x =5 x+ 4 y , y =8 x +9 y
Solution. The transformation matrix is written as follows:

( )
A= 5 4
8 9
The characteristic equation has the form

5−λ 4
| |=0 2
8 9−λ or λ −14 λ+13=0

The characteristic numbers

λ 1=1 , λ 2=13

To determine the coordinates of eigenvectors, we obtain two systems of linear equations:

{( 5− λ1 ) ξ1 +
8 ξ1 +
4 ξ 2=0
( 9−λ1 ) ξ2 =0 { ( 5− λ2 ) ξ1 +
8 ξ1 +
4 ξ 2 =0
( 9−λ2 ) ξ 2=0

Since
λ 1=1 , the first system can be written as follows:
 { 4 ξ1 +
8 ξ 1+
4 ξ2 =0
8 ξ 2 =0

Thus, the values of

ξ 1 and ξ 2 must satisfy the equation ξ 1 +ξ 2 =0 or ξ 2 =−ξ 1 Consequently, the
solution of system has the form 1
ξ =c 1 ,ξ 2 =−c 1 , where c 1 is an arbitrary value. Thus, the
characteristic number
λ 1=1 is associated with a family of eigenvectors ⃗u =c1 ⃗e 1 −c 1 ē 2 .

The value
λ 2=13 leads to a system of equations

{−8 ξ 1 +
8 ξ1 −
4 ξ 2=0
4 ξ 2=0

ξ 2 =2 ξ1 .Putting ξ 1 =c 2 ,we obtain ξ 2 =2 c2 . Consequently, characteristic number λ 2=13 is

i.e.
associated with a family of eigenvectors
⃗v =c2 e1 +2 c 2 ē2 .Thus, assigning to the quantities c 1 , c 2
in the equations
⃗u =c ⃗e −c ē ⃗v =c e +2 c 2 ē2 various numerical values, we obtain the
1 1 1 2, 2 1
eigenvectors of linear transformation A.

Euclidean Space

The linear space is said to be Euclidean if there is rule which makes it possible to construct, for
x and ⃗
⃗ y belonging to R, a real number called a scalar product of the vectors⃗x
every two vectors
and ⃗y and designated as ⃗x⋅⃗y , the rule complying with
the following conditions:

 ⃗x⋅⃗y =⃗y⋅⃗x
 x⋅( ⃗
⃗ y +⃗z )=⃗x⋅⃗ y +⃗ x⋅⃗z
 ( λ ⃗x )⋅⃗y=λ ( ⃗x⋅⃗y ) for any real number λ
 ⃗
x⋅⃗
x >0 if ⃗
x ≠0
It follows from these conditions that
(a) ( ⃗y +⃗z )⋅⃗x =⃗y⋅⃗x +⃗z⋅⃗x
(b) ⃗
x⋅( λ ⃗y )= λ(⃗x⋅⃗y )
x =0 for any vector ⃗
(c) 0⋅⃗ x

x ∈ R into itself is called a scalar square of the vector ⃗

The scalar product of any vector⃗ x .The
length of the vector ⃗
x in be Euclidean space is a square root of scalar square of that vector i.e.
|⃗x|=√⃗x⋅⃗x .If λ is arbitrary real number , and ⃗
x is arbitrary vector of Euclidean space, then
|λ⃗x|=|λ||⃗x|.
x ∈ R is a non-zero vector, then, as
A vector whose length is equal to unity is called unit vector. If ⃗
⃗x
it is easy to see, |⃗x| is a unit vector.
Properties

 |⃗x|=0 if and only if ⃗x =0

 |⃗x⋅⃗y|≤|⃗x|⋅|⃗y| ( Cauchy-Bunyakovsky`s inequality)
 |⃗x +⃗y|≤|⃗x|+|⃗y| ( triangle inequality)
⃗x⋅⃗y
cos ϕ=
The angle ϕ specified by the equality |⃗x|⋅|⃗y| and belonging to the closed interval
[ 0 , π ] ,is said to be the angle between the vectors⃗x and ⃗y . If ⃗x and ⃗y are non-zero vectors and
π
ϕ=
2 , then ⃗x⋅⃗y =0 . In this case the vectors⃗
x and ⃗
y are said to be orthogonal and they are
written as ⃗
x ⊥ ⃗y
Lecture 7(LA)
Quadratic Forms

Let the real variables

x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n be given. Consider all possible paired products x i x j and
compose the sum

a 11 x21 +a12 x1 x 2 +. . .+a1 n x 1 x n +

+a21 x 2 x 1 +a 22 x 22 +. ..+a2n x 2 x n +
. .. .. . .. .. ..... ...... .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .+
+an1 x n x 1 +an 2 x n x2 +.. .+a nn x 2n
n n
¿ ∑ ∑ aij x i x j
i=1 j−1

a ij are some numbers, among which at least one is nonzero. This sum is called quadratic form
where
of the real variables
x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n is denoted F ( x1 , x 2 , .. . , x n )
 n n
F ( x 1 , x 2 , .. . , x n )=∑ ∑ a ij x i x j
Thus, i=1 j−1 (1)

a
The numbers ij are called the coefficients of quadratic form. The quadratic form can be written in
xx x x x x =x j x i ,
such a way that the coefficients at i j and j i are equal to each other. Indeed, since i j
then

1 1
a ij x i x j +a ji x j x i=( aij + a ji ) x i x j= ( aij + a ji ) x i x j + ( aij +a ji ) x j xi
2 2
In what follows we will assume that in quadratic form (1)

a ij=a ji (2)

Definition. A quadratic form of the real variables 1 2

x , x ,. .. , x
n is a polynomial of the second
degree in these variables which does not contain a constant term and terms of first degree.

If F ( x1 , x 2 , .. . , x n ) is a quadratic form of the real variables 1 2

x , x ,. .. , x n and λ is some real

number, then
F ( λx1 , λx 2 , . .. , λx n )=λ 2 F ( x 1 , x2 ,. .. , x n )

From the coefficients of quadratic form, we compose the matrix

( )
a11 a12 .. . a1n
a a22 .. . a 2 n
A= 21
... .. . .. . .. .
an 1 a n2 .. . a nn

By virtue of equality (2) the matrix A has equal elements located symmetrically to the principal
diagonal. Such matrix is called symmetric matrix. The symmetric matrix

( )
a11 a12 .. . a1n
a a .. . a 2 n
A= 12 22
. . . .. . .. . .. .
a1n a 2n .. . a nn

is called matrix of the quadratic form.

 T T
In order for the matrix to be symmetric, it is necessary and sufficient that A =A , where A is the
transposed matrix .

Quadratic form
n n
∑ ∑ aij x i x j a il=0 for i≠ j .Hence ,canonical quadratic form is
i=1 j−1 is called canonical if
n
a 11 x 21 + a22 x22 +.. .+a nn x 2n =∑ aii x 2i
i=1 and its matrix is diagonal.
If n=2 then quadratic form is

F ( x 1 , x 2 ) =a 11 x 21 + 2 a12 x 1 x 2 +a 22 x 22

If n=3 then quadratic form is

F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =a11 x 21 + a22 x 22 + a33 x 23 +2 a12 x 1 x 2 +2 a13 x 1 x 3 +2 a23 x 2 x 3 (3)

In what follows we present all necessary definitions and formulas for case of a quadratic form of
three variables.
The symmetric matrix is called matrix of the quadratic form

( )
a11 a12 a13
A= a12 a22 a23
a13 a23 a33

With the help of the matrix we can rewrite formula (3) as

F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =( a 11 x 1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 ) x 1 + ( a12 x 1 +a 22 x 2 +a 23 x 3 ) x 2 + ( a13 x 1 +a 23 x 2 + a33 x 3 ) x 3 =

()
y1
¿ y 1 x 1 + y 2 x 2 + y 3 x 3 =( x 1 x2 x3 ) y2
y3
where
( )( )( )( ) ( )
y1 a11 x1 +a12 x2 +a13 x 3 a11 a 12 a13 x 1 x1
y 2 = a 12 x 1 +a 22 x 2 +a 23 x 3 = a12 a 22 a23 ⋅ x 2 =A x 2
y3 a13 x1 +a23 x 2 +a 33 x 3 a13 a 23 a33 x3 x3

()
x1
X = x2
x3
Thus, if we introduce the number vector we obtain

F=X T AX (4)
Conversely, if a form is represented as (4) and if the matrix A is symmetric then A is the matrix of
this quadratic form.
Let us now perform an arbitrary linear transformation of the variables of form

x 1 = b11 x '1 + b12 x'2 + b13 x '3

x 2 = b21 x'1 + b22 x'2 + b32 x'3
x 3 = b31 x'1 + b32 x'2 + b33 x '3

'
This transformation can be put down in the matrix form as X =B X (5)
T T T
Then by formula ( AB ) =B A
T T ¿
(6) , we have X = X B which implies

F=X BT AB { X = X ( BT AB ) X ¿
¿ ' ¿ '

T ¿ ' ' '

That is F = X A X where A =B AB (7)
'
But the matrix A is symmetric because, by formula (6) ,we have
¿ '
A =(BT AB)T =BT AT BTT =BT AB= A
'
Hence, it is A that is the matrix of the quadratic form after the change
of variables is made.
Thus, substitution (5) yields transformation of the matrix of a quadratic form according to formula
T −1 ' −1
(7).In particular, if B is an orthogonal matrix then, by formula B =B ,we see that A =B AB
. We can always choose a matrix B such that there should be A =diag ( λ1 , λ2 , λ 3 ) where the
'

diagonal elements are the eigenvalues of the matrix A . We obtain the quadratic form
' ' ' ¿ ¿ ¿
F ( x1 , x 2 , . x 3 )= λ1 x 1 + λ 2 x2 + λ3 x 3 which does not contain terms with products
x '1 x '2 , x '1 x '3 , x '2 x'3 .
It is customary to say that quadratic form F ( x1 , x 2 , . x 3 ) has been reduced to the canonical form by
means of the orthogonal transformation B. The argument was carried out under the assumption that
eigenvalues
λ 1 , λ2 , λ3 were distinct

Example 1. Quadratic form

F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =2 x 21 −3 x 22 + x 23 +8 x 1 x 2 +2 x 1 x 3 is given.

Write in matrix form.

F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =( 2 x 1 +4 x 2 + x 3 ) x 1 + ( 4 x 1−3 x 2 + 0 ) x 2 + ( x 1 + 0+ x 3 ) x 3
Solution .
Matrix of this quadratic form is

( )
2 4 1
A= 4 −3 0
1 0 1

( )( )
2 4 1 x1
F ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) =( x 1 x2 x3 ) 4 −3 0 x 2
1 0 1 x3

Hence,

Quadratic form
F ( x 1 , x 2 ) =2 x21 +4 x 1 x 2 −3 x22 is given

Example 2. .
Find quadratic form obtained from given form by transforming

{ x1 =2 y 1 −3 y 2
x 2= y 1+ y 2

Solution .Matrix of given quadratic form is

A= 2 2(
2 −3 )
and matrix of transformation is
B= ( 2 −3
1 1 )
Hense, matrix of the required quadratic form is

F=BT AB= ( )(
2 1 2 2 2 −3 13 −17
−3 1 2 −3 1 1
=
−17 3 )( )( )
F ( y 1 , y 2 )=13 y 21 −34 y1 y 2 +3 x 22
And quadratic form have form
Definiteness of Quadratic Forms

A quadratic form of one variable is just a quadratic functionQ

( x )=ax 2

If a > 0 then Q(x) > 0 for each nonzero x.

If a < 0 then Q(x) < 0 for each nonzero x.
So the sign of the coefficient a determines the sign of one variable quadratic form.
Generic Examples

The quadratic formQ ( x , y )=x + y is positive for all nonzero (that is( x , y ) ≠( 0 , 0 ) ) arguments
2 2

(x, y). Such forms are called positive definite.

2
The quadratic form Q ( x , y )=−x − y 2 is negative for all nonzero arguments (x, y). Such forms
are called negative definite.
2 2
The quadratic formQ ( x , y )= ( x− y ) is nonnegative. This means that Q ( x , y )= ( x− y ) is
either positive or zero for nonzero arguments. Such forms are called positive semidefinite.
2 2
The quadratic form Q ( x , y )=− ( x − y ) is nonpositive. This means thatQ ( x , y )=− ( x − y ) is
either negative or zero for nonzero arguments. Such forms are called negative semidefinite.
2 2
The quadratic formQ ( x , y )=x − y is called indefinite since it can take both positive and
negative values, for example Q(3, 1) = 9 − 1 = 8 > 0, Q(1, 3) = 1 − 9 = −8 < 0.
Definiteness
T
Definition. A quadratic form Q ( x )=x ⋅A⋅¿ x (equivalently a symmetric matrix A) is (a) positive
n
definite if Q(x) > 0 for all x≠0 ∈ R ;
n
(b) positive semidefinite if Q(x) ≥ 0 for x≠0 ∈ R ;
n
(c) negative definite if Q(x) < 0 for all x≠0 ∈ R ;
n
(d) negative semidefinite if Q(x) ≤ 0 for all x≠0 ∈ R ;
(e) indefinite if Q(x) > 0 for some x and Q(x) < 0 for some other x.
Definiteness and Optimality
Determining the definiteness of quadratic form Q is equivalent to determining wether x = 0 is max,
min or neither. Particularly:
If Q is positive definite then x = 0 is global maximum;
If Q is negative definite then x = 0 is global minimum.
Definiteness of 2 Variable Quadratic Form

Let
(
Q ( x 1 , x2 )=ax 21 +2 bx 1 x2 +cx 22 =( x 1 , x 2 )⋅
a
b
b x1
⋅
c x2)( )
be a 2 variable quadratic form.

Here
A= ( )
a b
b c is the symmetric matrix of the quadratic form.

a b
A=| |=ac−b2
The determinant b c is called discriminant of Q.
Easy to see that

ax 12 +2 bx 1 x 2 + cx 22 =a ( )
b 2 ac−b2 2
x 1+ x 2 +
a a
x2
.

Let us use the notation 1

D =a 2
D =ac−b Actually 1 and D D 2 are leading principal minors of
, 2 . ,
A. Note that there exists one more principal (non leading) minor

D '1 =c
(of degree 1) .
Then

b 2 D
(
Q ( x 1 , x2 )=D 1 x 1 + x2 + 2 x 22
a D1 )
From this expression we obtain:

1. If
D 1 > 0 and D 2 > 0 then the form is of x 2 + y 2 type, so it is positive definite;

2. If
D 1 < 0 and D 2 > 0 then the form is of −x 2 − y 2 type, so it is negative definite;
3. If
D 1 > 0 and D 2 < 0 then the form is of x 2 − y 2 type, so it is indefinite;

If
D 1 < 0 and D 2 < 0 then the form is of−x 2 + y 2 type, so it is also indefinite;

Thus if
D 2 < 0 then the form is indefinite.

Definiteness of 3 Variable Quadratic Form

Let us start with the following Example.

Q ( x 1 , x2 , x 3 )=x 21 +2 x 22 −7 x23 −4 x 1 x 2 +8 x 1 x 3

( )
1 −2 4
A= −2 2 0
The symmetric matrix of this quadratic form is
4 0 −7
The leading principal minors of this matrix are

1 −2 4
1 −2 |D |=|−2 2 0 |=−18
|D2|=| |=−2 3
|D1|=|1|=1 , −2 2 4 0 −7
Now look:

Q ( x 1 , x2 , x 3 )=x 21 +2 x 22 −7 x32−4 x 1 x 2 +8 x 1 x3 =
x 21 −4 x 1 x 2 +8 x 1 x 3 +2 x 22−7 x 23 =x 21 −4 x 1 ( x 2 −2 x 3 ) +2 x 22−7 x 23 =
[ x 21−4 x1 ( x 2−2 x 3) + 4 ( x 2−2 x 3)2−4 ( x 2−2 x 3 )2] + 2 x 22−723=
2
[ x 1 −2 x 2 + 4 x 3 ] −2 x 22 +16 x 2 x 3−23 x 23 =
[ x 1 −2 x 2 + 4 x 3 ]2−2 ( x 22 −8 x 2 x 3 )−23 x 23=
[ x 1 −2 x 2 + 4 x 3 ] −2 [ x 22 −8 x 2 x 3 +16 x 23−16 x 23 ]−23 x 23
2

[ x 1 −2 x 2 + 4 x 3 ]2−2 [ x 2−4 x 3 ]2+32 x23 −23 x 23

2 2
[ x 1 −2 x 2 + 4 x 3 ] −2 [ x 2−4 x 3 ] +9 x 23 =
2 |D 2| 2 |D 3| 2
|D1|l 1 + l + l
|D1| 2 |D 2| 3
Where
l 1 =x1 −2 x 2 +4 x3
l 2 =x 2 −4 x 3
l 3 =x 3

That is (l 1 , l 2 ,l 3 ) are linear combinations of ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) .More precisely

()( )( )
l1 1 −2 4 x1
l2 = 0 1 −4 ⋅ x2
l3 0 0 1 x3

( )
1 −2 4
P= 0 1 −4 ⋅¿ ¿
where
0 0 1
is a nonsingular matrix (changing variables).
Now turn to general 3 variable quadratic form

( )( )
a11 a 12 a13 x 1
Q ( x 1 , x2 , x 3 )=( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) a21 a 22 a23 ⋅ x 2
a31 a 32 a33 x 3

The following three determinants

a11 a 12 a13
a a 12 |D3|=|a21 a 22 a23|
|D2|=| 11 |
|D1|=|a1|, a21 a22 , a31 a 32 a33

are leading principal minors.

It is possible to show that, as in 2 variable case, if

|D1|≠0 ,|D2|≠0 then

2 |D 2| 2 |D 3| 2
Q ( x 1 , x2 , x 3 )=|D 1|l 1 + l+ l
|D1| 2 |D2| 3

where (l 1 , l 2 ,l 3 ) are some linear combinations of ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) (this is called Lagrange’s

reduction).
This implies the following criteria:
1. The form is positive definite if and only if
|D1|>0 ,|D2|>0 ,|D3|>0 , that is all principal
minors are positive.

2. The form is negative definite if and only if

|D1|<0 ,|D2|>0 ,|D3|<0 ,that is principal minors
alternate in sign starting with negative one.

Since A is a symmetric matrix, the roots

λ 1 , λ2 , λ3 of the characteristic equation

a11− λ a 12 a13
| a 21 a 22−λ a23 |=0
a 31 a 32 a33−λ are real numbers.
Assume that

e '1 = b 11 e1 + b 21 e 2 + b 31 e 3
'
e 2 = b12 e1 + b 22 e 2 + b 32 e 3
e '3 = b13 e 1 + b23 e 2 + b 33 e 3

are unit eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalues

λ 1 , λ2 , λ3 in the orthonormal basis e 1 , e 2 ,. e 3
' ' '
. In their turn, the vectors e 1 , e 2 ,. e 3 .The matrix

( )
b 11 b 12 b13
B= b21 a 22 a23
a31 a 32 a33

is the transition matrix from the basis

e 1 , e 2 ,. e 3 to the basis e '1 , e'2 ,. e '3 .

Example 2.Reduce the quadratic form

F ( x1 , x 2 )=27 x 21 −10 x 1 x 2 +3 x 22 to canonical form.

Solution . Here
a 11=27 ,a 12=−5 ,a 22=3 . Derive a characteristic equation

27−λ ¿5
| |=0
−5 3−λ
0r λ 2−30 λ +56=0
That is, the eigenvalues
λ 1=2 , λ 1=28 .

Determine the eigenvectors. If

λ 1=2 , we obtain a system of equations

{25 ξ1 −5 ξ 2 =
−5 ξ 1 +ξ 2 =
0
0

Thus we have
ξ 2 =5 ξ1 .Putting ξ 1 =c ,we obtain ξ 2 =5 c ,that is,

⃗ =c ( ⃗
u e 2)
e 1 +5 ⃗
.

If
λ 1=28 ,we arrive at a system

{ −ξ 1−5 ξ 2 = 0
−5 ξ 1−25 ξ 2 = 0

v =c (−5 ⃗
⃗ e2 )
e 1 +⃗
In this case we obtain an eigenvector

1 1
c= =
To normalize the vectors ⃗
u ,⃗v , we must assume √ 12 +52 √ 26 . Thus we have found the
' 1 ' 1
e 1= ( ⃗e 1 +5 ⃗e 2 ) e 2 = (−5 ⃗e 1 +⃗e 2 )
normalized eigenvectors √ 26 , √ 26 .

The transition matrix from the orthonormal basis

e 1 , e 2 to the orthonormal basis e '1 , e'2 has the form

( )
1 −5
B= √ √ 26
26
5 1
√26 √ 26

Hence the formulas for coordinate transformation:

1 ' 5 '
x 1= x 1− x
√ 26 √26 2
5 ' 1 '
x 2= x 1+ x
√ 26 √ 26 2
It follows that
'

(√26 ) (√26 )(√26 )

2
1 ' 5 ' 1 ' 5 ' 5 ' 1 '
F ( x1 ,x 2 )=27 x 1− x 2 −10 x 1− x2 x1 + x2
√ 26 √26 √ 26 ¿ ¿¿

(√26 )
2
5 1
+3 x'1 + x'2 =2 x ' 2 +28 { x
√ 26 1
22
' '
F= λ 1 x 2+ λ 2 x 2
This result could be obtained directly since 1 2

Lecture 8(LA)

Coordinate systems

The rectangular coordinate system consists of two real number lines that intersect at a right angle.
The horizontal number line is called the x-axis, and the vertical number line is called the y-axis.
These two number lines define a flat surface called a plane, and each point on this plane is
associated with an ordered pair of real numbers (x, y). The first number is called the x-coordinate,
and the second number is called the y-coordinate. The intersection of the two axes is known as
the origin, which corresponds to the point (0, 0).

An ordered pair (x, y) represents the position of a point relative to the origin. The x-coordinate
represents a position to the right of the origin if it is positive and to the left of the origin if it is
negative. The y-coordinate represents a position above the origin if it is positive and below the
origin if it is negative. Using this system, every position (point) in the plane is uniquely identified.
For example, the pair (2, 3) denotes the position relative to the origin as shown:
This system is often called the Cartesian coordinate system, named after the French mathematician
René Descartes (1596–1650).

The x- and y-axes break the plane into four regions called quadrants, named using roman numerals I,
II, III, and IV, as pictured. In quadrant I, both coordinates are positive. In quadrant II, the x-
coordinate is negative and the y-coordinate is positive. In quadrant III, both coordinates are negative.
In quadrant IV, the x-coordinate is positive and the y-coordinate is negative.

Some Simple Problems Concerning Cartesian Coordinates

 The distance between two given points.
M 1 ( x1 , y1) M 2 ( x2 , y2)
Let the points and be given. It is required to determine the
distance
d= M 1 M 2
 The formula for the distance is implied by Pythagoras` theorem applied to the
rectangular triangle.
d= √( x −x ) +( y − y )
2 1
2
2 1
2

 Division of a line segment in a given ratio.

M 1 ( x1 , y1) M 2 ( x2 , y2)
Let some points and be given. . It is required to find a point
M1 M
M ( x , y ) lying on the se.e gment M 1 M 2 such that ratio of division MM 2 should be equal
to λ , where λ is a given number. The solution of the problem follows from the similarity of
M PM and MQM 2 which implies
the triangles 1

M1 P M 1 M x−x 1
= =λ =λ
MQ MM 2 x
i.e 2
−x and
x−x 1 =λx 2− λx .From the last relations we
M2
deduce
x 1 + λx 2 y 1 + λy 2 M
x= y= Q
1+ λ , 1+ λ
M1
P

In particular, in case λ=1 , that is when the segment is halved, we have

x 1+ x 2 y 1+ y 2
x= y=
2 , 2
 Transformation of coordinates without changing the scale.

1.Transformation of Coordinates Involving Pure Translation

{ {
' '
x= x + x 0 x =x−x 0
' '
y= y + y 0 y = y− y 0
or

where (x, y) are old coordinates [i.e. coordinates relative to xy system], (x',y') are new coordinates
[relative to x'y' system] and (x0, y0) are the coordinates of the new origin 0' relative to the
old xy coordinate system.

2.Transformation of Coordinates Involving Rotation

{ x=x ' cos α− y ' sin α

y=x ' sin α + y ' cos α
or
{ x' = x cos α + y sin α
y ' = y cos α −x sin α

where the origins of the old [xy] and new [x'y'] coordinate systems are the same but the x' axis
makes an angle α with the positive x axis.

3.Transformation of Coordinates Involving Translation and Rotation

 { {
' ' '
x=x cos α− y sin α + x 0 x = ( x− x 0 ) cos α + ( y− y 0 ) sin α
'
y=x ' sin α + y ' cos α + y 0 y =( y− y 0 ) cos α −( x− x 0 ) sin α
or

where the new origin O' of x'y' coordinate system has coordinates (x0, y0) relative to the
old xy coordinate system and the x' axis makes an angle α with the positive x axis

 Area of a triangle

x y 1
1 1 1 1 x −x y − y
A=(± ) | x2 y 2 1 |=(± ) | 2 1 2 1 |
2 2 x 3 −x 1 y 3 − y 1
x3 y 3 1
where ( 1 1 ) , ( 2 2 ) and ( 3 3 ) are the vertices of the triangle
A x ,y B x ,y C x ,y
ABC, and
the sign in the right side is chosen so that the area of the triangle is nonnegative.
 Area of a quadrilateral
1
2[ 1 2 1 2
A=(± ) ( x −x )( y + y ) + ( x 2 −x 3 )( y 2 + y 3 ) + ( x 3 −x 0 )( y 3 + y 0 ) + ( x 0 −x 1 )( y 0 + y 1 ) ]
where ( 1 1 ) , ( 2 2 ) , ( 3 3 ) , ( 0 0 ) are the vertices of the
A x ,y B x ,y C x ,y D x ,y
quadrilateral ABCD. The sign in the right side is chosen so that the area of the
quadrilateral is nonnegative.

Polar coordinates

In two dimensions, the Cartesian coordinates (x,y) specify the location of a point P in the plane.
Another two-dimensional coordinate system is polar coordinates. Instead of using the signed
distances along the two coordinate axes, polar coordinates specifies the location of a point P in the
plane by its distance r from the origin and the angle θ made between the line segment from the
origin to P and the positive x-axis. The polar coordinates (r,θ)of a point PP are illustrated in the
below figure.
As r ranges from 0 to infinity and θ ranges from 0 to 2π, the point P specified by the polar
coordinates (r,θ) covers every point in the plane. Adding 2π to θ brings us back to the same point, so
if we allowed θ to range over an interval larger than 2π, each point would have multiple polar
coordinates. Hence, we typically restrict θ to be in the interval 0≤θ<2π. However, even with that
restriction, there still is some non-uniqueness of polar coordinates: when r=0, the point P is at the
origin independent of the value of θ

Conversion formulas
We can calculate the Cartesian coordinates of a point with polar coordinates (r,θ) by forming the
right triangle illustrated in the below figure. The hypotenuse is the line segment from the origin to
the point, and its length is r. The projection of this line segment on the x-axis is the leg of the
triangle adjacent to the angle θ, so x=rcosθ. The y-component is determined by the other leg,
so y=rsinθ .Our conversion formula
is
x=r cos θ , y=r sin θ (1)
.

To go the other direction, one can use the same right triangle. Since r is the distance from the origin
√ 2 2
to (x,y), it is the magnitude r = x + y . Alternatively, from the equation (1), one can calculate
directly that
x 2 + y 2 =r 2 cos 2 θ+r 2 sin2 θ=r 2 ( cos 2 θ+sin 2 θ )=r 2
Taking the ratio of y and x from equation (1), one can obtain a formula for θ
 y r sin θ
= =tan θ
x r cosθ
,
One can also see this relations from the above right triangle. We can set
y
θ=arctan
x
but a problem is that arctan gives a value between −π/2and π/2. One might need to add π or 2π to
get the correct angle. With this caveat (and also mapping points where x=0to θ=π/2 or −π/2), one
obtains the following formula to convert from Cartesian to polar coordinates
r =√ x + y
2 2
(2)

y
θ=arctan
x

three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system

A
1. A three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is formed by a point called
the origin (denoted by O) and a basis consisting of three mutually perpendicular vectors.
These vectors define the three coordinate axes: the x−, y−, and z−axis. They are also known
as the abscissa, ordinate and applicate axis, respectively. The coordinates of any point in
space are determined by three real numbers: x, y, z.
A ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) B ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
2. The distance between two points and in space is determined by
,

the formula
d= √( x −x ) +( y − y
2 1
2
2 1
2
) + ( z 2 −z 1 )
2
3.Dividing a line segment in the ratio λ
Suppose that the point ( 0 0 0 ) divides the segment AB in the ratio λ. The coordinates of the
C x , y ,z
point C are given by the expressions
x 1 + λx2 y 1 + λy 2 z 1 + λz 2 AC
x 0= y 0= z 0= λ= , λ≠−1
1+ λ , 1+ λ , 1+ λ , where CB
where (
x1 , y1 , z1)
are the coordinates of the point A, and (
x2 , y2 , z2)
are the coordinates of the
point B.

The coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment are obtained from the previous formulas
4.
at λ=1 and are written as
x 1+ x 2 y 1+ y 2 z 1+ z 2 AC
x 0= y 0= z 0= λ= =1
2 , 2 , 2 , where CB
5.Area of a triangle
A ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) B ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) C ( x3 , y 3 , z 3 )
The area of a triangle with the vertices and is found by
, ,
the formula

[ ]
y z1 1 2 z1 x1 1 2 x1 y1 1 2
1 1
A= | y 2 z 2 1| +|z 2 x 2 1| +|x 2 y2 1|
2
y3 z3 1 z 3 x3 1 x3 y3 1

6. Volume of a pyramid
A ( x 1 , y 1 , z1 ) B ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
The volume of a pyramid whose vertices have the coordinates and
, ,
C ( x3 , y 3 , z 3 ) D ( x 4 , y 4 , z 4 )
is determined by the expression
,
 x1 y1 z1 1
1 x y2 z2 1 x −x y 1− y 4 z 1−z 4
V =± | 2 | 1 1 4
6 x3 y3 z3 1 V =± |x 2 −x 4 y 2− y 4 z 2−z 4 |
6
x4 y4 z4 1 x 3 −x 4 y 3 − y 4 z 3−z 4
or
The sign in the right side of the formulas above is chosen so that to get a positive value for the area
or volume.

Lecture 9
Vectors and operations on the vectors

A vector is a directed line segment drawn from a point P (called its initial point) to a point
Q (called its terminal point), with P and Q being distinct points. The vector is denoted by ⃗
PQ or
⃗v . Its magnitude is the length of the line segment, denoted by |⃗
PQ|. The
⃗v Q zero vector is just a point, and it is denoted by 0 .
P
Two nonzero vectors
with zero magnitude is equal to the zero vector.
Vector Arithmetic
A scalar is a quantity can be represented by single number

1) For a scalar k and a nonzero vector ⃗v , the scalar multiple of ⃗v by k denoted by k ⃗v , is the

vector whose magnitude is

|k||⃗v|, points in the same direction as ⃗v if k > 0 , points in the
opposite direction as ⃗v if k < 0 .
⃗v
k ⃗v
( k > 0)
k ⃗v ⃗v ⃗
w
( k < 0)
2) The sum of vectors ⃗v and w , denoted by ⃗v +⃗
⃗ w is obtained by translating ⃗
w so that its
initial point is at the terminal point of v ; the initial point of ⃗v +⃗
w is the initial point of ⃗v
and its terminal point is the new terminal point of ⃗
w
3) Since the scalar multiple −⃗v =−1⃗v is well-defined vector, we can define vector subtraction
w =⃗v + (−⃗
as follows: ⃗v −⃗ w)
⃗
w

⃗v

Vectors in Euclidean space

1) For a vector
⃗PQ in R2 with initial point P ( x 1 , y 1 ) and terminal point Q ( x 2, y 2 ) , the
⃗
magnitude of PQ is
⃗
|PQ|= √ 2
( x2−x 1) + ( y 2 − y 1 )
2

v is |⃗v|= a +b
2) For a vector ⃗v ( a , b ) ,the magnitude of ⃗ √ 2 2

3) The distance d between points ( 1 1 1 ) and ( 2 2 2 ) in R is

P x , y ,z Q x , y ,z 3

d= √( x −x ) +( y − y ) +( z −z )
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2

v is |⃗v|=√ a +b +c
2 2 2
4) For a vector ⃗v ( a , b , c ) in R the magnitude of ⃗
3

Basic laws of vector algebra

(a) ⃗
v +w
⃗ =⃗
w +⃗
v commutative law

(b) u⃗ + ( ⃗v + w⃗ )=( ⃗u +⃗v ) +⃗w associative law

(c) ⃗v +0=⃗ v =0+⃗v additive identity
v + (−⃗v )=0 additive inverse
(d) ⃗
(e) k ( l ⃗
v )=( kl ) ⃗v associative law
(f) k ( ⃗v +⃗
w )=k ⃗v +k w
⃗ distributive law
A unit vector is a vector with magnitude 1.
 ⃗v
v , the vector |v| is a unit vector, which points in the same
Notice that for any nonzero vector ⃗
1
>0
⃗
v
directions as , since |v| .

v by |⃗v| is often called normalizing ⃗

Dividing a nonzero vector ⃗ v.

⃗
There are specific unit vectors which we will often use, called the basis vectors: i =( 1, 0, 0 ) ,
⃗j=( 0, 1, 0 ) , ⃗k=( 0, 0, 1 ) in R3 .

They are mutually perpendicular, since they lie on distinct coordinate axes

|⃗i |=|⃗j|=|⃗k|=1
Every vector can be written as a unique scalar combination of the basis vectors:

v=( a , b )=a ⃗i +b ⃗j in R2

v=( a , b , c )=a ⃗i +b ⃗j+c ⃗k in R3

y z

⃗v ( a , b ) ⃗v ( a , b , c )
2
k̄

ī
j̄ y
1 j̄
ī x x
1
When a vector ⃗v =( a ,b , c ) is written as ⃗v =a ⃗i +b ⃗j+c ⃗k , we say that ⃗v is in component
⃗
form, and that a,b,c are ⃗i ; ⃗j ; k components, respectively of ⃗
v.

Projection of vector on axis

Let a vector ⃗
AB and an axis l be given. The projection l proj ⃗
of the vector ⃗
AB
AB on the
axis l is the length of the segment A B , connecting the feet of the perpendiculars drawn from the
' '

points A and B to the axis l .

 В

О А/ В/ u

{
' '
|A B | if the direction of the segment
projl ⃗
AB= ' '
A B coincides with positive direction of the axis
' '
−|A B | in the direction opposite to it

Properties of projections

1)
projl ⃗
AB=|AB|cos ϕ , ϕ is the angle between the vector and the axis
А
В
В
А 

О А/ В/ B/ A/

2) A scalar factor may be taken outside the projection sign

projl ( λ ⃗v ) =λ proj l ⃗v

3) A projection of a sum is equal to sum of the projections:

projl ( ⃗v + w
⃗ )= projl ⃗v + projl w
⃗

Dot product (scalar product)

The dot product of two vectors ⃗ ⃗ is defined as

v and w

⃗v⋅⃗w =|v||w|cos θ ,
where θ is the angle between ⃗ ⃗.
v and w

Notice that the dot product of two vectors is a scalar, not a vector.
Properties of the dot product

(a) ⃗
v⋅⃗
w=w
⃗⋅⃗v commutative law
(b) ( k ⃗v )⋅w
⃗ =⃗v ( k w
⃗ )=k ( ⃗v⋅⃗
w ) associative law
 u ( ⃗v + w
(c) ⃗ ⃗ )=⃗u ⃗v +⃗u w
⃗ distributive law
(d)
⃗v⋅⃗w =|v|proj v ω=|w|proj w v

(e) ⃗v⋅⃗v =|v|2 , if ⃗v ≠0

(f) ⃗v⋅⃗ w =0 if and only if v and w are perpendicular
Theorem 1. Let ⃗ ( 1 2 3 ) and ⃗ ( 1 2 3 ) be vectors in R . The dot product of
v v , v ,v w w ,w ,w 3

⃗ ⃗ is
v and w

⃗v⋅⃗
w =v 1 w1 +v 2 w2 +v 3 w 3 .

Corollary 1. Two nonzero vectors ⃗ ⃗ are perpendicular if and only if

v and w

v 1 w1 +v 2 w 2 +v 3 w 3=0 .

Corollary 2. Let ⃗ ⃗ be nonzero vectors and let θ be the angle between them.
v and w

⃗v⋅⃗w
cosθ=
Then |v|⋅|w| or
v 1 w 1 + v 2 w2 +v 3 w3
cos θ=
√ v 21 + v 22 + v 23⋅√w 21 + w22 + w23 .

Cross product (vector product)

Definition 1. If you can point your thumb upwards in the
positive z -axis direction while
z using the remaining four fingers to
rotate the x -axis towards the y -
axis then it is a right-handed
system.
Doing the same thing the
y left hand is what defines a left
handed coordinate system.
x
Definition 2. The cross
a and ⃗
product of two vectors ⃗ b is defined only in three-dimensional
space and is denoted by ⃗
a× b . ⃗

The cross product v×w is defined as a vector c̄ that is perpendicular to both v and w
with a direction given by the right-hand rule and a magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram
that the vectors span.
If ϕ is the angle between nonzero vectors v̄ and w̄ in R3 , then
c̄
|v̄×w̄|=|v||w|sin ϕ .
Properties.
ū , v̄ , w̄ in R3 , we have

ϕ w (a) v̄×w̄=−w̄×v anticommutative law

(b) ū×( v̄ + w̄ )=ū×v̄ + ū×w̄ distributive law
v
(c) ( k v̄ )×w̄= v̄×( k w̄ )=k ( v̄× w̄ ) associative law
(d) v̄×v̄ =0
(e) v̄×w̄=0 if and only if v̄|| w̄
Theorem 2. (a) The area A of an triangle with adjacent sides v̄ and w̄ is

1
A= |v̄ ×w̄|
2
(b) The area A of a parallelogram with adjacent sides v̄ and w̄ is

A=|v̄×w̄|
Computing the cross product

Coordinate notation. The standard basis vectors ī , j̄ , k̄ satisfy the following equalities in a right
hand coordinate system:

z ī= j̄×k̄
j̄= k̄× ī
k̄= ī× j̄
k̄
which imply, by the anticommutativity of the cross product, that
ī
j̄ y

x
k̄× j̄=− ī , ī× k̄=− j̄ , j̄× ī =−k̄

The definition of the cross product also implies ī× ī = j̄× j̄=k̄×k̄=0 .
These equalities are sufficient to determine the cross product of any two vectors ū and v̄ .
Let
ū=u1 ī +u2 j̄+u3 k̄ , v̄=v 1 ī +v 2 j̄+v3 k̄ .

Their cross product w̄ × v̄ can be expanded using distributivity

ū×v̄=( u1 ī +u2 j̄+u 3 k̄ ) ×( v 1 ī +v 2 j̄+v 3 k̄ ) =

=u 1 v 1 ( ī× ī )+u1 v 2 ( ī × j̄ ) +u1 v 3 ( ī ×k̄ )+

 +u2 v 1 ( j̄× ī )+u 2 v 2 ( j̄× j̄ ) +u2 v 3 ( j̄×k̄ )+

+u3 v 1 ( k̄ × ī ) +u3 v 2 ( k̄ × j̄ )+u3 v 3 ( k̄× k̄ )

ū×v̄=v 1 v 2 k̄−u1 v 3 j̄−u 2 v 1 k̄+u2 v 3 ī +

+u3 v 1 j̄−u 3 v 2 ī =( u2 v 3 −u3 v 2 ) ī + ( u3 v 1 −u1 v 3 ) j̄+

+ ( u 1 v 2 −u2 v 1 ) k̄

or

u u u u u u
ū×v̄=| 2 3 | ī−| 1 3 | j̄+| 1 2| k̄
v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2
it is cofactor expansion by first raw of determinant

i j k
ū×v̄=|u1 u2 u3 |
v1 v2 v3
Scalar triple product (Mixed product)
The scalar triple product is defined as the dot product of one of the vectors with the cross
product of the other two

Geometrical interpretation. Let the vectors ū , v̄ , w̄ in

w̄ × v̄
R3 represent adjacent sides of parallelepiped P with ū , v̄ , w̄
forming a right-handed system.
ū
h Recall that volume V of a parallelepiped P
θ
w̄
is the area of the base parallelogram times the height h .
ϕ
v̄ V = A⋅h

By theorem 2 A=|w̄× v̄|=|w̄||v̄|sin ϕ

h=|ū|cosθ

Therefore V =|w̄||v̄|sin ϕ|ū|cosθ=|ū|⋅|w̄×v̄|cos θ=ū ( v̄×w̄ )

 Geometrically, the scalar triple product ū⋅( v̄× w̄ ) is the volume of the parallelepiped
defined by the three vectors given.

If u , v , w form a left-handed system u ( v ×w )=−V .

So taking the absolute value of scalar triple product for any order of the adjacent sides will
always give the volume.

Theorem 3. If vectors ū , v̄ , w̄ in R represent any three adjacent sides of a parallelepiped,

3

then the volume of the parallelepiped is

V =|u⋅( v̄×w̄ )|.

Properties

(a) u ( v ×w )=v⋅( w×u )=w⋅( u×v )

(b) u ( v ×w )=( u×v )⋅w
(c) u ( v ×w )=−u ( w×v )
(d) if any two vectors in scalar triple product are equal, then its value is zero
u⋅(u×v )=u⋅( v×u ) =u⋅( v×v )=0
Computing the scalar triple product

ū ( u1 ,u2 ,u 3 ) v̄ ( v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ) w̄=( w1 , w 2 , w3 ) R3
Theorem. For any vectors , , in :

u 1 u2 u3
ū⋅( v̄× w̄ )=| v 1 v 2 v 3 |
w1 w 2 w 3

Example 1. Let ū ( 1,−5,−1 ) , v̄ ( 2,−3,3 ) . Find

ī j̄ k̄
ū×v̄=|1 −5 −1 |= ī|−5 −1|− j̄|1 −1 |+k̄|1 −5|=−18 { ī −5 j̄+7 k̄ ¿
−3 −3 2 3 2 −3
2 −3 3
Example 2. Find area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides ū=2 ī +3 j̄+5 k̄ and
v= ī +2 j̄ + k̄
ī j̄ k̄
ū×v̄=|2 3 5 |= ī|3 5 |− j̄|2 5 |+ k̄|2 3|=−7 ī +3 j̄+ k̄
2 1 1 1 1 2
1 2 1
A=|w̄× v̄|=√ 49+9+1=√ 59
 Example 3. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides ū ( 2, 1, 3 ) , v̄ (−1, 3, 2 ) ,
w̄ (1, 1, −2 )

2 1 3
u⋅( v×w )=|−1 3 2 |=−28
1 1 −2 .

So V =|−28|=28 .

TEST

1) ā ( 3,−5, 8 ) and b̄ (−1, 1, −4 ) are given. Find |2 ā−b̄|

A) √ 570 B) 144 C) 242 D)√ 316 E) √ 480

2) At what value m , vectors ā ( m , −7 , −2 ) and b̄ (−3, −m , 2 ) are perpendicular?

A) 2 B) 1 C) -1 D) -2 E) 3

3) Find the angle between the vectors ā (−1 ,−2 ) and b̄ (−2,−4 )
A) 00 B) 600 C) 300 D) 450 E) 900

4) Simplify the expression ī× ( j̄+ ī )− j̄× ( ī + k̄ )

A) i B) 2 k̄− ī C)k̄ − ī D) ī + j̄ E) j̄

5) Let v̄=−3 ī −2 j̄− k̄and w̄=6 ī +4 j̄+2 k̄ . Calculate v̄⋅w̄

A) -20 B) -28 C) -30 D) -2 E) -6

6) Let v̄=4 ī − j̄+3 k̄ and w̄= ī +2 k̄ . Calculate v×w

A) −2 i−5 j+k B) −2 i+ k C) −2 i−6 j+k D) i E) 0

7) Calculate the area of the triangle ABC if A=( 2, 2 , 2 ) , B=( 4 , 0 , 3 ) , C ( 0, 1, 3 )

1 1 1 1 1
√6 √ 61 √ 65 √ 63
A) 2 B) 2 C) 2 D) 2 E) 2

8) Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides ū , v̄ , w̄

ū=( 1, 1, 3 ) , v̄=( 2, 1, 4 ) , w̄=( 5, 1, −2 )

A) 4 B) 5 C) 7 D) 8 E) 9

9) Let ā 1=(−3 , −1 , 2 ) , ā 2=( 1 , 2 , −1 ) . Find the cross product ( 1 2 ) 2

2 ā + ā × ā

A) −6 i−2 j−10 k B) −3 i++ 2 j+5 k C) −3 i+ 5 k D) −2 i E) 0

 10) Find the mixed product of vectors ā ( 3, 4, −5 ) , b̄ ( 3, 7, −2 ) , c̄ ( 2, −2, 1 )
A) 56 B) 81 C) 72 D) 68 E) 48
Lecture 10
General (or standard) form for the equation of a line

Consider a line l on plane XOY . Suppose that we know a point M 1 ( x 1 , y 1 ) and vector
⃗n =( A , B ) normal to the line. Let M ( x , y ) be any point on line. Vector M 1 M=( x−x 1 ; y − y 1 ) that
joins the two points and thus lies on the line is perpendicular to ⃗ n . Therefore scalar product
⃗n⋅M 1 M =0

That is

A( x  x1 )  B( y  y1 )  0 (1)

Equation (1) is the straight line equation passing through the given point with given vector n ,
normal to the line.
Changing, we get
l y
Ax  Ax1  By  By1  0

Ax  By  ( Ax1  By1 )  0 M n
M
Let’s designate
M1
 Ax1  By1  C

We get the general form for a line x

Ax  By  C  0 (2)
Intercept form
Changing the general form, we get
Ax  By  C Divide each side by  C
A B
x y 1
C C

x y
 1
C C (0,b)

or A B . Let’s designate
b

(а,0)
а
 C C
 a, b
A B

We get
x y
 1
a b (3)

(3) is the intercept form for equation of a line. A straight line intersects x-axis at ( a,0 ) and y-
axis at ( 0, b )
The slope – intercept form
We can change the general form into slope intercept form.
Ax  By  C  0

By   Ax  C Divide each side by B

A C
y x
B B

A C
m b
Designate B and B

y  mx  b

The constant m determines the slope or gradient of у

that line, and the constant term b determines the point at А2
y2
which the line crosses the y-axis, otherwise known as the
А1  у2-у1
y-intercept. Let A1 ( x1 , y1 ) and A2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) be two points y1
х2-х1
on the line y  mx  b b

x1 x2 х

y 2  y1 (mx2  b)  (mx1  b) m( x2  x1 )
Point- tan     m
Slope form x2  x1 x2  x1 ( x2  x1 ) of a straight line

We use this form when we need to find the equation of a line passing through a point ( x1 , y1 )
with slope m : y  y1  m( x  x1 ) .
Symmetric (Canonical) equation of a line

l
Consider a line on plane XOY .Suppose that we know a point
M 0 ( x0 , y 0 ) 
and vector (a, b)
that is parallel to the line. This vector  is called direction vector of a line. Note, in all likelihood, 
 
will not be on the line itself. We only need  to be parallel to the line. Finally, let M  ( x, y ) be any

M M  ( x  x0 ; y  y 0 )
point on the line. Since vector 0 and  (a, b) are parallel, then their coordinates
are proportional. Therefore

x  x0 y  y 0 y

a b
This is called the symmetric (canonical) equations of the
line. M
M0



Line through two points

The line through two distinct points M 1 ( x1 , y1 ) and M 2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) is given by

x  x1 y  y1

x 2  x1 y 2  y1

Normal form

Let length of perpendicular from origin to straight line is ‘P’ and let this perpendicular make
an angle with positive x- axis ‘α’, then equation of a line can be

x y x cos  y sin 
 1  1
p sec  p cos ec  p p  x cos   y sin   p  0

(because a  p sec  and b  p cos ec )

 The normal form of the equation of a straight line is x cos   y sin   p  0 .
Distance from a point to a line

to the line given by the equation Ax  By  C  0 is

M 0 ( x0 , y 0 )
The distance from a point
Ax0  By0  C
d
A2  B 2 .

М0
d
p

Angle between two lines

When two lines intersect, the angle between then is defined as the acute angle  between lines
L1 and L2 .
L2
The equation of line L1 is y  m1 x  b1 L1
φ
The equation of line L2 is y  m2 x  b2 .

α2
α1

Referring to figure,  2   1       2   1 . Using the trigonometric identity for the

tangent of the difference between two angles, we obtain

tan  2 - tan  1
tan   tan( 2   1 ) 
1  tan 1  tan  2

Recalling that the tangent of the angle of inclination is the slope of the line, we have
tan  1  m1 , tan  2  m2 , such that m2  m1

Substituting these expressions in the tangent formula, we have

m2  m1
tan  
1  m1 m2
 If and only if  1   2 , the lines are parallel. Then tan  1  tan  2  m1  m2 . The slopes of
parallel lines are the same.

 2  1 
If and only if   90 , the line are perpendicular. Then
0
2 and

  1
tan  2  tan    1    cot  1    m2  m1  1
2  tan  1 .

The product of the slopes of perpendicular lines is  1 .

Relation between two Lines

Let L1 and L2 be the two lines as
A1 x + B1 y +C1 =0
L1 :
A2 x + B2 y +C 2=0
L2 :
For Parallel lines
Two lines are said to be parallel if satisfy the below condition,
A1 B1 C1
= ≠
A2 B2 C2

For Intersection of lines


Two lines intersect a point if
A1 B1
≠
A2 B2

For Coincident Lines


Two lines are coincident if
A1 B1 C1
= =
A2 B2 C2

 For Perpendicular Lines

Two lines are perpendicular if

A1 A 2 + B1 B 2=0
Angle Bisector of Straight lines
An angle bisector has equal perpendicular distance from the two given lines. To find the equation of
the bisector of the angle between lines, we have

R(x, y)
If point lies on the bisector, then length of perpendicular from the point R to both the lines
should be equal.
|A 1 x +B1 y +C 1| |A2 x +B2 y +C 2|
=
√ A 2 +B 2
1 1 √
A 2 +B 2
2 2

Generalizing for any point (x, y), the equation of the angle bisector is obtained as
A 1 x+ B1 y+C 1 A2 x + B2 y +C 2
=±
√ A12+ B12 √ A 22 +B 22
This equation gives two bisectors: one-acute angle bisector and the other obtuse bisector.
Example. Find the angle bisector of the angle between the straight lines
x+y-5=0 and 7x−y−19=0
Solution.

x+ y−5 7 x− y−19
=±
√12+12 √7 2+(−1 )2
x+ y−5 7 x− y−19
=±
√2 √50
x+ y−5 7 x − y−19
=
The equation of one bisector is √ 2 5 √2

Or 5 ( x+ y−5 ) =7 x− y−19 ⇒ 2 x−6 y +6=0 ⇒ x−3 y +3=0

 x+ y−5 7 x− y−19
=−
And equation of other one is √ 2 5 √2

5 ( x+ y−5 ) =−(7 x− y −19) ⇒ 12 x+4 y−44=0 ⇒ 3 x+ y−11=0

LECTURE 11
General equation of a plane

P0  ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 )
Suppose that we know a point that is on the plane,  . Let’s also suppose that we
have a vector that is orthogonal (perpendicular) to the plane, n  ( A, B, C ) .

P  ( x, y , z )
This vector is called the normal vector. Now, assume that is any point the plane.
Let’s consider the vector z
M 0 M  {x  x 0 ; y  y 0 ; z  z 0 }
.
 
n
Now, because n is perpendicular to the
plane, it also perpendicular to any vector that lies
in the p plane.
M0 M
The dot product of two perpendicular

M 0M  n  0
vectors is equal to zero. So
or y
A( x  x0 )  B ( y  y 0 )  C ( z  z 0 )  0
(1)
This is called the scalar equation of plane. x

Often this will be written as

Ax  By  Cz  D  0 (2)
where

D   Ax0  By0  Cz 0

(2) is general equation of plane if A  B  C  0 .To reduce a general equation of a plane to a

2 2 2

normal form, all the terms of the equation must be multiplied by the normalizing factor
 1

A 2  B 2  C 2 where the sign before the radical is opposite to the sign of the constant
term D in general equation of a plane.
Special cases of the position of the plane specified by the general equation
Ax  By  Cz  D  0 :

1. A  0 ; parallel to the x-axis

2. B  0 ; parallel to the y-axis
3. C  0 ; parallel to the z-axis
4. D  0 ; passes though the origin
5. A  B  0 ; perpendicular to the z-axis(parallel to the
xOy plane)
6. A  C  0 ; perpendicular to the y-axis(parallel to the xOz plane)
7. B  C  0 ; perpendicular to the x-axis(parallel to the yOz plane)
8. A  D  0 ; passes though the x-axis
9. B  D  0 ; passes though the y-axis
10. C  D  0 ; passes though the z-axis
11. A  B  D  0 ; coincides with to the
xOy plane (z=0)
12. A  C  D  0 ; coincides with to the xOz plane (y=0)
13. B  C  D  0 ; coincides with to the
yOz plane (x=0)
Intercept form

If in the general equation of a plane the coefficient D  0 ,then, the division of all the term by  D
can reduce the equation to the form

A B C
 x  y  z 1 0
D D D
D D D
 a  b  c
Let’s designate A , B , C
We get the intercept form for equation of a plane

x y z
  1
a b c
a,b.c are ,respectively , the abscissa, the ordinate and the z- coordinate of the point of intersection
of the plane with the
Ox, Oy, Oz axes.

The equation of a plane in vector form

The equation of a plane in vector form is written as
 
r n  p,
   
Here
r  x i  y j  z k is the radius vector of the current point of the plane
M ( x; y; z ) ,
   
n  i cos  j cos   k cos  is a unit having the direction of the perpendicular dropped on the
plane from the origin;  ,  ,  are the angles formed by this perpendicular with the
Ox, Oy, Oz
axes, and p is the length of perpendicular.
Upon passing to the coordinates, this equation assumes the form

x cos  y cos   z cos   p  0 (3)

(3)- normal form of equation of a plane.

Distance from a point to a plane

to the plane given by equation Ax  By  Cz  D  0

M 0 ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 )
The distance from a point
Is

Ax0  By0  Cz0  D

d
A2  B 2  C 2
Mutual position of two planes
Let two planes are given

A1 x  B1 y  C1 z  D1  0
A2 x  B2 y  C 2 z  D2  0
Their normal vectors are

n1  A1i  B1 j  C1 k and n2  A2 i  B2 j  C 2 k

1) Two planes are parallel if and only if their normal vectors are parallel i.e. the corresponding
coordinates were proportional

A1 B1 C1
 
A2 B2 C 2 .

2) Two planes are perpendicular if and only if their normal vectors are perpendicular i.e.
n1  n2  0 or A1 A2  B1 B2  C1C 2  0
 3) The angle between two planes is

A1 A2  B1 B2  C1C 2
cos  
A  B12  C12  A22  B22  C 22
1
2

Other equations of a plane

( x1 , y1 , z1 ), ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 )( x3 , y 3 , z 3 )
I. Plane through 3 points :

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1  0
x3  x1 y3  y1 z 3  z1

 
and parallel to the vectors 1 (a1 , b1 , c1 ) and  2 (a 2 , b2 , c 2 )
( x0 , y 0 , z 0 )
II. Plane through

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
a1 b1 c1 0
a2 b2 c2

III. Plane through ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and parallel to the direction  (a, b, c) :

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1  0
a b c

Example 1. Reduce the equation of a plane

2 x  3 y  6 z  21  0 to normal form.

Solution. We find the normalizing factor ( whose sign s negative since D=21>0)

1 1
 
2 2  32  6 2 7
Thus, normal form of equation of the given plane is

2 3 6
 x  y  z 30
7 7 7
Example 2. Set up equation of a plane which passes through the point
M (2,3,5) and is

perpendicular to the vector

n  4i  3 j  2k

A( x  x0 )  B ( y  y 0 )  C ( z  z 0 )  0
Solution. It suffices to use equation of a plane which passes
though a given point and is perpendicular to a given vector

4( x  2)  3( y  3)  2( z  5)  0

i.e
4 x  3 y  2 z  27  0

TEST

1) Write down the equation of the plane, that passes through the two points M 1 (1,2,0) and

M 2 (2,1,1) and parallel the direction vectors a (3,0,1) .

A) x  2 y  0 B) x  2 y  3 z  3  0 C) x  5 y  5 z  0

D) x  y E) x  5 y  3 z  5  0

M 0 (5,1.  1)
2) Find the distance from the point to the plane x  2 y  2 z  4  0
A) 5 B) 3 C) 2 D) 4 E) 1

3) The planes 3 x  5 y  mz  3  0 and x  3 y  2 z  5  0 are perpendicular. Find m

A) 14 B) 4,8 C) -1,5 D) 4 E) 6

4) Find the angle between two planes 4 x  5 y  3 z  1  0 and x  4 y  z  9  0

  3  E) arccos 0,7
arccos
A) 2 B) 6 C) 5 D) 4

5) The planes 2 x  ny  3 z  5  0 and mx  6 y  6 z  2  0 are parallel. Find n  m

A) 4 B) -1 C) 2 D) 3 E) -2
LECTURE 12
Straight line equations in space
 P  ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 )
be point in R , let   (a, b, c) be a nonzero vector, and let L be the line
3
Let
through P which is parallel to  . Finally, let P  ( x, y, z ) be any point on the line.

P P  ( x  x0 , y  y 0 , z  z 0 )
Since vector 0 and  (a, b) are parallel, then their coordinates are
proportional. Therefore

x  x0 y  y 0 z  z 0
 
a b c

This is called the symmetric equation of L . If we denote

x  x0 y  y 0 z  z 0 z
  t
a b c
P L
We get the parametric representation of L with the
parameter t : P0

 x  x0  at ; υ

 y  y 0  bt ;
 z  z  ct y
 0

x
If P1  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2  ( x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) are two
distinct points in R3, then the equation of line through two points is

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1

General equation of a straight line in space

A straight line can be specified by the equations by the equations of two planes
 A1 x  B1 y  C1 z  D1  0

 A2 x  B2 y  C 2 z  D2  0 intersecting at the given line.
A practical task often consists in reducing the equations of straight lines in general form to the
canonical form.

For this you need to find an arbitrary point of the line and numbers
( a , b, c )

In this case, the directing vector of the straight line can be found as the vector product of the
normal vectors to the given planes.
   
i j k
   B C1  A1 C1  A1 B1   
v  n1  n2  A1 B1 C1  i 1  j k  i a  jb  kc
B2 C2 A2 C2 A2 B2
A2 B2 C2

Example 1.Reduce the equations of the straight lines

2 x  y  3 z  1  0 and

5 x  4 y  z  7  0 to the canonical form.

Solution. We find the vector   (a, b, c) ,which is parallel to the sought-for straight line. Since it
       
n  2i  j  3k and n2  5i  4 j  k of the given
must be perpendicular to the normal vectors 1
 
planes, we can take as  the vector product of the vectors 1 and 2 .
n n
  
i j k
     
v  n1  n2  2  1 3  11i  17 j  13k
5 4 1

Thus, a  11, b  17, c  13

P  ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 )
We can take as the point , through which the desired line passes, its point of
intersection with any of the coordinate planes, say the
yOz plane. Since in this case x0  0 , we can
find the coordinates
y0 and z 0 of that point from the system of equations of the given planes if we
x 0
put in them:

 y  3 z  1  0

 4y  z  7  0

Solving this system, we find

y  2, z  1

Thus, the desired straight line is determined by the equations

x y  2 z 1
 
 11 17 13

Mutual position of the lines

Let two lines are given in space
 x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y 2 z  z 2
   
a1 b1 c1 and a 2 b2 c2
 
1 (a1 , b1 , c1 ) and  2 (a 2 , b2 , c 2 ) are corresponding direction vectors.

1) Two lines are parallel if and only if their direction vectors are parallel and

a1 b1 c1
 
a 2 b2 c 2

2) Two lines are perpendicular if and only if 1 and  2 are perpendicular and
a1 a 2  b1b2  c1c 2  0

3) The angle between two lines is

a1 a 2  b1b2  c1c 2
cos  
a12  b12  c12 a 22  b22  c 22

Intersection of two lines in space

Two straight lines

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1 x  x2 y  y 2 z  z 2
   
a1 b1 c1 and a 2 b2 c2

intersect if the following condition is satisfied:

x2  x1 y 2  y1 z 2  z1
a1 b1 c1  0
a2 b2 c2

Mutual position of the line and plane

1. The straight line and plane given respectively by the equations
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a b c and Ax  By  Cz  D  0
 
are parallel if n  s  0 or Aa  Bb  Cc  0
 2. The straight line and plane given respectively by the equations
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a b c and Ax  By  Cz  D  0 are perpendicular if
A B C
   
n s 0 a b c
or

3. Angle between straight line and the plane

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
 
a b c and Ax  By  Cz  D  0 is determined by the formula
 Aa  Bb  Cc
sin  
A2  B 2  C 2 a 2  b 2  c 2

TEST

1) Find the angle between two lines

x 1 y  2 z  3 x  1 y z  10
   
2 3  1 and  3 4 6

A) 00 B) 450 C) 300 D) 900 E) 600

2) Write down the equation of the line that passes through the points (2,1,3) and (1,4,3)
x  2 y 1 z  3 x 1 y  4 y  3 x y z 3
     
A) 1 5 6 B) 5 7 8 C) 5 7 6

x y 4 z 3
 
D) 1 5 8 E) x  y  5
LECTURE 13
Ellipses

Definition of an ellipse. Let P and Q be points in the plane and k a number greater than
the distance from P to Q . The ellipse with foci P and Q is the set of all points X such that the
sum of the distance from X to P and the distance from X to
Q is k written algebraically with X representing a point x, y 
on the ellipse
 XP  XQ  k .

The midpoint of the segment PQ joining the foci is the center of the ellipse. The points where the
line through the foci intercept the ellipse are its vertices. The segment connecting the vertices is the
major axis and the segment through the center of the ellipse perpendicular to the major axis is the
minor axis.

k
If the point P and Q coincide, the ellipse generated is a circle with radius 2 . Thus a circle
is a special case of an ellipse.
Equation of an ellipse

The simples case is an ellipse centered at the origin with its foci on the x  or y  axis.
k
a
 
Suppose that the foci are on the x  axis at the points P c;0 and Q c,0 where c  0 . Let 2
so that k  2a . Then x, y  is on the ellipse exactly when XP  XQ  2a .
Written algebraically

x  c 2   y  02  x  c 2   y  02  2a

which can be rewritten as

x  c 2  y 2  2a  x  c 2  y 2 .
Square both sides and simplify the result

x  c 2  y 2  4a 2  4a x  c 2  y 2  x  c 2  y 2
or

x 2  2 xc  c 2  y 2  4a 2  4a x  c 2  y 2  x 2  2 xc  c 2  y 2

a x  c 2  y 2  a 2  cx

Square both sides again and simplify

a 2 x  c   a 2 y 2  a 4  2a 2 cx  c 2 x 2
2

a 2 x 2  2a 2 xc  a 2 c 2  a 2 y 2  a 4  2a 2 cx  c 2 x 2

a 2

 c2 x2  a2 y2  a2 a2  c2   (1)

To simplify the last equation, let b  a  c , so that b  a  c .

2 2 2 2 2
 Equation (1) then becomes

b 2 x 2  a 2 y 2  a 2b 2 .

2 2
Dividing both sides by a b shows that the coordinates of every point on the ellipse satisfy the
equation

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 standard form of an ellipse.
Characteristics of ellipses

1) x - intercepts: x   a

y 2) y -intercepts: y  b
dir dir
ect 3) major axis is on the x - axis
ect
b
4) vertices  a, 0  and a, 0 
rix rix

a -a -c c a
x a
e x
e
-b
x 5) foci  c, 0  and c, 0  , where

c  a 2  b 2 and the distance

between foci is 2c
c
e
6) The eccentricity of an ellipse is a , e 1

a a
x x
7) The directrices of an ellipse are the line e, e , that perpendicular x -axis

xx 0 yy 0
2
 2 1 x ,y
8) The tangent of ellipse a b in the point 0 0

The standard form of the equation of an ellipse with center( 0 , 0 ) and major axis parallel to the y-axis
x2 y 2
2
+ 2 =1
is b a
where
 a>b
 the length of the major axis is 2a
 the coordinates of the vertices are (0,±a)(0,±a)
 the coordinates of the co-vertices are (±b,0)
2 2 2
 the coordinates of the foci are (0,±c), where c =a −b


 Hyperbolas
Definition of a hyperbola

Let P and Q be points in the plane and k be a positive number.

The hyperbola with foci P and Q is the set of all points X such that the absolute value of
the difference of the distance from X to P and the distance from X to Q is k.

, where X represents the point x, y  and k is called the distance

XP  XQ  k
That is
difference.
The midpoint of segment joining the foci,
PQ is the center of the hyperbola and the
line through P and Q is called the focal
axis.
The points where the focal axis intercepts
the hyperbola are its vertices.
P Q

Equation of Hyperbola

The simplest case is a hyperbola centered at the origin with its foci on the x and y - axis.

Suppose that the foci are on the x - axis at the points P c,0 and Qc,0  , where c  0 .
k
a
Let 2 , so that k  2a .

XP  XQ  2a
Then
Written algebraically

x  c 2  y 2  x  c 2  y 2  2a

Which can be rewritten as

x  c 2  y 2  2a  x  c 2  y 2
Square both sides

x 2  2 xc  c 2  y 2  4a 2  4a x  c 2  y 2  x 2  2 xc  c 2  y 2

Simplify the result

 cx  a 2   a x  c 2  y 2
Square both sides again and simplify

c 2 x 2  2 xca 2  a 4  a 2 x 2  2 xca 2  a 2 c 2  a 2 y

a 2
 
 c2 x2  a2 y2  a2 a2  c2  (2)

Since 2a  2c , then a  c  0 , that why let b  c  a .

2 2 2 2 2

So equation (2) then become

b 2 x 2  a 2 y 2  a 2b 2 .

2 2
Dividing both sides by a b shows that the coordinates of every point on the ellipse satisfy
the equation

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 standard from of an hyperbola.
Characteristics of Hyperbola

y b M
y x 1) x - intercepts: x   a
a
2) y -intercepts: none
b 3) focal axis is on the axis x - axis
4) vertices  a, 0  and a, 0 

-с -a a с x 5) foci  c, 0  and c, 0  , where

c  a2  b2 and the distance

-b
b between foci is c
2
y x
a
b b
y x y x
6) asymptotes: a and a
c
e
7) The eccentricity of a hyperbola a , e 1
a a
x x
8) The directrices of hyperbola are the lines e, e , that perpendicular x -axis
xx 0 yy 0
x 0 , y 0  2
 2 1
9) The tangent of hyperbola at the point is a b
The standard form of the equation of a hyperbola with center ( 0 , 0 ) and transverse axis on the y-axis
y 2 x2
2
− 2 =1
is a b
where
 the length of the transverse axis is 2a
 the coordinates of the vertices are (0,±a)
 the length of the conjugate axis is 2b
 the coordinates of the co-vertices are (±b,0)
2 2 2
 the distance between the foci is 2c, where c =a +b
 the coordinates of the foci are (0,±c)
a
y=± x
 the equations of the asymptotes are b

Parabolas

Definition of a parabola. Let L be a line in the plane and P be a point not on L . If X is any
point not on L , the distance from X to L is defined to be the length of the perpendicular line
segment from X to L . The parabola with focus P and directrix L is the set of all points X such
that distance from X to P = distance from X to L .
 The line through P perpendicular to L is called
y the axis.
X
L The intersection of the axis with the parabola
which is midpoint of the segment of the axis
from P to L is the vertex of the parabola.

P x
Equation of a parabola

p 
P ,0 
Suppose that the focus is on the x - axis at the point  2  , where P is a nonzero
p
x
constant and that the directrix is line 2.
   
If M x, y is any point on the parabola, then distance from M x, y to the vertical
p
x
line 2 is the length MN . By the definition of a parabola MN  MP

p
y MN  MQ  QN  x 
directri 2
x N Q
M x , y 

p p  x
 P ,0 
2 2 

2
 p
MP   x    y 2
 2
So,
2
p  p
x  x    y
2

2  2 .
Square both sides of the equation and simplify
 2 2
 p  p
x   x    y
2

 2  2

p2 p2
x  xp 
2
 x  xp 
2
 y2
4 4
y 2  2 xp standard form of parabola

Characteristics of parabola

p 
 ,0 
1) focus on the -axis at  2 
x
p
x
2) directrix 2
3) axis of symmetry is the x -axis
 p
 0, 
If focus is at  2  on the y axis then
x 2
 2 py


4) The tangent of parabola at the point x0 , y 0

yy 0  px  x0  .

TEST

1. Find the sum of semi-axes a  b  of the ellipse

4 x 2  9 y 2  36
A) 36 B) 5 C)13 D) 8 E) 9

2. find the standart form of the ellipse if b  4 and distance between foci 2c  6
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
 1  1  1  1
A) 16 9 B) 16 4 C) 25 16 D) 9 4 E)
x2 y2
 1
25 9
x2 y2
 1
3. Find the distance between foci 2 c  of the ellipse 25 16
A) 9 B) 3 C)8 D) 10 E) 6
x2 y2
 1
4. Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse 18 8  
at the point M 0 3,2
 x2 y2
 1
5. Find the eccentricity of ellipse 25 9
3 3 4 2 9
A) 5 B) 4 C) 5 D) 3 E) 25

x2
 y2 1
6. Find the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 8
 
at the point M 0 4,1
A)
2x  y  1  0 B)
x  2y 1 0 C)
x  2y 1 0

D)
x  2y  2  0 E)
4x  5 y  1  0

7. Find the distance between the foci 2c  of the hyperbola

x2  8y2  8
A) 6 B) 8 C) 2 D) 9 E) 3

x2 y2
 1
8. Find the eccentricity of the hyperbola 16 9
3 4 5 4 3
A) 4 B) 5 C) 4 D) 3 E) 2

9. Find the standard form of parabola if the point 3,3 is on the parabola
y  2 px 2

A)
y 2  3x B)
y 2  9x C)
y 2  6x D)
y 2  12 x

E)
y 2  4x

10. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola

y 2  4 x at the point M 0 4,4
A)
x  2y  4  0 B)
x  2y  4  0 C)
4x  4 y  1  0

D)
2x  y  4  0 E)
2x  y  4  0

Lecture 14(LA)
General Equation of a Curve of the Second Order
Let us put down the general form of an equation of an algebraic curve of the second order

Ax 2  2 Bxy  Cy 2  Dx  Ey  F  0 (1)
Now our aim is to transform the Cartesian coordinates in such a way that equation (1) should take
the simplest form; this will enable us to find out what curve is determined by the equation.
The canonical equation containing no terms with the product of the coordinates ,we first of all try to
turn the coordinate axes in such a manner that this product should be eliminated. According to
formulas

 x  x cos  y  sin 

 y  x sin   y  cos
 ,the equation in new coordinates will have the form
After the axes are turned through an angle

Ax cos  y  sin    2 Bx cos  y  sin  x sin   y  cos  

2

C x sin   y  cos   Dx cos  y  sin    E x sin   y  cos   F  0

2

(2)
Removing the parentheses

Ax cos ) 2  2 Axy  sin  cos  A( y  sin    2 Bx 2 cos sin   2 Bxy  cos 2 
2

 2 Bxy  sin 2   2 By  2 sin  cos  C x sin    2Cxy  sin  cos  C  y  cos  
2 2

 Dx cos  Dy  sin   Ex sin   Ey  cos  F  0

Or

A cos   2 B cos sin   C sin 2  x 2 

2

 (2 B cos 2   2 A cos sin   2 B sin 2   2C sin  cos ) xy  

 A sin 2   2 B sin  cos  C cos 2  y  2 
 ( D cos  E sin  ) x  ( D sin   E cos ) y   F  0

and collecting the terms containing the product

xy  we see that the coefficient in xy  is equal to

 2 A cos sin   2 B cos 2   2 B sin 2   2C sin  cos 

2 B cos 2  C  Asin 2
Thus, we must have

2B
tan 2 
2 B cos 2  C  Asin 2  0 i.e AC (3)
Now we find the angle  from equation (3) and thus determine through what angle the coordinate
axes should be turned.

After the axes are turned through the angle  the equation takes the form

Ax 2  C y  2  Dx  E y   F  0
(4)

Where A, C , D and E  are some coefficients which can be found by collecting similar terms in
(2):

A  A cos 2   B sin 2  C sin 2 

C   A sin 2   B sin 2  C cos 2 
D  D cos  E sin 
E    D sin   E cos

But a rotation of the coordinate axes does not change the quantity AC  B although the
2

coefficients A, B, C in terms of the second degree may vary , that is the expression is an invariant.
 
There is no term with x y in equation (4) and therefore, since B  0 , we obtain
AC   B 2  AC   AC  B 2

Consequently, if the expression AC  B written for original equation (1) is positive then the
2

coefficients A, C  in equation (4) have the same signs since their product is positive. Such a case is
called elliptic.

If AC  B  0 then A, C  are of opposite signs(this is a hyperbolic case ).

2

Finally, if AC  B  0 then one of the coefficients AorC  is equal to zero( the so-called
2

parabolic case)
Let us turn to the elliptic case. Completing the square in equation (4) we arrive at equation of the
form

Ax  a   C  y   b   F   0
2 2

Let us now translate the axes x and

y  and pass to the new coordinates

x  x  a  
and y  y  b . Then the equation turns into
 Ax 2  C y  2   F 

x 2 y  2
 1
F F
 
A C
That is

For the sake of definiteness let us suppose that both A and C  are positive. Then if F   0 we
obtain the canonical equation of ellipse. Consequently, the original curve is an ellipse but displaced
and turned with respect to the axes x and y .

If F   0 or F   0 we obtain either an imaginary curve or a single point.

Example 1.

3 x 2  4 xy  2 y 2  5 x  4 y  1  0
A  3, B  2, C  2
AC  B 2  6  4  0 (ellips)
Example 2.

2 x 2  6 xy  y 2  4 x  y  3  0
A  2, B  3, C  1
AC  B 2  2  9  7  0 (hiperbola)
Example 3.

4 x 2  12 y  9 y 2  5 x  4 y  6  0
A  4, B  6, C  9
AC  B 2  36  36  0 (parabola)

Example 4. Which line the equation

4 x 2  9 y 2  8 x  36 y  4  0 defines?

Solution. We transform this equation as follows:

4x 2  2 x   9y 2  4 y   4

4x 2  2 x  1  1  9y 2  4 y  4  4   4

4x  1  9 y  2   4  4  36
2 2
4x  1  9 y  2   36
2 2

We carry out a parallel translation of the coordinate axes, taking the point O 1,2  as the new origin
of coordinates and pass to the new coordinates x  x  1

and y  y  2 . Then the equation
turns into

x 2 y  2
 1
4 x 2  9 y  2  36 or 9 4
Thus, we obtain the canonical equation of ellipse.

Example 5. Which line the equation

x 2
 9 y 2
 2 x  36 y  44  0 defines?

Solution. We transform this equation as follows:

x 2  2 x  1  1  9y 2  4 y  4  4  44

x  12
 9 y  2  44  1  36
2

x  12
 9 y  2  9
2

We carry out a parallel translation of the coordinate axes, taking the point O  1,2  as the new
origin of coordinates and pass to the new coordinates x  x  1

and y  y  2 . Then the
equation turns into

x 2
 y2  1
x 2  9 y  2  9 or 9
Thus, we obtain the canonical equation of hyperbola.

Example 6. Canonize the equation

xy  1  0

Solution. According to formulas

 x  x cos  y  sin 

 y  x sin   y  cos
( x cos  y  sin  )( x sin   y  cos )  1  0
x 2 cos sin   y  2 cos sin   xy (cos 2   sin 2  )  1  0
 
cos 2   sin 2   0  cos 2  0  2  
2 4
1 2 1 2
x  y   1  0
2 2
 x 2 y  2
 1
2 2 .

Lecture 15(LA)
A Quadratic surfaces
In this lecture we will study several families of so-called quadratic surfaces, namely surfaces z =
f(x, y) which are defined by equations of the type

Ax 2  By 2  Cz 2  Dxy  Exz  Fyz  Hx  Iy  Jz  K  0 (1)

with A, B, C, D, E, F, H, I, J and K being fixed real constants and x, y, z being variables. These
surfaces are said to be quadratic because all possible products of two of the variables x, y, z appear
in (1).
In fact, by suitable translations and rotations of the x, y and z coordinate axes it is possible to
simplify the equation (1) and hence classify all the possible surfaces into the following ten types:
1. Spheres
2. Ellipsoids
3. Hyperboloids of one sheet
4. Hyperboloids of two sheets
5. Cones
6. Elliptic paraboloids
7. Hyperbolic paraboloids
8. Parabolic cylinders
9. Elliptic cylinders
10. Hyperbolic cylinders
You should be able to recognize, classify and sketch at least some of these surfaces The best way to
do that is to look for identifying signs which tell you what kind of surface you are dealing with.
Those signs are:
• The intercepts: the points at which the surface intersects the x, y and z axes
. • The traces: the intersections with the coordinate planes (xy-, yz- and xz-plane).
• The sections: the intersections with general planes.
• The centre: (some have it, some not).
• If they are bounded or not.
• If they are symmetric about any axes or plane
Spheres

A sphere is a quadratic surface defined by the equation:

x  x  0
2
  y  y 0   z  z 0   r 2
2 2
(2)

 
the point x0 , y 0 , z 0 in the space is the centre of the sphere. The points (x, y, z) in the sphere are all
points whose distance to the centre is given by r. Therefore:

  
(a) The intercepts of the sphere with the x, y, z-axes are the points x0  r ,0,0 , 0, y 0  r ,0 and
0,0, z 0
 r
(b) The traces of the sphere are circles or radius r.

(c) The sections of the sphere are circles of radius r   r .

(d) The sphere is bounded.
(e) Spheres are symmetric about all coordinate planes.
Rule: If we expand the square terms in equation (2) we obtain the following equation:

x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x0 x  2 y0 y  2 z 0 z  x02  y02  z 02  r 2  0 (3)

Comparing this equation with the general formula (1) we see it has the form

x 2  y 2  z 2  Hx  Iy  Jz  K  0 , (4)

with H, I, J and K being some real constants. Therefore, the rule to recognize a sphere is the
following: any quadratic equation such that the coefficients of the
x 2 , y 2 and z 2 terms are equal
and that no other quadratic terms exist corresponds to a sphere.

The sphere is a perfect example of a surface of revolution. A surface of revolution is a surface

which can be generated by rotating a particular curve about a particular coordinate axis. For
example, one way to generate the sphere of the picture above is to take the circle
x 2  y 2  1 and
rotate it about the z-axis
Ellipsoids
Ellipsoids are quadratic surfaces parameterized by the equation

x2 y2 z2
  1
a2 b2 c2 (5)
You can see that for a = b = c = 1 we recover the equation of a sphere centered at the origin.
Therefore an ellipsoid is a “deformation” of the sphere such that the sphere gets either stretched or
squeezed (depending on the values of a, b, c) in the x, y, z-directions.
(a) The intercepts of the ellipsoid with the x, y, z-axes are the points
(±a, 0, 0), (0, ±b, 0) and (0, 0, ±c).
(b) The traces of the ellipsoid are ellipses which satisfy the equations:
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane) (6)
x2 z2
 1
a2 c2 for y = 0 (xz-plane), (7)
y2 z2
 1
b2 c2 for x = 0 (yz-plane). (8)
(c) The sections of the ellipsoid are also ellipses.
(d) The ellipsoid is bounded (all points (x, y, z) in the ellipsoid correspond to finite values of x, y
and z.
(e) The centre of the ellipsoid in the picture is the origin of coordinates. It can be changed by
shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.
(f) The ellipsoid is symmetric about all coordinate planes.

Rule: A quadratic equation such that the coefficients of the

x2 , y2 2
and z terms are different from
each other and all positive and such that no other quadratic terms exist corresponds to an ellipsoid.

Hyperboloids of one sheet

A hyperboloid of one sheet is parameterized by the equation

x2 y2 z2
  1
a2 b2 c2 (9)
(a) The intercepts of the hyperboloid of one sheet with the x, y, z-axes are the points (±a, 0, 0), (0,
±b, 0). Notice that there is no intersection with the z-axis. The reason is that if we set x = y = 0 in
the equation (9) we obtain the condition z  c which admits no real solution for real c.
2 2

(b) The traces of the hyperboloid of one sheet are ellipses in the xy-plane

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane), (10)
and hyperbolas in the xz- and yz-planes:

x2 z2
 1
a2 c2 for y = 0 (xz-plane), (11)

y2 z2
 1
b2 c2 for x = 0 (yz-plane). (12)
(c) The sections of the hyperboloid of one sheet are ellipses for planes parallel to the xy plane and
hyperbolas for planes parallel to the yz- and xz-planes.
(d) The hyperboloid of one sheet is not bounded.
(e) The centre of the hyperboloid of one sheet in the picture is the origin of coordinates. It can be
changed by shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.
(f) The hyperboloid of one sheet is symmetric about all coordinate planes

Hyperboloid of two sheets

A hyperboloid of two sheets is a surface generated by the points satisfying the equation

x2 y2 z2
   1
a2 b2 c2 (13)
(a) The intercepts of the hyperboloid of two sheets with the x, y, z-axes are the points (0, 0, ±c).
There are no intersections with the x, y-axes. The reason is that if we set
z = x = 0 in the equation (9) we obtain the condition
y 2  b 2 which can not be fulfilled for
any real values of y and b. Analogously if we set z = y = 0 we obtain x   a which also has
2 2

no real solutions.
(b) In this case we have two sheets, in contrast to all examples we have seen so far. The reason is
that the equation (13) implies
x2 y2 z2
  1
a2 b2 c2 (14)
2
z
2
1 0 z c
This equation can only be solved if c which implies that

(c) The traces of the hyperboloid of two sheets are hyperbolas in the xz- and yz-planes:
x2 z2
  1
a2 c2 for y = 0 (xz-plane), (15)
2 2
y z
2
 2  1
b c for x = 0 (yz-plane). (16)
(d) The sections of the hyperboloid of two sheets are hyperbolas for any planes parallel to the xz-
z c
or yz-planes and ellipses for planes parallel to the xy-plane with .
(e) The hyperboloid of two sheets is also not bounded.
(f) The centre of the hyperboloid of two sheets in the picture is the origin of coordinates. It can be
changed by shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.
(g) The hyperboloid of two sheets is again symmetric about all coordinate planes. General rule:
Any quadratic surface such that: the coefficients of
x2 , y2 2
and z are different, one of the
coefficients is negative and two of the coefficients are positive, and no other quadratic terms
appear describes a hyperboloid. In addition, if the constant term has negative sign the
hyperboloid has two sheets whereas if the constant term has positive sign the hyperboloid has
only one sheet.

Cones
A cone is a quadratic surface whose points fulfil the equation
 x2 y2
2
 2  z2  0
a b (17)
Comparing (17) with the equations for the hyperboloids of one and two sheet we see that the
cone is some kind of limiting case when instead of having a negative or a positive number on
the l.h.s. of the quadratic equation we have exactly 0.
(a) The only intercept of the cone with the x, y, z-axes is the origin of coordinates (0, 0, 0).
(b) The traces of the cone are lines in the xz- and yz-planes
x
z
a for y = 0 (xz-plane), (18)
y
z
b for x = 0 (yz-plane), (19)
and the origin (0, 0) in the xy-plane:
x2 y2
 0
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane). (20)
(c) The sections of the cone are lines for any planes parallel to the xz- or yz-planes and ellipses
(or circles if a = b) for planes parallel to the xy-plane.
(d) The cone is not bounded.
(e) The centre of the cone in the picture is the origin of coordinates. It can be changed by
shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.
(f) The cone is symmetric about all coordinate planes.

Rule:Any quadratic surface such that: the coefficients of

x2 , y2 2
and z are different, one of
the coefficients is negative and two of the coefficients are positive, no other quadratic terms
appear and no constant term appears describes a cone.
Elliptic paraboloids
A quadratic surface is said to be an elliptic paraboloid is it satisfies the equation
x2 y2
 z
a2 b2 (21)
(a) The only intercept of the elliptic paraboloid with the x, y, z-axes is the origin of coordinates
(0, 0, 0).
(b) The traces of the paraboloid are parabolas in the xz- and yz-planes
 x2
z
a2 for y = 0 (xz-plane), (22)
y2
z 2
b for x = 0 (yz-plane), (23)
and the origin (0, 0) in the xy-plane corresponding to the equation:
x2 y2
 0
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane), (24)
(c) The sections of the elliptic paraboloid with any planes parallel to the xz- or yz-planes are
parabolas. The sections with planes parallel to the xy-plane are ellipses (or circles if a = b).
d) The paraboloid is not bounded from above.
(e) The centre of the paraboloid in the picture is the origin of coordinates. It can be changed by
shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.
(f) The elliptic paraboloid is symmetric about the xz- and yz-planes.
Rule: Any quadratic surface which contains: only linear terms in one of the variables (in our
example z), quadratic terms in the other two variables with coefficients of the same sign and no
constant term is an elliptic paraboloid.

Hyperbolic paraboloids
A hyperbolic paraboloid is defined by the equation
x2 y2
 z
a2 b2 (25)
(a) The only intercept of the hyperbolic paraboloid with the x, y, z-axes is the origin of
coordinates (0, 0, 0).
(b) The traces of the paraboloid are parabolas in the xz- and yz-planes
x2
z 2
a for y = 0 (xz-plane), (26)
2
y
z 2
b for x = 0 (yz-plane), (27)
and two lines in the xy-plane corresponding to the equation:
x2 y2
 0
a2 b2 for z = 0 (xy-plane), (28)
(c) The sections of the hyperbolic paraboloid with planes parallel to the xz- or yz-planes are
parabolas. The sections with planes parallel to the xy-plane are hyperbolas.
(d) The paraboloid is not bounded.
(e) The centre of the paraboloid in the picture is the origin of coordinates which in this case is
called a saddle point. It can be changed by shifting x, y, z by constant amounts.
(f) The hyperbolic paraboloid is symmetric about the xz- and yz-planes.
Rule: A hyperbolic paraboloid has the same features as the elliptic paraboloid with the only
difference that the coefficients of the quadratic terms (
x 2
, y 2
in our example) have opposite
signs.

Parabolic cylinders

A parabolic cylinder is a quadratic surface whose points satisfy the equation

x 2  4cy (29)
This kind of surface is very simple, since the equation above does not depend on z. Since (29)
describes a parabola in the xy-plane, the surface we are describing here is generated by the
translation of the parabola (29) along the z-direction. Rule: This kind of surface is easy to
recognize, since its equation does not depend explicitly on one of the variables and is the
equation of a parabola in the other two variables.

Elliptic cylinders

An elliptic cylinder is a quadratic surface described by the equation

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 (30)
As in the previous case, this surface does not depend explicitly on the coordinate z. Equation
(30) describes an ellipse in the xy-plane (or a circle if a = b). Therefore an elliptic cylinder is
the surface generated by the translation of the ellipse (30) along the z direction.
Rule: Again we have here a surface easy to recognize, since its equation does not depend
explicitly on one of the variables and is the equation of an ellipse in the other two variables.
Hyperbolic cylinders

A hyperbolic cylinder is a quadratic surface parameterized by the equation

x2 y2
 1
a2 b2 (31)
The equation above describes a hyperbola in the xy-plane. Therefore this surface is simply
generated by the translation of the hyperbola (31) along the z-direction. Rule: The rule to
recognize this kind of surface will be the same as in the previous case, with the difference that
instead of an ellipse we have now a hyperbola.