1 .

Complex Numbers and Functions

1. Complex variables
√
A complex variable z may be expressed as z = x + iy where i = −1, and x and
y are real values. In this form, x is known as real part of z whereas y is known
as imaginary part of z. Usually the real part x is denoted as Rz or R(z) and the
imaginary part y as Iz or I(z). In the graphical representation of a complex variable,
its real part is taken on abscissa whereas the imaginary part is taken on ordinate
(Figure 1). In terms of real values, a complex variable z = x + iy is defined as an
ordered pair (x, y) of real values x and y. Two complex numbers are said to be
equal if and only if their real as well as imaginary parts are equal, separately. For
example, the two complex numbers (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are equal only when x1 = x2
and y1 = y2 .

z
b
a x

Figure 1: Graphical representation of a complex number z = a + ib. Here, a and b are real
values taken on the x and y axes, respectively.

1.1 Complex conjugate of a complex number

Complex conjugate or conjugate of a complex number z = (x, y) = x + iy is a
complex number x − iy. It is often denoted by z or z ∗ , so that z = x − iy.

1.2 Modulus and argument of a complex number

Suppose, z = x + iypbe a complex number. The modulus or absolute value of z,
expressed by |z|, is x2 + y 2 . Let r be any non-negative number and θ any real
number. When we take x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, we have
q
r= x2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1 (y/x)

1
2 Mathematical Physics

p
The non-negative quantity r = x2 + y 2 is known as the modulus of z. The real
quantity θ is known as the argument of z and is denoted by arg z.

Properties of Modulus: The moduli of complex numbers possess the following

properties, which can be verified easily.

1. Modulus of the sum of two complex numbers z1 and z2 can never exceed the
sum of their individual moduli. That is,

|z1 + z2 | ≤ (|z1 | + |z2 |)

As an example, let us √take z1 = 5 + 4i and z√

2 = 3 + 2i so that z1 + z2 = 8 + 6i.
Now we have |z1 | = 41 = 6.403, |z2 | = 13 = 3.605 and |z1 + z2 | = 10,
showing that |z1 + z2 | < (|z1 | + |z2 |).

2. Modulus of the difference of two complex numbers z1 and z2 can never be less
than the difference of their individual moduli. That is,
|z1 − z2 | ≥ (|z1 | − |z2 |)

where |z1 | is large than |z2 |.

√
As an example,√ let us take z 1 = 5 + 4i and z2 = 3 + 2i so that |z1 | = 41 =
√
6.403, |z2 | = 13 = 3.605. Now we have z1 − z2 = 2 + 2i and |z1 − z2 | = 8 =
2.828, showing that |z1 − z2 | > (|z1 | + |z2 |).

3. Modulus of the product of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is the product of

their individual moduli. That is,

|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |

As an example, √
let us take z1 = 5+4i √
and z2 = 3+2i so that z1 z2 √
= 7+22i. Now
we have |z1 | = 41 = 6.403, |z2 | = 13 = 3.605 and |z1 z2 | = 533 = 23.08,
showing that |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

4. Modulus of the quotient (division) of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is the

quotient (division) of their individual moduli. That is,
z  |z1 |
 1
 =
z2 |z2 |

As an example, let us take z1 = 5 + 4i √ and z2 = 3 + 2i √

so that z1 /z2 =
(23/13) + (2/13)i. Now we have |z1 | = 41 = 6.403, |z2 | = 13 = 3.605 and
|z1 /z2 | = 1.775, showing that |z1 /z2 | = |z1 |/|z2 |.

Properties of Arguments: The arguments of the complex numbers possess the

following properties, which can be verified easily.
 Complex Numbers and Functions 3

1. Argument of product of any number of complex numbers z1 and z2 is equal to

the sum of their individual arguments. That is,

arg(z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + argz2

It can be generalized as

arg(z1 z2 . . . zn ) = arg z1 + argz2 + arg z3 + . . . + arg zn

2. Argument of quotient (division) of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is equal to

the difference of their individual arguments. That is,
z1
 
arg = arg z1 − arg z2
z2

The above two rules can be generalized as

zk zl . . . zm
 
arg = (arg zk + arg zl . . . + arg zm )
zu zv . . . zw
−(arg zu + arg zv . . . + arg zw )

2. Algebraic operations of complex numbers

Let us first review about algebraic operations of complex numbers.

2.1 Addition
Addition of two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) is defined as

z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )

= (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

2.2 Subtraction
Subtraction of a complex number z2 = (x2 , y2 ) from another complex number z1 =
(x1 , y1 ) is defined as

z1 − z2 = (x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 )

= (x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 )

2.3 Multiplication
Multiplication of two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) is defined as

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
4 Mathematical Physics

2.4 Division
Division of a complex number z1 = (x1 , y1 ) by another complex number z2 = (x2 , y2 )
is defined as
z1 x1 + iy1
=
z2 x2 + iy2

(x1 + iy1 )(x2 − iy2 ) (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )

= =
(x2 + iy2 )(x2 − iy2 ) x22 + y22
x x + y y x2 y 1 − x1 y 2 
1 2 1 2
= ,
x22 + y22 x22 + y22

3. Polar form of a complex number

We have already discussed about graphical representation of a complex number
z = (x, y), where origin of coordinate system was taken as the point z = 0. The
xy-plane is generally known as the Argand plane, Gaussian plane, complex plane or
z-plane. Thus, corresponding to each complex number, there exists only one point
in the complex plane and conversely, corresponding to each point in the complex
plane, there exists only one complex number. When we introduce polar coordinates
(r, θ), we have
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ

so that
q
r= x2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1 (y/x)

A complex number z is expressed as

z = x + iy = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = r eiθ

This represents the polar form of a complex number z. The distance r from the
origin, which is always positive, is the modulus of the complex number and the
angle θ is the argument of the complex number z. Complex conjugate of z is

z = x − iy = r(cos θ − i sin θ) = r e−iθ

Exercise 1: For a complex variable z, resolve ln(z) into real and imaginary parts.

Solution: We have z = x + iy. Using x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, we get

z = r eiθ

where
q
r= x2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1 (y/x)
 Complex Numbers and Functions 5

Thus, we have
1
ln(z) = ln(r eiθ ) = ln(r) + iθ = ln(x2 + y 2 ) + i tan−1 (y/x)
2
It gives the real part (1/2) ln(x2 + y 2 ) and imaginary part tan−1 (y/x).

Exercise 2: Express the following into real and imaginary parts.

√ √ √ √
(i) 5 + 4i (ii) 7 − 6i (iii) i (iv) −i
√
Solution: (i) Let 5 + 4i = a + ib. Squaring on both sides, we have

5 + 4i = a2 − b2 + i2ab
Thus,
2
a 2 − b2 = 5 ab = 2 and a=
b
and therefore,
4
− b2 = 5 b4 + 5b2 − 4 = 0
b2
giving √
2−5 + 41
b = = 0.702
2
Here, we have not taken negative sign, as it gives negative value of b2 which is of no
use. Thus, b = 0.837 and a = 2/0.837 = 2.389. Therefore, we have
√
5 + 4i = 2.389 + i0.837
√
(ii) Let 7 − 6i = a − ib. Squaring on both sides, we have

7 − 6i = a2 − b2 − i2ab

Thus,
3
a 2 − b2 = 7 ab = 3 and a=
b
and therefore,
9
− b2 = 7 b4 + 7b2 − 9 = 0
b2
giving √
2−7 + 85
b = = 1.110
2
Here, we have not taken negative sign, as it gives negative value of b2 which is of no
use. Thus, b = 1.053 and a = 3/1.053 = 2.849. Therefore, we have
√
7 − 6i = 2.849 − i1.053
6 Mathematical Physics

√
(iii) Let i = a + ib. Squaring on both sides, we have

i = a2 − b2 + i2ab

Thus,
a 2 − b2 = 0 ab = 1/2

giving
1
a = b = ±√
2

Hence, we have
√ 1
i = ± √ (1 + i)
2
√
(iv) Let −i = a − ib. Squaring on both sides, we have

−i = a2 − b2 − i2ab

Thus,
a 2 − b2 = 0 ab = 1/2

giving
1
a = b = ±√
2

Hence, we have
√ 1
−i = ± √ (1 − i)
2

Exercise 3: Reduce 1 − cos α + i sin α to the modulus and argument form.

Solution: We have real part x = 1 − cos α and imaginary part y = sin α. Therefore,

r 2 = (1 − cos α)2 + (sin α)2 = 2 − 2 cos α = 4 sin2 α/2

Therefore, r = 2 sin α/2. Further,

sin α π α
tan θ = = cot α/2 = tan −
1 − cos α 2 2
Hence,
π α
θ= −
2 2
Thus,
αh π α π α i
1 − cos α + i sin α = 2 sin cos − + i sin −
2 2 2 2 2
 Complex Numbers and Functions 7

4. Geometric representation of complex numbers

In the xy-plane, the x-axis is taken as the real axis whereas the y-axis is taken as
the imaginary axis. The real part of a complex number is represented on the real
axis, and the imaginary part is represented on the imaginary axis. A point whose
Cartesian coordinates are (x, y) uniquely represents the complex number z = x + iy
on the complex plane z. The diagram in which this representation is carried out is
called the Argand’s diagram. If (r, θ) be the polar coordinates of the point P, then
r is the modulus and θ the argument of z.

Y
qP(x, y)
z = x + iy

θ X
O

Figure 2: Geometric representation of a complex number.

4.1 Geometric representation of z1 + z2

Let two points P1 and P2 , respectively, represent the complex numbers

z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2

Since z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 ), our aim is to find a point whose coordinates

are (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).
From point P1 draw a line P1 P parallel to OP2 , such that OP2 = P1 P, as shown
in Figure 3. Draw the line OP. Draw P1 L and PN perpendicular to the real axis.
Also draw P1 K perpendicular to PN.

P2
z2
+ z2
z1
z2 z=
P1 K
z1
X
O L N
8 Mathematical Physics

Figure 3: Addition of z1 and z2 .

We have ON = OL + LN = x1 + x2 and NP = NK + KP = y1 + y2
The coordinates of P are (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) and it represents the complex number
z = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 ) = (x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = z1 + z2
Thus, the point P represents the sum of the complex numbers z1 and z2 , such that
|z1 + z2 | = OP and amp(z1 + z2 ) = 6 XOP

4.2 Geometric representation of z1 − z2

Let two points P1 and P2 , respectively, represent the complex numbers
z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2
Since z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 ), our aim is to find a point whose coordinates
are (x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 ).
The subtraction of z2 from z1 may be taken as the addition of z1 to (−z2 ).
Produce P2 O backwards up to R such that OR = OP2 as shown in Figure 4. From
point R, draw line RP parallel to OP1 , such that RP = OP1 . Combine O and P
points. The line PP1 is parallel and equal to OP2 , and P2 P1 is parallel to equal
to OP. Draw P1 L and P2 M perpendicular to the real axis. Also draw RN and PQ
perpendicular to the imaginary axis. The projection of P1 P2 on the real axis is ML
= OL - OM = (x1 − x2 ). Thus, the projection of OP on the real axis is (x1 − x2 ).
Now, PR is parallel and equal to OP1 . The projection of PR on the imaginary
axis is QN. The projection of OR on the imaginary axis is ON. The projection of
OP on the imaginary axis is OQ. Now OQ = ON - QN = y2 − y1 . As ML is along
the positive real axis and OQ is along the negative imaginary axis, the coordinates
of the point P are (x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 ) and it represents the complex number
z = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 ) = (x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) = z1 − z2

Y
P2

z2
P1
z1
X
O M L
z
=
z1

-z2
−

Q
z2

P
N
R
 Complex Numbers and Functions 9

Figure 4: Subtraction of z2 from z1 .

Thus, the point P represents the difference z1 − z2 of the complex numbers, such
that
|z1 − z2 | = OP and arg(z1 − z2 ) = 6 XOP

4.3 Geometric representation of z1 z2

Let two points P1 and P2 , respectively, represent two complex numbers

z1 = x1 + iy1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) = r1 eiθ1

z2 = x2 + iy2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) = r2 eiθ2

Y
P

P2
2
r1 r

r2
θ1
P1
θ2
θ1 r1 X
O A

Figure 5: Multiplication of z1 and z2 .

Since z1 z2 = r1 r2 ei(θ1 +θ2 ) , our aim is to find a point whose modulus is r1 r2 and
argument is (θ1 + θ2 ).
Take OA = 1 along the real axis (Figure 5). Construct △AOP1 . At point P2
draw a line P2 P, such that 6 OAP1 = 6 OP2 P. Draw a line OP, such that 6 P2 OP =
θ1 . Now, △OP2 P is similar to the △AOP1 . Therefore,

OP OP2 OP r2
= or = or OP = r1 r2
OP1 OA r1 1

Now,
6 AOP = 6 AOP2 + 6 P2 OP = 6 AOP2 + 6 AOP1 = θ2 + θ1

Thus, the point P represents the number

(r1 r2 )[cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )]

Hence, the product of two complex numbers z1 and z2 is represented by the point P,
such that (i) |z1 z2 | = r1 r2 = |z1 ||z2 |, and (ii) argument (z1 z2 ) = θ1 + θ2 = argument
(z1 ) + argument (z2 ).
10 Mathematical Physics

4.4 Geometric representation of z1 /z2

Let two points P1 and P2 , respectively, represent two complex numbers

z1 = x1 + iy1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) = r1 eiθ1

z2 = x2 + iy2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) = r2 eiθ2

Since z1 /z2 = r1 /r2 ei(θ1 −θ2 ) , our aim is to find a point whose modulus is r1 /r2 and
argument is (θ1 − θ2 ).

Y
P1

r1 P2

r2
P
r1 /r2
θ1 θ2
X
O A

Figure 6: Division of z1 by z2 .

Take OA = 1 (Figure 6). From point A, draw a line AP, such that 6 OAP =
6 OP2 P1 . Draw line OP, such that 6 AOP = 6 P2 OP1 . Now, △ OAP is similar to △
OP2 P1 . Thus, we have
OP OP1 OP r1 r1
= or = or OP =
OA OP2 1 r2 r2
6 AOP = 6 P2 OP1 = 6 AOP1 − 6 AOP2 = θ1 − θ2

Thus, the point P represents the number

r1
[cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )]
r2
Hence, the division z1 /z2 is represented by the point P, such that (i) |z1 /z2 | =
r1 /r2 = |z1 |/|z2 |, and (ii) argument (z1 /z2 ) = (θ1 − θ2 ) = argument (z1 ) - argument
(z2 ).

Note: In the text, some times, (cos θ + i sin θ) would be abbreviated as cisθ.

5. De Moivre’s theorem
Statement of De Moivre’s theorem is as the following:
(A) If n is an integer, positive or negative, then
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
 Complex Numbers and Functions 11

(B) If n is a fraction, positive or negative, then one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n
is cos nθ + i sin nθ

Proof (i) When n is a positive integer. Let us define cis θ = cos θ + i sin θ. By
multiplication, we have

cis θ1 cis θ2 = (cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i(sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 )

= cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ) = cis (θ1 + θ2 )

Further,

cis θ1 cis θ2 cis θ3 = cis (θ1 + θ2 )cis θ3 = [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) cos θ3 − sin(θ1 + θ2 ) sin θ3 )]

+i[sin(θ1 + θ2 ) cos θ3 + cos(θ1 + θ2 ) sin θ3 )]

= cos(θ1 + θ2 + θ3 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 + θ3 ) = cis (θ1 + θ2 + θ3 )

Proceeding in this manner, we can get

cis θ1 cis θ2 . . . cis θn = cis (θ1 + θ2 . . . θn )

Putting θ1 = θ2 = . . . = θn = θ, we have

(cis θ)n = cis nθ or (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ

(ii) When n is a negative integer. Let n = −m, where m is a positive integer.

We have
1 1
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = (cos θ + i sin θ)−m = m
=
(cos θ + i sin θ) (cos mθ + i sin mθ)

Here, we have applied the above case (i). On multiplying and dividing by (cos mθ −
i sin mθ), we have

cos mθ − i sin mθ cos mθ − i sin mθ

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = =
(cos mθ + i sin mθ)(cos mθ − i sin mθ) cos2 mθ + sin2 mθ

= cos mθ − i sin mθ = cos(−mθ) + i sin(−mθ) = cos nθ + i sin nθ

(iii) When n is a fraction, positive or negative. Let n = p/q, where q is a positive

integer and p is any positive or negative integer. We have

[cos(θ/q) + i sin(θ/q)]q = cos(q θ/q) + i sin(q θ/q) = cos θ + i sin θ

Taking q-th root on both sides, one of the roots we have

(cos θ + i sin θ)1/q = cos(θ/q) + i sin(θ/q)

12 Mathematical Physics

Raising both sides the power p, we have

(cos θ + i sin θ)p/q = [cos(θ/q) + i sin(θ/q)]p = cos(p θ/q) + i sin(p θ/q)

Putting n = p/q, one of the roots, we have

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ

This completes the proof of the theorem for all values of n.

Exercise 4: Simplify

(cos 5θ + i sin 5θ)3 (cos 3θ − i sin 3θ)4

A=
(cos 4θ + i sin 4θ)2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ)−2

Solution: We have

(cos 5θ + i sin 5θ)3 = [(cos θ + i sin θ)5 ]3 = (cos θ + i sin θ)15

(cos 3θ − i sin 3θ)4 = [cos(−3θ) + i sin(−3θ)]4 = [(cos θ + i sin θ)−3 ]4

= (cos θ + i sin θ)−12

(cos 4θ + i sin 4θ)2 = [(cos θ + i sin θ)4 ]2 = (cos θ + i sin θ)8

(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ)−2 = [(cos θ + i sin θ)2 ]−2 = (cos θ + i sin θ)−4

Thus, we have

(cos θ + i sin θ)15 (cos θ + i sin θ)−12

A= = (cos θ + i sin θ)−1
(cos θ + i sin θ)8 (cos θ + i sin θ)−4

= cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ) = cos θ − i sin θ

Exercise 5: Prove that (1+cos θ+i sin θ)n +(1+cos θ−i sin θ)n = 2n+1 cosn (θ/2) cos(nθ/2).

Solution: Put 1 + cos θ = r cos α and sin θ = r sin α. Therefore,

r 2 = (1 + cos θ)2 + sin2 θ = 2 + 2 cos θ = 4 cos2 θ/2 r = 2 cos θ/2

and
sin θ 2 sin θ/2 cos θ/2
tan α = = = tan θ/2 α = θ/2
1 + cos θ 1 + 2 cos2 θ/2 − 1
Thus, the LHS is

LHS = [r(cos α + i sin α)]n + [r(cos α − i sin α)]n

= r n [(cos α + i sin α)n + (cos{−α} + i sin{−α})n ]

 Complex Numbers and Functions 13

= r n [(cos nα + i sin nα) + {cos(−nα) + i sin(−nα)}]

= r n [(cos nα + i sin nα) + (cos nα − i sin nα)] = 2 r n cos nα

Putting the values of r and α, we have

LHS = 2(2 cos θ/2)n cos(nθ/2) = 2n+1 cosn (θ/2) cos(nθ/2)

1
Exercise 6: If 2 cos θ = x + x prove that

1 x2n + 1 cos nθ
(i) 2 cos rθ = xr + (ii) =
xr x 2n−1 +x cos(n − 1)θ

Solution: We have
1
x+ = 2 cos θ x2 − 2x cos θ + 1 = 0
x
√
2 cos θ ± 4 cos2 θ − 4
x= = cos θ ± i sin θ
2
(i) Taking positive sign, we have

xr = (cos θ + i sin θ)r = cos rθ + i sin rθ

x−r = (cos θ + i sin θ)−r = cos(−rθ) + i sin(−rθ) = cos rθ − i sin rθ

On addition, we have
1
xr + = (cos rθ + i sin rθ) + (cos rθ − i sin rθ) = 2 cos rθ
xr
(ii) We have

x2n + 1 (cos θ + i sin θ)2n + 1

=
x2n−1 + x (cos θ + i sin θ)2n−1 + (cos θ + i sin θ)

cos 2nθ + i sin 2nθ + 1

=
cos(2n − 1)θ + i sin(2n − 1)θ + (cos θ + i sin θ)

(1 + cos 2nθ) + i sin 2nθ

=
[cos(2n − 1)θ + cos θ] + i[sin(2n − 1)θ + sin θ]

2 cos2 nθ + 2i sin nθ cos nθ

=
2 cos nθ cos(n − 1)θ + 2i sin nθ cos(n − 1)θ

cos nθ(2 cos nθ + 2i sin nθ) cos nθ

= =
cos(n − 1)θ (2 cos nθ + 2i sin nθ) cos(n − 1)θ
14 Mathematical Physics

6. Roots of complex numbers

For q being an integer, there are q distinct values of (cos θ + i sin θ)1/q . These are
called the q-th roots of (cos θ + i sin θ) and are obtained in the following manner.
We know that trigonometric functions are periodic with a period of 2nπ, where
n is an integer. Therefore, cos θ = cos(2nπ + θ) and sin θ = sin(2nπ + θ). Hence,

cos θ + i sin θ = cos(2nπ + θ) + i sin(2nπ + θ)

Using De Moivre’s theorem, we have

(cos θ + i sin θ)1/q = [cos(2nπ + θ) + i sin(2nπ + θ)]1/q

 2nπ + θ   2nπ + θ 
= cos + i sin
q q
Giving different values to n, we have on the RHS as
θ  θ
n=0 cos + i sin
q q
 2π + θ   2π + θ 
n=1 cos + i sin
q q
 4π + θ   4π + θ 
n=2 cos + i sin
q q
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
 2qπ − 2π + θ   2qπ − 2π + θ 
n=q−1 cos + i sin
q q
After this, the values repeat in sequence. That is, for n = q, we get the same as for
n = 0; for n = q + 1, we get the same as for n = 1; and so on. Thus, there are q
distinct values of (cos θ + i sin θ)1/q .

Exercise 7: Find the cube roots of (i) 1, (ii) (-1), (iii) i and (iv) (-i).

Solution: (i) Let

2nπ 2nπ
x = (1)1/3 = (cos 0 + i sin 0)1/3 = (cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ)1/3 = cos + i sin
3 3
where n = 0, 1, 2. Thus, three cube roots of 1 are
2π 2π 4π 4π
cos 0 + i sin 0; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin
3 3 3 3
√ √
1 3 1 3
1; − +i ; − −i
2 2 2 2
These are 3 cube roots of 1.
 Complex Numbers and Functions 15

(ii) Let

x = (−1)1/3 = (cos π + i sin π)1/3 = [cos(2n + 1)π + i sin(2n + 1)π]1/3

(2n + 1)π (2n + 1)π

= cos + i sin
3 3
where n = 0, 1, 2. Thus, three cube roots of −1 are
π π 5π 5π
cos + i sin ; cos π + i sin π; cos + i sin
3 3 3 3
√ √
1 3 1 3
+i ; −1; −i
2 2 2 2
These are 3 cube roots of (-1).

(iii) Let
h (4n + 1)π (4n + 1)π i1/3
x = (i)1/3 = (cos π/2 + i sin π/2)1/3 = cos + i sin
2 2
(4n + 1)π (4n + 1)π
= cos + i sin
6 6
where n = 0, 1, 2. Thus, three roots of i are
π π 5π 5π 9π 9π
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin cos + i sin
6 6 6 6 6 6
√ √
3 1 3 1
+i ; − +i ; −i
2 2 2 2
These are 3 cube roots of i.

(iv) Let
h (4n − 1)π (4n − 1)π i1/3
x = (−i)1/3 = [cos(−π/2) + i sin(−π/2)]1/3 = cos + i sin
2 2
(4n − 1)π (4n − 1)π
= cos + i sin
6 6
where n = 0, 1, 2. Thus, three cube roots of −i are
π π 3π 3π 7π 7π
cos − i sin ; cos + i sin cos + i sin
6 6 6 6 6 6
√ √
3 1 3 1
−i ; i; − −i
2 2 2 2
These are 3 cube roots of (−i).

Remark: For example, q-th roots of 5, -5, 5i, −5i can be calculated as:
16 Mathematical Physics

51/q = 51/q (1)1/q (−5)1/q = 51/q (−1)1/q

(5i)1/q = 51/q (i)1/q (−5i)1/q = 51/q (−i)1/q

Exercise 8: Find the squaree roots of (i) 1, (ii) (-1), (iii) i and (iv) (-i).

Solution: (i) Let

x = (1)1/2 = (cos 0 + i sin 0)1/2 = (cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ)1/2 = cos nπ + i sin nπ

where n = 0, 1. Thus, two square roots of 1 are

cos 0 + i sin 0; cos π + i sin π

1; −1

These are 2 square roots of 1.

(ii) Let

x = (−1)1/2 = (cos π + i sin π)1/2 = [cos(2n + 1)π + i sin(2n + 1)π]1/2

(2n + 1)π (2n + 1)π

= cos + i sin
2 2
where n = 0, 1. Thus, two square roots of −1 are
π π 3π 3π
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin
2 2 2 2

i −i

These are 2 square roots of (-1).

(iii) Let
" #1/2
1/2 1/2 (4n + 1)π (4n + 1)π
x = (i) = (cos π/2 + i sin π/2) = cos + i sin
2 2

(4n + 1)π (4n + 1)π

= cos + i sin
4 4
where n = 0, 1. Thus, two square roots of i are
π π 5π 5π
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin
4 4 4 4

1 1 1 1
√ +i √ ; −√ − i √
2 2 2 2
 Complex Numbers and Functions 17

These are 2 square roots of i.

(iv) Let
" #1/2
(4n − 1)π (4n − 1)π
x = (−i)1/2 = [cos(−π/2) + i sin(−π/2)]1/2 = cos + i sin
2 2

(4n − 1)π (4n − 1)π

= cos + i sin
4 4
where n = 0, 1. Thus, two square roots of −i are
π π 3π 3π
cos − i sin ; cos + i sin
4 4 4 4

1 1 1 1
√ −i √ ; −√ + i √
2 2 2 2
These are 2 square roots of (−i).

Exercise 8: Find all the values of

1
√ 
3 3/4
+i
2 2
√
Solution: Let r cos θ = 1/2 and r sin θ = 3/2. We get r = 1 and θ = π/3.
Therefore,
1
√ 
3 3/4  π π 3/4
+i = cos + i sin = (cos π + i sin π)1/4
2 2 3 3
(2n + 1)π (2n + 1)π
= [cos(2n + 1)π + i sin(2n + 1)π]1/4 = cos + i sin
4 4
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3. Thus, the required roots are
π π 3π 3π 5π 5π 7π 7π
cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin ; cos + i sin
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

7. Expansion of sin nθ, cos nθ, tan nθ in powers of sin θ, cos θ,

tan θ, respectively, (n being a positive integer)
We have cos nθ + i sin nθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n . On applying Binomial theorem on the
RHS, we have

cos nθ + i sin nθ = cosn θ + n

C1 cosn−1 θ(i sin θ) + n
C2 cosn−2 θ(i sin θ)2

+ n C3 cosn−3 θ(i sin θ)3 + n

C4 cosn−4 θ(i sin θ)4 + n
C5 cosn−5 θ(i sin θ)5 + . . .

= (cosn θ − n
C2 cosn−2 θ sin2 θ + n
C4 cosn−4 θ(i sin θ)4 + . . .)
18 Mathematical Physics

+i(n C1 cosn−1 θ sin θ) − n

C3 cosn−3 θ sin3 θ + n
C5 cosn−5 θ(i sin θ)5 + . . .)

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have

cos nθ = cosn θ − n
C2 cosn−2 θ sin2 θ + n
C4 cosn−4 θ sin4 θ − . . . (1.1)

and
n
sin nθ = C1 cosn−1 θ sin θ − n C3 cosn−3 θ sin3 θ + n C5 cosn−5 θ sin5 θ − . . . (1.2)
√ p
Replacing every sin θ by 1 − cos2 θ in equation (1.1) and every cos θ by 1 − sin2 θ
in equation (1.2), we get the required expansions of cos nθ and sin nθ.
Dividing equation (1.2) by equation (1.1), we get

sin nθ n C cosn−1 θ sin θ − n C cosn−3 θ sin3 θ + n C cosn−5 θ sin5 θ − . . .

1 3 5
tan nθ = = 2
cos nθ n n
cos θ − C2 cos n−2 n
θ sin θ + C4 cos n−4 θ sin4 θ − . . .
Dividing numerator and denominator by cosn θ, we get
nC nC 3 n 5
1 tan θ − 3 tan θ + C5 tan θ − ...
tan nθ = 2 4
1 − nC n
2 tan θ + C4 tan θ − . . .

This is the required expansions of tan nθ.

Exercise 9: Expand sin 5θ, cos 5θ, tan 5θ in powers of sin θ, cos θ, tan θ, respectively.

Solution: We have cos 5θ + i sin 5θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)5 . On applying Binomial

theorem on the RHS, we have

cos 5θ + i sin 5θ = cos5 θ + 5 C1 cos4 θ(i sin θ) + 5 C2 cos3 θ(i sin θ)2

+ 5 C3 cos2 θ(i sin θ)3 + 5 C4 cos θ(i sin θ)4 + 5 C5 (i sin θ)5

= cos5 θ + 5i cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ − i10 cos 2 θ sin3 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ + i sin5 θ

Equating the real part on two sides of equation, we get

cos 5θ = cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ

= cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ(1 − cos2 θ) + 5 cos θ(1 − cos2 θ)2

= 16 cos5 θ − 20 cos3 θ + 5 cos θ

This is the required expression for cos 5θ. Equating the imaginary part on two sides
of equation, we have

sin 5θ = 5 cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ

= 5(1 − sin2 θ)2 sin θ − 10(1 − sin2 θ) sin3 θ + sin5 θ

 Complex Numbers and Functions 19

= 16 sin5 θ − 20 sin3 θ + 5 sin θ

This is the required expression for sin 5θ. Now, we have

sin 5θ 5 cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ

tan 5θ = =
cos 5θ cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ

On dividing the numerator and denominator both by cos5 θ, we get

5 tan θ − 10 tan3 θ + tan5 θ

tan 5θ =
1 − 10 tan2 θ + 5 tan4 θ
This is the required expression for tan 5θ.

8. Expansion of sinm θ, cosn θ, sinm θ cosn θ, in a series of

sines, cosines and multiples of θ
If z = cos θ + i sin θ then 1/z = cos θ − i sin θ
By De Moivre’s theorem, we have z p = cos pθ + i sin pθ and 1/z p = cos pθ − i sin pθ
Therefore,
1 1 1 1
z+ = 2 cos θ z− = 2i sin θ zp + = 2 cos pθ zp − = 2i sin pθ
z z zp zp
These expressions are used to expand the powers of sin θ or cos θ or their products
in a series of sines, cosines and multiples of θ.

Exercise 10: Expand cos8 θ in a series of cosines of multiples of θ.

Solution: Let z = cos θ + i sin θ, so that

1 1
z+ = 2 cos θ and zp + = 2 cos pθ
z zp
Therefore,
 1 8 1 1 1 1
(2 cos θ)8 = z + = z 8 + 8 C1 z 7 + 8 C2 z 6 2 + 8 C3 z 5 3 + 8 C4 z 4 4
z z z z z

1 1 1 1
+ 8 C5 z 3 5
+ 8 C6 z 2 6 + 8 C7 z 7 + 8 C8 8
z z z z
We know that n Cr = nC
n−r . Therefore
 1  1  1  1
(2 cos θ)8 = z 8 + + 8
C 1 z 6
+ + 8
C 2 z 4
+ + 8
C 3 z 2
+ + 8 C4
z8 z6 z4 z2

= (2 cos 8θ) + 8(2 cos 6θ) + 28(2 cos 4θ) + 56(2 cos 2θ) + 70

Thus,
20 Mathematical Physics

1
cos8 θ = [cos 8θ) + 8 cos 6θ + 28 cos 4θ + 56 cos 2θ + 35]
128

Exercise 11: Expand sin7 θ cos3 θ in a series of sines of multiples of θ.

Solution: Let z = cos θ + i sin θ, so that

1 1 1
z+ = 2 cos θ z− = 2i sin θ zp − = 2i sin pθ
z z zp
Therefore,
 1 7  1 3  1 4  1 3  1 3
(2i sin θ)7 (2 cos θ)3 = z − z+ = z− z− z+
z z z z z

 1 4  2 1 3  4 1  3 1
= z− z − 2 = z 4 − 4z 2 + 6 − 2 + 4 z 6 − 3z 2 + 2 − 6
z z z z z z

 1   1  1  1  1
= z 10 − − 4 z 8
− + 3 z 6
− + 8 z 4
− − 14 z 2
−
z 10 z8 z6 z4 z2

= 2i sin 10θ − 4(2i sin 8θ) + 3(2i sin 6θ) + 8(2i sin 4θ) − 14(2i sin 2θ)

Thus,

1
sin7 θ cos3 θ = − [sin 10θ − 4 sin 8θ + 3 sin 6θ + 8 sin 4θ − 14 sin 2θ]
29

9. Exponential function of a complex variable

For real value of x, the exponential function is given as

x2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + + ...
2! 3!
Similarly, the exponential function of a complex variable z(= x + iy) is expressed as

z2 z3
ez = 1 + z + + + ...
2! 3!

Exercise 12: For a complex variable z(= x + iy) show that ez = ex (cos y + i sin y).

Solution: We have
 (iy)2 (iy)3 (iy)4 (iy)5 
ez = ex+iy = ex eiy = ex 1 + iy + + + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5!

h y2 y4   y3 y5 i
= ex 1− + − ... + i y − + − . . . = ex (cos y + i sin y)
2! 4! 3! 5!
 Complex Numbers and Functions 21

10. Circular functions of a complex variable

Since eiy = cos y + i sin y and e−iy = cos y − i sin y, the circular functions of real
angle can be expressed as
eiy − e−iy eiy + e−iy sin y
sin y = cos y = tan y = and so on
2i 2 cos y
Similarly, the circular functions of complex variable z are
eiz − e−iz eiz + e−iz sin z
sin z = cos z = tan z = and so on
2i 2 cos z

10.1 Properties
1. Circular functions are periodic: sin z and cos z are periodic functions having
a real period of 2π whereas tan z, cot z have a period of π. That is sin z =
sin(2π + z), cos z = cos(2π + z), tan z = tan(π + z), cot z = cot(π + z).
2. Even and odd functions: cos z and sec z are even functions whereas sin z and
cosecz are odd functions. That is cos(−z) = cos z; sin(−z) = − sin z.
3. Euler’s theorem eiz = cos z + i sin z:
We know series expansions
z 2 z 4 62 z 3 z 5 72
cos z = 1 − + − + ... and sin z = z − + − + ...
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!
The series expansion of eiz is
(iz)2 (iz)3 (iz)4 (iz)5 (iz)6 (iz)7
eiz = 1 + (iz) + + + + + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!

z2 z3 z4 z5 z6 z7
= 1 + (iz) − −i + +i − −i + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
 z 2 z 4 62   z 3 z 5 72 
= 1− + − + ... + i z − + − + ...
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!

= cos z + i sin z
where z is real or comlex. This is proof of Euler’s theorem.

11. Hyperbolic functions

If x is real or complex, then hyperbolic functions are defined as
ex − e−x ex + e−x sinh x ex − e−x
sinh x = cosh x = tanh x = = x
2 2 cosh x e + e−x

ex + e−x 2 2
coth x = sechx = cosechx =
ex − e−x ex + e−x ex − e−x
22 Mathematical Physics

11.1 Relations between hyperbolic and circular functions

sin(ix) = i sinh x cos(ix) = cosh x tan(ix) = i tanh x

sinh(ix) = i sin x cosh(ix) = cos x tanh(ix) = i tan x

11.2 Formulas

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1 coth2 x − cosech2 x = 1

sinh(x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x

cosh(x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y

cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x − 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2 x

tanh x ± tanh y 2 tanh x

tanh(x ± y) = tanh 2x =
1 ± tanh x tanh y 1 + tanh2 x

11.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions

If sinh u = z then u is called the hyperbolic sine inverse of z and is written as
u = sinh−1 z. Similarly, we define cosh−1 z, tanh−1 z, etc.

Exercise 13: Show that

p p
(i) sinh−1 z = ln[z + z 2 + 1], (ii) cosh−1 z = ln[z + z 2 − 1],

1 1 + z 
(iii) tanh−1 z = ln
2 1−z

Solution: (i) Let sinh−1 z = u, then

eu − e−u
z = sinh u = eu − e−u = 2z e2u − 2zeu − 1 = 0
2
√
u 2z ± 4z 2 + 4 p
e = = z ± z2 + 1
2
Taking positive sign, we have
p p
eu = z + z2 + 1 or u = sinh−1 z = ln[z + z 2 + 1]

(ii) Let cosh−1 z = u, then

eu + e−u
z = cosh u = eu + e−u = 2z e2u − 2zeu + 1 = 0
2
 Complex Numbers and Functions 23

√
u 2z ± 4z 2 − 4 p
e = = z ± z2 − 1
2
Taking positive sign, we have
p p
eu = z + z2 − 1 or u = cosh−1 z = ln[z + z 2 − 1]

(iii) Let tanh−1 z = u, then

eu − e−u e2u − 1
z = tanh u = = z(e2u + 1) = e2u − 1
eu + e−u e2u + 1

1+z 1 1 + z 
e2u (1 − z) = 1 + z e2u = u = tanh−1 z = ln
1−z 2 1−z

12. Real and imaginary parts of circular and hyperbolic

functions
The procedure of obtaining real and imaginary parts of circular and hyperbolic
functions can be understood with the help of following exercises.

Exercise 14: Separate real and imaginary parts of (i) sin(x + iy), (ii) cos(x + iy),
(iii) tan(x + iy)

Solution: We have

(i) sin(x + iy) = sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y

(ii) cos(x + iy) = cos x cos iy − sin x sin iy = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y

(iii) Let α + iβ = tan(x + iy) then α − iβ = tan(x − iy)

On addition of these two expressions, we have

sin(x + iy) sin(x − iy)
2α = tan(x + iy) + tan(x − iy) = +
cos(x + iy) cos(x − iy)

sin(x + iy) cos(x − iy) + sin(x − iy) cos(x + iy) 2 sin 2x

= =
cos(x + iy) cos(x − iy) cos 2x + cos 2iy

sin 2x
Therefore, α=
cos 2x + cosh 2y
On subtraction, we have
sin(x + iy) sin(x − iy)
2iβ = tan(x + iy) − tan(x − iy) = −
cos(x + iy) cos(x − iy)
24 Mathematical Physics

sin(x + iy) cos(x − iy) − sin(x − iy) cos(x + iy) 2 sin 2iy
= =
cos(x + iy) cos(x − iy) cos 2x + cos 2iy
2i sinh 2y
=
cos 2x + cosh 2y
sinh 2y
Therefore, β=
cos 2x + cosh 2y
Hence,
sin 2x sinh 2y
tan(x + iy) = +i
cos 2x + cosh 2y cos 2x + cosh 2y

Exercise 15: Separate real and imaginary parts of (i) sinh(x + iy), (ii) cosh(x + iy),
(iii) tanh(x + iy)

Solution: We have
(i) sinh(x + iy) = −i sin i(x + iy) = −i sin(ix − y) = −i[sin ix cos y − cos ix sin y]
= −i[i sinh x cos y − cosh x sin y] = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
(ii) cosh(x + iy) = cos i(x + iy) = cos(ix − y = cos ix cos y + sin ix sin y
= cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
(iii) Let α + iβ = tanh(x + iy) = −i tan i(x + iy) = −i tan(ix − y)
then α − iβ = tanh(x − iy) = −i tan i(x − iy) = −i tan(ix + y)
On addition of these two expressions, we have
h sin(ix − y) sin(ixz + y) i
2α = −i[tan(ix − y) + tan(ix + y)] = −i +
cos(ix − y) cos(ix + y)
h sin(ix − y) cos(ix + y) + sin(ix + y) cos(ix − y) i h 2 sin 2ix i
= −i = −i
cos(ix − y) cos(ix + y) cos 2ix + cos 2y
sinh 2x
Therefore, α=
cosh 2x + cos 2y
On subtraction, we have
sin(ix + y) sin(ix − y)
2β = tan(ix + y) − tan(ix − y) = −
cos(ix + y) cos(ix − y)
sin(ix + y) cos(ix − y) − sin(ix − y) cos(ix + y) 2 sin 2y
= =
cos(ix + y) cos(ix−) cos 2ix + cos 2y
2 sin 2y
=
cosh 2x + cos 2y
sin 2y
Therefore, β=
cosh 2x + cos 2y
Hence,
sinh 2x sin 2y
tanh(x + iy) = +i
cosh 2x + cos 2y cosh 2x + cos 2y
 Complex Numbers and Functions 25

13. Logarithmic function of a complex variable

If z(= x + iy) and w(= u + iv) are related through the relation ew = z, then w is
said to be a logarithm of z to the base e and is written as w = lnz. Also

ew+2inπ = ew e2inπ = ew = z

where n is an integer. Therefore,

ln(z) = w + 2inπ

It shows that logarithm of a complex number has an infinite number of values, and
is therefore, a multi-valued function.
The general value of logarithm of z is written as Ln (z) (beginning with capital
L) so as to distinguish from its principal value written as ln (z). This principal value
is obtained by putting n = 0 in general value.

Ln(x + iy) = ln(x + iy) + 2inπ

Remarks: 1. If y = 0, we have Ln(x) = ln(x) + 2inπ. This shows that the

logarithm of a real number is also multi-valued. Its principal value is real while all
other values are imaginary.
2. It is known that logarithm of a negative quantity has no real value. But, it
can now be evaluated. For example, we evaluate ln(−1). We have

−1 = cos π + i sin π = eiπ thus ln(−1) = πi

Exercise 16: Evaluate ln(−2).

Solution: We have

ln(−2) = ln[2(−1)] = ln(2) + ln(−1) = 0.6931 + πi = 0.6931 + i(3.1416)

13.1 Real and imaginary parts of Ln(x + iy)

.
Let x + iy = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = r ei θ , where r = x2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1 (y/x).
p

We have

Ln(x + iy) = 2inπ + ln(x + iy) = 2inπ + ln(r ei θ ) = 2inπ + ln(r) + iθ

q
= ln(r) + i(2nπ + θ) = ln( x2 + y 2 ) + i[2nπ + tan−1 (y/x)]

1
= ln(x2 + y 2 ) + i[2nπ + tan−1 (y/x)]
2