Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 1

COMPLEX NUMBERS

1. Basic Properties
The equation x2 + 1 = 0 [that is, x2 = −1] has no real solution, since for every real x, x2 is not
negative. We shall extend the set of real numbers to the set of complex numbers, a set where
such an equation always has solutions.

IDefinition: A complex number is an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers. J

It is common to denote by the letter z the ordered pair (x, y). The set of all complex numbers
is usually denoted by the letter C (recall that the set of all real numbers is denoted by R). So,
for example, instead of writing “z is a complex number” we may simply write “z ∈ C ”.
If z1 = (x1 , y1 ) ∈ C and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) ∈ C are two complex numbers [hence x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 ∈
R], then we say that they are equal if, and only if, their components are equal (in the correct
order):
z1 = z2 ⇐⇒ x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
The operations of addition and multiplication in C are defined as follows:
def
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) (sum)
and
def
z1 z2 = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + y1 x2 ). (product)

It is easy to verify that with these definitions, the usual laws of arithmetic hold for complex
numbers:
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
commutative laws
z1 z2 = z2 z1
z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3
associative laws
z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3
z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3
distributive laws
(z1 + z2 )z3 = z1 z3 + z2 z3
The complex number (0, 0) has the property that, for any z ∈ C,

z + (0, 0) = (x, y) + (0, 0) = (x + 0, y + 0) = z,

and is denoted simply 0 (zero)†.

† Strictly speaking, since the real number zero, and the complex number zero are different
things, it would be incorrect to use the same symbol to indicate both of them. However, in
order to keep the notation as simple as possible, we shall use 0 for both of them; the context
will determine which definition applies.
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 2

For any z = (x, y) ∈ C we see immediately that

(x, y) + (−x, −y) = (0, 0).

The complex number (−x, −y) is denoted −z.

Complex numbers whose second component is zero may be added, subtracted and multi-
plied by simply carrying out the corresponding “ordinary” (i.e., real) operation over the first
component. For example,

(x1 , 0) + (x2 , 0) = (x1 + x2 , 0)

(x1 , 0) − (x2 , 0) = (x1 − x2 , 0)
(x1 , 0) (x2 , 0) = (x1 x2 − 02 , 0x1 + 0x2 ) = (x1 x2 , 0)
(x1 , 0) = (x2 , 0) ⇐⇒ x1 = x2 .

In other words, there exists a one-to-one correspondence between R and the set of complex
numbers whose second component is zero:

(x, 0) ←→ x.

Every real expression with real numbers a, b, c and so on, may be associated with a complex
expression with (a, 0), (b, 0), (c, 0) and so on; the results will also correspond to each other in a
one-to-one fashion.
We may then identify the complex numbers whose second component is zero as an “image”
of the set R. In particular, the complex number (1, 0) is the image of the real number 1.
It is natural now, to wonder whether complex numbers whose first component is zero have
the same property. They do not: when two numbers of this kind are multiplied together, like in
this example:
(0, 1) (0, 1) = (02 − 12 , 0 + 0) = (−1, 0),
the result is not a number of the same kind. Complex numbers with zero first component do
not form a closed set under multiplication; they represent “something new”.
The complex number (0, 1) has a special name: we call it i (imaginary unit):

(0, 1) −→ i.

And since the complex number (1, 0) is the image of the real number 1, we note that the preceding
example may be rewritten in the particularly neat form

i2 = −1.

We now define the product of a complex number and a real number: if r is real, and z is complex,
then we set
def
rz = r(x, y) = (rx, ry);
this definition mirrors the scalar multiplication in vector theory.
With this definition in mind, we see that for every real x and y, we may write

(x, y) = (1x + 0y, 0x + 1y) = x(1, 0) + y(0, 1) = x · 1 + y · i.

Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 3

The first component of a complex number is called the real part, denoted by Re(z), and the
second component is called the imaginary part†, denoted by Im(z). Any complex number may
then be written
(x, y) = x + iy.

In this notation, the rules for operating with complex numbers take the very simple form

(x1 + iy1 ) + (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )

(x1 + iy1 ) − (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 )
(x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 );

note also
x1 + iy1 = x2 + iy2 ⇐⇒ x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
Comments:
• Note that the multiplication rule may be easily obtained by “expanding out” the left-hand
side, and replacing i2 with −1 (in this way it is virtually impossible to forget it).
• Also, note that (−i)2 is also equal to −1 (verify this!): so, we have found in C not one but
two “square roots of −1”, namely i and −i. This tallies with the familiar property of the
reals that square roots come in pairs.

IExamples:
(a) (1 + i2) + (3 + i4) = 4 + i6
(b) i(3 + i4) = −4 + i3
(c) (1 + i2)(3 + i4) = 3 + i4 + i6 + i2 8 = 3 + i10 − 8 = −5(1 − i2). J

IExercise 1.
(i) Write in the form x + iy: (ii) Find: £√ √ ¤
(a) (4 − i3) + (2i − 8) (a) Im £ 2 − i − i(1 − i 2) ¤
(b) (3 + 2i)(2
£ − i) ¤ (b) Re (3 + i)(3 − i)( 15 + 10
1
i)
(c) (i − 2) 2(1 + i) − 3(i − 1) . (c) (cos α + i sin α)(cos α − i sin α).
Answers:
(i) (a) −4 − i (b) 8 + i (c) −9 + i7.


(ii) (a) −2 (b) 2 (c) 1. J

2. Geometric Properties of Complex Numbers

The complex number x+iy may be represented by the point


(x, y) in the “complex plane” (that is, the xy plane), also
called Argand plane. Addition of complex numbers is then
equivalent to addition by the parallelogram law, exactly as
for vectors in the plane. Similarly, multiplication of a com-
plex number by a real is equivalent to scalar multiplication.
However, the product of two complex numbers does not cor-
respond to either of the two common forms of vector product
(cross product and dot product).

† The word “imaginary” is a misnomer due to historical reasons, but you will have to get
used to it; it has been around for nearly 500 years.
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 4

The geometric representation of complex numbers was discovered independently by Argand

and Gauss, many years after they had been introduced without a proper definition. By then,
their reputation of being “imaginary” had been established, and still lingers on.
If x, y ∈ R, the number
z = x − iy.
is called the complex conjugate of x + iy. The following properties follow immediately from the
definition:
(a) z is real if, and only if, z = z. (d) z − z = i2 Im(z)
(b) z = z (e) z1 ± z2 = z 1 ± z 2
(c) z + z = 2 Re(z) (f) z1 z2 = z 1 z 2 .

IExercise 2.
(i) Prove properties (a) to (f) above.
(ii) Verify properties (d) and (e) above, if z1 = 2 − i3 and z2 = −4 + i.


(iii) Show that (a) z + i3 = z − i3; (b) iz = −iz.
(iv) Show that zz ∈ R for any z ∈ C. J

Geometrically, complex conjugation corresponds to reflec-

tion in the real axis.



If z is the complex number x + iy [with x, y ∈ R], its
absolute value is defined as
p
|z| = |x + iy| = x2 + y 2 .

Note that, by definition, |z| is real and non-negative; fur-

thermore, |z| = 0 if, and only if, x = 0 and y = 0. In other
words, the only complex number with zero modulus is 0+i0.

IExamples:
√
(a) |12 + i5| = 122 + 52 = 13
p
(b) | − 3| = (−3)2 + 02 = 3
√
(c) |i3| = 02 + 32 = 3 J

Geometrically, |x + iy| is the distance of (x, y) from (0, 0); therefore it is the length of the
hypotenuse of a right triangle whose short sides measure x and y. Note also that, for all z ∈ C,

|z|2 = zz.

This important relation follows at once from

zz = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 − i2 y 2 = x2 + y 2 .

Further properties of the modulus will be given later (see Section 4).
3. Division of Complex Numbers
Division is the inverse operation of multiplication: in other words, if z2 6= 0,

z1 /z2 = w ⇐⇒ wz2 = z1 .
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 5

Note that division by zero is not defined. The quotient z1 /z2 is found by multiplying both
terms by z 2 (that is, by the complex conjugate of the denominator) and then using the fact that
z2 z 2 = |z2 |2 is real.

2 + i3 2 + i3 −1 − i4 −2 + 12 − i3 − i8 10 − i11
IExample: = · = 2 2
= . J
−1 + i4 −1 + i4 −1 − i4 (−1) + 4 17

1 −i −i
IExample: = = = −i J
i −i2 1

IExercise 3.
i4 + i9 + i16
Calculate: (d)
2 − i3 2 − i5 + i10 − i415
(a) h 1 + i i2 h 1 − i i3
4−i (e) 3 −2
(2 + i)(3 − i2)(1 + i2) 1−i 1+i
(b)
(1 − i)2
h 4 2 − ii Answers: (a) (11 − i10)/17 (b) −15/2 + i5
(c) (i2 − 1)2 · +
1−i 1+i (c) (−11 − i23)/2 (d) 2 + i (e) −3 − i2. J
IExercise 4.
(a) Prove: z1 /z2 = z 1 /z 2
(b) Prove: z1 z2 = 0 ⇐⇒ z1 = 0, z2 = 0, or both. J

4. Further Properties of the Modulus

The following properties hold for all complex z, z1 , z2 :

(a) |z| = |z|

p p
Proof: |z| = |x − iy| = x2 + (−y)2 = x2 + y 2 = |z|.

(b) |z| ≥ Re z, |z| ≥ Im z

p √
Proof: |z| = x2 + y 2 ≥ x2 = |x| ≥ x = Re z; similarly for Im z.

(c) |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |.

Proof: Since we are trying to establish an equality between positive quantities, we may square
both sides. It follows
|z1 z2 |2 = z1 z2 z1 z2 = z1 z2 z 1 z 2 = |z1 |2 |z2 |2 .
¯ ¯
¯ z1 ¯ |z1 |
(d) ¯ ¯=
¯ z2 ¯ |z2 | .

Proof: Proceeding like in (c) [squaring both sides] we get

|z1 /z2 |2 = (z1 /z2 ) (z1 /z2 ) = (z1 /z2 ) (z 1 /z 2 ) = (z1 z 1 )/(z2 z 2 ) = |z1 |2 /|z2 |2 .
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 6


¯ ¯
(e) ¯|z1 | − |z2 |¯ ≤ |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.


This is the famous triangle inequality. Its name comes
from a well known theorem of high-school geometry,
which says that in a triangle any side is longer than
the difference of the other two, and shorter than their
sum (see diagram on the right).
A full analytic proof of the triangle inequality will
come at the end of the next section.
5. Polar Form of Complex Numbers
p
Let once again z = x + iy. Dividing and multiplying z in this equation by |z| = x2 + y 2 , we
get · ¸
p x iy
z = x2 + y 2 p +p .
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2


Now, it is easy to see that the two expressions inside the square brackets satisfy the identity
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
x y x2 + y 2
p + p = = 1.


x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

Hence, there exists an angle φ such that

x y
cos φ = p , sin φ = p ,
x + y2
2 x + y2
2

and so
z = |z| (cos φ + i sin φ).

Such an angle is called the argument of the complex number z, and is denoted arg z.
Note however that the argument is not uniquely defined, because sin φ and cos φ do not
change whenever φ is increased (or decreased) by a multiple of 2π radians. Hence, according
to the definition commonly given in calculus textbooks, arg z is not a function of z [by such
definition, a function f (z) associates only one number in the range to each number in the
domain].
In complex functions theory, a slightly more general definition is required. We introduce
the term multi-valued function to indicate mappings such as arg z, that associate more than one
number (φ, in this case) with every z in the domain.
So, we say that arg z is a infinitely-valued function of z, and all its values differ by an integer
multiple of 2π.
On the other hand, the signs of x and y do determine without ambiguity the quadrant of
the argument, as we shall make clear by the following examples.
√ √ √
IExample: z = 3 + i 3. We have |z| = 12 = 2 3, hence
√ √
3 3 3 1
cos φ = √ = , sin φ = √ = .
2 3 2 2 3 2
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 7

Now, cos φ and sin φ are both positive only if φ is an angle in the first quadrant. Hence φ = π/6
[but φ = 13π/6, 25π/6, etc. would be just as good]. It follows
√ √
3 − i 3 = 2 3(cos π/6 + i sin π/6)
√
= 2 3(cos 13π/6 + i sin 13π/6) = etc. J
√
IExample: z = −2 − i2. Then |z| = 2 2 and φ = 5π/4 plus any integer multiple of 2π. We
may therefore write √
−2 − i2 = 2 2(cos 5π/4 + i sin 5π/4)
J

IExample: Prove the triangle inequality,

¯ ¯
¯|z1 | − |z2 |¯ ≤ |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

Proof: Since we are comparing three positive quantities, we are allowed to square everything. It
follows
¡ ¢2 ¡ ¢2
|z1 | − |z2 | ≤ |z1 + z2 |2 ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |
⇐⇒ |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 − 2|z1 | |z2 | ≤ (z1 + z2 ) (z1 + z2 ) ≤ |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + 2|z1 | |z2 |
⇐⇒ |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 − 2|z1 | |z2 | ≤ |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + z1 z 2 + z2 z 1 ≤ |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + 2|z1 | |z2 |
⇐⇒ −2|z1 | |z2 | ≤ z1 z 2 + z2 z 1 ≤ 2|z1 | |z2 |
z1 z 2 + z2 z 1
⇐⇒ −2 ≤ ≤2
|z1 | |z2 |

But the middle term is

(x1 + iy1 )(x2 − iy2 ) + (x2 + iy2 )(x1 − iy1 ) 2x1 x2 + 2y1 y2
=
|z1 | |z2 | |z1 | |z2 |
=2 cos φ1 cos φ2 + 2 sin φ1 sin φ2
=2 cos(φ1 − φ2 ).

So, finally, we get

−1 ≤ cos(φ1 − φ2 ) ≤ 1,
which is always true. J

IExercise 5. Express the following complex numbers in polar form: p p

√ √ √ √ √
(a) 1+i, (b) −1+ i, (c) i, (d) −i, (e) 2 +i2 3, (f) − 6−i 2, (g) 2 + 3+ i 2 − 3.
Answer:
√ √
(a) 2(cos π/4 + i sin π/4), (b) 2(cos 3π/4 + i sin 3π/4),
(c) 1(cos π/2 + i sin π/2), (d) 1(cos
√ 3π/2 + i sin 3π/2),
(e) 4(cos π/3 + i sin π/3), (f) 2 2(cos 7π/6 + i sin 7π/6),
(g) 2(cos π/12 + i sin π/12)

Remember that you can add any integer multiple of 2π to the above angles. J
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 8

6. De Moivre’s Theorem
Let z1 = |z1 |(cos φ1 + i sin φ1 ) and z2 = |z2 |(cos φ2 + i sin φ2 ) be two complex numbers written
in polar form. Forming their product we get

z1 z2 = |z1 | |z2 | (cos φ1 + i sin φ1 )(cos φ2 + i sin φ2 )

= |z1 | |z2 | (cos φ1 cos φ2 − sin φ1 sin φ2 + i sin φ1 cos φ2 + i sin φ2 cos φ1 )
= |z1 | |z2 | (cos(φ1 + φ2 ) + i sin(φ1 + φ2 )).

This is an important result in its own right: it means that when complex numbers are multiplied,
the modulus of the product is the product of the moduli, and the argument of the product is the
sum of the arguments. In particular, if z1 and z2 happen to be on the unit circle (that is, the
circle of radius 1 and center at the origin) then |z1 | = |z2 | = 1, and we get the remarkable
formula
(cos φ1 + i sin φ1 )(cos φ2 + i sin φ2 ) = cos(φ1 + φ2 ) + i sin(φ1 + φ2 ).
Even more remarkably, from this we deduce immediately

(cos φ + i sin φ)2 = cos 2φ + i sin 2φ

(cos φ + i sin φ)3 = cos 3φ + i sin 3φ
(cos φ + i sin φ)4 = cos 4φ + i sin 4φ,

and more generally

(cos φ + i sin φ)N = cos N φ + i sin N φ

for every positive integer N . This result is called de Moivre’s Theorem. Though we derived
it for positive integers, de Moivre’s theorem is applicable to negative integer powers as well:
indeed, if −M is a negative integer, we have
1 1
(cos φ + i sin φ)−M = =
(cos φ + i sin φ)M cos M φ + i sin M φ,

where the first step follows from the definition of negative power, and the second step is by de
Moivre’s. Simplifying, we get
1 1 cos M φ − i sin M φ
= ·
cos M φ + i sin M φ cos M φ + i sin M φ cos M φ − i sin M φ
cos M φ − i sin M φ
=
cos2 M φ + sin2 M φ
= cos M φ − i sin M φ
= cos(−M φ) + i sin(−M φ),

showing that de Moivre’s theorem holds for negative powers as well.

IExample: Calculate (1 + i)24 .

√ √ √
Solution: We have |1 + i| = 2, cos φ = 1/ 2, sin φ = 1/ 2. We see immediately that φ is an
angle in the first quadrant, hence φ = π/4. It follows
√
(1 + i)24 = ( 2 )24 (cos 6π + i sin 6π) = 4096. J
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 9

√
IExample: Find z 6 , if z = 4i/( 3 − i).
Solution: Begin by writing

√ √
4i 3+i 4(−1 + i 3) ¡ ¢
z=√ √ = = 2 cos 23 π + i sin 32 π ;
3−i 3+i 4

notice that arg z is in the second quadrant. It follows immediately

z 6 = 26 (cos 12π/3 + i sin 12π/3) = 64. J

IExample: Expressing cos nθ or sin nθ in terms of cos θ and sin θ:

By de Moivre’s theorem, cos nθ + i sin nθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n . Hence

cos nθ = Re(cos θ + i sin θ)n and sin nθ = Im(cos θ + i sin θ)n .

We therefore expand (cos θ+i sin θ)n using the binomial theorem and take the real part to obtain
cos nθ or the imaginary part to obtain sin nθ. For example, express cos 5θ in terms of cos θ and
sin θ.
Solution: By de Moivre’s theorem, cos 5θ + i sin 5θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)5 . Expanding the right-hand
side by the Binomial Theorem (do not forget that i2 = −1) we get (verify!)

(cos θ +i sin θ)5 = cos5 θ +i5 cos4 θ sin θ −10 cos3 θ sin2 θ −i10 cos2 θ sin3 θ +5 cos θ sin4 θ +i sin5 θ.

Now taking the real part from both sides, we get immediately

cos 5θ = cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ.

(Note that if we take the imaginary part from both sides we obtain an expression for sin 5θ in
terms of cos θ and sin θ: sin 5θ = 5 cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ.) J

IExercise 6. Express cos 5θ in terms of cos θ.

Answer: cos 5θ = 16 cos5 θ − 20 cos3 θ + 5 cos θ. J

IExercise 7. Show that

(a) cos 4x = 8 sin4 x − 8 sin2 x + 1
(b) sin 4x = sin x(8 cos3 x − 4 cos x) J
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 10

IExample: Solving the complex equation z n = z0 where n ∈ N and z0 is given:

Let z = |z|(cos θ + i sin θ) and z0 = |z0 |(cos θ0 + i sin θ0 ) where, of course, |z0 | and θ0 are known.
Then, by de Moivre’s theorem, z n = |z|n (cos nθ + i sin nθ). So the equation z n = z0 implies that
|z|n = |z0 | and nθ = θ0 + 2kπ (k ∈ Z). Hence all solutions of the equation are described by

z = |z0 |1/n [cos(θ0 /n + 2kπ/n) + i sin(θ0 /n + 2kπ/n)]

Note that, by the periodicity of cosine and sine, z will have exactly n different values corre-
sponding to k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1. (Verify that k = n will give the same value as k = 0. Similarly
k = n + 1 gives the same value as k = 1, and so on). We therefore have n nth roots of z0 , i.e.
|z0 |1/n [cos(θ0 /n + 2kπ/n) + i sin(θ0 /n + 2kπ/n)] for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.

As an illustration let’s solve z 3 = 1.

Solution: Now z = |z|(cos θ + i sin θ) and 1 = 1(cos 0 + i sin 0). Hence we have

z 3 = |z|3 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ) = 1(cos 0 + i sin 0)

giving immediately |z| = 1 and 3θ = 0 + 2kπ or θ = 2kπ/3 where k ∈ Z. The three solutions
are therefore z = [cos(2kπ/3) + i sin(2kπ/3)] (k = 0, 1, 2), i.e.

√ √
1 3 1 3
z0 = 1, z1 = − + i , and z2 = − − i
2 2 2 2

√
So the three cube roots of 1 are 1, −1/2 ± i 3/2. J

IExercise 8.

Find all complex solutions z of the following equations:

√
(a) z 3 = −1 + i (b) z 4 = −1 (c) z 4 = −2 3 − i2 (d) z 5 = 1
(e) z 2 + z + 1 = 0 (f) z 4 + z 2 + 1 = 0.

Answers:
√
(a) 6 2 [cos(π/4 + 2kπ/3) + i sin(π/4 + 2kπ/3)]; k = 0, 1, 2
√
(b) ±(1 ± i)/ 2
√
(c) 2 [cos(7π/24 + kπ/2) + i sin(7π/24 + kπ/2)]; k = 0, 1, 2, 3
(d) cos(2kπ/5) + i sin(2kπ/5); k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
√ √
(e) (−1 ± i 3)/2 (f) ±(−1 ± i 3)/2 J
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 11

ELEMENTARY COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

1. Complex Exponentials
Earlier in the semester we proved that, in the real case, the exponential function may be ex-
pressed in terms of a series. Now it is possible to show that this result can be extended to
include non–real numbers as well, that is, for all z ∈ C
∞
X
z2 z3 zk
exp z = 1 + z + + + ... =
2! 3! k!
k=0

If we substitute z = iy (y ∈ R) in the above formula we obtain

(iy)2 (iy)3 (iy)4 (iy)5 (iy)6 (iy)7

exp(iy) = 1 + iy + + + + + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7
= 1 + iy − −i + +i − − i + ...
µ 2! 3! 4! ¶ 5! µ 6! 7! ¶
2 4 6 3
y y y y y5 y7
= 1− + − + ... + i y − + − + ...
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!
= cos y + i sin y

where we have identified the series for the sine and cosine functions we obtained in the real case.
(As with the exponential function, it can be shown that the series representations for the sine
and cosine functions are valid throughout the complex plane). We therefore have

exp(iy) = cos y + i sin y

for y ∈ R. This is known as Euler’s formula.

Now for any complex number z = x + iy (x, y ∈ R) we define (analogous to the real case):

exp(x + iy) = exp x exp(iy) .

Applying Euler’s formula we get

exp(x + iy) = ex (cos y + i sin y)

where x, y ∈ R.
Notation: For x ∈ R, exp x = ex . Similarly we often write ez to mean exp z (z ∈ C) and eiφ to
mean exp(iφ), although this notation is strictly incorrect (see note at the end of §3).
Some Properties:
(i) | exp(x + iy)| = |ex || cos y + i sin y| = ex > 0 for all x, y ∈ R. Therefore exp z is never 0.
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 12

(ii) If z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 (x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ R), then

exp z1 exp z2 = ex1 (cos y1 + i sin y1 ) ex2 (cos y2 + i sin y2 )

= ex1 +x2 [cos(y1 + y2 ) + i sin(y1 + y2 )]

i.e. exp z1 exp z2 = exp(z1 + z2 ).

1
(iii) For z ∈ C, = exp(−z).
exp z
exp z1
(iv) Hence, for z1 , z2 ∈ C, = exp(z1 − z2 ).
exp z2

IExercise 1.
Prove properties (iii) and (iv). J

IExercise 2.
Express in the form a + ib where a, b ∈ R:
(a) exp(3iz) (b) z 2 exp(2z)
Answers:
(a) e−3y£ cos 3x + ie−3y sin 3x ¤ £ ¤
(b) e2x (x2 − y 2 ) cos 2y − 2xy sin 2y + ie2x 2xy cos 2y + (x2 − y 2 ) sin 2y J

2. The Complex Logarithm

The complex logarithm is defined as the inverse of the complex exponential. Thus for z ∈ C,
z 6= 0, we write
w = log z ⇐⇒ z = exp w
Note that since exp w is never 0 (see previous section), log 0 is not defined.
If z = |z|(cos φ + i sin φ) and w = u + iv, then

w = log z ⇐⇒ exp w = z
⇐⇒ eu (cos v + i sin v) = |z|(cos φ + i sin φ)
⇐⇒ eu = |z| and v = φ + 2kπ (k ∈ Z)
⇐⇒ u = ln |z| and v = arg z

i.e.
log z = ln |z| + i arg z

where z ∈ C (z 6= 0) and |z| ∈ R. Note that log z is multi–valued, since arg z is multi–valued.
All the values of log z differ by an integer multiple of i2π.
Notation: We use ln |z| to denote the natural log of the real quantity |z| and log z to denote
the natural log of the complex number z.

IExample:
√
log(1 + i) = ln |1 + i| + i arg(1 + i) = ln 2 + i(π/4 + 2kπ), k ∈ Z. J
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 13

IExample:
log(−1) = ln 1 + i arg(−1) = i(π + 2kπ) = iπ(2k + 1), k ∈ Z. J

Some Properties:
(i) If z1 = |z1 |(cos φ1 + i sin φ1 ) and z2 = |z2 |(cos φ2 + i sin φ2 ) (z1 , z2 6= 0), then z1 z2 =
|z1 ||z2 | [cos(φ1 + φ2 ) + i sin(φ1 + φ2 )]. Therefore

log z1 z2 = ln |z1 ||z2 | + i arg z1 z2

= ln |z1 | + ln |z2 | + i [(φ1 + φ2 ) + 2kπ] , k ∈ Z
= [ln |z1 | + i(φ1 + 2mπ)] + [ln |z2 | + i(φ2 + 2nπ)] , m, n ∈ Z with m + n = k
= (ln |z1 | + iargz1 ) + (ln |z2 | + iargz2 )

i.e. log z1 z2 = log z1 + log z2 .

1
(ii) For z ∈ C, z 6= 0, log = − log z.
z
z1
(iii) Hence, for z1 , z2 ∈ C, z1 , z2 6= 0, log = log z1 − log z2 .
z2

IExercise 3.
Prove properties (ii) and (iii). J

IExercise 4.
Express in the form a + ib where a, b ∈ R:
(a) log(1 − i) (b) log(−2i)
Answers:
√
(a) ln 2 + i(7π/4 + 2kπ) (b) ln 2 + i(3π/2 + 2kπ), where k ∈ Z J

IExercise 5.
Find all solutions of
(a) exp z = −2 (b) exp(3z) = 1
Answers:
(a) ln 2 + iπ(2k + 1) (b) i(2kπ/3), where k ∈ Z J

3. The General Exponential Function

The definition is as in the real case. For w, z ∈ C and w 6= 0

wz = exp(z log w)

Note that since the definition contains log w, wz is in general multi–valued. There are three
possibilities depending on the form of z:
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 14

(a) If z is a real integer then wz has only one value: For example,

(1 + i)3 = exp [3 log(1 + i)]

h ³ √ ´i
= exp 3 ln 2 + i(π/4 + 2kπ) (k ∈ Z)
h √ i
= exp 3 ln 2 + i(3π/4 + 6kπ)
√
= e3 ln 2 [cos(3π/4 + 6kπ) + i sin(3π/4 + 6kπ)] (k ∈ Z)
√
= 2 2(cos 3π/4 + i sin 3π/4)
= −2 + 2i

i.e. only one value. J

(b) If z is real and rational, i.e. z = p/q where p, q ∈ Z, then wz has q different values: In
particular, if p = 1, w1/q gives the q q th roots of w. For example,
h ³ √ ´i
(1 + i)1/2 = exp 1/2 ln 2 + i(π/4 + 2kπ) (k ∈ Z)
h √ i
= exp (1/2) ln 2 + i(π/8 + kπ)
= 21/4 [cos(π/8 + kπ) + i sin(π/8 + kπ)] (k ∈ Z)

Now this has only 2 different values, corresponding to k = 0, 1 say,

· µq q ¶¸
1/2 1/4 1 √ √
k = 0 : (1 + i) = 2 (cos π/8 + i sin π/8) = √ 2+1+i 2−1
2
· µq q ¶¸
1 √ √
k = 1 : (1 + i)1/2 1/4
= 2 (cos 9π/8 + i sin 9π/8) = − √ 2+1+i 2−1
2

Note that the values repeat hereafter. Try k = 2, 3 or indeed k = −1, −2. The above
values are then the 2 square roots of 1 + i in C. J

(c) If z is real and irrational or z not real then wz has infinitely many values: For example,

i1+i = exp [(1 + i) log i]

= exp [(1 + i) (ln 1 + i(π/2 + 2kπ))] (k ∈ Z)
= exp [−(π/2 + 2kπ) + i(π/2 + 2kπ)]
= e−(π/2+2kπ) [cos(π/2 + 2kπ) + i sin(π/2 + 2kπ)]
= ie−(π/2+2kπ) (k ∈ Z)

i.e. infinitely many values. J

Note: Unless z ∈ Z, the function ez , where e = 2.71828 . . . , is multi–valued (see Exercise 7

below) whereas exp z is single–valued. Therefore the common notation of ez to mean exp z is
strictly not correct. However it is generally assumed that wz means the multi–valued function
unless w = e, in which case it means exp z.
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 15

IExercise 6.
Evaluate the following: √
(a) (−1 + i)i (b) (1 + i)2/3 (c) 1 2
(d) (−i)−i
Answers: ¡ √ √ ¢
(a) e−3π/4−2kπ cos(ln 2) + i cos(ln 2) (k ∈ Z)
√ √
(b) 2−2/3√
( 3 + i), −i21/3
√, 2
−2/3
(− 3 + i)
(c) cos(2 2kπ) + i sin(2 2kπ) (k ∈ Z) (d) e−π/2+2kπ (k ∈ Z) J

IExercise 7.
Find all values of ex+iy where e = 2.71828 . . .
Answer: ex−2ykπ [cos(y + 2xkπ) + i sin(y + 2xkπ)] (k ∈ Z) J

4. Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

Note that Euler’s formula yields (using the notation eiθ to mean exp(iθ)):

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ,

e−iθ = cos θ − i sin θ;

for θ ∈ R. Now adding and subtracting these equations and simplifying we get, respectively:

eiθ + e−iθ eiθ − e−iθ

cos θ = sin θ =
2 i2
for θ ∈ R. Note the i in the denominator in the second equation.
These equations may be viewed as formal definitions of sine and cosine, which are equally
applicable for non–real numbers. We then define, for any z ∈ C,

eiz + e−iz eiz − e−iz

cos z = sin z =
2 i2

The hyperbolic functions cosh z and sinh z are defined as in the real case:

ez + e−z ez − e−z
cosh z = sinh z =
2 2

We obtain immediately the following important identities

cos z = cosh iz i sin z = sinh iz

for any complex z.

IExample: Solve the equation cos z = 2.

Solution: Write
eiz + e−iz
= 2;
2
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 16

it follows immediately
ei2z − 4eiz + 1 = 0.
√
This is a quadratic equation in eiz ; its solutions are eiz = 2 ± 3. Hence
√ √
iz = log(2 ± 3) = ln(2 ± 3) + i2kπ

and finally
√
z = 2kπ − i ln(2 ± 3)

where k ∈ Z. J

IExample: Solve the equation tanh z = i.

Solution: Write
sinh z ez − e−z
tanh z = = z = i,
cosh z e + e−z
and proceed like in the previous example. It follows
¡ ¢
e2z − 1 = i e2z + 1 ,
1+i
e2z = = i.
1−i

Hence we obtain
¡ ¢
2z = log i = ln 1 + i 12 π + 2kπ
¡1 ¢
which yields z = i 4π + kπ , with k ∈ Z. J

IExercise 8.
Find all solutions of the following equations:
(a) sin z = 2 (b) sinh z = 0 (c) cos z = i (d) cosh z = 5/4
Answers: √ √
(a) 12 π + 2kπ + i ln(2 ± 3) (b) ikπ (c) ± 12 π + 2kπ − i ln( 2 ± 1)
(d) z = ± ln 2 + i2kπ (Note that here we recover the two existing real solutions [verify that
cosh(ln 2) = cosh(− ln 2) = 5/4]) J

An interesting application of Euler’s formula occurs in the calculation of integrals of the form
Z Z
cos2n
x dx, sin2n x dx,

(and the corresponding hyperbolic forms) where n ∈ N.

Z
IExample: Calculate cos6 x dx.
Complex Numbers and Complex Functions 17

Solution:
Z Z ³ ix
6 e + e−ix ´6
cos x dx = dx
2
Z ³ ´
1
= ei6x + 6ei4x + 15ei2x + 20ei0x + 15e−i2x + 6e−i4x + e−i6x dx
64
Z µ i6x ¶
1 e + e−i6x ei4x + e−i4x ei2x + e−i2x
= +6· + 15 · + 10 dx
32 2 2 2
Z
1
= (cos 6x + 6 cos 4x + 15 cos 2x + 10) dx
32
1 3 15 5
= sin 6x + sin 4x + sin 2x + x + C.
192 64 64 16
Note we used the binomial theorem in the second step. J

Z
IExercise 9. Calculate cos6 x dx using integration by parts and verify that you get the same
result. J
Z
Integrals of the form cos2n+1 x dx (n ∈ N) and related ones may also be done in this way, but
they are perhaps easier by substitution.
Z
IExample: Calculate sinh7 x dx.
Solution: Z Z Z
7 6
sinh x dx = sinh x sinh x dx = (cosh2 x − 1)3 sinh x dx.

The obvious substitution cosh x = u gives

Z
1 3
sinh7 x dx = cosh7 x − cosh5 x + cosh3 x − cosh x + C. J
7 5

IExercise 10. Calculate the following integrals.

Z π/2 Z π Z ln 2
(a) cos8 x dx (b) sin9 x dx (c) sinh4 x dx
0 0 0
Answers:
(a) 35π/256 (b) 256π/315 (c) ln 8/8 − 225/1024 J